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A TREATISE
ON THE
MATHEMATICAL THEORY
OF
ELASTICITY
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
C. F. CLAY, MANAGER.
London: FETTER LANE, E.C.

Glasgow: 50, W E L L I N G T O N STREET.
Leipzig'. F. A. B R O C K H A U S .
New York: THE M A C M I L L A N C O M P A N Y .
Bombay and Calcutta: M A C M I L L A N A N D C O . ,L T D .
[All Rights reserved.]

A TREATISE
O N T H E
MATHEMATICAL THEORY
O F
ELASTICITY
BY
A . E. H . L O V E , M . A . , D.Sc., F.R.S.
F O R M E R L Y F E L L O W O F S T J O H N ' S C O L L E G E , C A M B R I D G E
H O N O R A R Y F E L L O W O F Q U E E N ' S C O L L E G E , O X F O R D
S E D L E I A N P R O F E S S O R O F N A T U R A L P H I L O S O P H Y I N T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F O X F O R D
SECOND EDITION
CAMBRIDGE :
at the University Press
1906
PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

PREFACE.
f 1 1 H I S book is a second edition of one with t h e same title which was

published by t h e Cambridge University Press in two volumes bearing
the dates 1892 and 1893. A t t h e time, about five years ago, when it first
became necessary to think seriously about a new edition, a n u m b e r of friends
had sent m e criticisms of particular sections of t h e book and suggestions for
improvement in m a t t e r s of detail. Among these friends Prof. W. J . Lewis
C
and Prof. W. M F . Orr must be named with especial gratitude. I knew then
t h a t two or three Chapters ought to be rewritten, and t h a t t h e results of
several new researches ought to b e incorporated, b u t I did not contemplate a
very extensive revision. T h e task of rearranging t h e old matter, with some
considerable additions and a few slight omissions, became so distasteful, and
the result appeared so unsatisfactory, t h a t a t length I abandoned t h e a t t e m p t ,
and wrote a new book containing some extracts from t h e old one. The
science of Elasticity—the mechanics of solid bodies as they really are—is
so important in itself, and t h e physical notions and analytical processes
belonging to t h e theory are so widely used in other branches of Physics,
t h a t no apology seems to be necessary for t h e course t h a t has been pursued.
I n t h e selection, and t h e mode of presentation, of t h e m a t t e r three objects
have been k e p t in view : to m a k e t h e book useful to engineers, or others,
whose aims are chiefly practical, to emphasize t h e bearing of t h e theory on
general questions of N a t u r a l Philosophy, to afford a reasonably complete
picture of t h e state of t h e science as it is to-day. T h e desire to be useful
has led me to u n d e r t a k e some rather laborious arithmetical computations,
physical interest has prompted something more t h a n a passing reference to
several matters which lie outside t h e strict scope of t h e mechanical theory,
completeness has required t h e inclusion of some r a t h e r long analytical
investigations. A t t h e same time, purely technical matters, such as descrip
tions of apparatus and calculations relating to particular structures, have
been excluded; related subjects, such as t h e production of strain by unequal
vi PREFACE
heating, t h e rendering of glass doubly refracting by strain, t h e theory of t h e

luminiferous medium regarded as an elastic solid, have received b u t a slight
measure of attention ; detailed discussion of problems of which t h e interest
is mainly mathematical has been kept within rather narrow bounds.
Numerous references to authorities on these, as well as on other, m a t t e r s
have, however, been introduced.
One change which has been made may perhaps require a word of defence.
The notation for components of stress and components of strain is different
from t h a t adopted in t h e first edition. A wish for this change was expressed
to me in several quarters, and I have myself been much impressed with t h e
advantages of a notation which conveys its own meaning. Although I still
think t h a t Kelvin and Tait's notation, which was adopted before, has many
merits, yet I did not feel t h a t I should be justified in neglecting t h e repre
sentations t h a t had been made to me.
The student to whom t h e subject is new is advised to t u r n as early as
possible to Chapter V, where he will find a condensed recapitulation of t h e
most essential parts of previous Chapters, some indications of t h e kind of
problems which can be treated mathematically, and of methods of dealing
with them, and a n u m b e r of results of which t h e verification, or direct
investigation, will be useful to him as exercises.
I t remains to a t t e m p t to express my t h a n k s to those who have helped
m e with this book. Three friends have laid m e under especially heavy
obligations: Prof. J. Larmor and Prof. H . L a m b have read most of t h e proofs,
and have sent me many kindly criticisms and many helpful suggestions in
regard to m a t t e r s of principle ; and Prof. H. M. Macdonald has read all t h e
proofs, and his vigilance has detected many misprints and errors of detail.
D r A. Timpe, who is translating t h e book into German, has also kindly
called my attention to a few passages which needed correction; and t h e
scrupulous care which he has bestowed upon t h e translation leads m e to
hope t h a t few serious errors remain. To t h e Syndics of t h e Press m y t h a n k s
are due for their kindness in acceding to m y proposal to print t h e new
edition in a single volume, and t h e readiness with which t h e staff of t h e
Press have m e t all my wishes in regard to p r i n t i n g and diagrams deserves
more t h a n a word of recognition.
A. E. H . L O V E .
OXFORD, December, 1905.

CONTENTS.
HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
1
Scope of History. Galileo's enquiry. Enunciation of Hooke's Law. Mariotte's in
vestigations. The problem of the elastica. Euler's theory of the stability of
struts. [Researches of Coulomb and Young. Euler's theory of the vibrations of
bars. Attempted theory of the vibrations of bells and plates. Value of the
researches made before 1820. Navier's investigation of the general equations.
Impulse given to the theory by Fresnel. Cauchy's first memoir. Cauchy and
Poisson's investigations of the general equations by means of the " molecular "
hypothesis. Green's introduction of the strain-energy-function. Kelvin's appli
cation of the laws of Thermodynamics. Stokes's criticism of Poisson's theory.
The controversy concerning the number of the " elastic constants." Methods
of solution of the general problem of equilibrium. Vibrations of solid bodies.
Propagation of waves. Technical problems. Saint-Venant's theories of torsion
and flexure. Equipollent loads. Simplifications and extensions of Saint-Venant's
theories. Jouravski's treatment of shearing stress in beams. Continuous beams.
Kirchhoff's theory of springs. Criticisms and applications of Kirchhoff's theory.
Vibrations of bars. Impact. Dynamical resistance. The problem of plates.
The Kirchhoff-Gehring theory. Clebsch's modification of this theory. Later
researches in the theory of plates. The problem of shells. Elastic stability.
Conclusion.
CHAPTER I. A N A L Y S I S O F STRAIN.
ART.
1. Extension 32
2. Pure Shear 33
3. Simple Shear 33
4. Displacement 35
5. Displacement in simple extension and simple shear 35
6. Homogeneous strain . * 36
7. Relative displacement . 37
8. Analysis of the relative displacement .38
9. Strain corresponding with small displacement 39
10. Components of strain 40
11. The strain quadric 41
12. Transformation of the components of strain 42
a5
ART. P A G E
13. Additional methods and results 43

14. Types of strain, (a) Uniform extension, (b) Simple extension, (c) Shearing strain,
(d) Plane strain 44
15. Relations connecting the dilatation, the rotation and the displacement . .. 46
16. Resolution of any strain into dilatation and shearing strains . . . .47
17. Identical relations between components of strain 49
18. Displacement corresponding with given strain 50
19. Curvilinear orthogonal coordinates . 51
20. Components of strain referred to curvilinear orthogonal coordinates . . .53
21. Dilatation and rotation referred to curvilinear orthogonal coordinates . . .54
22. Cylindrical and polar coordinates .56
A P P E N D I X TO C H A P T E R I. T H E G E N E R A L THEORY O F STRAIN.
23. Introductory . . . . . 57
24. Strain corresponding with any displacement .57
25. Cubical dilatation . . . 59
26. Reciprocal strain ellipsoid 60
27. Angle between two curves altered by strain 60
28. Strain ellipsoid 61
29. Alteration of direction by the strain 62
30. Application to cartography 63
31. Conditions satisfied by the displacement . . . . . . . .63
32. Finite homogeneous strain . .64
33. Homogeneous pure strain 65
34. Analysis of any homogeneous strain into a pure strain and a rotation . . .67
35. Rotation .67
36. Simple extension 68
37. Simple shear 68
38. Additional results relating to shear 69
39. Composition of strains 69
40. Additional results relating to the composition of strains 70
CHAPTER II. A N A L Y S I S O F STRESS.
41. Introductory . .72

42. Traction across a plane at a point 72
43. Surface tractions and body forces 73
44. Equations of motion 74
45. Equilibrium 75
46. Law of equilibrium of surface tractions on small volumes 75
47. Specification of stress at a point 75
48. Measure of stress 77
49. Transformation of stress-components . .78
50. The stress quadric 79
51. Types of stress, (a) Purely normal stress, (b) Simple tension or pressure,
(c) Shearing stress, (d) Plane stress .79
CONTENTS ix
ART. PAGE
52. Resolution of any stress-system into uniform tension and shearing stress . .81
53. Additional results . 8 1
54. The stress-equations of motion and of equilibrium 82
55. Uniform stress and uniformly varying stress . 84
56. Observations concerning the stress-equations . . . . . . . 85
57. Graphic representation of stress 86
58. Stress-equations referred to curvilinear orthogonal coordinates . . . . 87
59. Special cases of stress-equations referred to curvilinear orthogonal coordinates . 89
CHAPTER III. THE ELASTICITY OF SOLID BODIES.
60. Introductory 90
61. Work and energy 90
62. Existence of the strain-energy-function . . 92
63. Indirectness of experimental results 94
64. Hooke'sLaw 95
65. Form of the strain-energy-function 96
66. Elastic constants 97
67. Methods of determining the stress in a body 98
68. Form of the strain-energy-function for isotropic solids 99
69. Elastic constants and moduluses of isotropic solids 100
70. Observations concerning the stress-strain relations in isotropic solids . . 101
71. Magnitude of elastic constants and moduluses of some isotropic solids . . 103
72. Elastic constants in general 103
73. Moduluses of elasticity 104
74. Thermo-elastic equations . . . . . . . , . . .106
75. Initial stress 107
CHAPTER IV. THE RELATION BETWEEN THE MATHEMATICAL

T H E O R Y O F ELASTICITY AND T E C H N I C A L MECHANICS.
76. Limitations of the mathematical theory . . . . . . . . 110

77. Stress-strain diagrams Ill
78. Elastic limits 113
79. Time-effects. Plasticity 114
80. Viscosity of solids 115
81. JEolotropy induced by permanent set 116
82. Repeated loading ' • • .116
83. Hypotheses concerning the conditions of rupture 117
84. Scope of the mathematical theory of elasticity 119
CHAPTER V. THE EQUILIBRIUM OF ISOTROPIC ELASTIC SOLIDS.
85. Recapitulation of the general theory 122

86. Uniformly varying stress, (a) Bar stretched by its own weight, (b) Cylinder
immersed in fluid, (c) Body of any form immersed in fluid of same density,
(d) Round bar twisted by couples . . .123
ART. PAGE
87. Bar bent by couples 124
88. Discussion of the solution for the bending of a bar by terminal couple . .127
89. Saint-Venant's principle . . . 129
90. Rectangular plate bent by couples . . . . . . .' . .129
91. Equations of equilibrium in terms of displacements 130
92. Equilibrium under surface tractions only .132
93. Various methods and results 133
94. Plane strain and plane stress 134
95. Bending of narrow rectangular beam by terminal load 136
96. Equations referred to orthogonal curvilinear coordinates . . . . 138
97. Polar coordinates 138
98. Radial displacement. Spherical shell under internal and external pressure.
Compression of a sphere by its own gravitation 139
99. Displacement symmetrical about an axis . . .140
100. Tube under pressure 141
101. Application to gun construction 143
102. Rotating cylinder. Rotating shaft. Rotating disk . . .. . . .143
C H A P T E R VI. E Q U I L I B R I U M O F ^ O L O T R O P I C ELASTIC SOLID BODIES.
103. Symmetry of structure • . . .146

104. Geometrical symmetry 147
105. Elastic symmetry 148
106. Isotropic solid . 152
107. Symmetry of crystals . .152
108. Classification of crystals 154
109. Elasticity of crystals .156
110. Various types of symmetry 157
111. Material with three rectangular planes of symmetry. Moduluses . . . 158
112. Extension and bending of a bar 159
113. Elastic constants of crystals. Results of experiments . . . . .160
114. Curvilinear seolotropy 161
CHAPTER VII. GENERAL THEOREMS.
115. The variational equation of motion 163

116. Applications of the variational equation 164
117. The general problem of equilibrium 166
118. Uniqueness of solution . . .167
119. Theorem of minimum energy 168
120. Theorem concerning the potential energy of deformation . . . . .170
121. The reciprocal theorem 170
122. Determination of average strains .171
123. Average strains in an isotropic solid body . .172
124. The general problem of vibrations. Uniqueness of solution . . . .173
125. Flux of energy in vibratory motion . .174
126. Free vibrations of elastic solid bodies 175
127. General theorems relating to free vibrations 177
128. Load suddenly applied or suddenly reversed 178
CHAPTER V I I I . T H E TRANSMISSION O F FORCE.
ART. P A G E
129. Introductory 180

130. Force at a point 180
131. First type of simple solutions . . . . 182
132. Typical nuclei of strain 183
133. Local perturbations 186
134. Second type of simple solutions 187
135. Pressure at a point on a plane boundary 188
136. Distributed pressure 189
137. Pressure between two bodies in contact. Geometrical preliminaries . .190
138. Solution of the problem of the pressure between two bodies in contact . . 192
139. Hertz's theory of impact 195
140. Impact of spheres 197
141. Effects of nuclei of strain referred to polar coordinates 198
142. Problems relating to the equilibrium of cones 200
CHAPTER I X . T W O - D I M E N S I O N A L ELASTIC SYSTEMS.

144. Displacement corresponding with plane strain 201
145. Displacement corresponding with plane stress 203
146. Generalized plane stress 205
147. Introduction of nuclei of strain 205
148. Force operative at a point 206
149. Force operative at a point of a boundary . 207
150. Case of a straight boundary 208
151. Additional results (i) the stress function, (ii) normal tension on a segment of
a straight edge, (iii) force at an angle . . . . . . . . 208
152. Typical nuclei of strain in two dimensions 209
153. Transformation of plane strain 211
154. Inversion 212
155. Equilibrium of a circular disk under forces in its plane, (i) Two opposed
forces at points on the rim. (ii) Any forces applied to the rim. (iii) Heavy
disk on horizontal plane . . . . 2 1 3
156. Examples of transformation 216
CHAPTER X. THEORY OF THE INTEGRATION O F T H E EQUATIONS

O F E Q U I L I B R I U M O F AN ISOTROPIC ELASTIC SOLID BODY.
157. Nature of the problem 217

158. Resume of the theory of Potential 218
159. Description of Betti's method of integration 220
160. Formula for the dilatation 221
161. Calculation of the dilatation from surface data . . . . . . . 223
162. Formulae for the components of rotation 224
ART. RAGE
163. Calculation of the rotation from surface data 224
164. Body bounded by plane—Formulas for the dilatation . . . . . 225
165. Body bounded by plane—Given surface displacements 227
166. Body bounded by plane—Given surface tractions 228
167. Historical Note 230
168. Body bounded by plane—Additional results . 231
169. Formulae for the displacement and strain 232
170. Outlines of various methods of integration 234
C H A P T E R XI. THE E Q U I L I B R I U M O F AN ELASTIC S P H E R E AND

RELATED PROBLEMS.

172. Solution in spherical harmonics of positive degrees 236
173. The sphere with given surface displacements 238
174. Generalization of the foregoing solution, (i) Integration by means of poly
nomials, (ii) Body force required to maintain a state of strain with zero
surface displacement, (iii) General method for integrating the equations
by means of series 239
175. The sphere with given surface tractions 240
176. Conditions restricting the prescribed surface tractions 243
177. Surface tractions directed normally to the boundary 244
178. Solution in spherical harmonics of. negative degrees 245
179. Sphere subjected to forces acting through its volume. Particular solution . 246
180. Sphere deformed by body force only 247
181. Gravitating incompressible sphere 248
182. Deformation of gravitating incompressible sphere by external forces . . 250
183. Gravitating nearly spherical body 253
184. Rotating sphere 253
185. Tidal deformation. Tidal effective rigidity of the Earth 255
186. Plane strain in a circular cylinder 257
,187. Applications of curvilinear coordinates 259
188. Symmetrical strain in a solid of revolution 260
189. Symmetrical strain in a cylinder . . 263
CHAPTER XII. V I B R A T I O N S O F S P H E R E S AND CYLINDERS.

191. Solution by means of spherical harmonics 266
192. Formation of the boundary conditions for a vibrating sphere . . . . 268
193. Incompressible material 271
194. Frequency equations for vibrating sphere 271
195. Vibrations of the first class 272
196. Vibrations of the second class 273
197. Further investigations of the vibrations of spheres 274
198. Radial vibrations of a hollow sphere 274
199. Vibrations of a circular cylinder 275
200. Torsional vibrations 276
201. Longitudinal vibrations . . . . 276
202. Transverse vibrations 278
CHAPTER X I I I . THE PROPAGATION O F WAVES I N ELASTIC
SOLID MEDIA.
ART. PAGE
204. Waves of dilatation and waves of distortion 281
205. Motion of a surface of discontinuity. Kinematical conditions . . . . 283
206. Motion of a surface of discontinuity. Dynamical conditions . . . . 284
207. Velocity of waves in isotropic medium 285
208. Velocity of waves in aeolotropic solid medium . . . . . . . 286
209. Wave-surfaces 287
210. Motion determined by the characteristic equation 289
211. Arbitrary initial conditions 291
212. Motion due to body forces 293
213. Additional results relating to motion due to body forces 294
214. Waves propagated over the surface of an isotropic elastic solid body . . 295
CHAPTER X I V . TORSION.
215. Stress and Strain in a twisted prism 298

216. The torsion problem 299
217. Method of solution of the torsion problem 301
218. Analogies with Hydrodynamics. . 302
219. Distribution of the shearing stress 303
220. Strength to resist torsion 304
221. Solution of the torsion problem for certain boundaries 305
222. Additional results 306
223. Graphic expression of the results . . . 308
224. Analogy to the form of a stretched membrane loaded uniformly . . .310
225. Twisting couple 310
226. Torsion of seolotropic prism . . 312
CHAPTER X V . THE B E N D I N G O F A BEAM BY T E R M I N A L

T R A N S V E R S E LOAD.
227. Stress in a bent beam 314

228. Statement of the problem 315
229. Necessary type of shearing stress . . 316
230. Formulae for the displacement .318
231. Solution of the problem of flexure for certain boundaries : (a) The circle,
(b) Concentric circles, (c) The ellipse, (d) Confocal ellipses, (e) The rectangle,
( / ) Additional results . . 320
232. Analysis of the displacement: (a) Curvature of the strained central-line,
(b) Neutral plane, (c) Obliquity of the strained cross-sections, (d) Deflexion,
(e) Twist, ( / ) Anticlastic curvature, (g) Distortion of the cross-sections into
curved surfaces . . 323
233. Distribution of shearing stress 327
234. Generalizations of the foregoing theory : (a) Asymmetric loading, (b) Combined
strain, (c) iEolotropic material 328
ART. P A G E
235. Criticisms of certain methods : (a) A method of determining the shearing

stress in the case of rectangular sections, (b) -Extension of this method to
curved boundaries, (c) Form of boundary for which the method gives the
correct result, (d) Defectiveness of the method in the case of an elliptic
section, (e) Additional deflexion described as "due to shearing," (/) Defective
method of calculating this additional deflexion 331
CHAPTER X V I . T H E B E N D I N G O F A BEAM LOADED UNIFORMLY

ALONG ITS LENGTH.
236. Introductory . 334

237. Stress uniform along the beam 334
238. Stress varying uniformly along the beam . . . . . . . 336
239. Uniformly loaded beam. Reduction of the problem to one of plane strain . 339
240. The constants of the solution 342
241. Strain and stress in the elements of the beam 343
242. Relation between the curvature and the bending moment 345
243. Extension of the central-line 347
244. Illustrations of the theory—(a) Form of solution of the related problem of
plane strain, (b) Solution of the problem of plane strain for a beam of
circular section bent by its own weight, (c) Correction of the curvature in
this case, (d) Case of narrow rectangular beam loaded along the top treated
as a problem of "generalized plane stress." (e) Narrow rectangular beam
supported at the ends and loaded along the top 347
CHAPTER X V I I . T H E THEORY O F CONTINUOUS BEAMS.
245. Extension of the theory of the bending of beams 350

246. The problem of continuous beams 353
247. Single span, (a) Terminal forces and couples, (b) Uniform load. Supported
ends, (c) Uniform load. Built-in ends, (d) Concentrated load. Supported
ends, (e) Concentrated load. Built-in ends 355
248. The theorem of three moments. (a) Uniform load. (b) Equal spans.
(<?) Uniform load on each span, (d) Concentrated load on one span . 357
249. Graphic method of solution of the problem of continuous beams . . . 360
250. Development of the graphic method 362
CHAPTER X V I I I . G E N E R A L THEORY OF THE BENDING AND

TWISTING O F T H I N RODS.

252. Kinematics of thin rods 365
253. Kinematical formulae 366
254. Equations of equilibrium 370
255. The ordinary approximate theory . .372
256. Nature of the strain in a bent and twisted rod 373
257. Approximate formulae for the strain 376
258. Discussion of the ordinary approximate theory 377
259. Rods naturally curved 379
CHAPTER XIX. P R O B L E M S CONCERNING T H E E Q U I L I B R I U M OF
T H I N RODS.
ART. P A G E
260. Kirchhoff's kinetic analogue 382

261. Extension of the theorem of the kinetic analogue to rods naturally curved 383
262. The problem of the elastica 384
263. Classification of the forms of the elastica. (a) Inflexional elastica, (b) Non-
inflexional elastica 385
264. Buckling of long thin strut under thrust 388
265. Computation of the strain-energy of the strut 389
266. Resistance to buckling 390
267. Elastic stability 392
268. Stability of inflexional elastica 392
269. Rod bent and twisted by terminal forces and couples 394
270. Rod bent to helical form 395
271. Theory of spiral springs . * 396
272. Additional results, (a) Rod subjected to terminal couple, (b) Straight rod
with initial twist, (c) Rod bent into circular hoop and twisted uniformly,
{d) Stability of rod subjected to twisting couple and thrust, (e) Stability of
flat blade bent in its plane 398
273. Rod bent by forces applied along its length 402
274. Rod bent in one plane by uniform normal pressure 403
275. Stability of circular ring under normal pressure 405
276. Height consistent with stability 405
CHAPTER X X . V I B R A T I O N S O F RODS. P R O B L E M S O F DYNAMICAL

RESISTANCE.

278. Extensional vibrations 408
279. Torsional vibrations 409
280. Flexural vibrations 409
281. Rod fixed at one end and struck longitudinally at the other . . . .411
282. Rod free at one end and struck longitudinally at the other . . . .415
283. Rod loaded suddenly 416
284. Longitudinal impact of rods . 418
285. Problems of dynamical resistance involving transverse vibration . . . 420
286. The whirling of shafts 421
CHAPTER X X I . S M A L L DEFORMATION O F N A T U R A L L Y C U R V E D RODS.

288. Specification of the displacement . . 423
289. Orientation of the principal torsion-flexure axes 424
290. Curvature and twist 425
291. Simplified formulas 426
292. Problems of equilibrium, (a) Incomplete circular ring bent in its plane.
(b) Incomplete circular ring bent out of its plane 427
293. Vibrations of a circular ring, (a) Flexural vibrations in the plane of the ring,
(b) Flexural vibrations at right angles to the plane of the ring, (c) Torsional
and extensional vibrations 430
CHAPTER X X I I . T H E STRETCHING AND B E N D I N G O F PLATES.
ART. P A G E
294. Specification of stress in a plate . 434

295. Transformation of stress-resultants and stress-couples . . . . ' . 435
297. Boundary conditions 437
298. Relation between the flexural couples and the curvature 442
299. Method of determining the stress in a plate . 444
300. Plane stress 446
301. Plate stretched by forces in its plane 446
302. Plate bent to a state of plane stress 449
303. Generalized plane stress 450
304. Plate bent to a state of generalized plane stress 452
305. Circular plate loaded at its centre 454
306. Plate in a state of stress which is uniform or varies uniformly over its plane . 454
307. Plate bent by pressure uniform over a face 456
308. Plate bent by pressure varying uniformly over a face . . . . . 458
309. Circular plate bent by uniform pressure and supported at the edge . , . 460
310. Plate bent by uniform pressure and clamped at the edge 461
311. Plate bent by uniformly varying pressure and clamped at the edge . . . 463
312. Plate bent by its own weight 464
313. Approximate theory of the bending of a plate by transverse forces . . . 465
314. Illustrations of the approximate theory, (a) Circular plate loaded symmetric
ally, (b) Application of the method of inversion, (c) Rectangular plate
supported at a pair of opposite edges, (d) Transverse vibrations of plates.
(e) Extensional vibrations of plates 466
CHAPTER X X I I I . I N E X T E N S I O N A L DEFORMATION O F C U R V E D
PLATES OR SHELLS.

316. Changes of curvature in inextensional deformation 472
317. Typical flexural strain 474
318. Method of calculating the changes of curvature . . . . . . 476
319. Inextensional deformation of a cylindrical shell, (a) Formulas for the dis
placement, (b) Changes of curvature . 477
320. Inextensional deformation of a spherical shell, (a) Formulas for the displace
ment, (b) Changes of curvature 479
321. Inextensional vibrations, (i) Cylindrical shell, (ii) Spherical shell . . 485
CHAPTER X X I V . G E N E R A L THEORY O F T H I N P L A T E S A N D SHELLS.
322. Formulas relating to the curvature of surfaces 488

323. Simplified formulas relating to the curvature of surfaces 490
324. Extension and curvature of the middle surface of a plate or shell . . . 491
325. Method of calculating the extension and the changes of curvature . . . 492
326. Formulas relating to small displacements 494
ART. P A G E
327. Nature of the strain in a bent plate or shell 498

328. Specification of stress in a bent plate or shell 501
329. Approximate formulas for the strain, the stress-resultants, and the stress-
couples 502
330. Second approximation in the case of a curved plate or shell . . . . 506
332. Boundary conditions 510
333. Theory of the vibrations of thin shells 511
334. Vibrations of a thin cylindrical shell, (a) General equations, (b) Extensional
vibrations, (c) Inextensional vibrations, id) Inexactness of the inexten
sional displacement, (e) Nature of the correction to be applied to the
inextensional displacement . . . . . . . . . .516
335. Vibrations of a thin spherical shell 522
336. Problems of equilibrium 525
337. Problems of stability, (a) Buckling of a rectangular plate under thrusts in its
plane, (b) Collapse of a tube under external pressure 528
NOTES.
A. Terminology and Notation 531

B. The notion of stress 533
C. Applications of the method of moving axes 536
D. Lines of stress due to pressure between two bodies 541
E. Stress in a beam loaded uniformly 541
F. Extensional vibrations of a plane plate 541
INDEX.
Authors cited 543

Matters treated . . . . 546
ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
p. 10, footnote 37. Add " Reprinted in Stokes's Math. andPhys. Papers, vol. i. (Cambridge
1880), p. 75."
p. 27, line 1. For "M. Phillips" read "E. Phillips."
p. 65, line 16. Insert "square of the" before "central radius vector."
p. 112, lines 3 and 4 from foot. Delete "In particular, there is no yield-point under thrust."
For some examples of the determination of the yield-point under thrust (Quetsch-
grenze) see Bauschinger, Mittheilungen, xin.
p. 133. The equation numbered " (29 bis)" should be numbered " (30 bis)."
>. 143, equations (61). For "/x " read "^
p. 273. After equation (39) add " The displacement has, in general, both transverse and
radial components, but the rotation has no radial component."
p. 402, line 5. For " R (yi - y) " read " R (yi - y)."
line 20. For " d^/ds " and " d$/ds " read " d^/ds " and " dcfr/ds."
p. 428. Fig. 64 suggests that the displacement is determined so that the ends of the rod
move along the line of action of the forces R. To secure the satisfaction of this
condition an additional displacement, which would be possible in a rigid body, must be
superposed upon the displacement given in the text. I am indebted for this correction
to Mr G. C. Calliphronas.
p. 470, line 2. For " M. Barthelemy " read " A. Barthelemy."
HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.
T H E Mathematical Theory of Elasticity is occupied with an a t t e m p t

to reduce to calculation t h e state of strain, or relative displacement, within
a solid body which is subject to t h e action of an equilibrating system of
forces, or is in a state of slight internal relative motion, and with endeavours
to obtain results which shall be practically important in applications to
architecture, engineering, and all other useful arts in which t h e material
of construction is solid. I t s history should embrace t h a t of t h e progress
of our experimental knowledge of t h e behaviour of strained bodies, so
far as it has been embodied in the mathematical theory, of the develop
ment of our conceptions in regard to t h e physical principles necessary to
form a foundation for theory, of t h e growth of t h a t branch of mathematical
analysis in which t h e process of t h e calculations consists, and of t h e gradual
acquisition of practical rules by t h e interpretation of analytical results.
In a theory ideally worked out, t h e progress which we should be able to
trace would be, in other particulars, one from less to more, b u t we may say-
that, in regard to t h e assumed physical principles, progress consists in
passing from more to less. Alike in t h e experimental knowledge obtained,
and in t h e analytical methods and results, nothing t h a t has once been dis
covered ever loses its value or has to be discarded ; b u t t h e physical principles
come to be reduced to fewer and more general ones, so t h a t t h e theory is
brought more into accord with t h a t of other branches of physics, t h e same
general dynamical principles being ultimately requisite and sufficient to
serve as a basis for t h e m all. And although, in t h e case of Elasticity, we find
frequent retrogressions on the part of t h e experimentalist, and errors on
the part of the mathematician, chiefly in adopting hypotheses not clearly
established or already discredited, in pushing to extremes methods merely
approximate, in hasty generalizations, and in misunderstandings of physical
principles, yet we observe a continuous progress in all t h e respects mentioned
when we survey t h e history of t h e science from t h e initial enquiries of
Galileo to t h e conclusive investigations of Saint-Venant and Lord Kelvin.
L. E. 1
The first mathematician to consider the n a t u r e of t h e resistance of solids
1
to r u p t u r e was Galileo . Although he treated solids as inelastic, not being
in possession of any law connecting t h e displacements produced with t h e
forces producing them, or of any physical hypothesis capable of yielding such
a law, yet his enquiries gave t h e direction which was subsequently followed
by many investigators. H e endeavoured to determine the resistance of a
beam, one end of which is built into a wall, when t h e tendency to break
it arises from its own or an applied w e i g h t ; and he concluded t h a t t h e
beam tends to t u r n about an axis perpendicular to its length, and in t h e
plane of t h e wall. This problem, and, in particular, t h e determination of
this axis is known as Galileo's problem.
In t h e history of the theory started by t h e question of Galileo, u n
doubtedly t h e two great landmarks are t h e discovery of Hooke's Law in
1660, and the formulation of the general equations by Navier in 182L
Hooke's Law provided t h e necessary experimental foundation for the theory.
W h e n t h e general equations had been obtained, all questions of the small
strain of elastic bodies were reduced to a m a t t e r of mathematical calculation.
I n England and in Erance, in the latter half of t h e 17 th century, Hooke
and Mariotte occupied themselves with t h e experimental discovery of what
2
we now t e r m stress-strain relations. H o o k e gave in 1678 t h e famous law
of proportionality of stress and strain which bears his name, in t h e words
" Ut tensio sic vis; t h a t is, t h e Power of any spring is in t h e same proportion
with t h e Tension thereof." By " spring" Hooke means, as he proceeds to
explain, any " s p r i n g y body," and by " t e n s i o n " what we should now call
"extension," or, more generally, "strain." This law he discovered in 1660,
b u t did not publish until 1676, and then only under t h e form of an anagram,
ceiiinosssttuu. This law forms t h e basis of t h e mathematical theory of
Elasticity, and we shall hereafter consider its generalization, and its range of
validity in the light of modern experimental research. Hooke does not
appear to have made any application of it to t h e consideration of Galileo's
3
problem. This application was made by Mariotte , who in 1680 enunciated
t h e same law independently. H e remarked t h a t t h e resistance of a beam
to flexure arises from t h e extension and contraction of its parts, some of its
longitudinal filaments being extended, and others contracted. H e assumed
t h a t half are extended, and half contracted. H i s theory led him to assign t h e
position of t h e axis, required in the solution of Galileo's problem, at one-half
t h e height of the section above the base.
I n t h e interval between t h e discovery of Hooke's law and t h a t of t h e
general differential equations of Elasticity by Navier, the attention of those
mathematicians who occupied themselves with our science was chiefly
1
Galileo Galilei, Discorsi e Dimostrazioni matematiche, Leiden, 1638.
2
Robert Hooke, De Potentia restitutiva, London, 1678.
3
E . Mariotte, Traite du mouvement des eaux, Paris, 1686.
directed to t h e solution and extension of Galileo's problem, and the related
theories of t h e vibrations of bars and plates, and the stability of columns.
The first investigation of any importance is t h a t of the elastic line or elastica
4
by J a m e s Bernoulli in 1705, in which t h e resistance of a bent rod is assumed
to arise from the extension and contraction of its longitudinal filaments, and
t h e equation of t h e curve assumed by the axis is formed. This equation
practically involves t h e result t h a t t h e resistance to bending is a couple
proportional to t h e curvature of t h e rod when bent, a result which was
assumed by Euler in his later t r e a t m e n t of t h e problems of t h e elastica, and
of the vibrations of t h i n rods. As soon as t h e notion of a flexural couple
proportional to t h e curvature was established it could be noted t h a t t h e
work done in bending a rod is proportional to t h e square of t h e curvature.
5
Daniel Bernoulli suggested to Euler t h a t t h e differential equation of t h e
elastica could be found by making the integral of t h e square of the curvature
6
taken along t h e rod a m i n i m u m ; and E u l e r , acting on this suggestion, was
able to obtain the differential equation of t h e curve and to classify t h e
various forms of it. One form is a curve of sines of small amplitude, and
7
Euler pointed o u t t h a t in this case t h e line of thrust coincides with the
unstrained axis of t h e rod, so t h a t the rod, if of sufficient length and vertical
when unstrained, may be bent by a weight attached to its upper end. F u r t h e r
8
investigations led him to assign t h e least length of a column in order t h a t
9
it may bend under its own or an applied weight. L a g r a n g e followed and
used his theory to determine the strongest form of column. These two writers
found a certain length which a column must attain to be bent by its own
or an applied weight, and they concluded t h a t for shorter lengths it will
be simply compressed, while for greater lengths it will be bent. These
researches are the earliest in t h e region of elastic stability.
I n Euler s work on t h e elastica the rod is t h o u g h t of as a line of particles
which resists bending. T h e theory of the flexure of beams of finite section
10
was considered by Coulomb . This author took account of the equation of
equilibrium obtained by resolving horizontally t h e forces which act upon
t h e part of t h e beam cut off by one of its normal sections, as well as of
the equation of moments. H e was t h u s enabled to obtain t h e true position
4
Bernoulli's memoir is entitled, 'Veritable hypothese de la resistance des solides, avec la
demonstration de la courbure des corps qui font ressort,' and will be found in his collected
works, t. 2, Geneva, 1744.
5
See the 26th letter of Daniel Bernoulli to Euler (October, 1742) in Fuss, Correspondance
mathematique et physique, t. 2, St Petersburg, 1843.
6
See the Additamentum ' De curvis elasticis' in the Methodus inveniendi lineas euro as maximi
minimive proprietate gaudentes, Lausanne, 1744.
7
Berlin, Histoire de VAcademie, t. 13 (1757).
8
Acta Acad. Petro'politance of 1778, Pars prior, pp. 121—193.
9
Miscellanea Taurinensia, t. 5 (1773).
1 0
' E s s a i sur une application des regies de Maximis et Minimis a quelques Problemes de
Statique, relatifs a 1'Architecture,' Mem....par divers savans, 1776.
1—2
of t h e "neutral line," or axis of equilibrium, and he also made a correct
calculation of the moment of t h e elastic forces. His theory of beams is
t h e most exact of those which proceed on the assumption t h a t t h e stress in a
bent beam arises wholly from the extension and contraction of its longitudinal
filaments, and is deduced mathematically from this assumption and Hooke's
Law. Coulomb was also t h e first to consider the resistance of thin fibres
11
to torsion , and it is his account of the m a t t e r to which Saint-Venant refers
under the name Vancienne theorie, b u t his formula for this resistance was
not deduced from any elastic theory. The formula makes t h e torsional
rigidity of a fibre proportional to t h e moment of inertia of t h e normal section
about t h e axis of t h e fibre. Another m a t t e r to which Coulomb was the
first to pay attention was t h e kind of strain we now call shear, though he
considered it in connexion with r u p t u r e only. His opinion appears to have
12
been t h a t r u p t u r e takes place when the shear of the material is greater t h a n
a certain limit. The shear considered is a p e r m a n e n t set, not an elastic strain.
Except Coulomb's, t h e most important work of t h e period for the general
mathematical theory is t h e physical discussion of elasticity by Thomas
Young. This naturalist (to adopt Lord Kelvin's name for students of
natural science) besides defining his modulus of elasticity, was t h e first to
13
consider shear as an elastic strain . H e called it "detrusion," and noticed
t h a t the elastic resistance of a body to shear, and its resistance to extension
or contraction, are in general different; b u t he did not introduce a distinct
modulus of rigidity to express resistance to shear. H e defined " the modulus
14
of elasticity of a s u b s t a n c e " as " a column of t h e same substance capable of
producing a pressure on its base which is to t h e weight causing a certain
degree of compression, as the length of t h e substance is to the diminution
of its length." W h a t we now call "Young's modulus" is the weight of this
column per unit of area of its base. This introduction of a definite physical
concept, associated with t h e coefficient of elasticity which descends, as it were
from a clear sky, on t h e reader of mathematical memoirs, marks an epoch in
the history of the science.
Side by side with t h e statical developments of Galileo's enquiry there were
6 15
discussions of t h e vibrations of solid bodies. E u l e r and Daniel Bernoulli
11
Histoire de VAcademie for 1784, pp. 229—269, Paris, 1787.
1 2
See the introduction to the memoir first quoted, Mem....par divers savans, 1776.
1 3
A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts, London, 1807,
Lecture xiii. It is in Kelland's later edition (1845) on pp. 105 et seq.
14
Loc. cit. (footnote 13). The definition was given in Section ix of Vol. 2 of the first
edition, and omitted in Kelland's edition, but it is reproduced in the Miscellaneous Works of
Dr Young.
15 (j) vibrationibus...laminarum elasticarum...,' and ' D e sonis multifariis quos laminae
e
elasticae...edunt...' published in Gommentarii Academics Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitance,

t. 13 (1751). The reader must be cautioned that in writings of the 18th century a " l a m i n a "
means a straight rod or curved bar, supposed to be cut out from a thin plate or cylindrical
shell by two normal sections near together. This usage lingers in many books.
obtained the differential equation of the lateral vibrations of bars by variation
of the function by which t h e y had previously expressed t h e work done in
16
bending . They determined the forms of the functions which we should
now call t h e "normal functions," and t h e equation which we should now call
the "period equation," in t h e six cases of terminal conditions which arise
17
according as t h e ends are free, clamped or simply supported. C h l a d n i
investigated these modes of vibration experimentally, and also the longi
tudinal and torsional vibrations of bars.
The success of theories of t h i n rods, founded on special hypotheses, appears
to have given rise to hopes t h a t a theory m i g h t be developed in the same way
for plates and shells, so t h a t t h e modes of vibration of a bell might be
deduced from its form and t h e manner in which it is supported. T h e first
to attack this problem was Euler. H e had already proposed a theory of t h e
resistance of a curved bar to bending, in which t h e change of curvature
played t h e same part as t h e curvature does in t h e theory of a naturally
18 19
straight b a r . In a note " D e Sono C a m p a n a r u m " he proposed to regard
a bell as divided into t h i n annuli, each of which behaves as a curved bar.
This method leaves out of account t h e change of curvature in sections t h r o u g h
20
t h e axis of t h e bell. J a m e s Bernoulli (the younger) followed. H e assumed
t h e shell to consist of a kind of double sheet of curved bars, t h e bars in
one sheet being at right angles to those in t h e other. Reducing t h e shell
to a plane plate he found an equation of vibration which we now know to
be incorrect.
J a m e s Bernoulli's a t t e m p t appears to have been made with t h e view of
discovering a theoretical basis for t h e experimental results of Chladni con
21
cerning t h e nodal figures of vibrating plates . These results were still
unexplained when in 1809 t h e French Institut proposed as a subject for
a prize t h e investigation of t h e tones of a vibrating plate. After several
a t t e m p t s the prize was adjudged in 1815 to Mdlle Sophie Germain, and her
22
work was published in 1 8 2 1 . She assumed t h a t t h e sum of t h e principal
curvatures of t h e plate when bent would play t h e same part in the theory of
plates as the curvature of t h e elastic central-line does in t h e theory of rods,
and she proposed to regard the work done in bending as proportional to t h e
1 6
The form of the energy-function and the notion of obtaining the differential equation by
varying it are due to D. Bernoulli. The process was carried out by Euler, and the normal
functions and the period equations were determined by him.
1 7
E . E. E. Chladni, Die Akustik, Leipzig, 1802. The author gives an account of the history
of his own experimental researches with the dates of first publication.
1 8
In the Methodus inveniendi... p. 274. See also his later writing « Genuina principia...
de statu aequilibrii et motu corporum...,'.Nov. Comm. Acad. Petropolitance, t. 15 (1771).
19
Nov. Comm. Acad. Petropolitance, t. l b (1766).
2 0
'Essai theorique sur les vibrations des plaques elastiques...,' Nov. Acta Petropolitance,
t. 5 (1789).
2 1
First published at Leipzig in 1787. See Die Akustik, p. vii.
22
Recherches sur la theorie des surfaces elastiques. Paris, 1821.
integral of t h e square of t h e sum of t h e principal curvatures t a k e n over
t h e surface. From this assumption and t h e principle of virtual work she
deduced t h e equation of flexural vibration in t h e form now generally admitted.
L a t e r investigations have shown t h a t t h e formula assumed for t h e work
done in bending was incorrect.
D u r i n g the first period in the history of our science (1638—1820) while
these various investigations of special problems were being made, there was
a cause at work which was to lead to wide generalizations. This cause was
physical speculation concerning t h e constitution of bodies. I n t h e eighteenth
century the Newtonian conception of material bodies, as made up of small
parts which act upon each other by means of central forces, displaced the
Cartesian conception of a plenum pervaded by " vortices." Newton regarded
23
his " molecules" as possessed of finite sizes and definite shapes , b u t his
successors gradually simplified t h e m into material points. The most definite
24
speculation of this kind is t h a t of Boscovich , for whom the material points
were nothing b u t persistent centres of force. To this order of ideas belong
25
Laplace's theory of capillarity and Poisson's first investigation of the equi
26
librium of an "elastic surface ," b u t for a long time no a t t e m p t seems to
have been made to obtain general equations of motion and equilibrium of
elastic solid bodies. A t t h e end of t h e year 1820 t h e fruit of all t h e ingenuity
expended on elastic problems might be summed u p as—an inadequate theory
of flexure, an erroneous theory of torsion, an unproved theory of t h e vibrations
of bars and plates, and the definition of Young's modulus. B u t such an
estimate would give a very wrong impression of the value of t h e older
researches. T h e recognition of t h e distinction between shear and extension
was a preliminary to a general theory of strain ; t h e recognition of forces
across t h e elements of a section of a beam, producing a resultant, was a
step towards a theory of stress; the use of differential equations for t h e
deflexion of a bent beam and t h e vibrations of bars and plates, was a fore
shadowing of the employment of differential equations of displacement; t h e
Newtonian conception of t h e constitution of bodies, combined with Hooke's
Law, offered means for t h e formation of such equations; and the generalization
of t h e principle of virtual work in the Mecanique Analytique threw open a
broad path to discovery in this as in every other branch of mathematical
physics. Physical Science had emerged from its incipient stages with definite
methods of hypothesis and induction and of observation and deduction, with
t h e clear aim to discover t h e laws by which phenomena are connected with
each other, and with a fund of analytical processes of investigation. This was
the hour for the production of general theories, and the men were not wanting.
2 3
See, in particular, Newton, Opticks, 2nd Edition, London, 1717, the 31st Query.
2 4
R. J. Boscovich, Theoria Philosophic? Naturalis redacta ad unicam legem virium in nalura
existentium, Venice, 1743.
23 e
Mecanique Celeste, Supplement au 1 0 Livre, Paris, 1806.
26
Paris, Mem. de Vlnstitut, 1814.
27
N a v i e r was t h e first to investigate the general equations of equilibrium
and vibration of elastic solids. H e set out from the Newtonian conception
of the constitution of bodies, and assumed t h a t t h e elastic reactions arise
from variations in the intermolecular forces which result from changes in t h e
molecular configuration. H e regarded the molecules as material points, and
assumed t h a t t h e force between two molecules, whose distance is slightly
increased, is proportional to t h e product of the increment of the distance and
some function of t h e initial distance. His method consists in forming an
expression for t h e component in any direction of all t h e forces t h a t act upon
a displaced molecule, and thence t h e equations of motion of t h e molecule.
The equations are thus obtained in terms of t h e displacements of the molecule.
T h e material is assumed to be isotropic, and the equations of equilibrium and
vibration contain a single constant of the same nature as Young's modulus.
Navier next formed an expression for t h e work done in a small relative dis
placement by all t h e forces which act upon a molecule; this he described as
the sum of t h e moments (in t h e sense of the Mecanique Analytique) of t h e
forces exerted by all the other molecules on a particular molecule. He
deduced, by an application of t h e Calculus of Variations, not only t h e
differential equations previously obtained, b u t also t h e boundary conditions
t h a t hold at t h e surface of t h e body. This memoir is very important as t h e
first general investigation of its kind, b u t its arguments have not met with
general acceptance. Objection has been raised against Navier's expression
for the force between two " molecules," and to his method of simplifying t h e
expressions for t h e forces acting on a single " molecule." These expressions
involve triple summations, which Navier replaced by integrations, and t h e
28
validity of this procedure has been disputed .
I n the same year, 1821, in which Navier's memoir was read to t h e
Academy the study of elasticity received a powerful impulse from an un
expected quarter. Fresnel announced his conclusion t h a t t h e observed facts
in regard to the interference of polarised light could be explained only by
29
the hypothesis of transverse vibrations . H e showed how a medium
27
Paris, Mem. Acad. Sciences, t. 7 (1827). The memoir was read in May, 1821.
2 8
For criticisms of Navier's memoir and an account of the discussions to which it gave rise,
see Todhunter and Pearson, History of the Theory of Elasticity, vol. 1, Cambridge, 1886, pp. 139,
221, 2 7 7 : and cf. the account given by H . Burkhardt in his Report on ' Entwickelungen
nach oscillirenden Functionen' published in the Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-
Vereinigung, Bd. 10, Heft 2, Lieferung 3 (1903). It may not be superfluous to remark that the
conception of molecules as material points at rest in a state of stable equilibrium under their
mutual forces of attraction and repulsion, and held in slightly displaced positions by external
forces, is quite different from the conception of molecules with which modern Thermodynamics
has made us familiar. The " m o l e c u l a r " theories of Navier, Poisson and Cauchy have no
very intimate relation to modern notions about molecules.
2 9
See E. Verdet, (Euvres completes d'Augustin Fresnel, t. 1, Paris, 1866, p. lxxxvi, also
pp. 629 et seq. Verdet points out that Fresnel arrived at his hypothesis of transverse vibrations
in 1816 (loc. cit. pp. L V , 385, 394). Thomas Young in his Article 'Chromatics' (Encycl. Brit.
Supplement, 1817) regarded the luminous vibrations as having relatively feeble transverse com
ponents.
consisting of " molecules" connected by central forces might be expected to
execute such vibrations and to transmit waves of the required type. Before
t h e time of Young and Fresnel such examples of transverse waves as were
known—waves on water, transverse vibrations of strings, bars, membranes and
plates—were in no case examples of waves transmitted through a m e d i u m ;
and neither t h e supporters nor the opponents of t h e undulatory theory of
light appear to have conceived of light waves otherwise t h a n as " longi
tudinal " waves of condensation and rarefaction, of t h e type rendered familiar
by the transmission of sound. T h e theory of elasticity, and, in particular,
t h e problem of t h e transmission of waves through an elastic medium now
30
attracted t h e attention of two mathematicians of t h e highest order : Cauchy
31
and Poisson —the former a discriminating supporter, t h e latter a sceptical critic
of Fresnel's ideas. I n t h e future t h e developments of the theory of elasticity
were to be closely associated with the question of the propagation of light, and
these developments arose in great part from t h e labours of these two savants.
32
By the A u t u m n of 1822 C a u c h y had discovered most of the elements
of t h e pure theory of elasticity. H e had introduced the notion of stress a t
a point determined by the tractions per unit of area across all plane elements
through the point. For this purpose he had generalized the notion of
hydrostatic pressure, and he had shown t h a t the stress is expressible by
means of six component stresses, and also by means of three purely normal
tractions across a certain triad of planes which cut each other at right angles—
t h e "principal planes of stress." H e had shown also how t h e differential
coefficients of t h e three components of displacement can be used to estimate
t h e extension of every linear element of the material, and had expressed t h e
state of strain near a point in terms of six components of strain, and also in
t e r m s of the extensions of a certain triad of lines which are at right angles
to each other—the "principal axes of strain." H e had determined t h e
equations of motion (or equilibrium) by which t h e stress-components are
connected with t h e forces t h a t are distributed through t h e volume and with
t h e kinetic reactions. By means of relations between stress-components and
strain-components, he had eliminated t h e stress-components from t h e equa
tions of motion and equilibrium, and had arrived at equations in terms of t h e
displacements. I n the later published version of this investigation Cauchy
3 0
Cauchy's studies in Elasticity were first prompted by his being a member of the Commission
appointed to report upon a memoir by Navier on elastic plates which was presented to the Paris
Academy in August, 1820.
3 1
We have noted that Poisson had already written on elastic plates in 1814.
3 2
Cauchy's memoir was communicated to the Paris Academy i n September 1822, but it
was not published. An abstract was inserted in the Bulletin des Sciences a la Societe philo-
mathique, 1823, and the contents of the memoir were given in later publications, viz. i n two
Articles in the volume for 1827 of Cauchy's Exercices de mathematique and an Article in the
volume for 1828. The titles of these Articles are (i) ' De la pression ou tension dans un corps
solide,' (ii) ' Sur la condensation et la dilatation des corps soli des,' (iii) ' Sur les equations qui
expriment les conditions d'equilibre ou les lois de mouvement interieur d'un corps solide.'
The last of these contains the correct equations of Elasticity.
obtained his stress-strain relations for isotropic materials by means of two
assumptions, viz.: (1) t h a t the relations in question are linear, (2) t h a t the
principal planes of stress are normal to the principal axes of strain. T h e
experimental basis on which these assumptions can be made to rest is t h e
same as t h a t on which Hooke's Law rests, b u t Cauchy did not refer to it.
The equations obtained are those which are now admitted for isotropic solid
bodies. The methods used in these investigations are quite different from
those of Navier's memoir. I n particular, no use is made of t h e hypothesis
of material points and central forces. T h e resulting equations differ from
Navier's in one important respect, viz.: Navier's equations contain a single
7
constant to express t h e elastic behaviour of a bod) , while Cauchy's contain
two such constants.
A t a later date Cauchy extended his theory to t h e case of crystalline
bodies, and he then made use of t h e hypothesis of material points between
which there are forces of attraction or repulsion. The force between a pair
of points was taken to act in t h e line joining the points, and to be a function
of t h e distance between t h e m ; and t h e assemblage of points was taken to b e
homogeneous in the sense that, if A, B, C are any three of t h e points, there
is a point D of t h e assemblage which is situated so t h a t t h e line CD is
equal and parallel to AB, and the sense from C to D is the same as the sense
from A to B. I t was assumed further t h a t when t h e system is displaced
the relative displacement of two of the material points, which are within each
other's ranges of activity, is small compared with t h e distance between them.
33
I n the first memoir in which Cauchy made use of this hypothesis he formed
an expression for the forces t h a t act upon a single material point in t h e
system, and deduced differential equations of motion and equilibrium. I n
the case of isotropy, the equations contained two constants. In t h e second
34
memoir expressions were formed for t h e tractions across any plane drawn in
t h e body. If t h e initial state is one of zero stress, and the material is isotropic,
the stress is expressed in t e r m s of t h e strain by means of a single constant,
and one of t h e constants of the preceding memoir must vanish. The equations
are theu identical with those of Navier. I n like manner, in the general case
of seolotropy, Cauchy found 21 independent constants. Of these 15 are t r u e
" elastic constants," and t h e remaining 6 express t h e initial stress and vanish
identically if the initial state is one of zero stress. These m a t t e r s were n o t
35
fully explained by Cauchy. Clausius , however, has shown t h a t this is t h e
3 3
Exercices de mathematique, 1828, * Sur l'equilibre et le mouvement d'un systeme de points
materiels sollicites par des forces d'attraction ou de repulsion mutuelle.' This memoir follows
immediately after that last quoted and immediately precedes that next quoted.
34
Exercices de mathematique, 1828, ' De la pression ou tension dans un systeme de points
materiels.'
3 5
* Ueber die Veranderungen, welche in den bisher gebrauchlichen Formeln fur das Gleichge-
wicht und die Bewegung elastischer fester Korper durch neuere Beobachtungen nothwendig
geworden sind,' Ann. Phys. Ghem. (Poggendorff), Bd. 76 (1849).
meaning of his work. Clausius criticized the restrictive conditions which
Cauchy imposed upon t h e arrangement of his material points, b u t he argued
t h a t these conditions are not necessary for the deduction of Cauchy's equations.
36
The first memoir by Poisson relating to t h e same subject was read
before t h e Paris Academy in April, 1828. The memoir is very remarkable
for its numerous applications of t h e general theory to special problems. I n
his investigation of the general equations Poisson, like Cauchy, first obtains
t h e equations of equilibrium in t e r m s of stress-components, and t h e n estimates
t h e traction across any plane resulting from t h e " intermolecular" forces.
T h e expressions for the stresses in terms of t h e strains involve summations
with respect to all t h e "molecules," situated within t h e region of "molecular"
activity of a given one. Poisson decides against replacing all the summations
by integrations, b u t he assumes t h a t this can be done for the summations
with respect to angular space about t h e given " molecule," b u t not for t h e
summations with respect to distance from this " molecule." The equations of
equilibrium and motion of isotropic elastic solids which were t h u s obtained
are identical with Navier's. The principle, on which summations may be
33
replaced by integrations, has been explained as follows by C a u c h y : — T h e
n u m b e r of molecules in any volume, which contains a very large n u m b e r of
molecules, and whose dimensions are at t h e same time small compared with
t h e radius of t h e sphere of sensible molecular activity, may be t a k e n to be
proportional to t h e volume. If, then, we make abstraction of the molecules
in the immediate neighbourhood of the one considered, t h e actions of all t h e
others, contained in any one of t h e small volumes referred to, will be equiva
lent to a force, acting in a line through t h e centroid of this volume, which
will be proportional to t h e volume and to a function of the distance of t h e
particular molecule from t h e centroid of t h e volume. The action of t h e
remoter molecules is said to be " regular," and the action of t h e nearer ones;
" i r r e g u l a r " ; and t h u s Poisson assumed t h a t t h e irregular action of t h e
nearer molecules may be neglected, in comparison with t h e action of t h e
remoter ones, which is regular. This assumption is the t e x t upon which
37
S t o k e s afterwards founded his criticism of Poisson. As we have seen,
38
Cauchy arrived at Poisson's results by t h e aid of a different assumption .
35
Clausius held t h a t both Poisson's and Cauchy's methods could be presented
in unexceptionable forms.
3 6
'Memoire sur l'equilibre et le mouvement des corps elastiques,' Mem. Paris Acad., t. 8
(1829).
3 7
'On the Theories of the...Equilibrium and Motion of Elastic Solids,' Cambridge Phil.
Soc. Trans, vol. 8 (1845).
3 8
In a later memoir presented to the Academy in 1829 and published in J. de VEcole poly-
technique, t. 13 (1831), Poisson adopted a method quite similar to that of Cauchy (footnote 34).
Poisson extended his theory to aeolotropic bodies in his ' Memoire sur l'equilibre et le mouve
ment des corps cristallisees,' read to the Paris Academy in 1839 and published after his death in
Mem. de VAcad. t. 18 (1842).
The theory of elasticity established by Poisson and Cauchy on t h e t h e n
accepted basis of material points and central forces was applied by t h e m
39
and also by L a m e and Clapeyron to numerous problems of vibrations and
of statical elasticity, and t h u s means were provided for testing its con
sequences experimentally, b u t it was a long time before adequate experi
ments were made to test it. Poisson used it to investigate t h e propagation
of waves t h r o u g h an isotropic elastic solid medium. H e found two types of
waves which, at great distances from t h e sources of disturbance, are practically
" longitudinal" and " transverse," and it was a consequence of his theory t h a t
40 41
t h e ratio of the velocities of waves of the two types is \ / 3 : l . C a u c h y
applied his equations to t h e question of t h e propagation of light in crystalline
as well as in isotropic media. The theory was challenged first in its application
42 37
to optics by Green , and afterwards on its statical side by Stokes . Green
was dissatisfied with t h e hypothesis on which t h e theory was based, and
he sought a new foundation; Stokes's criticisms were directed rather against
t h e process of deduction and some of the particular results.
The revolution which Green effected in t h e elements of the theory is
comparable in importance with t h a t produced by Navier's discovery of the
general equations. S t a r t i n g from what is now called the Principle of the
Conservation of Energy he propounded a new method of obtaining these
equations. H e himself stated his principle and method in the following
words:—
" I n whatever way the elements of any material system may act upon
" each other, if all the internal forces exerted be multiplied by t h e elements
" of their respective directions, the total sum for any assigned portion of the
" m a s s will always be t h e exact differential of some function. B u t this
" function being known, we can immediately apply t h e general method
" g i v e n in t h e Mecanique Analytique, and which appears to be more especially
" applicable to problems t h a t relate to the motions of systems composed
" of an immense n u m b e r of particles mutually acting upon each other. One
"of the advantages of this method, of great importance, is t h a t we are
" necessarily led by t h e mere process of t h e calculation, and with little care
" on our part, to all the equations and conditions which are requisite and
''sufficient for t h e complete solution of any problem to which it may be
" applied."
3 9
'Memoire sur l'equilibre interieur des corps solides homogenes,' Paris, Mem. par divers
savants, t. 4 (1833). The memoir was published also in J. f. Math. (Grelle), Bd. 7 (1831); it
had been presented to the Paris Academy, and the report on it by Poinsot and Navier is dated
1828. In regard to the general theory the method adopted was that of Navier.
4 0
See the addition, of date November 1828, to the memoir quoted in footnote 36. Cauchy
recorded the same result in the Exercices de mathematique, 1830.
4 1
Exercices de Mathematique, 1830.
4 2
' On the laws of reflexion and refraction of light at the common surface of two non-
crystallized media,' Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans, vol. 7 (1839). The date of the memoir is 1837.
It is reprinted in Mathematical Papers of the late George Green, London, 1871, p. 245.
The function here spoken of, with its sign changed, is the potential
energy of the strained elastic body per unit of volume, expressed in t e r m s
of the components of s t r a i n ; and t h e differential coefficients of t h e function,
with respect to t h e components of strain, are t h e components of stress.
Green supposed t h e function to be capable of being expanded in powers and
products of t h e components of strain. H e therefore arranged it as a sum of
homogeneous functions of these quantities of t h e first, second and higher
degrees. Of these terms, t h e first m u s t be absent, as the potential energy
must be a true minimum when t h e body is u n s t r a i n e d ; and, as t h e strains
are all small, t h e second t e r m alone will be of importance. From this
principle Green deduced the equations of Elasticity, containing in the general
case 21 constants. I n t h e case of isotropy there are two constants, and t h e
32
equations are the same as those of Cauchy's first memoir .
43
Lord K e l v i n has based t h e a r g u m e n t for t h e existence of Green's strain-
energy-function on t h e First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics. From
these laws he deduced t h e result that, when a solid body is strained without
alteration of temperature, t h e components of stress are t h e differential
coefficients of a function of the components of strain with respect to these
components severally. T h e same result can be proved to hold when the strain
is effected so quickly t h a t no h e a t is gained or lost by any part of t h e body.
Poisson's theory leads to t h e conclusions t h a t t h e resistance of a body to
compression by pressure uniform all round it is two-thirds of t h e Young's
modulus of t h e material, and t h a t t h e resistance to ahearing is two-fifths
44
of t h e Young's modulus. H e noted a result equivalent to t h e first of these ,
and t h e second is virtually contained in his theory of t h e torsional vibrations
45
of a bar . The observation t h a t resistance to compression and resistance to
shearing are t h e two fundamental kinds of elastic resistance in isotropic
46
bodies was made by Stokes , and he introduced definitely the two principal
moduluses of elasticity by which these resistances are expressed—the
" modulus of compression " and the " rigidity," as they are now called. From
Hooke's Law and from considerations of symmetry he concluded t h a t pressure
equal in all directions round a point is attended by a proportional compression
without shear, and t h a t shearing stress is attended by a corresponding
proportional shearing strain. As an experimental basis for Hooke's Law
he cited t h e fact t h a t bodies admit of being thrown into states of isochronous
32
vibration. By a method analogous to t h a t of Cauchy's first memoir , b u t
resting on the above-stated experimental basis, he deduced the equations
4 3
Sir W. Thomson, Quart. J. of Math. vol. 5 (1855), reprinted in Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 5
(1878), and also in Mathematical and Physical Papers by Sir William Thomson, vol. 1, Cambridge,
1882, p. 291.
4 4
Annates de Chimie et de Physique, t. 36 (1827).
4 5
This theory is given in the memoir cited in footnote 36.
4 6
See footnote 37. The distinction between the two kinds of elasticity had been noted by
Poncelet, Introduction a la Mecanique industrielle, physique et experimental, Metz, 1839.
with two constants which had been given by Cauchy and Green. H a v i n g
regard to the varying degrees in which different classes of bodies—liquids,
soft solids, hard, solids—resist compression and distortion, he refused to
accept t h e conclusion from Poisson's theory t h a t t h e modulus of compression
has to t h e rigidity t h e ratio 5 : 3. H e pointed out that, if the ratio of these
moduluses could be regarded as infinite, the ratio of the velocities of " longi
tudinal " and " t r a n s v e r s e " waves would also be infinite, and then, as Green
had already shown, t h e application of t h e theory to optics would be facilitated.
The methods of Navier, of Poisson, and of Cauchy's later memoirs lead to
equations of motion containing fewer constants t h a n occur in t h e equations
obtained by t h e methods of Green, of Stokes, and of Cauchy's first memoir.
The importance of t h e discrepancy was first emphasized by Stokes. The
questions in dispute are these—Is elastic seolotropy to be characterized
by 21 constants or by 15, and is elastic isotropy to be characterized by two
47
constants or one? T h e two theories are styled by Pearson t h e "multi-con
s t a n t " theory and t h e " rari-constant" theory respectively, and the controversy
concerning t h e m has lasted almost down to the present time. I t is to be
understood t h a t t h e rari-constant equations can be included in t h e multi-
constant ones by equating certain pairs of the coefficients, b u t t h a t t h e
rari-constant equations rest upon a particular hypothesis concerning t h e
constitution of matter, while the adoption of multi-constancy has been
held to imply denial of this hypothesis. Discrepancies between t h e results
of t h e two theories can be submitted to the test of experiment, and it
might be t h o u g h t t h a t the verdict would be final, b u t t h e difficulty of being
certain t h a t t h e tested material is isotropic has diminished the credit of many
experimental investigations, and the tendency of the multi-constant elasticians
to rely on experiments on such bodies as cork, jelly and india-rubber has
weakened their arguments. Much of the discussion has turned upon t h e value
of the ratio of lateral contraction to longitudinal extension of a bar under
36
terminal tractive load. This ratio is often called " Poisson's ratio." Poisson
deduced from his theory the result t h a t this ratio must be \ . The experi
ments of W e r t h e i m on glass and brass did not support this result, and
48
Wertheim proposed to t a k e t h e ratio to be -J—a value which has no
49
theoretical foundation. The experimental evidence led Lame in his t r e a t i s e
to adopt t h e multi-constant equations, and after t h e publication of this
book they were generally employed. Saint-Venant, though a firm believer
in rari-constancy, expressed t h e results of his researches on torsion and
50
flexure and on t h e distribution of elasticities round a p o i n t in terms of t h e
4 7
Todhunter and Pearson, History of the Theory of Elasticity, vol. 1, Cambridge, 1886, p. 496.
48
Annates de Chimie, t. 23 (1848).
49
Legons sur la theorie mathematique de V'elasticity des corps solides, Paris, 1852.
5 0
The memoir on torsion is in Mem. des Savants etrangers, t. 14 (1855), that on flexure is in
J. de Math. (Liouville), (Ser. 2), t. 1 (1856), and that on the distribution of elasticities is in J. de
Math. (Liouville), (Ser. 2), t. 8 (1863).
51
multi-constant theory. Kirchhoff adopted t h e same theory in his in
vestigations of thin rods and plates, and supported it by experiments on
52 53
t h e torsion and flexure of steel b a r s ; and Clebsch in his t r e a t i s e used t h e
54
language of bi-constant isotropy. Kelvin and T a i t dismissed the controversy
in a few words and adopted the views of Stokes. The best modern experi
ments support t h e conclusion t h a t Poisson's ratio can differ sensibly from t h e
value J in materials which may without cavil be treated as isotropic and
homogeneous. B u t perhaps t h e most striking experimental evidence is t h a t
55
which Voigt has derived from his study of t h e elasticity of crystals. The
absence of guarantees for the isotropy of t h e tested materials ceased to be a
difficulty when he had t h e courage to undertake experiments on materials
56
which have known kinds of a3olotropy . The point to be settled is, however,
more remote. According to Green there exist, for a material of t h e most
generally asolotropic character, 21 independent elastic constants. The mole
cular hypothesis, as worked out by Cauchy and supported by Saint-Venant,
leads to 15 constants, so that, if the rari-constant theory is correct, there m u s t
be 6 independent relations among Green's 21 coefficients. These relations
57
I call Cauchy's relations . Now Voigt's experiments were made on t h e
torsion and flexure of prisms of various crystals, for most of which Saint-
Venant's formulae for seolotropic rods hold good, for t h e others he supplied
t h e required formula?. I n t h e cases of beryl and rocksalt only were Cauchy's
relations even approximately verified; in t h e seven other kinds of crystals
examined there were very considerable differences between t h e coefficients
which these relations would require to be equal.
Independently of the experimental evidence t h e rari-constant theory has
lost ground through the widening of our views concerning the constitution
of matter. The hypothesis of material points and central forces does n o t
now hold the field. This change in the tendency of physical speculation is
due to many causes, among which t h e disagreement of the rari-constant
theory of elasticity with the results of experiment holds a rather subordinate
position. Of much greater importance have been t h e development of t h e
atomic theory in Chemistry and of statistical molecular theories in Physics,
the growth of t h e doctrine of energy, t h e discovery of electric radiation.
I t is now recognized t h a t a theory of atoms m u s t be part of a theory of t h e
aether, and t h a t t h e confidence which was once felt in t h e hypothesis of central
51
J. f. Math. (Grelle), Bd. 40 (1850), and Bd. 56 (1859).
52
Ann. Phys. Ghem. (Poggendorff), Bd. 108 (1859).
5:5
Theorie der Elasticitdt fester Korper, Leipzig, 1862.
5 4
Thomson and Tait, Natural Philosophy, 1st edition Oxford 1867, 2nd edition Cambridge
1879—1883.
5 5
W. Voigt, Ann. Phys. Ghem. {Wiedemann), Bde 31 (1887), 34 and 35 (1888), 38 (1889).
5 6
A certain assumption, first made by F. E . Neumann, is involved in the statement that
the asolotropy of a crystal as regards elasticity is known from the crystallographic form.
5 7
They appear to have been first stated explicitly by Saint-Venant in the memoir on
torsion of 1855. (See footnote 50.)
forces between material points was premature. To determine the laws of
the elasticity of solid bodies without knowing t h e n a t u r e of t h e a3thereal
medium or t h e n a t u r e of the atoms, we can only invoke t h e known laws of
energy as was done by Green and Lord Kelvin; and we may place the
theory on a firm basis if Ave appeal to experiment to support t h e statement
that, within a certain range of strain, t h e strain-energy-function is a quad
ratic function of t h e components of strain, instead of relying, as Green did,
upon an expansion of t h e function in series.
The problem of determining t h e state of stress and strain within a
solid body which is subjected to given forces acting through its volume
and to given tractions across its surface, or is held by surface tractions so
t h a t its surface is deformed into a prescribed figure, is reducible to t h e
analytical problem of finding functions to represent t h e components of dis
placement. These functions must satisfy t h e differential equations of equi
librium at all points within t h e surface of t h e body and must also satisfy
certain special condition's at this surface. The methods which have been
devised for integrating the equations fall into two classes. In one class of
methods a special solution is sought and t h e boundary conditions are satisfied
by a solution in t h e form of a series, which may be infinite, of special solu
tions. The special solutions are generally expressible in terms of harmonic
functions. This class of solutions may be regarded as constituting an
extension of the methods of expansion in spherical harmonics and in
trigonometrical series. I n t h e other class of methods t h e quantities to be
determined are expressed by definite integrals, t h e elements of the integrals
representing t h e effects of singularities distributed over the surface or
through t h e volume. This class of solutions constitutes an extension of t h e
methods introduced by Green in the Theory of t h e Potential. A t t h e
time of the discovery of t h e general equations of Elasticity t h e method of
series had already been applied to astronomical problems, to acoustical
58
problems and to problems of t h e conduction of h e a t ; t h e method of singu
59
larities had not been invented . T h e application of t h e method of series to
problems of equilibrium of elastic solid bodies was initiated by L a m e and
39
Clapeyron . They considered t h e case of a body bounded by an unlimited
60
plane to which pressure is applied according to an arbitrary law. L a m e
later considered t h e problem of a body bounded by a spherical surface and
deformed by given surface tractions. The problem of t h e plane is essentially
t h a t of t h e transmission into a solid body of force applied locally to a
small part of its surface. The problem of t h e sphere has been developed
5 8
See Burkhardt, 'Entwickelungen nach oscillirenden Eunctionen,' Jahresbericht der Deutscheu
Mathematiker-Vereinigung, Bd. 10, Heft 2.
5 9
It was invented by Green, An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the
Theories of Electricity and Magnetism, Nottingham, 1828. Reprinted in Mathematical Papers
of the late George Green, London, 1871.
60
J. de Math. (Liouville), t. 19 (1854).
61
b y Lord Kelvin , who sought to utilize it for t h e purpose of investigating
62
t h e rigidity of t h e E a r t h , and by G. H. Darwin in connexion with other
63
problems of cosmical physics . The serial solutions employed are expressed
in terms of spherical harmonics. Solutions of the equations in cylindrical
64
coordinates can be expressed in terms of Bessel's functions , but, except for
spheres and cylinders, the method of series has not been employed very
successfully. The method of singularities was first applied to t h e theory of
65
Elasticity by E. B e t t i , who set out from a certain reciprocal theorem of the
t y p e t h a t is now familiar in many branches of mathematical physics. From
this theorem he deduced incidentally a formula for determining t h e average
strain of any t y p e t h a t is produced in a body by given forces. The method
of singularities has been developed chiefly by the elasticians of t h e Italian
school. I t has proved more effective t h a n t h e method of series in t h e
solution of the problem of transmission of force. The fundamental particular
solution which expresses t h e displacement due to force at a point in an in
66
definitely extended solid was given by Lord Kelvin . I t was found at a
67
later date by J. Boussinesq along with other particular solutions, which can,
as a matter of fact, be derived by synthesis from it. Boussinesq's results
led him to a solution of the problem of t h e plane, and to a theory of " local
perturbations," according to which t h e effect of force applied in t h e neigh
bourhood of any point of a body falls off very rapidly as t h e distance from
t h e point increases, and t h e application of an equilibrating system of forces
to a small part of a body produces an effect which is negligible at a con
siderable distance from the part. To estimate the effect produced at a
distance by forces applied near a point, it is not necessary to take into
account t h e mode of application of the forces b u t only t h e statical resultant
and moment. T h e direct method of integration founded upon Betti's reciprocal
68
theorem was applied to t h e problem of the plane by V. Cerruti . Some
of t h e results were found independently by Hertz, and led in his hands to a
69
theory of impact and a theory of hardness .
A different method for determining t h e state of stress in a body has
61
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. 153 (1863). See also Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. 3 (Cambridge,
1890), p. 351, and Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil., Part 2.
6 2
Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1876, Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. 3, p. 312.
6 3
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. 170 (1879), and vol. 173 (1882).
6 4
L. Pochhammer, J.f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 81 (1876), p. 33.
65
II Nuovo Gimento (Ser. 2), tt. 6—10 (1872 et seq.).
6 6
Sir W. Thomson, Cambridge and Dublin Math. J., 1848, reprinted in Math, and Phys.
Pavers, vol. 1, p. 97.
6 7
For Boussinesq's earlier researches in regard to simple solutions, see Paris, G. R., tt. 86—88
(1878—1879) and tt. 93—96 (1881—1883). A more complete account is given in his book, Appli
cations des potentiels d Vetude de Vequilibre et du mouvement des solides elastiques, Paris, 1885.
68
Rome, Acc. Lincei, Mem.Jis. mat., 1882.
m
J. f. Math. {Grelle), Bd. 92 (1882), and Verhandlungen des Vereins zur Befdrderung
des Geioerbefleisses, Berlin, 1882. The memoirs are reprinted in Ges. Werke von Heinrich
Hertz, Bd. 1, Leipzig, 1895, pp. 155 and 174.
70
been developed from a result noted by G. B. Airy . H e observed t h a t ,
in t h e case of two dimensions, t h e equations of equilibrium of a body
deformed by surface tractions show t h a t t h e stress-components can be
expressed as partial differential coefficients of t h e second order of a single
71
function. Maxwell extended t h e result to three dimensions, in which case
three such "stress-functions" are required. I t appeared later t h a t these
functions are connected by a r a t h e r complicated system of differential
72
equations . T h e stress-components must in fact be connected with t h e
strain-components by t h e stress-strain relations, and the strain-components
are not i n d e p e n d e n t ; b u t t h e second differential coefficientsôf t h e strain-
components with respect to t h e coordinates are connected by a system of
linear equations, which are the conditions necessary to secure t h a t t h e strain-
components shall correspond with a displacement, in accordance with t h e
73
ordinary formulae connecting strain and displacement . I t is possible by
taking account of these relations to obtain a complete system of equations
which must be satisfied by stress-components, and t h u s the way is open
for a direct determination of stress without t h e intermediate steps of forming
and solving differential equations to determine t h e components of displace
74
m e n t . In the case of two dimensions the resulting equations are of a simple
-character, and many interesting solutions can be obtained.
The theory of the free vibrations of solid bodies requires t h e integration
of t h e equations of vibratory motion in accordance with prescribed boundary
36
conditions of stress or displacement. Poisson gave t h e solution of the
53
problem of free radial vibrations of a solid sphere, and Clebsch founded t h e
general theory on t h e model of Poisson's solution. This theory included t h e
•extension of t h e notion of "principal coordinates" to systems with an infinite
n u m b e r of degrees of freedom, t h e introduction of t h e corresponding " normal
functions," and t h e proof of those properties of these functions upon which
the expansions of arbitrary functions depend. T h e discussions which had
t a k e n place before and during t h e time of Poisson concerning t h e vibrations
of strings, bars, membranes and plates had prepared t h e way for Glebsch's
generalizations. Before t h e publication of Clebsch's treatise a different theory
49
had been propounded by L a m e . Acquainted with Poisson's discovery of two
types of waves, he concluded t h a t t h e vibrations of any solid body must fall
i n t o two corresponding classes, and he investigated t h e vibrations of various
bodies on this assumption. The fact t h a t his solutions do not satisfy the
•conditions which hold at t h e boundaries of bodies free from surface traction
70
Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1862, and Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. 153 (1863), p. 49.
71
Edinburgh Roy. Soc. Trans., vol. 26 (1870) = Scientific Papers, vol. 2, p. 161.
7 2
W. J. Ibbetson, An Elementary Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of perfectly Elastic
Solids, London, 1887.
7 3
Saint-Venant gave the identical relations between strain-components in his edition of
JSfavier's Resume des Legons sur Vapplication de la Mecanique, Paris, 1864, 'Appendice 3.'
7 4
J. H. Michell, London Math. Soc Proc, vol. 31 (1900), p. 100.
L. E. 2
is a sufficient disproof of his t h e o r y ; b u t it was finally disposed of when
all t h e modes of free vibration of a homogeneous isotropic sphere were deter
mined, and it was proved t h a t the classes into which they fall do not verify
Lame's supposition. The analysis of the general problem of the vibrations
75
of a sphere was first completely given by P. Jaerisch , who showed t h a t t h e
solution could be expressed by means of spherical harmonics and certain
functions of the distance from t h e centre of the sphere, which are practically
Bessel's functions of order integer+ 1%. This result was obtained indepen
76
dently by H . L a m b , who gave an account of t h e simpler modes of vibration
and of t h e n a t u r e of t h e nodal division of the sphere which occurs when any
normal vibration is executed. H e also calculated t h e more important roots
77
of the frequency equation. L. P o c h h a m m e r has applied t h e method of
normal functions to t h e vibrations of cylinders, and has found modes of
vibration analogous to the known types of vibration of bars.
The problem of tracing, by means of t h e equations of vibratory motion,
t h e propagation of waves through an elastic solid medium requires investi
gations of a different character from those concerned with normal modes of
78 79
vibration. I n t h e case of an isotropic medium Poisson and Ostrogradsky
adopted methods which involve a synthesis of solutions of simple harmonic
type, and obtained a solution expressing t h e displacement at any time in
terms of t h e initial distribution of displacement and velocity. T h e investi
80
gation was afterwards conducted in a different fashion by Stokes , who
showed t h a t Poisson's two waves are waves of irrotational dilatation and
waves of equivoluminal distortion, t h e latter involving rotation of t h e
41 81
elements of t h e medium. Cauchy and G r e e n discussed the propagation
of plane waves through a crystalline medium, and obtained equations for
t h e velocity of propagation in terms of t h e direction of t h e normal to t h e
wave-front. I n general t h e wave-surface has three s h e e t s ; when t h e m e d i u m
is isotropic all t h e sheets are spheres, and two of t h e m are coincident.
82
B l a n c h e t extended Poisson's results to t h e case of a crystalline medium.
83
Christoffel discussed the advance through t h e medium of a surface of
discontinuity. At any instant, t h e surface separates two portions of t h e
medium in which t h e displacements are expressed by different formulae;
and Ohristoffel showed t h a t t h e surface moves normally to itself with a
75
J.f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 88 (1880).
76
London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 13 (1882).
77
J.f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 81 (1876), p. 324.
78
Paris, Mem. de VAcad., t. 10 (1831).
79
St Petersburg, Mem. de VAcad., t. 1 (1831).
8 0
* On the Dynamical Theory of Diffraction,' Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. 9 (1849).
Reprinted in Stokes's Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. 2 (Cambridge, 1883).
81
Cambridge Phil. Soc. Titans., vol. 7 (1839). Reprinted in Green's Mathematical Papers^
p. 293.
82
J. de Math. (Liouville), t. 5 (1840), t. 7 (1842).
Ann. di Mat. (Ser. 2), t. 8 (1877).
velocity which is determined, at any point, by t h e direction of the normal to
t h e surface, according to t h e same law as holds for plane waves propagated
in t h a t direction. Besides t h e waves of dilatation and distortion which can
84
be propagated t h r o u g h an isotropic solid body Lord Rayleigh has investi
gated a third type which can be propagated over t h e surface. T h e velocity
of waves of this type is less t h a n t h a t of either of t h e other two.
Before the discovery of t h e general equations there existed theories of
the torsion and flexure of beams starting from Galileo's enquiry and a
suggestion of Coulomb's. The problems t h u s proposed are among the most
important for practical applications, as most problems t h a t have to be dealt
with by engineers can, at any r a t e for the purpose of a rough approximation,
be reduced to questions of the resistance of beams. Cauchy was the first
to a t t e m p t to apply t h e general equations to this class of problems, and his
85
investigation of t h e torsion of a rectangular prism , though not correct, is
historically important, as he recognized t h a t t h e normal sections do not
remain plane. His result had little influence on practice. The practical
treatises of t h e earlier half of t h e last century contain a theory of torsion
with a result t h a t we have already a t t r i b u t e d to Coulomb, viz., t h a t the
resistance to torsion is t h e product of an elastic constant, t h e amount of
t h e twist, and t h e moment of inertia of t h e cross-section. Again, in regard
to flexure, t h e practical treatises of t h e t i m e followed t h e Bernoulli-
Eulerian (really Coulomb's) theory, a t t r i b u t i n g t h e resistance to flexure
entirely to extension and contraction of longitudinal filaments. To
Saint-Venant belongs the credit of bringing t h e problems of the torsion
and flexure of beams under t h e general theory. Seeing t h e difficulty of
obtaining general solutions, the pressing need for practical purposes of some
theory t h a t could be applied to t h e strength of structures, and t h e im
probability of t h e precise mode of application of t h e load to t h e parts of any
apparatus being known, he was led to reflect on t h e methods used for t h e
solution of special problems before t h e formulation of the general equations.
These reflexions led him to t h e invention of t h e semi-inverse method of
solution which bears his name. Some of t h e habitual assumptions, or some
of t h e results commonly deduced from them, may be true, at least in a large
majority of cases; and it may be possible by retaining some of these
assumptions or results to simplify the equations, and t h u s to obtain solutions
—not indeed such as satisfy arbitrary surface conditions, b u t such as satisfy
practically important types of surface conditions.
The first problem to which S a i n t - V e n a n t applied his method was t h a t
of the torsion of prisms, the theory of which he gave in t h e famous memoir
50
on torsion of 1855 . For this application he assumed t h e state of strain
to consist of a simple twist about the axis of t h e prism, such as is implied
84
London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 17 {1887) = Scientific Papers, vol. 2, Cambridge, 1900, p. 441.
8 5
Exercices de mathematiques, 4me Annee, 1829.
2—2
in Coulomb's theory, combined with t h e kind of strain t h a t is implied by a
longitudinal displacement variable over the cross-section of t h e prism. The
effect of t h e latter displacement is manifested in a distortion of the sections
into curved surfaces. H e showed t h a t a state of strain having this character
can be maintained in the prism by forces applied a t its ends only, and t h a t
t h e forces which m u s t be applied to t h e ends are statically equivalent to
a couple about the axis of t h e prism. The magnitude of t h e couple can
be expressed as t h e product of t h e twist, t h e rigidity of t h e material, the
square of t h e area of t h e cross-section and a numerical factor which depends
upon t h e shape of t h e cross-section. F o r a large class of sections this
numerical factor is very nearly proportional to t h e ratio of t h e area of t h e
section to the square of its radius of gyration about t h e axis of t h e prism.
Subsequent investigations have shown t h a t t h e analysis of the problem is
identical with t h a t of two distinct problems in hydrodynamics, viz., the flow
86
of viscous liquid in a narrow pipe of t h e same form as t h e prism , and t h e
motion produced in frictionless liquid filling a vessel of the same form as t h e
87
prism when t h e vessel is rotated about its axis . These hydrodynamical
analogies have resulted in a considerable simplification of t h e analysis of
t h e problem.
T h e old theories of flexure involved two contradictory assumptions:
(1) t h a t t h e strain consists of extensions and contractions of longitudinal
filaments, (2) t h a t t h e stress consists of tension in t h e extended fila
ments (on t h e side remote from the centre of curvature) and pressure
along the contracted filaments (on t h e side nearer t h e centre of curvature).
If t h e stress is correctly given by t h e second assumption there m u s t be
lateral contractions accompanying t h e longitudinal extensions and also
lateral extensions accompanying t h e longitudinal contractions. Again, t h e
resultant of t h e tractions across any normal section of t h e bent beam, as
given by t h e old theories, vanishes, and these tractions are statically equi
valent to a couple about an axis at r i g h t angles to the plane of bending.
Hence t h e theories are inapplicable to any case of bending by a transverse
88
load. S a i n t - V e n a n t adopted from t h e older theories two assumptions. H e
assumed t h a t t h e extensions and contractions of t h e longitudinal filaments
are proportional to their distances from t h e plane which is drawn t h r o u g h
t h e line of centroids of t h e normal sections (the " c e n t r a l - l i n e " ) and at right
angles to the plane of bending. H e assumed also t h a t there is no normal
traction across any plane drawn parallel to t h e central-line. The states of
stress and strain which satisfy these conditions in a prismatic body can be
maintained by forces and couples applied at t h e ends only, and include two
cases. One case is t h a t of uniform bending of a bar by couples applied at its
8 6
J. Botissinesq, J. de Math. (Liouville), (Ser. 2), t. 16 (1871).
8 7
Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil, Part 2, p. 242.
8 8
See the memoirs of 1855 and 1856 cited in footnote 50.
ends. I n this case t h e stress is correctly given by t h e older theories and t h e
curvature of t h e central-line is proportional to t h e bending couple, as in those
theories; b u t the lateral contractions and extensions have t h e effect of
distorting those longitudinal sections which are at right angles to t h e plane
of bending into anticlastic surfaces. The second case of bending which is
included in Saint-Venant's theory is t h a t of a cantilever, or beam fixed in a
horizontal position at one end, and bent by a vertical load applied at the
other end. I n this case the stress given by the older theories requires to
be corrected by the addition of shearing stresses. The normal tractions
across any normal section are statically equivalent to a couple, which is
proportional to t h e curvature of the central-line at t h e section, as in t h e
theory of simple bending. T h e tangential tractions across any normal section
are statically equivalent to t h e terminal load, b u t t h e magnitude and
direction of t h e tangential traction at any point are entirely determinate and
follow rather complex laws.. The strain given by t h e older theories requires
to be corrected by t h e addition of lateral contractions and extensions, as in
t h e theory of simple bending, and also by shearing strains corresponding
with the shearing stresses.
I n Saint-Venant's theories of torsion and flexure t h e couples and forces
applied to produce twisting and bending are the resultants of tractions
exerted across the terminal sections, and these tractions are distributed in
perfectly definite ways. T h e forces and couples t h a t are applied to actual
structures are seldom distributed in these ways. The application of t h e
theories to practical problems rests upon a principle introduced by Saint-
Venant which has been called t h e " principle of t h e elastic equivalence of
statically equipollent systems of load." According to this principle the
effects produced by deviations from the assigned laws of loading are un
important except near t h e ends of t h e bent beam or t w i s t e d b a r ^ a n d near
t h e ends they produce merely "local perturbations." The condition f o r -
t h e validity of t h e results in practice is t h a t t h e length of t h e beam should
be a considerable multiple of t h e greatest diameter of its cross-section.
53 89
Later researches by A. Clebsch and W. V o i g t have resulted in con
siderable simplifications of Saint-Venant's analysis. Clebsch showed t h a t
t h e single assumption t h a t t h e r e is no normal traction across any plane
parallel to t h e central-line leads to four cases of equilibrium of a prismatic
body, viz., (1) simple extension under terminal tractive load, (2) simple
bending, by couples, (3) torsion, (4) bending of a cantilever by terminal
transverse load. Voigt showed t h a t t h e single assumption t h a t t h e stress
at any point is independent of t h e coordinate measured along t h e bar led
to t h e first three cases, and t h a t t h e assumption t h a t t h e stress is a linear
function of t h a t coordinate leads to the fourth case. W h e n a quadratic
function is taken instead of a linear one, t h e case of a beam supported at
8 9
* Theoretische Studien iiber die Elasticitatsverhaltmsse der Krystalle,' Gdttingen Abhand-
lungen, Bd. 34 (1887).
t h e ends and bent by a load which is distributed uniformly along its length
90
can be included . The case where t h e load is not uniform b u t is applied
by means of surface tractions which, so far as they depend on the coordinate
measured along t h e beam, are rational integral functions, can be reduced to
91
the case where the load is uniform . I t appears from these theories that,
when lateral forces are applied to t h e beam, the relation of proportionality
between the curvature of the central-line and t h e bending moment, verified
92
in Saint-Venant's theory, is no longer exact . Unless the conditions of
loading are rather unusual, the modification t h a t ought to be made in this
relation is, however, of little practical importance.
Saint-Venant's theories of torsion and of simple bending have found
their way into technical treatises, b u t in most current books on applied
Mechanics t h e theory of bending by transverse load is treated by a method
93 94
invented by J o u r a v s k i and R a n k i n e , and subsequently developed by
95
Grashof . The components of stress determined by this method do not
satisfy the conditions which are necessary to secure t h a t they shall cor
73
respond with any possible displacement . T h e distribution of stress t h a t is
found by this method is, however, approximately correct in t h e case of a
96
beam of which the breadth is b u t a small fraction of t h e d e p t h .
The most important practical application of t h e theory of flexure is t h a t
97
which was made by N a v i e r to t h e bending of a beam resting on supports.
T h e load may consist of t h e weight of t h e beam and of weights attached to
t h e beam. Young's modulus is usually determined by observing the deflexion
of a bar supported at its ends and loaded at the middle. All such applications
of the theory depend upon t h e proportionality of t h e curvature to t h e
bending moment. The problem of a continuous beam resting on several
supports was at first very difficult, as a solution had to be obtained for each
span by, Navier's method, and t h e solutions compared in order to determine
T h e constants of integration. The analytical complexity was very much
98
diminished when Clapeyron noticed t h a t the bending moments at t h r e e
consecutive supports are connected by an invariable relation, b u t in many
particular cases the analysis is still formidable. A method of graphical
9 0
J. H. Michell, Quart. J. of Math., vol. 32 (1901).
9 1
E . Almansi, Rome, Acc. Lincei Rend. (Ser. 6), t. 10 (1901), pp. 333, 400. In the second of
these papers a solution of the problem of bending by uniform load is obtained by a method which
differs from that used by Michell in the paper just cited.
9 2
This result was first noted by K, Pearson, Quart. J. of Math., vol. 24 (1889), in con
nexion with a particular law for the distribution of the load over the cross-section.
0 3
Ann. des ponts et chaussees, 1856.
94
Applied Mechanics, 1st edition, London, 1858. The method has been retained in later
editions.
95
Elasticitdt und Festigkeit, 2nd edition, Berlin, 1878. Grashof gives Saint-Venant's
theory as well.
9 6
Saint-Venant noted this result in his edition of Navier's Legons, p. 394.
9 7
In the second edition of his Legons (1833).
9 8
Paris, C. R., t. 45 (1857). The history of Clapeyron's theorem is given by J. M. Heppel,
Proc. Roy. Soc, London, vol. 19 (1871).
solution has, however, been invented by Mohr", and it has, to a great
extent, superseded t h e calculations t h a t were formerly conducted by means of
Clapeyron's " Theorem of Three Moments." Many other applications of t h e
theory of flexure to problems of frameworks will be found in such books as
Muller-Breslau's Die Neueren Methoden der Festigkeitslehre (Leipzig, 1886),
Weyrauch's Theorie Elastischer Korper (Leipzig, 1884), E i t t e r s Anwend-
wig en der graphischen Statik (Zurich, 1888). A considerable literature has
sprung up in this subject, b u t the use made of t h e Theory of Elasticity is
small.
The theory of t h e bending and twisting of thin rods and wires—in
cluding the theory of spiral springs—was for a long time developed,
independently of the general equations of Elasticity, by methods akin to
those employed by Euler. A t first it was supposed t h a t t h e flexural couple
must be in the osculating plane of t h e curve formed by the central-line;
and, when t h e equation of moments about the t a n g e n t was introduced
100 101
by Binet , Poisson concluded from it t h a t t h e moment of torsion was
constant. I t was only by slow degrees t h a t t h e notion of two flexural
couples in t h e two principal planes sprang up, and t h a t the measure of
twist came to be understood. W h e n these elements of t h e theory were made
out it could be seen t h a t a knowledge of t h e expressions for the flexural and
102
torsional couples in terms of t h e curvature and t w i s t would be sufficient,
when combined with the ordinary conditions of equilibrium, to determine
the form of the curve assumed by t h e central-line, the twist of the wire
around t h a t line, and the tension and shearing forces across any section. T h e
flexural and torsional couples, as well as the resultant forces across a section,
must arise from tractions exerted across t h e elements of the section, and
t h e correct expressions for t h e m m u s t be sought by means of t h e general
theory. B u t here a difficulty arises from the fact t h a t t h e general equations
are applicable to small displacements only, while t h e displacements in such
103
a body as a spiral spring are by no means small. Kirchhoff was the first
to face this difficulty. H e pointed out t h a t t h e general equations are strictly
applicable to any small portion of a t h i n rod if all t h e linear dimensions of
t h e portion are of t h e same order of m a g n i t u d e as t h e diameters of t h e cross-
sections. H e held t h a t the equations of equilibrium or motion of such a
9 9
'Beitrag zur Theorie des Fachwerks,' Zeitschrift des Architekten- und Ingenieur-Verelns
zu Hannover, 1874. This is the reference given by Miiller-Breslau. Levy gives an account of the
method in his Statique Graphique, t. 2, and attributes it to Mohr. A slightly different account
is given by Canevazzi in Memorie delV Accademia di Bologna (Ser. 4), t. 1 (1880). The method
has been extended by Culman, Die graphische Statik, Bd. 1, Zurich, 1875. See also Ritter, Die
elastische Linie und ihre Anxoendung auf den continuirlichen Balken, Zurich, 1883.
100
J. de VEcole poly technique, t. 10 (1815).
101 Gorrespondance sur VEcole poly technique, t. 3 (1816).
1 0 2
They are due to Saint-Venant, Paris, G. R., tt. 17, 19 (1843, 1844).
1 0 3
'Uber das Gleichgewicht und die Bewegung eines unendlich diinnen elastischen Stabes,'
J. f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 56 (1859). The theory is also given in Kirchhoff's Vorlesungen uber math.
Physik, Mechanik (3rd edition, Leipzig, 1883).
portion could be simplified, for a first approximation, by t h e omission of
kinetic reactions and forces distributed t h r o u g h t h e volume. The process
by which Kirchhoff developed his theory was, to a great extent, k i n e -
matical. W h e n a t h i n rod is bent and twisted, every element of it
undergoes a strain analogous to t h a t in one of Saint-Venant's prisms, b u t
neighbouring elements m u s t continue to fit. To express this kind of con
t i n u i t y certain conditions are necessary, and these conditions take t h e form
of differential equations connecting t h e relative displacements of points
within a small portion of t h e rod with the relative coordinates of t h e points,
and with t h e quantities t h a t define the position of t h e portion relative to t h e
rod as a whole. From these differential equations Kirchhoff deduced an
approximate account of t h e strain in an element of the rod, and thence
an expression for t h e potential energy per u n i t of length, in terms of t h e
extension, t h e components of curvature and t h e twist. H e obtained t h e
equations of equilibrium and vibration by varying t h e energy-function. In
t h e case of a t h i n rod subjected to terminal forces only he showed t h a t t h e
equations by which t h e form of t h e central-line is determined are identical
with t h e equations of motion of a heavy rigid body about a fixed point. This
theorem is known as " Kirchhoff's kinetic analogue."
53
Kirchhoff's theory has given rise to much discussion. Clebsch proposed
to replace t h a t part of it by which t h e flexural and torsional couples can be
evaluated by an appeal to t h e results of Saint-Venant's theories of flexure
54
and torsion. Kelvin and T a i t proposed to establish Kirchhoff's formula
104
for t h e potential energy by general reasoning. J. Boussinesq proposed to
obtain by t h e same kind of reasoning Kirchhoff's approximate expression
53
for t h e extension of a longitudinal filament. Clebsch gave t h e modified
formulaB for t h e flexural and torsional couples when t h e central-line of t h e
rod in the unstressed state is curved, and his results have been confirmed
by later independent investigations. The discussions which have taken
place have cleared up many difficulties, and t h e results of t h e theory, as
distinguished from the methods by which t h e y were obtained, have been
105
confirmed by the later writers .
The applications of Kirchhoff's theory of thin rods include t h e theory
of t h e elastica which has been investigated in detail by means of t h e theorem
106
of the kinetic analogue , the theory of spiral springs worked out in detail b y
54
Kelvin and Tait , and various problems of elastic stability. Among t h e
latter we may mention t h e problem of the buckling of an elastic ring sub
jected to pressure directed radially inwards and the same at all points of t h e
107
circumference .
104
J. de Math. (Liouville), (Ser. 2), t. 16 (1871).
1 0 5
See, for example, A. B. Basset, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 23 (1892), and Amer. J. of
Math., vol. 17 (1895), and J. H. Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 31 (1900), p. 130.
1 0 6
W. Hess, Math. Ann., Bde. 23 (1884) and 25 (1885).
1 0 7
This problem appears to have been discussed first by iresse, Gours de mecanique appliquee,
Premiere partie, Paris, 1859.
The theory of t h e vibrations of t h i n rods was brought under t h e general
36
equations of vibratory motion of elastic solid bodies by Poisson . He
regarded t h e rod as a circular cylinder of small section, and expanded all
t h e quantities t h a t occur in powers of t h e distance of a particle from t h e
axis of the cylinder. W h e n t e r m s above a certain order (the fourth power
of t h e radius) are neglected, t h e equations for flexural vibrations are
identical with Euler's equations of lateral vibration. T h e equation found
108
for t h e longitudinal vibrations had been obtained by Navier . The equation
36
for the torsional vibrations was obtained first by Poisson . The chief point
of novelty in Poisson's results in regard to t h e vibrations of rods is t h a t the
coefficients on which t h e frequencies depend are expressed in terms of t h e
constants t h a t occur in t h e general e q u a t i o n s ; b u t the deduction of the
generally admitted special differential equations, by which these modes of
vibration are governed, from t h e general equations of Elasticity constituted
an advance in method. Reference has already been made to L. Pochhammer's
77
more complete investigation . Poisson's theory is verified as an approxi
m a t e theory by an application of Kirchhoff's results. This application has
been extended to t h e vibrations of curved bars, t h e first problem to be
solved being t h a t of t h e flexural vibrations of a circular ring which vibrates
109
in its own plane .
A n important problem arising in connexion with t h e theory of longitudinal
vibrations is the problem of impact. W h e n two bodies collide each is thrown
into a state of internal vibration, and it appears to have been hoped t h a t
a solution of the problem of t h e vibrations set u p in two bars which impinge
110
longitudinally would throw light on the laws of impact. Poisson was t h e
first to a t t e m p t a solution of t h e problem from this point of view. H i s
method of integration in trigonometric series vastly increases t h e difficulty
of deducing general results, and, by an unfortunate error in t h e analysis, h e
arrived at the paradoxical conclusion t h a t , when t h e bars are of t h e same
material and section, they never separate unless t h e y are equal in length.
111
S a i n t - V e n a n t treated t h e problem by means of t h e solution of t h e equation
of vibration in terms of arbitrary functions, and arrived at certain results,
of which t h e most important relate to t h e duration of impact, and to the
existence of an apparent " coefficient of r e s t i t u t i o n " for perfectly elastic
112
bodies . This theory is not confirmed by experiment. A correction sug
113
gested by Voigt , when worked out, led to little better agreement, and it
108
Bulletin des Sciences a la Societe philomathique, 1824.
!<>9 R. Hoppe, J.f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 73 (1871).
1 1 0
In his Traite de Mecanique, 1833.
1 1 1
' Sur le choc longitudinal de deux barres elastiques...,' J. de Math. (Liouville), (Ser. 2), t. 12
(1867).
1 1 2
Cf. Hopkinson, Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 4, 1874.
1 1 3
Ann. Phys. Chem. (Wiedemann), Bd. 19 (1882). See also Hausmaninger in the same
Annalen, Bd. 25 (1885).
t h u s appears t h a t t h e a t t e m p t to trace t h e phenomena of impact to vibra
114
tions m u s t be abandoned. Much more successful was t h e theory of H e r t z ,
obtained from a solution of t h e problem which we have named t h e problem
of the transmission of force. Hertz made an independent investigation of
a particular case of this p r o b l e m — t h a t of two bodies pressed together. H e
proposed to regard t h e strain produced in each by impact as a local statical
effect, produced gradually and subsiding gradually; and he found means to
determine t h e duration of impact and t h e size and shape of the parts t h a t come
into contact. The theory yielded a satisfactory comparison with experiment.
The theory of vibrations can be applied to problems concerning various
kinds of shocks and t h e effects of moving loads. T h e inertia as well as
t h e elastic reactions of bodies come into play in the resistances to strain
under rapidly changing conditions, and t h e resistances called into action
are sometimes described as " dynamical resistances." The special problem
of t h e longitudinal impact of a massive body upon one end of a rod was
115 116
discussed by Sebert and H u g o n i o t and by Boussinesq . The conclusions
which they arrived at are tabulated and illustrated graphically by Saint-
117
V e n a n t . B u t problems of dynamical resistance under impulses t h a t tend
to produce flexure are perhaps practically of more importance. W h e n a
body strikes a rod perpendicularly t h e rod will be thrown into vibration,
and, if t h e body moves with t h e rod, the ordinary solution in terms of
t h e normal functions for the vibrations of t h e rod becomes inapplicable.
Solutions of several problems of this kind, expressed in terms of the normal
functions for t h e compound system consisting of t h e rod and t h e striking
118
body, were given by Saint-Venant .
Among problems of dynamical resistance we must note especially Willis's
problem of t h e travelling load. W h e n a train crosses a bridge, the strain is
not identical with t h e statical strain which is produced when t h e same train
119
is standing on t h e bridge. To illustrate t h e problem t h u s presented Willis
proposed to consider the bridge as a straight wire and t h e train as a heavy
particle deflecting it. Neglecting the inertia of t h e wire he obtained a
120
certain differential equation, which was subsequently solved by Stokes .
Later writers have shown t h a t t h e effects of t h e neglected inertia are very
1 1 4
'Ueber die Beriihrung fester elastischer Korper,' J. f. Math. {Crelle), Bd. 92 (1882).
115
Paris, C. R., t. 95 (1882).
116
Applications des Potentiels..., Paris, 1885. The results were given in a note in Paris C. R.,
i. 97 (1883).
1 1 7
In papers in Paris, C. R., t. 97 (1883), reprinted as an appendix to his Translation
of Clebsch's Treatise (Paris, 1883).
1 1 8
In the 'Annotated Clebsch' just cited, Note du § 61. Cf. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound,
Chapter VIII.
1 1 9
Appendix to the Report of the Commissioners...to enquire into the Application of Iron to
Railway Structures (1849).
120
Cambridge, Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. 8 (1849) = Stokes, Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. 2
(Cambridge, 1883), p. 178.
121
Important. A more complete solution has been obtained by M. Phillips
122
and Saint-Venant , and an admirable precis of their results may be read in
t h e second volume of Todhunter and Pearson's History (Articles 373 et seq.).
We have seen already how problems of the equilibrium and vibrations of
plane plates and curved shells were a t t e m p t e d before t h e discovery of t h e
general equations of Elasticity, and how these problems were among those
which led to t h e investigation of such equations. After the equations had
been formulated little advance seems to have been made in the t r e a t m e n t
of t h e problem of shells for many years, b u t t h e more special problem of
123 124
plates attracted much attention. Poisson and C a u c h y both treated this
problem, proceeding from t h e general equations of Elasticity, and supposing
t h a t all the quantities which occur can be expanded in powers of t h e
distance from the middle-surface. T h e equations of equilibrium and free
vibration which hold when the displacement is directed at right angles to
t h e plane of t h e plate were deduced. Much controversy has arisen con
cerning Poisson's boundary conditions. These expressed t h a t t h e resultant
forces and couples applied at t h e edge must be equal to t h e forces and
125
•couples arising from the strain. I n a famous memoir Kirchhoff showed
t h a t these conditions are too numerous and cannot in general be satisfied.
H i s method rests on two assumptions: (1) t h a t linear filaments of the plate
initially normal to t h e middle-surface remain straight and normal to t h e
middle-surface after strain, and (2) t h a t all the elements of t h e middle-
surface remain unstretched. These assumptions enabled him to express t h e
potential energy of t h e bent plate in terms of the curvatures produced in its
middle-surface. The equations of motion and boundary conditions were then
deduced by the principle of virtual work, and they were applied to the
problem of the flexural vibrations of a circular plate.
The problem of plates can be attacked by means of considerations of t h e
.same kind as those which were used by Kirchhoff in his theory of t h i n rods.
126
An investigation of the problem by this method was made by G e h r i n g and
127
was afterwards adopted in an improved form by Kirchhoff . The work is
very similar in detail to t h a t in Kirchhoff's theory of t h i n rods, and it leads to
an expression for t h e potential energy per unit of area of the middle-surface
121
Paris, Ann. des Mines, t. 7 (1855).
1 2 2 4
In the Annotated Clebsch,' Note du § 61.
1 2 3
In the memoir of 1828. A large part of the investigation is reproduced in Todhunter
rand Pearson's History.
1 2 4
In an Article 'Sur l'equilibre et le mouvement d'une plaque solide' in the Exercices de
mathemutiques, vol. 3 (1828). Most of this Article also is reproduced by Todhunter and Pearson.
125
J. f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 40 (1850).
1 2 6
'De iEquationibus differentialibus quibus aequilibrium et motus laminae crystalline
• definiuntur' (Diss.), Berlin, 1860. The analysis may be read in Kirchhoff's Vorlesungen Uber
math. Phys., Mechanik, and parts of it also in Clebsch's Treatise.
127 Vorlesungen uber math. Phys., Mechanik.
of the plate. This expression consists of two parts : one a quadratic function
of the quantities defining the extension of t h e middle-surface with a coefficient
proportional to t h e thickness of t h e plate, and t h e other a quadratic function
of the quantities defining t h e flexure of t h e middle-surface with a coefficient
proportional to t h e cube of t h e thickness. The equations of small motion
are deduced by an application of t h e principle of virtual work. W h e n t h e
displacement of a point on the middle-surface is very small t h e flexure
depends only on displacements directed at r i g h t angles to t h e plane of t h e
plate, and t h e extension only on displacements directed parallel to t h e plane
of t h e plate, and t h e equations fall into two sets. T h e equation of normal
vibration and t h e boundary conditions are those previously found and dis
125
cussed by Kirchhoff .
As in t h e theory of rods, so also in t h a t of plates, attention is directed
r a t h e r to tensions, shearing forces and flexural couples, reckoned across
t h e whole thickness, t h a n to t h e tractions across elements of area which
give rise to such forces and couples. To fix ideas we may think of the plate
as horizontal, and consider t h e actions exerted across an imagined vertical
dividing plane, and on this plane we may mark out a small area by two
vertical lines near together. The distance between these lines may be called
t h e " breadth " of the area. The tractions across t h e elements of this area
are statically equivalent to a force at t h e centroid of t h e area and a couple.
W h e n t h e " breadth " is very small, t h e magnitudes of t h e force and couple
are proportional to t h e breadth, and we estimate t h e m as so much per unit
of length of t h e line in which our vertical dividing plane cuts t h e middle
plane of t h e plate. The components of t h e force and couple t h u s estimated
we call t h e "stress-resultants" and t h e "stress-couples." The stress-resultants
consist of a tension at r i g h t angles to the plane of t h e area, a horizontal
shearing force and a vertical shearing force. The stress-couples have a
component about t h e normal to t h e dividing plane which we shall call t h e
" torsional couple/' and a component in t h e vertical plane containing this
normal which we shall call t h e " flexural couple." The stress-resultants and
stress-couples depend upon the direction of t h e dividing plane, b u t they
are known for all such directions when they are known for two of t h e m .
53
Clebsch adopted from the Kirchhoff-Gehring theory t h e approximate account
of t h e strain and stress in a small portion of t h e plate bounded by vertical
dividing planes, and he formed equations of equilibrium of t h e plate in t e r m s
of stress-resultants and stress-couples. H i s equations fall into two sets, one
set involving t h e tensions and horizontal shearing forces, and t h e other set
involving t h e stress-couples and t h e vertical shearing forces. The latter
set of equations are those which relate to t h e bending of t h e plate, and they
have such forms t h a t , when t h e expressions for t h e stress-couples are known
in t e r m s of t h e deformation of t h e middle plane, t h e vertical shearing forces
can be determined, and an equation can be formed for t h e deflexion of t h e
plate. The expressions for t h e couples can be obtained from Kirchhoff's
theory. Clebsch solved his equation for t h e deflexion of a circular plate
clamped at t h e edge and loaded in an arbitrary manner.
All t h e theory of t h e equations of equilibrium in terms of stress-resultants
and stress-couples was placed beyond t h e reach of criticism by Kelvin and
54
T a i t . These authors noticed also, that, in t h e case of uniform bending,
the expressions for t h e stress-couples could be deduced from Saint-Venant's
theory of t h e anticlastic flexure of a b a r ; and t h e y explained t h e union of
two of Poisson's boundary conditions in one of Kirchhoff's as an example
of t h e principle of t h e elastic equivalence of statically equipollent systems of
load. More recent researches have assisted in removing the difficulties which
128
had been felt in respect of Kirchhoff's theory . One obstacle to progress
has been t h e lack of exact solutions of problems of t h e bending of plates
analogous to those found by Saint-Venant for beams. T h e few solutions
129
of this kind which have been o b t a i n e d tend to confirm the main result
of t h e theory which has not been proved rigorously, viz. t h e approximate
expression of t h e stress-couples in t e r m s of t h e curvature of t h e middle-
surface.
The problem of curved plates or shells was first attacked from t h e point
130
of view of t h e general equations of Elasticity by H . Aron . H e expressed
t h e geometry of t h e middle-surface by means of two parameters after t h e
manner of Gauss, and he adapted to t h e problem t h e method which Clebsch
had used for plates. H e arrived at an expression for t h e potential energy of
t h e strained shell which is of t h e same form as t h a t obtained by Kirchhoff
for plates, b u t t h e quantities t h a t define t h e curvature of t h e middle-surface
were replaced by t h e differences of their values in t h e strained and unstrained
131
states. E. M a t h i e u adapted to t h e problem t h e method which Poisson had
used for plates. H e observed t h a t t h e modes of vibration possible to a shell
do not fall into classes characterized respectively by normal and tangential
displacements, and he adopted equations of motion t h a t could be deduced
from Aron's formula for t h e potential energy by retaining the terms t h a t
132
depend on t h e stretching of t h e middle-surface only. Lord Rayleigh
proposed a different theory. H e concluded from physical reasoning t h a t
t h e middle-surface of a vibrating shell remains unstretched, and determined
the character of t h e displacement of a point of t h e middle-surface in accord
ance with this condition. T h e direct application of t h e Kirchhoff-Gehring
1 2 8
See, for example, J. Boussinesq, J. de Math. (Liouville), (Se*r. 2), t. 16 (1871) and
(Ser. 3), t. 5 ( 1 8 7 9 ) ; H. Lamb, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 21 (1890); J. H. Michell, London
Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 31 (1900), p. 121 ; J. Hadamard, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc, vol. 3 (1902).
1 2 9
Some solutions were given by Saint-Venant in the 'Annotated Clebsch,' pp. 337 et seq.
Others will be found in Chapter XXII of this book.
™ J.f Math. (Crelle), Bd. 78 (1874).
131
J. de VEcole poly technique, t. 51 (1883).
1 3 2
London Math. Soc Proc, vol. 13 (1882).
133
method led to a formula for t h e potential energy of t h e same form as
Aron's and to equations of motion and boundary conditions which were
difficult to reconcile with Lord Rayleigh's theory. Later investigations have
shown t h a t t h e extensional strain which was t h u s proved to be a necessary
concomitant of the vibrations may be practically confined to a narrow region
near t h e edge of t h e shell, b u t t h a t , in this region, it may be so adjusted as
to secure t h e satisfaction of t h e boundary conditions while t h e greater p a r t
of the shell vibrates according to Lord Rayleigh's type.
Whenever very thin rods or plates are employed in constructions it
becomes necessary to consider t h e possibility of buckling, and thus t h e r e
arises the general problem of elastic stability. We have already seen t h a t
t h e first investigations of problems of this kind were made by Euler a n d
Lagrange. A number of isolated problems have been solved. In all of t h e m
two modes of equilibrium with t h e same type of external forces are possible,
134
and t h e ordinary proof of t h e determinacy of the solution of t h e equations
of Elasticity is defective. A general theory of elastic stability has been
135
proposed by G. H . Bryan . H e arrived at t h e result t h a t the theorem of
determinacy cannot fail except in cases where large relative displacements
can be accompanied by very small strains, as in thin rods and plates, and in
cases where displacements differing b u t slightly from such as are possible
in a rigid body can take place, as when a sphere is compressed within a
circular ring of slightly smaller diameter. I n all cases where two modes of
equilibrium are possible t h e criterion for determining t h e mode t h a t will be
adopted is given by t h e condition t h a t t h e energy m u s t be a minimum.
T h e history of t h e mathematical theory of Elasticity shows clearly t h a t
t h e development of the theory has not been guided exclusively by con
siderations of its utility for technical Mechanics. Most of t h e men by whose
researches it has been founded and shaped have been more interested in
N a t u r a l Philosophy t h a n in material progress, in trying to understand t h e
world t h a n in trying to m a k e it more comfortable. From this a t t i t u d e of
mind it may possibly have resulted t h a t the theory has contributed less t o
t h e material advance of mankind than it m i g h t otherwise have done. Be
this as it may, t h e intellectual gain which has accrued from t h e work of these
men m u s t be estimated very highly. The discussions t h a t have taken place
concerning t h e n u m b e r and meaning of the elastic constants have thrown
light on most recondite questions concerning t h e n a t u r e of molecules and
t h e mode of their interaction. The efforts t h a t have been made to explain
optical phenomena by means of t h e hypothesis of a medium having t h e same
physical character as an elastic solid body led, in t h e first instance, to t h e
understanding of a concrete example of a medium which can t r a n s m i t
1 3 3
A. E . H. Love, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 179 (1888).
1 3 4
Kirchhofi, Vorlesungen uber math. Phys., Mechanik.
135
Cambridge Phil. Soc. Proc, vol. 6 (1889), p. 199.
transverse vibrations, and, at a later stage, to t h e definite conclusion t h a t
t h e luminiferous m e d i u m has not t h e physical character assumed in t h e
hypothesis. They have t h u s issued in an essential widening of our ideas
concerning t h e n a t u r e of t h e aether and t h e n a t u r e of luminous vibrations.
The methods t h a t have been devised for solving t h e equations of equilibrium
of an isotropic solid body form part of an analytical theory which is of great
importance in pure mathematics. T h e application of these methods to t h e
problem of t h e internal constitution of t h e E a r t h has led to results which
must influence profoundly t h e course of speculative t h o u g h t both in Geology
and in cosmical Physics. Even in t h e more technical problems, such as t h e
transmission of force and t h e resistance of bars and plates, attention has been
directed, for the most part, rather to theoretical than to practical aspects of
the questions. To get insight into what goes on in impact, to bring t h e
theory of the behaviour of thin bars and plates into accord with t h e general
equations—these and such-like aims have been more attractive to most of
the men to whom we owe t h e theory t h a n endeavours to devise means for
effecting economies in engineering constructions or to ascertain t h e conditions
in which structures become unsafe. The fact t h a t much material progress is
t h e indirect outcome of work done in this spirit is not without significance.
The equally significant fact t h a t most great advances in Natural Philosophy
have been made by men who had a first-hand acquaintance with practical
needs and experimental methods has often been emphasized; and, although
7
t h e names of Green, Poisson, Cauchy show t h a t t h e rule is not without
important exceptions, yet it is exemplified well in t h e history of our science.
CHAPTER I.
ANALYSIS OF STRAIN.
1. Extension.
Whenever, owing to any cause, changes take place in t h e relative

positions of t h e parts of a body t h e body is said to be " strained." A very
simple example of a strained body is a stretched bar. Consider a bar of
square section suspended vertically and loaded with a weight at its lower
end. L e t a line be traced on t h e bar in t h e direction of its length, let
two points of t h e line be marked, and let t h e distance between these points
be measured. W h e n the weight is attached t h e distance in question is
a little greater t h a n it was before the weight was attached. Let l be t h e 0
length before stretching, and I t h e length when stretched. Then (l — l )/l 0 0
is a n u m b e r (generally a very small fraction) which is called t h e extension of

t h e line in question. If this n u m b e r is the same for all lines parallel to t h e
length of the bar, it may be called " t h e extension of t h e bar." A steel
2
bar of sectional area 1 square inch ( = 6 * 4 5 1 5 cm. ) loaded with 1 ton
( = 1 0 1 6 * 0 5 kilogrammes) will undergo an extension of about 7 x 1 0 ~ . It 5
is clear t h a t for t h e measurement of such small quantities as this rather

elaborate apparatus and refined methods of observation are required*.
W i t h o u t a t t e n d i n g to methods of measurement we may consider a little
more in detail the state of strain in t h e stretched bar. Let e denote t h e
extension of t h e bar, so t h a t its length is increased in t h e ratio 1 +e : 1 , and
consider the volume of t h e portion of t h e bar contained between any two
marked sections. This volume is increased by stretching t h e bar, b u t not
in t h e ratio 1 + e : 1 . W h e n the bar is stretched longitudinally it contracts
laterally. If t h e linear lateral contraction is e, t h e sectional area is dimi
2
nished in t h e ratio ( 1 — e') : 1 , and t h e volume in question is increased
in t h e ratio ( 1 4- e) ( 1 — e'J- : 1 . I n the case of a bar under tension e' is a
certain multiple of e, say ae, and a is about \ or \ for very many materials.
2
If e is very small and e is neglected, t h e areal contraction is 2cre, and the
cubical dilatation is ( 1 — 2cr) e.
* See, for example, Ewing, Strength of Materials (Cambridge, 1899), pp. 73 et seq.
1-3] EXTENSION A N D SHEAR 33
For t h e analytical description of t h e state of strain in t h e bar we should

t a k e an origin of coordinates x y, z on t h e axis, and measure t h e coordinate z
9
along the length of t h e bar. A n y particle of t h e bar which has the co
ordinates x, y, z when t h e weight is not attached will move after the
a t t a c h m e n t of t h e weight into a new position. L e t the particle which was
at the origin move t h r o u g h a distance z , t h e n the particle which was a t 0
y, z) moves to t h e point of which t h e coordinates are

x(l-cre), y{l-<re), z + (z - z ) (1 -1- e).
0 0
The state of strain is not very simple. If lateral forces could be applied
to the bar to prevent t h e lateral contraction t h e state of strain would be
very much simplified. I t would then be described as a " s i m p l e extension/'
2. Pure shear.
As a second example of strain let us suppose t h a t lateral forces are
applied to t h e bar so as to produce extension of amount e of lines parallel t
to t h e axis of x and extension of a m o u n t e of lines parallel to t h e axis of y, 2
and t h a t longitudinal forces are applied, if any are required, to prevent

any extension or contraction parallel to t h e axis of z. T h e particle which
was at (x, y, z), will move to (w -f' e x y + e y, z) and t h e area of t h e section
x 9 2
will be increased in t h e ratio (1 -f e ) (1 -f- e ) : 1. If e and e are related

t 2 1 2
so t h a t this ratio is equal to u n i t y there will be no change in the area

of t h e section or in t h e volume of any portion of t h e bar, b u t the shape
of t h e section will be distorted. E i t h e r e or e is t h e n negative, or there t 2
is contraction of the corresponding set of lines. The strain set u p in t h e

bar is called " p u r e shear." Fig. 1 below shows a square ABCD distorted
by pure shear into a rhombus A'BCD' of t h e same area.
3. S i m p l e shear.
As a third example of strain let us suppose t h a t t h e bar after being
distorted by p u r e shear is t u r n e d bodily about its axis. W e suppose t h a t
t h e axis of x is t h e direction in which contraction takes place, and we p u t
e — e = 2 t a n a.
2 x
T h e n we can show that, if t h e rotation is of a m o u n t a in t h e sense from

y to x, t h e position reached by any particle is one t h a t could have been
reached by t h e sliding of all t h e particles in t h e direction of a certain line
through distances proportional to the distances of the particles from a certain
plane containing this line.
Since (1 + e ) (1 + e ) = 1, a n d e — e = 2 t a n a , w e h a v e
a 2 2 1
1 + e — sec a — t a n
1 a, 1 + e — sec 2 a + t a n a.
B y t h e pure shear, t h e particle w h i c h w a s a t y) is m o v e d t o (x Xi y)
x y where
x —x (sec a— t a n a ) ,
x y =^/ (seca+tana);
1
a n d b y t h e rotation it is m o v e d a g a i n t o (# > 3/2)? where 2
x
x = x cos a+y s i n
2 x t a, y^—~ \ s i n a+3/100s a;
L. E. 3
so that we have x ~x
2 + t&n a { — x cos a+y (1 -f sin a)},
# 2 + tan a { - x (1 — sin a) +y cos a}.
Now, writing /3 for J7J- — a, we have
x —x+2 tan a cos J/3 ( —#sin J/3+# cos J/3),
2
+ 2 tan a sin J/3(-.r sin J/3+# cos J/3);

#2—3/
and we can observe that
— # sin J/3-fy cos J/3= — #sin J / 3 + y cos J/3,
2 2
and that
# cos J/3+3/ sin Jj3 = # cos J 0 + 3 / sin J/3 4- 2 tana( - #sin J/3+3/ cos J/3).
2 2
Hence, t a k i n g axes of X and F which are obtained from those of x

and y by a rotation t h r o u g h ^7r — J a in t h e sense from x towards y, we see
t h a t t h e particle which was at ( X , F ) is moved by the p u r e shear followed
by t h e rotation to t h e point (X , F ) , where
2 2
X = X+2 tana.F,
2 F = F. 2
T h u s every plane of t h e material which is parallel to t h e plane of ( X , z)

slides along itself in t h e direction of t h e axis of X through a distance
proportional to the distance of the plane from the plane of (X, z). The
kind of strain j u s t described is called a " s i m p l e shear," the angle a is t h e
" angle of the shear," and 2 tan a is t h e " a m o u n t of t h e shear."
D'
Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 shows a square A BCD distorted by pure shear into a rhombus
A'BCD' of t h e same area, which is then rotated into t h e position A"B"C"D".
T h e angle of t h e shear is A'OA", and t h e angle A OX is half t h e complement
of this angle. The lines AA", BB", OC", DD" are parallel to OX and propor
tional to their distances from it.
W e shall find t h a t all kinds of strain can be described in terms of
simple extension and simple shear, b u t for t h e discussion of complex states
of strain and for t h e expression of them by means of simpler strains we
require a general kinematical theory*.
4. Displacement.
W e have, in every case, to distinguish two states of a body—a first
state, and a second state. T h e particles of the body pass from their
positions in the first state to their positions in t h e second state by a displace
ment The displacement may be such t h a t t h e line joining any two particles
of the body has t h e same length in t h e second state as it has in t h e first;
the displacement is then one which would be possible in a rigid body.
If the displacement alters the length of any line, the second state of t h e
body is described as a " strained state," and t h e n the first state is described
as t h e " unstrained state."
I n what follows we shall denote t h e coordinates of t h e point occupied

by a particle, in the unstrained state of t h e body, by x, y, z, and the co
ordinates of the point occupied by t h e same particle in the strained state
by x + u, y + v, z + w. Then u, v, w are the projections on t h e axes of
a vector q u a n t i t y — t h e displacement. W e must take u, v, w to be con
tinuous functions of x, y, z, and we shall in general assume t h a t they are
analytic functions.
I t is clear that, if t h e displacement (u, v> w) is given, t h e strained state

is entirely d e t e r m i n e d ; in particular, the length of t h e line joining any
two particles can be determined.
5. D i s p l a c e m e n t i n simple e x t e n s i o n a n d s i m p l e shear.
The displacement in a simple extension parallel to the axis of x is given by the
equations
u = ex, v = 0, w = 0,
where e is the amount of the extension. If e is negative there is contraction.
The displacement in a simple shear of amount s ( = 2 tan a), by which lines parallel to
the axis of x slide along themselves, and particles in any plane parallel to the plane of
{so, y) remain in that plane, is given by the equations
u = sy, v — 0, w = 0.
* The greater part of the theory is due to Cauchy (See Introduction). Some improvements
were made by Clebsch in his treatise of 1862, and others were made by Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil.
Part I.
3—2
In Fig. 2, AB is a segment of a line parallel to the axis of which subtends an angle
2a at 0 and is bisected by Oy. By the simple shear particles lying on the line OA are
displaced so as to lie on OB. The particle at any point P o n i S is displaced to Q on AB
so that PQ = AB, and the particles on OP are displaced to points on OQ. A parallelogram
such as OP JVM becomes a parallelogram such as OQKM.
Fig. 2.
If the angle %0P*=6 we may prove that

2
2 tan a tan 6 tan 6
tanPO§ = 2 tan#0$= u , wv
"sec 6 + 2 tan a tan 0' " ~ '^ l - f 2 tan a tan 0'
In particular, if 6 = ^7r, cot XOQ = S, S O that, if s is small, it is the complement of the
angle in the strained state between two lines of particles which, in the unstrained state,,
were at right angles to each other,
6. H o m o g e n e o u s strain.
In t h e cases of simple extension and simple shear, t h e component dis
placements are expressed as linear functions of t h e coordinates. I n general,
if a body is strained so t h a t t h e component displacements can be expressed
in this way, t h e strain is said to be homogeneous.
L e t t h e displacement corresponding with a homogeneous strain be given
by t h e equations
u = a x + a y + a z,
u 12 vs v = a x + a y + a z,
21 22 23 w = a x + a y + a z.
31 32 3S
Since x, y\ z are changed into x 4- u, y -f v, z + w, t h a t is, are transformed

by a linear substitution, any plane is transformed into a plane, and any
ellipsoid is transformed, in general, into an ellipsoid. W e infer at once
t h e following characteristics of homogeneous strain:—(i) Straight lines
remain straight, (ii) Parallel straight lines remain parallel. (iii) AH
straight lines in t h e same direction are extended, or contracted, in t h e
same ratio, (iv) A sphere is transformed into an ellipsoid, and any three
orthogonal diameters of the sphere are transformed into three conjugate
diameters of t h e ellipsoid. (v) Any ellipsoid of a certain shape and
orientation is transformed into a sphere, and any set of conjugate diameters
of the ellipsoid is transformed into a set of orthogonal diameters of t h e
sphere, (vi) There is one set of three orthogonal lines in the unstrained
state which remain orthogonal after t h e s t r a i n ; t h e directions of these lines
are in general altered by t h e strain. I n the unstrained state they are the
principal axes of the ellipsoid referred to in ( v ) ; in the strained state, they
are the principal axes of t h e ellipsoid referred to in (iv).
The ellipsoid referred to in (iv) is called the strain ellipsoid; it has
the property t h a t t h e ratio of the length of a line, which has a given
direction in t h e strained state, to t h e length of the corresponding line in
the unstrained state, is proportional to t h e central radius vector of t h e
surface drawn in t h e given direction. T h e ellipsoid referred to in (v) may
be called t h e reciprocal strain ellipsoid ; it has t h e property t h a t the length
of a line, which has a given direction in t h e unstrained state, is increased
by t h e strain in a ratio inversely proportional to the; central radius vector
of the surface drawn in t h e given direction.
The principal axes of t h e reciprocal strain ellipsoid are called t h e
principal axes of the strain. The extensions of lines drawn in these
directions, in t h e unstrained state, are stationary for small variations of
direction. One of t h e m is t h e greatest extension, and another t h e smallest.
7. Relative displacement.
Proceeding now to the general case, in which t h e strain is not necessarily
homogeneous, we take (x + x, y + y, z -f z) to be a point near to (x> y> z),
and + y + v, w + w) to be t h e corresponding displacement. There
will be expressions for t h e components u , v, w of t h e relative displacement
as series in powers of x, y, z, viz. we have
du du du
u dx
dv dv dv
V + z f •(1)
dx dy aT
dw dwdw
w + Y4-z — +
dx
y r dz
where t h e terms t h a t are not written contain powers of x, y, z above t h e
first. W h e n x y, z are sufficiently small, t h e latter terms may be neglected.
3
The quantities u , v, w are the displacements of a particle which, in t h e

unstrained state, is at (x + x, y+y, z + z), relative to the particle which,
in the same state, is at (x, y> z). W e may accordingly say that, in a
sufficiently small neighbourhood of any point, t h e relative displacements
are linear functions of the relative coordinates. I n other words, the strain
about any point is sensibly homogeneous. All t h a t we have said about the
effects of homogeneous strain upon straight lines will remain true for linear
elements going out from a point. I n particular, there will be one set of
three orthogonal linear elements, in t h e unstrained state, which remain
orthogonal after t h e strain, b u t t h e directions of these lines are in general
altered by t h e strain. The directions, in t h e unstrained state, of these linear
elements a t any point are t h e " principal axes of t h e strain " at t h e point.
8. A n a l y s i s of the relative displacement*.

I n t h e discussion of t h e formulas (1) we shall confine our attention to
the displacement near a point, and shall neglect terms in x, y, z above t h e
first. I t is convenient to introduce t h e following n o t a t i o n s : —
_ du _ dv _ dw \
rw dv du dw dv du
•(2)
dw dv du dw dv du \
T h e formulas (1) may then be written

u = e x + \e y
xx xy + \e z
xz - m y + *r z, \
z y
v = \e x xy + ey
yy + \e z
yz - ™ z + zr x x z } I (3)
™ = \e x. + \e y + ^ z - ^ x + ^ y J
xz yz
T h e relative displacement is t h u s represented as t h e resultant of two

displacements, expressed respectively by such forms as e x + \e y + \e z xx xy xz
and — zr y -f tXyZ; and there is a fundamental kinematical distinction be

z
tween t h e cases in which t h e latter displacement vanishes and t h e cases in

which it does not vanish. W h e n it vanishes, t h a t is when m vr , ^r vanish, xt y z
t h e component displacements are t h e partial differential coefficients, with

respect to the coordinates, of a single function <£, so t h a t
dd> dd> dd>
U = Vz= W =
£' dy> Tz'
and t h e line-integral of t h e tangential component of the displacement t a k e n
round any closed curve vanishes, provided t h a t t h e curve can be contracted
to a point without passing out of the space occupied by t h e body. Such a
function as (f> would be called a " displacement-potential." Through each
point (x, y, z) there passes one quadric surface of the family
2 2 2
exx* + e y yy + e z + e yz + e zx + e xy = const.
zz yz (4) zx xy
and t h e displacement t h a t is derived, as above, from a displacement-potential,

is, a t each point, directed along the normal to t h a t surface of t h e family (4)
which passes through the point. T h e linear elements t h a t lie along t h e
principal axes of these quadrics in the unstrained state continue to do so in
t h e strained state, or t h e three orthogonal linear elements which remain
orthogonal retain their primitive directions. The strain involved in such
* Stokes, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans, vol. 8 (1845), Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. 1, p. 75.
displacements is described as a " p u r e strain." W e learn t h a t t h e relative
displacement is always compounded of a displacement involving a pure
strain and a displacement represented by such expressions as — vr y 4- sr^z. z
T h e line-integral of t h e l a t t e r displacement t a k e n round a closed curve does

not vanish (cf. Article 1 5 , infra). If t h e quantities ^ vr , TX are small, t h e X) y Z
terms such as — -sj y + ^ z represent a displacement t h a t would be possible

2
in a rigid bod}', viz. a small rotation of amount \Z(VT 4- vr 4- tsr/) about an axis X y
in direction : isr : ^ ).
y z For this reason t h e displacement corresponding
with a pure strain is often described as " irrotational."
9. Strain corresponding w i t h small displacement*.

I t is clear t h a t t h e changes of size and shape of all parts of a body will
be determined when t h e length, in t h e strained state, of every line is known.
Let I, m, n be t h e direction cosines of a line going out from t h e point
(x y, z). Take a very short length r along this line, so t h a t t h e coordinates
y
of a neighbouring point on t h e line are x + lr, y 4- mr, z 4- nr. After strain

t h e particle t h a t was at (x, y, z) comes to (x+u, y + v, z + w), and t h e
particle t h a t was a t t h e neighbouring point comes to t h e point of which t h e
coordinates are
, (,du du du
x+ Ir +u + r [l=—l-mr-+nr-
V dx dy dz.
m
y 4- mr 4 - v +r + + n
.(5)
dy dz
/, dw dw dw'
z + nr +w+ r \ l~—h ni _—\-n^-
\ dx dy dz
provided r is so small t h a t we may neglect its square. L e t r be t h e length x
after strain which corresponds with r before strain. T h e n we have
du du i, dv ov dv
Z 1 + 14-
dy dz dy
2
(-.dw dw dw\^
14- .(6)
( dx ay dz)
When t h e relative displacements are very small, and squares and products of
du . •
such quantities as , ... can be neglected, this formula passes over into
n = R [ l + e l 4-
xx
2
em
yy
2
4- e II
ZZ
2
4- e mnyz 4 e nl + e lm],
zx xy (7)
where the notation is t h e same as t h a t in equations (2).
* In the applications of the theory to strains in elastic solid bodies, the displacements that
have to be considered are in general so small that squares and products of first differential
coefficients of u, v, w with respect to x, y, z can be neglected in comparison with their first powers.
The more general theory in which this simplification is not made will be discussed in the Appendix
to this Chapter.
10. C o m p o n e n t s of strain*.
By the formula (7) we know the length r of a line which, in t h e un x
strained state, has an assigned short length r and an assigned direction

(I, m, n), as soon as we know the values of the six quantities e , e , e , e , xx yy zz yz
These six quantities are called t h e " components of strain." I n the

case of homogeneous strain they are c o n s t a n t s ; in t h e more general case
they are variable from point to point of a body.
The extension e of the short line in direction (I, m, n) is given a t once
by (7) in the form
2 2 2
e= el xx 4- e m
yy + en
zz + e mn + € nl -f- e lm,
yz zx xy (8)
so t h a t t h e three quantities e , e , e are extensions of linear elements
xx yy zz
which, in the unstrained state, are parallel to axes of coordinates.

Again let (l m , n ) be t h e direction in t h e strained state of a linear
ly 1 x
element which, in the unstrained state, has the direction (I, m, n), and let e
be the corresponding extension, and let t h e same letters with accents refer
to a second linear element and its extension. From t h e formulae (5) it
appears t h a t
with similar expressions for m n . T h e cosine of t h e angle between the

lf 1
two elements in the strained state is easily found in t h e form

f
IJi 4- m m( + n n-[ = (IV + mm' + nn){l—e
x x — e ) + 2 (e lV xx + e mm
yy + e nn)
zz
f
+ e {mm! + mn) + e
yz zx {nV + n'l) 4- e xy (lm 4- I'm) .(9)
If the two lines in the unstrained state are trie axes of x and y t h e cosine
of the angle between the corresponding lines in t h e strained state is e . In xy
like m a n n e r e and e are the cosines of t h e angles, in t h e strained state,

yz zx
between pairs of lines which, in t h e unstrained state, are parallel to pairs of

axes of coordinates.
Another interpretation of t h e strain-components of type e xy is afforded
immediately by such equations as
_ dv du
^^dx + dy'
from which it appears t h a t e is made u p of two simple shears. I n one of
xy
these simple shears planes of t h e material which are at right angles to the
* When the relative displacement is not small the strain is not specified completely by the
quantities e , ... e ,
xx ys This matter is considered in the Appendix to this Chapter. Lord Kelvin
has called attention to the unsymmetrical character of the strain-components here specified.
Three of them, in fact, are extensions and the remaining three are shearing strains. He has
worked out a symmetrical system of strain-components which would be the extensions of lines
parallel to the edges of a tetrahedron. See Edinburgh, Proc. Boy. Soc, vol. 24 (1902), and
Phil, Mag. (Ser. 6), vol. 3 (1902), pp. 95 and 444.
axis of x slide in the direction of the axis of y, while in t h e other these axes
are interchanged. T h e strain denoted by e will be called t h e " s h e a r i n g
xy
v
strain corresponding with the directions of t h e axes of x and y.
The change of volume of any small portion of the body can be expressed
in terms of t h e components of strain. T h e ratio of corresponding very small
volumes in the strained and unstrained states is expressed by the functional
determinant
^ du du du
1
dx dy' dz
dv ^ dv dv
dx' dy' dz
dw dw ^ ^ dw
dx' dy ' : dz
and, when squares and products of du/dx,... are neglected, this becomes
+ o r s a
* ô^x o^y~^^z' y 1+ T h e quantity A which is defined by t h e
equation
A . dii dv dw ....
is the increment of volume per u n i t of volume, or t h e " cubical dilatation/'

often called the "dilatation."
W i t h t h e introduction of t h e components of strain, t h e interpretation of
these components and t h e expression of t h e cubical dilatation in t e r m s
of them, we have achieved a general kinematical theory of t h e strains t h a t
accompany small displacements. The rest of this Chapter will be devoted
to theorems and methods relating to small strains which will be useful in t h e
development of t h e theory of Elasticity.
11. The Strain Quadrie.

Through any point in t h e neighbourhood of (x, y, z) there passes one,
and only one, quadrie surface of the family
2
y + e z* + e yz
zz yz + e zx
zx + e xy
xy = const (4 bis)
Any one of these quadrics is called a strain quadrie ; such a surface has
t h e property t h a t t h e reciprocal of t h e square of its central radius vector in
any direction is proportional to the extension of a line in t h a t direction.
If the quadrie is an ellipsoid, all lines issuing from t h e point (x, y, z) are
extended, or else all are contracted ; if the quadrie is an hyperboloid, some
lines are extended and others contracted; and these sets of lines are
separated by the common asymptotic cone of t h e surfaces. Lines which
undergo no extension or contraction are generators of this cone.
The directions of lines, in t h e unstrained state, for which the extension
is a maximum or a minimum, or is stationary without being a true maximum
or minimum, are the principal axes of t h e quadrics (4). These axes are
therefore the principal axes of the strain (Article 7), and t h e extensions
in t h e directions of these axes are the " principal extensions." W h e n t h e
quadrics are referred to their principal axes, the left-hand member of (4)
takes t h e form
X* + e Y* + e Z\
ei 2 s
wherein the coefficients e e e are t h e values of the principal extensions.

1? 2i 3
We now see that, in order to specify completely a state of strain, we

require to know the directions of t h e principal axes of the strain, and t h e
magnitudes of the principal extensions at each point of the body. W i t h
t h e point we may associate a certain quadrie surface which enables us to
express the strain a t the point.
The directions of the principal axes of the strain are determined as follows:—let I, m, n
be the direction cosines of one of these axes, then we have
txxl + je m + je ?i _ \e I + e m+\e n
xy xz xy _ \e I+\e m + e n
yy yz xz yz zz
9
I m n .
and, if e is written for either of these three quantities, the three possible values of e are
the roots of the equation
e
i xy 2 ^xz
\ xye e —e yy 2 yz K
\ xze e
\ yz e z-e
Z
these roots are real, and they are the values of the principal extensions e e 19 2i e.
3
12. Transformation of the c o m p o n e n t s of strain.

T h e same state of strain may be specified by means of its components
referred to any system of rectangular a x e s ; and the components referred to
any one system must therefore be determinate when the components referred
to some other system, and t h e relative situation of the two systems, are
known. The determination can be made a t once by using t h e property of
t h e strain quadrie, viz. t h a t t h e reciprocal of t h e square of the radius vector
in any direction is proportional to t h e extension of a line in t h a t direction.
W e shall take t h e coordinates of a point referred to the first system of axes
to be, as before, x> y, z, and those of the same point referred to the second
system of axes to be x\ y', z\ and we shall suppose t h e second system to be
connected with the first by the orthogonal scheme
X y z
x' h m 1
if h m 2 n 2
z' h m 3 n 3
F u r t h e r we shall suppose t h a t the determinant of the transformation is

1 (not — 1), so t h a t t h e second system can be derived from t h e first by an
operation of rotation*. We shall write e > >, e y, e ' ', e ^, x x y Z Z y e ' >, e > > for the
Z X x y
components of strain referred to the second system.

T h e relative coordinates of points in the neighbourhood of a given point
may be denoted by x, y, z in t h e first system and x', y', z' in the second
system. These quantities are transformed by t h e same substitutions as
x, y, z and x', y\ z'.
W h e n t h e form
&XX
2 2 2
x + ey yy + ez zz -f e yz yz -f- e zx zx + e xy
xy
is transformed by t h e above substitution, it becomes

2 2 2
<wx' + e yy y' + e^z' + e > .y'z' + e^z'x!
y z + e > >x'y'. x y
I t follows t h a t
2
e 'x> = e k + e m? + e n? + e m n
X xx + e^n^ + e^l^ yy zz yz x Y
e 'z> = 2e l l + 2e m m
y -J- 2e n n -f e (m n + m n )
xx 2 3 f yy 2 3 zz 2 s yz 2 3 3 2 (H)
+ e x (nj>* + nA) + e (l m + l m )>
Z xy 2 3 3 2
These are t h e formulas of transformation of strain-components.
13. Additional m e t h o d s and results.

(a) T h e formulae (11) m i g h t h a v e been inferred from t h e interpretation of e > > a s t h e x x
e x t e n s i o n of a linear e l e m e n t parallel to t h e axis of x', and of e > > a s t h e cosine of t h e angle y 2
b e t w e e n t h e p o s i t i o n s after strain of t h e linear e l e m e n t s w h i c h before strain are parallel t o

t h e a x e s of y' and z\
(b) T h e formulae (11) m i g h t also h a v e b e e n obtained by introducing t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t
f
( u , v\ iv') referred t o t h e a x e s of (#', y\ z'), and forming du'/dx' .... T h e d i s p l a c e m e n t being t
a vector, u, % w are cogredient with x, y, z, a n d we h a v e for e x a m p l e

du' d / 7 n /, 3 d d\ ,7 \
du ,
7 9 „ dv • dw ,
9 (dw dv\ , 7 /du dw\ 7 /dv du\
= l + M + m + n + 1 +
* dx * Ty^ d i ^ \dy + 5 ) ^ [di d^p ^ \di dy) '
T h i s m e t h o d m a y be applied to t h e transformation of w Xi w, y m. z W e s h o u l d find for
example
m^ — l^x + m^y + n^gf (12)
and w e m i g h t h e n c e infer t h e vectorial character of (m , w , w ). T h e s a m e inference x y z
m i g h t be drawn from t h e interpretation of m , rar , -jr a s c o m p o n e n t s of rotation. x y z
(c) According t o a well k n o w n t h e o r e m f concerning t h e transformation of quadratic

expressions, t h e following q u a n t i t i e s are invariant in respect of transformations from one
set of rectangular axes t o a n o t h e r :
e e e
xx~^ yy~^~ zzj \
e e J e e
yy zz T zz xx'^' xx yy'~ e e
5" ( yz* e
~^~ zx e 2 e
xy )j 2
r •••••••••• (13)
e e e e
&xx &yy zz "f" 5" ( yz &zz ^xy ~ &xx ^yJ* ~~ yy zx^ ~~ ^zz^xy*)- J
T h e first of these invariants is t h e expression for t h e cubical dilatation.

* This restriction makes no difference to the relations between the components of strain
referred to the two systems. It affects the components of rotation w , iff ar . x yj 2
f Salmon, Geometry of three dimensions, 4th ed., Dublin, 1882, p. 66.

(d) It may be shown directly that the following quantities are invariants :—
(i) w^ + TXyZ + w?,
2 2 2
(ii) e x x w + e yy my + e zz w + e yz WyVj 3 + e zx -w z mx + e xy wx wy ;
and the direct verification may serve as an exercise for the student. These invariants
could be inferred from the fact that uf sr , sr are cogredient with x, y , z. x1 y g
(e) It may be shown also that the following quantities are invariants* :—
..... /dw dv dw dv\ /du dw du dw\ /dv du dv du
\dy dz dz dy) \dz dx dx dz) \dx dy dy ~dx t
2 2 2 2 2
(iv) e x +e yy + ej + J (e * + ej + e ) + 2 (sr + m + sr/).
v x x
( / ) It may be shown f also that, in the notation of Article 7, the invariant (iv) is
equal to
2
jjj(VL + 2
v +w )dxdydz 2
/ / / < (x + y +z )dxdy 2 2 2
dz
where t h e integrations a r a t a k e n t h r o u g h a very small sphere with i t s centre a t t h e p o i n t
to y,*). •:.
(g) T h e following result is of s o m e i m p o r t a n c e t:—If t h e strain can b e expressed b y
shears e xzi eyz only, t h e remaining c o m p o n e n t s being zero, t h e n t h e strain is a shearing
strain e >; zx a n d t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h i s shear, a n d t h e direction of t h e axis x' i n t h e p l a n e
of x, y, are t o b e found from e xz and e yz b y treating t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s as t h e projections of a
vector on t h e a x e s of x and y.
14. T y p e s of strain.
(a) Uniform dilatation.
W h e n t h e strain q u a d r i e i s a sphere, t h e principal axes of the strain are i n d e t e r m i n a t e ,
a n d t h e e x t e n s i o n (or contraction) of all linear e l e m e n t s i s s u i n g from a p o i n t is t h e s a m e ;
or w e h a v e
&xx Gyy ~ &zz ~ 3" A, &yz ~ @zx &xy ~ 0> = =
w h e r e A is t h e cubical dilatation, a n d t h e axes of x, y, z are a n y three orthogonal lines.

I n t h i s case t h e linear e x t e n s i o n in any direction is one-third of t h e cubical d i l a t a t i o n —
a result w h i c h d o e s n o t hold i n general.
(b) Simple extension.
W e m a y exemplify t h e u s e of t h e m e t h o d s a n d formulae of A r t i c l e 12 b y finding t h e
c o m p o n e n t s , referred to t h e a x e s of x, y, of a strain w h i c h is a s i m p l e e x t e n s i o n , of
a m o u n t e, parallel t o t h e direction (I, m, n). If t h i s direction were t h a t of t h e axis of x'
2
t h e form (4) would be ex! ; and we h a v e therefore
e =2e?nn,yz e = 2enl, e = 2elm.

zx xy
A s i m p l e e x t e n s i o n i s accordingly e q u i v a l e n t t o a strain specified by t h e s e six com

ponents.
I t h a s been proposed § t o call a n y k i n d of q u a n t i t y , related to directions, w h i c h is
e q u i v a l e n t t o - c o m p o n e n t s in t h e s a m e w a y as a s i m p l e e x t e n s i o n , a tensor. A n y strain is,
* The invariant (iii) will be useful in a subsequent investigation (Chapter VII.).

f E . Betti, II Nuovo Cimento (Ser. 2), t. 7 (1872).
% Cf. Chapter XIV. infra.
§ W. Voigt, Qdttingen Nachr. (1900), p. 117. Cf. M. Abraham in Encij. d. math. Wiss. Bd. 4,
Art. 14.
as we have already seen, equivalent to three simple extensions parallel to the principal
axes of the strain. It has been proposed to call any kind of quantity, related to directions,
which is equivalent to components in the same way as a strain, a tensor-triad. The
discussion in Articles 12 and 13 (b) brings out clearly the distinction between tensors and
vectors.
(c) Shearing strain.
The strain denoted by e is called "the shearing strain corresponding with the direc
xy
tions of the axes of x and ?/." We have already observed that it is equal to the cosine of
the angle, in the strained state, between two linear elements which, in the unstrained
state, are parallel to these axes, and that it is equivalent to two simple shears, consisting
of the relative sliding, parallel to each of these directions, of planes at right angles to the
other. The " shearing strain " is measured by the sum of the two simple shears and is inde
pendent of their ratio. The change in the length of any line and the change in the angle
between any two lines depend upon the sum of the two simple shears and not on the ratio
of their amounts.
The components of a strain, which is a shearing strain corresponding with the direc
tions of the axes of x' and y', are given by the equations
e ^sl l ,
xx x 2 e = sm m ,
yy 1 2 e = sn n ,
zz x 2
e =s (m^
yz + m^), e = s (V2.+Vi)>
zx ^ = 5 (^ m + ? m ),
1 2 2 1
where s is the amount of the shearing strain. The strain involves no cubical dilatation.
If we take the axes of x' and y' to be in the plane of x, y, and suppose that the axes of
x, y, z are parallel to the principal axes of the strain, we find that e vanishes, or there is zz
no extension at right angles to the plane of the two directions concerned. In this case we
2 2
have the form sx'y' equivalent to the form e x + e y . It follows that e = -e = ±^s,
xx yy xx yy
and that the principal axes of the strain bisect the angles between the two directions
concerned. In other words equal extension and contraction of two linear elements at
right angles to each other are equivalent to shearing strain, which is numerically equal to
twice the extension or contraction, and corresponds with directions bisecting the angles
between the elements.
We may enquire how to choose two directions so that the shearing strain corresponding
with them may be as great as possible. It may be shown that the greatest shearing strain
is equal to the difference between the algebraically greatest and least principal extensions,
and that the corresponding directions bisect the angles between those principal axes of
the strain for which the extensions are the maximum and minimum extensions*.
(d) Plane strain.
A more general type, which includes simple extension and shearing strain as particular
cases, is obtained by assuming that one of the principal extensions is zero. If the corre
sponding principal axis is the axis of z, the strain quadrie becomes a cylinder, standing
on a conic in the plane of x, y, which may be called the strain conic; and its equation can
be written
2 2
e^x +e y yy+ e xy = const.; xy
so that the shearing strains e and e vanish, as well as the extension e . In the
yz zx zz
particular case of simple extension, the conic consists of two parallel lines; in the case of
shearing strain, it is a rectangular hyperbola. If it is a circle, there is extension or con
traction, of the same amount, of all linear elements issuing from the point (x, y, z) in
directions at right angles to the axis of z.
* The theorem here stated is due to W. Hopkins, Cambridge Phil, Soc. Trans., vol. 8 (1849).
The relative displacement corresponding with plane strain is parallel to the plane
of the strain; or we have w = const., while u and v are functions of x and y only.
The axis of the resultant rotation is normal to the plane of the strain. The cubical
dilatation, A, and the rotation, SER, are connected with the displacement by the equations
V U
A—^ u
t_^v
9
2w — ^ ^
dx dy dx dy'
We can have states of plane strain for which both A and w vanish ; the strain is pure
shear, i.e. shearing strain combined with such a rotation that the principal axes of the
strain retain their primitive directions. In any such state the displacement components
v u are conjugate functions of x and y , or v+iu is a function of the complex variable x + vy.
9
15. Relations connecting t h e dilatation, t h e rotation a n d t h e dis

placement.
The cubical dilatation A is connected with the displacement (u, v, w) by the equation
dx dy dz '
A scalar quantity derived from a vector by means of this formula is described as the
divergence of the vector. We write
A = div. (u, v, w) (14)
This relation is independent of coordinates, and may be expressed as follows:—Let any
closed surface S be drawn in the field of the vector, and let N denote the projection of the
vector on the normal drawn outwards at any point on S, also let dr denote any element of
volume within S, then
jJ JVdS= JJj Adr, (15)
the integration on the right-hand side being taken through the volume within S and that 9
on the left being taken over the surface

The rotation (w , m , w ) is connected with the displacement (u, v, w) by the equations
x y z
dw dv du dw dv du
2 c r =
* fy-&> ^^dw'dy-
A vector quantity derived from another vector by the process here indicated is described
as the curl of the other vector. We write
2 (ttTaj, TXTy, G 7 s ) = CUrl (u, V, w). (16)
This relation is independent of coordinates f, and may be expressed as follows :—Let
any closed curve s be drawn in the field of the vector, and let any surface S be described
so as to have the curve s for an edge; let T be the resolved part of the vector (u, v, w)
along the tangent at any point of s, and let 2TU be the projection of the vector 2(zir w , w )
V Xi y 2
on the normal at any point of JS then 9
j Tds=jj2w dS, v (17)
* The result is a particular case of the theorem known as «Green's theorem.' See Eney. d.
math. Wiss. n. A 2, Nos. 45—47.
t It is assumed that the axes of x, y, z form a right-handed system. If a transformation to
a left-handed system is admitted a convention must be made as to the sign of the curl of a vector.
t h e integration on t h e right b e i n g t a k e n over t h e surface $ , a n d t h a t on t h e left b e i n g
t a k e n along t h e curve »*.
16. Resolution of a n y strain into dilatation and shearing strains.

W h e n t h e strain involves no cubical dilatation t h e invariant e + e + e xx yy zz
vanishes, and it is possible to choose rectangular axes of x', y', z so t h a t t h e

form
2 2 z
6xxM "i" ^yylJ
2
^zz^ "f* ^yzV "f* &zxZ® H~ ®xy®y
is transformed into t h e form
e >*y'z' + ejtfz'x' +
y e^xy',
2 /2 2
in which there are no terms in x' , y , z' . T h e strain is t h e n equivalent to
shearing strains corresponding with t h e pairs of directions
(y',z'), (z',x'), (x',y).
When t h e strain involves cubical dilatation t h e displacement can be
analysed into two constituent displacements, in such a way t h a t t h e cubical
dilatation corresponding with one of t h e m is zero; t h e strains derived from
this constituent are shearing strains only, when t h e axes of reference are
chosen suitably. T h e displacement which gives rise to t h e cubical dilatation
is t h e gradientf of a scalar potential (<£), and t h e remaining part of t h e
displacement is t h e curl of a vector potential (F, G, H), of which t h e
divergence vanishes. To prove this s t a t e m e n t we have to show t h a t any
vector (u, v, w) can be expressed in t h e form
(u, v, w) = gradient of <f> + curl {F, 0, H), (18)
involving t h e three equations of t h e type
in which F, G, H satisfy t h e equation
«
I n t h e case of displacement in a body this resolution must be valid a t all
points within t h e surface bounding t h e body.
There are many different ways of effecting this resolution of (u, v,w)\.
* The result is generally attributed to Stokes. Cf. Ency. d. math. Wiss. n. A 2, No. 46. It
implies that there is a certain relation between the sense in which the integration along ds is
taken and that in which the normal v is drawn. This relation is the same as the relation of
rotation to translation in a right-handed screw.
f The gradient of 0 is the vector , ^ , .
X See, e.g., E. Betti, II Nuovo Cimento (Ser. 2), t. 7 (1872), or P. Duhem, J. de Math.
(Lioiwille), (Ser. 5), t. 6 (1900). The resolution was first effected by Stokes in his memoir on
Diffraction. (See Introduction, footnote 80.)
W e observe t h a t if it is effected the dilatation and rotation will be expressed
in t h e forms
2 a 2
A = V <£, 2z* = -V*F,
x 2tsrj, = -V (?, 2 ^ = -V ff, (21)
t h e last three holding good because dF/dx + dGjdy + dH/dz = 0 . Now solu
tions of ( 2 1 ) can be written in t h e forms
dafd d F= dx, w (22)

+—£rlllr * '' LISS¥ ^ '
where r is t h e distance between t h e point (x, y\ z) and the point (x, y, z)
at which F,... are estimated, A' and (vr ', vry, ^r ) are t h e values of A x z
and ( t ^ , 'UTy, TJT ) at t h e point (x\ y',• z'),and t h e integration extends t h r o u g h

Z
t h e body. B u t t h e solutions given in ( 2 2 ) do not always satisfy the equation

div (F, G H) — 0. A case in which they do satisfy this equation is presented
}
when t h e body extends indefinitely in all directions, and the displacements

2
a t infinite distances tend to zero in t h e order r~ at least. To see this we
r
take t h e body to be bounded by a surface S, and w rite t h e first of equations
( 2 2 ) , viz.
= + +
^ - /// ® % j£) \
in t h e equivalent form
= U + W V
^ ~~ 47T \ \ \ ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ' ^ ^ ^
l 1 1
1 [[[{ dr~ d)— dr" )
+ v w dx dy dz
ill f ' w + ' w +. ' w\ ' ' ''
and omit t h e surface-integral when $ is infinitely distant. I n t h e same
case we may p u t
1
or, since dr^jdx' = — d?'~ /dx, . . . w e have
k {l HI * * * * } ' - 1 \l /// % }
with similar forms for G and H. F r o m these forms it is clear t h a t
div (F, G H) = } 0.
The expressions into which the right-hand members of equations ( 2 2 )

have been transformed in t h e special case are possible forms for <£, F, G, H
in every case, t h a t is to say one mode of resolution is always given by t h e
equations
1 1
dv— dv dv~^\ ^
U + V + W
' dx ' Ihf ' ~dz) dtt'dy'dz',
1
w
dv V
dv * \
'~^y— ' I dx'dy'dz',
4>TT
.(23)
u ^ w'dx'dy'dz,
4tt dz
H =
1
47T I' dx dy
where t h e integration extends t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o d y ; for it is clear that,

these make div (F, G, H) = 0 and also make
dx dy dz 4tt JjJ V Y
17. Identical relations b e t w e e n c o m p o n e n t s of s t r a i n * .

The values of the.components of strain e ,... e ,... as functions of x, y, z xx yz
cannot be given arbitrarily; they m u s t be subject to such relations as will

secure t h a t there shall be functions u, v, w, which are connected with t h e m
by t h e six equations
du _ dw dv
&XX — @yz — >77T i '< .(24)
dx dy dz'
5
The relations in question may be obtained by t a k i n g account of t h e three

equations
dw dv
2w — x
dy dz' '"'
for all the differential coefficients of u, v, w can be expressed, in terms of
e , ... e , ...
xx yz W e have in fact t h r e e pairs of equations such as
du dv x
\®xy Q — 2 xy e
+ ™z\
dy' X
and t h e conditions t h a t these may be compatible with t h e t h r e e equations

such as du\dx — e , are nine equations of the type
xx
de x X
1 de xy dix z
dy '2^dx " dx '

and these equations express t h e first differential coefficients of zr , vr , -& in x y z
terms of those of e ,... e, xx If we write down for example t h e three

yz
* These relations were given by Saint-Venant in his edition of Navier's Legons, Appendix i n .
The proof there indicated was developed by Kirchhoff, Mechanik, Vorlesung 27. The proof in the
;ext is due to Beltrami, Paris, C. R., t. 108 (1889), cf. Koenigs, Legons de Cinematique, Paris
L897, p. 411.
Li E. 4
equations t h a t contain vr we can see at once how to obtain t h e conditions
x
t h a t they may be compatible. These three equations are
dx dy dz
dy dy dz
2 = 2 ^ _
dz dy dz
and from t h e set of nine equations of this t y p e we can eliminate vr , vr , ^r x y z
and obtain the six identical relations between the components of strain.
They are
2 2 2 2
de de _ de
yy d e _ d ( de
zz de^ yz de^ xx yz
' | ^ ^zz ^ ^yz o ^ _ I ^^yz • —<^ ,
2
~~W dy " dydz' dydz'dx \ dx dy dz
2 e d
o%z ê de
xx = xz 2^ w = ( L..(25)
2 2
dx dz dzdx' 9^3^ 8y \ 9# 9y dz
2 2
de xx de yy 2 = 9 / de^ + de _de y
zx X
2 2
dy dx dxdy' dxdy dz \ dx dy dz J ')
18. D i s p l a c e m e n t corresponding w i t h g i v e n strain*.

When t h e components of strain are given functions, which satisfy t h e
identical relations of t h e last Article, t h e components of displacement are to
be deduced by solving the equations (24) as differential equations for u, v, w.
These equations are linear, and the complete solutions of t h e m are compounded
of (1) any set of particular solutions, (2) complementary solutions containing
arbitrary constants. The complementary solutions satisfy t h e equations
du _dv _dw _dw dv _ du div _ dv du _ .
dx dy dz dy dz dz dx dx dy
If we differentiate the left-hand members of these equations with respect
to x, y, z we shall obtain eighteen linear equations connecting the eighteen
second differential coefficients of u, v, w, from which it follows t h a t all these
second differential coefficients vanish. Hence t h e complementary u, v, w are
linear functions of x, y, z, and, in virtue of equations (26), they must be
expressed by equations of the forms
u = u — ry + qz,
0 v = v — pz + rx,
0 w = w — qx + py,
0 (27)
which are the formulae for t h e displacement of a rigid body by a translation
(u , v , w ) and a small rotation (p, q, r).
0 0 0
I n t h e complementary solutions thus obtained, t h e constants p, q, r m u s t

be small quantities of t h e same order of magnitude as the given functions
e ...,
XXy as otherwise the equations (6) of Art. 9 show t h a t these functions
* Cf. Kirchhoff, Mechanik, Vorlesung 27.
would not express t h e strain in t h e body correctly, and t h e terms of (27) t h a t
contain p, q, r would not represent a displacement possible in a rigid body.
Bearing this restriction in mind, we conclude that, if t h e six components of
strain are given, t h e corresponding displacement is arbitrary to t h e extent of
an additional displacement of t h e type expressed by ( 2 7 ) ; but, if we impose
six independent conditions, such as that, at the origin, t h e displacement
(u, v, w) and t h e rotation {ûr , vr , tx ) vanish, or again that, at t h e same
x y z
point
« = 0, » = 0, w = 0, G = 0, | = 0, |Uo, (28)
t h e expression for t h e displacement with given strains will be unique. T h e
particular set of equations (28) indicate t h a t one point of t h e body (the
origin), one linear element of the body ( t h a t along t h e axis of z issuing
from the origin) and one plane-element of t h e body ( t h a t in t h e plane of z, x
containing t h e origin) retain their positions after t h e strain. I t is mani
festly possible, after straining a body in any way, to bring it back by trans
lation and rotation so t h a t a given point, a given linear element t h r o u g h
t h e point and a given plane-element through t h e line shall recover their
primitive positions.
19. Curvilinear orthogonal coordinates*.

For many problems it is convenient to use systems of curvilinear co
ordinates instead of the ordinary Cartesian coordinates. These may be
introduced as follows :—Let f(x, y, z) = a, some constant, be t h e equation
of a surface. If a is allowed to vary we obtain a family of surfaces. I n
general one surface of t h e family will pass through a chosen point, and a
neighbouring point will in general lie on a neighbouring surface of t h e
family, so t h a t a is a function of x, y, z, viz., t h e function denoted by / . If
a + da is t h e parameter of t h a t surface of t h e family which passes through
{x + dx, y + dy, z + dz), we have
da = ^ dx + dy 4- — dz = ~ dx -f — dy + ^ dz.
d
ox dy dz dx dy dz
If we have three independent families of surfaces given by t h e equations
f, (x, y, z) = a, f (x, y, z) = /3,
2 f (x, y, z)
s = 7,
;so t h a t in general one surface of each family passes through a chosen point,
t h e n a point m a y be determined by t h e values of a, /3, 7 which belong
to the surfaces t h a t pass through itf, and a neighbouring point will be
* The theory is due to Lame. See his Legons sur les coordonnees curvilignes, Paris, 1859.
f The determination of the point may not be free from ambiguity, e.g., in elliptic coordinates,
a n ellipsoid and two confocal hyperboloids pass through any point, and they meet in seven other
points. The ambiguity is removed if the region of space considered is suitably limited, e.g., in
the case of elliptic coordinates, if it is an octant bounded by principal planes.
determined by the neighbouring values a + da, ft + d/3, y + dy. Such quan
tities as a, ft, y are called " curvilinear coordinates " of t h e point.
T h e most convenient systems of curvilinear coordinates for applications
to t h e theory of Elasticity are determined by families of surfaces which cut
each other everywhere at right angles. I n such a case we have a triply-
orthogonal family of surfaces. I t is well known t h a t there exists an infinite
n u m b e r of sets of such surfaces, and, according to a celebrated theorem due
to Dupin, t h e line of intersection of two surfaces belonging to different
families of such a set is a line of curvature on each*. I n what follows we
shall take a, ft, 7 to be t h e parameters of such a set of surfaces, so t h a t t h e
following relations h o l d :
dj_d^ d^dy + dftdy + ==()
dx dx dy dy dz dz . '
dy da dy da dy da ^
dx dx dy dy dz dz '
^dft d^dft dadft
+ + ==()
dx dx dy dy dz dz
The length of t h e normal, dn to a surface of t h e family a intercepted
l9
between the surfaces a and a + da is determined by t h e observation t h a t

t h e direction-cosines of t h e normal to a at t h e point (x, y, z) are
1 da 1 da 1 da , .
9Q
9
h-t dx Kdy' hidz'
where h is expressed by the first of equations (31) below. For, by projecting
x
t h e line joining two neighbouring points on t h e normal to a, we obtain t h e

equation
I n like manner t h e elements dn , dn of t h e normals to ft and 7 are

2 z dftjh
and dy/h , where
s
2
The distance between two neighbouring points being (dn^ + dn +dnffi, we 2
have the expression for t h e " line-element," ds, i.e. the distance between t h e
points (a, ft, 7) and (a + da, /3 + 7 + dy), in t h e form
2
(ds) = (dajKfA- (d/3/h y + (dyjh^
2 (32)
I n general h1} h , h are regarded as functions of a, ft, 7.
2 3
* Salmon, Geometry of three dimensions, 4th ed., p. 269.

2 0 . C o m p o n e n t s of strain referred to curvilinear orthogonal co
ordinates*.
The length in t h e unstrained state of t h e line joining t h e points (a, ft, y)
and (a -f da, ft + dft, y+dy) is given by (32); we seek t h e length in the strained
state of t h e line joining t h e same pair of particles. L e t u , up, u be the a y
projections of t h e displacement of any particle on t h e normals to t h e surfaces

a, ft, y t h a t pass through its position in t h e unstrained state. W h e n t h e
displacement is small t h e coordinates of t h e point occupied by a particle are
changed from a, ft, y to a + hi%i , ft + h Up, y + h u . T h e a-coordinate (a -f da)
a 2 8 y
of a neighbouring point is changed into
{ hjiia + da~
d
(hjUa) + dft
d
^ (hyUa) + dy ^
d
(AÔ
and similar changes are made in t h e ft- and 7-coordinates (ft + dft and
y + dy). Again, t h e values of h ... at a displaced particle differ from those
lf
at its undisplaced position. For example, 1//^ is changed into

+h
I^ k© +
^ J? © + h
^ h {I
I t follows t h a t da/h must be replaced by
±
d ) d d ~~
d a 1 + lUa
' da (^ )
d f l 3 /I
and, when products of quantities of t h e order ii are neglected, this is a
da
Similar changes must be made in dft/h and dy/h .

d a 1
T h e length of t h e line
2 3
1 .(33)
joining two particles in the strained state is found by forming t h e square

root of the sum of t h e squares of t h e three expressions of t h e type (33).
Let ds be t h e length of t h e linear element in t h e unstrained state, and let
I, m, n be t h e direction-cosines of it referred to t h e normals to the surfaces
a, ft, y at a point, so t h a t da/h^lds, .... Also let ds(l+e) be t h e length
of the corresponding linear element in t h e strained state. Then e is given
by the equation
2
( l + e) =
dB\h
h 2 d /j \ ho d , 1 N
.(34)
+ ... +
•* The method here given is due to Borchardt, J. f. Math. {Crelle), Bd. 76 (1873). Another
method is given in the ' Note on applications of moving a x e s ' at the end of this book.
Neglecting squares and products of u , up u , we may write t h e result in a y y
t h e form
2 2 2
e — e l + e^m + e n + ep mn + e nl + e p lm,
aa .. .(35) yy y ya a
vhich
K |f + hM, | (£) + hAua I (£),
6yy
.(36)
h2 d . hi IL (A %),
2
A 2 37
A -9 3 / 7 • Aj 9 / 7 x
_ _ ( A a ) + _ _ ( A i U v ) ,
Ai 9 7 . A 2 9 ,
a r e s x
The quantities e , • •• 0/3y,
aa the ^ components of strain referred t o
t h e orthogonal coordinates. I n fact e is the extension of a linear element aa
which, in t h e unstrained state, lies along t h e normal to t h e surface a; and

ep is t h e cosine of t h e angle between the linear elements which, in t h e
y
unstrained state, lie along t h e normals to t h e surfaces ft and 7.
2 1 . D i l a t a t i o n and R o t a t i o n referred to curvilinear orthogonal

coordinates.
The results of Art. 15 can be utilized to express the cubical dilatation A, and the
component rotations sr , or/3, w about the normals to the three surfaces, in terms of the
fl y
components u , up, u of the displacement.

a y
To obtain the expression for A we form the surface integral of the normal component of
the displacement* over the surface of an element of the body bounded by the three pairs of
surfaces (a, a+da), (ft, (3+dft), (y, y + dy), the normal being drawn away from the interior
of the element. The contributions of the faces of the element can be put down in such
forms as
dft dy
contribution of a= — u k a
h '
2 3
, 7 dft dy , , d / dft dy\

a+da=u +da u
» *T T, Ta{ *T hJ>
2 2
and, on adding the six contributions, we obtain

* u y
dy \h h ± %
this must be the same as Adadftdyjh^h^. We therefore have
<37)
»-m*{s(5K(3K(M
This result is the same as would be found by adding the expressions for <w, <
in (36).
* This method is due to Lord Kelvin. (Sir W. Thomson, Math, and Phys. Papers, Vol. 1,
p. 25. The date of the investigation is 1843.)
- To obtain the expression for 2sr we form the line integral of the tangential component
y
of the displacement along the edge of the element in the face y + dy. The contributions
of the four portions of the edge can be written down by help of Fig. 3 as follows :—
contribution of RP— u T~ ?
a
da
Fig. 3.
On adding these contributions, we obtain
This must be the same as 2GT dadftjh-^h^ and we have thus an expression for w which
y y
is given in the third of equations (38); the other equations of this set can be obtained in
the same way. The formulae* are
<38)
<^-W£(sK(£>H
«-.- (£)-!(©})
* The formulae (38), as also (36) and (37), are due t o . L a m e . The method here used to
obtain (38), and used also in a slightly more analytical form by Cesaro, Introduzione alia teoria
matematica della Elasticity, (Turin, 1894), p. 193, is familiar in Electrodynamics. Cf. H. Lamb,
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. 178 (1888), p. 150, or J. .T. Thomson, Recent Researches in Electricity
and Magnetism, Oxford, 1893, p. 367. The underlying physical notion is, of course, identical
with the relation of * circulation' to * vortex strength' brought to light in Lord Kelvin's memoir
' On Vortex Motion,' Edinburgh, Roy. Soc. Trails., vol. 25 (1869).
22. Cylindrical a n d polar coordinates.
In the case of cylindrical coordinates r, z we have the line-element
{(drf+r*{dey + (dzff,
and the displacements u , u , u .
r e z The general formulae take the following forms :—
(1) for the strains
du r 1 du$ u r dug
e e + 6zz
rr = -fo ' M=r ~d6 7 ' "Tz '
1 du z due du r du 2 __due tie 1 du r
(2) for the cubical dilatation

13, v 1 due . du s
(3) for the components of rotation

_ 1 du due z
r
^ ~r d6 dz '
du r du z
00 or
0 13 1 du r
In the case of polar coordinates r, 6, we have the line-element

2
{(drf+r* (d6)*+r* sin 6 (d<t>ff,
and the displacements u u$, u<$>. ri The general formulae take the following forms :—
(1) for the strains
du
r 1 due . u r 1 dus , ue
w
or r dB r ^ rsmv dtp r r
1 (duA, \ 1 3t% 1 3w,. 3«u 3% 132^,
v v v
r \ dd ] r sin 6 dcj) r sin 6 dcf) dr r dr r r o6
(2) for the cubical dilatation
(3) for the components of rotation

1 (3 3
2 w f l ( r M 8 i I l f l )
= f i ? f e - ^ * } '
The verification of these formulae may serve as exercises for the student.
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.
GENERAL THEORY OF STRAIN.
2 3 . T H E preceding p a r t of this Chapter contains all t h e results, relating

to strains, which are of importance in t h e mathematical theory of Elasticity,
as at present developed. T h e discussion of strains t h a t correspond with
displacements in general, as opposed to small displacements, is an interest
ing branch of k i n e m a t i c s ; and some account of it will now be given*. I t
may be premised t h a t t h e developments here described will not be required
in t h e remainder of this treatise.
I t is customary, in recent books on Kinematics, to base t h e theory of
strains in general on t h e result, stated in Article 7, t h a t t h e strain about a
point is sensibly homogeneous, and to develop t h e theory of finite strain in
t h e case of homogeneous strain only. From t h e point of view of a rigorous
analysis, it appears to be desirable to establish t h e theory of strains in
general on an i n d e p e n d e n t basis. W e shall begin with an account of t h e
theory of t h e strain corresponding with any displacement, and shall after
wards investigate homogeneous strain in some detail.
24. Strain corresponding w i t h any displacement.

W e consider t h e effect of t h e displacement on aggregates of particles
forming given curves in t h e unstrained state. Any chosen particle occupies,
in t h e unstrained state, a point (x, y, z). The same particle occupies, in t h e
strained state, a point (x + u, y + v, z + w). The particles which lie on a
given curve in t h e first s t a t e lie in general on a different curve in t h e second
state. If ds is t h e differential element of arc of a carve in t h e first
state, t h e direction-cosines of the t a n g e n t to this curve at any point are
dx dij dz
y S e a r c
ds 5s ' ds' ^ * ^ differential element of °f t h e corresponding
* Reference may be made to Cauchy, Exercices de mathematiques, Annee 1827, the Article
* Sur la condensation et la dilatation des corps s o l i d e s ' ; Green's memoir on the reflexion of
light quoted in the Introduction (footnote 42) ; Saint-Venant, ' Memoire sur l'equilibre des corps
solides...quand les deplacements...ne sont pas tres petits,' Paris, G. R.,t. 24 (1847) ; Kelvin and
Tait, Nat. Phil, Part i. pp. 115—144 ; Todhunter and Pearson, History, vol. 1, Articles 1619—
1622 ; J. Hadamard, Legons sur la propagation des ondes, Paris 1903, Chapter vi.
curve in t h e second state, t h e direction-cosines of t h e t a n g e n t to this
d(x + u) d(y + v) d(z + w) . , L T T £
curve are — ^ , —-~ , — -, . Herein, tor example, 1
as aSi
1 ds,
d (x -f- u) __ ds (dx du dx du dy du dz\ m
ds, ds \ds 1 dx ds dy ds dz dsj'
with similar formulae for t h e other two.
L e t I, m, n be t h e direction-cosines of a line in t h e unstrained state,

l m,, n, t h e direction-cosines of t h e corresponding line in t h e strained
lt
state, ds, ds, t h e differential elements of arc of corresponding curves having

these lines respectively as tangents. I n t h e notation used above
dx _ dy dz
1= m "ds*
ds' ds'
, d (x + u) d(y + v) d (z + w)
h= :r— ',
ds, m
" V1
1 = d '
Sl
1
ds, 9
and t h e equations of t y p e (1) may be written in such forms as
I —ds(^ ^ du\ ^ du ^ da)

1 •(2)
ds,\ \ dx] dy dz)
On squaring and adding t h e r i g h t - h a n d and left-hand members, and r e

membering t h e equations
2 2 2 2 2 2
l +m + n = 1, l, + m, + n, =l,
we find an equation which can be written
2
ds \
2 2
-~j = (1 + 2e )l*
xx + (1 + 2e ) yy rn + (1 + 2e ) n + 2e zz yz mn + 2e zx nl + 2exy Im,
.(3)
where are given by t h e formulae
2
Jdu 1 {fdu\ fdvV fdw\
exx +
~dx*~* \\dx) ^{dxj [dx)
+ +
€yy
~dy + 2
Ki)*(i)*(i)]
2 1
" dz ^ \\dzj \dzj ^\dzj
.(4)
_ dw dv du du dv dv dw dw
y z
dy dz dy dz dy dz dy dz
du , dw ^ du du dv dv dw dw
€zx +
~dz dx dz dx dzdx dz dx
^ _ dv ^ du ^ du du dv dv dw dw
x y
dx dy dx dy dx dy dx dy' I
The state of strain is entirely determined when we know t h e lengths in
t h e strained and unstrained states of corresponding lines*. The q u a n t i t y
ds .
—j~ — 1 is the extension of t h e linear element ds. This is determined by t h e
as
formula (3). We observe t h a t t h e extensions of linear elements which, in
t h e unstrained state, are parallel to the axes of coordinates are respectively
V(l + 2e ) - 1, V(l + Zeyy) - 1, V ( l + 2 „ ) - 1,
xx €
where the positive values of the square roots are taken. W e thus obtain an
interpretation of t h e quantities e e e. W e shall presently obtain an
XXy yyy zz
interpretation of t h e quantities e €, e in terms of t h e angles, in t h e

yZy zx xyy
strained state, between linear elements, which, in the unstrained state, are
parallel to t h e axes of coordinates. In t h e meantime, we observe t h a t t h e
strain at any point is entirely determined by t h e six quantities e € e XXy yyy ZZy
e z> € , € .
y zx These quantities will be called the components of strain.
xy The
quantities e ... which were called " c o m p o n e n t s of s t r a i n " in previous
XXy
Articles are sufficiently exact equivalents of e , ... when t h e squares and xx
products of such quantities as du/dx are neglected.
25. Cubical Dilatation.

The ratio of a differential element of volume in t h e strained state to t h e
corresponding differential element of volume in t h e unstrained state is
equal to the functional d e t e r m i n a n t
d (x -f u, y + v, z + w)
d(x y,z) y
or it is
^ du du du
dx ' dy ' dz
dv ^ dv dv
3 >
dx dy dz
dw dw dw
dx' dy' dz
This will be denoted by 1 + A. T h e n A is t h e increment of volume per
unit volume at a point, or it is t h e cubical dilatation. The quantity
e + e + e is a sufficiently exact equivalent of A when the displacement
xx yy zz
is small.
W e may express A in t e r m s of t h e components of strain. W e find by
the process of squaring t h e d e t e r m i n a n t t h a t
2
(1 + A) = (1 + 2e ) xx (1 + 2e ) yy (1 + 2e ) zz + 2e € e
yz zx xy - (1 + 2e ) xx e?
y
- (1 + 2eyy)e„* - (1 + 2e )e > zz xy (5)
* Lord Kelvin's method (Article 10, footnote) is applicable, as he points out, to strains of
unrestricted magnitude.
26. Reciprocal strain ellipsoid.
T h e ratio ds \ds on which t h e extension of a linear element issuing
1 i
from a point depends, is expressed in t h e formula (3) in terms of t h e

direction-cosines of t h e element, in t h e unstrained state, and t h e components
of strain a t t h e point. T h e formula shows that, for any direction, t h e ratio
in question is inversely proportional to t h e central radius vector, in t h a t
direction, of an ellipsoid which is given by t h e equation
2 2
(1 + 2e )xx x + (1 + 2eyy) f + (1 + 2e ) zz z + 2e yz yz + 2e zx zx + 2e xy xy = const.
(6)
This is t h e reciprocal strain ellipsoid already denned (Article 6) in t h e case
of homogeneous strains. I t s axes are called t h e principal axes of the strain;
t h e y are in t h e directions of those linear elements in t h e unstrained state
which undergo stationary (maximum or m i n i m u m or minimax) extension.
T h e extensions of linear elements in these directions are called t h e principal
extensions, € e , e . T h e values of 1 + e l + e , 1 -f e are t h e positive
1} 2 3 ly 2 3
square roots of t h e three values of K, which satisfy t h e equation

e K € e
1 % xx > xy> xz
€xy> I ~f* 2€yy K, €y

= 0 (7)
Z
e
XZ y €yz y 1 "1" ^ zz e
~~
T h e invariant relation of t h e reciprocal strain ellipsoid to t h e state of

strain may be utilized for t h e purpose of transforming t h e components
of strain from one set of rectangular axes to another, in t h e same way as t h e
strain quadrie was transformed in Article 12. I t would thus appear t h a t
t h e quantities e ,...€ are components of a " tensor triad." Three in
xx xy
variants would t h u s be found, v i z . :

€ € e e € € € e% e2
xx + yy "T" GZZJ yy zz + zz xx "f- €xx yy ~~ \ ( yz + &zx xy)y\
...(8)
€ € e € € 2
€xx yy zz "i" \ ( yz zx xy ^xx^yz €yy€ zx
27. Angle b e t w e e n t w o curves altered b y strain.

The effect of t h e strain on t h e angle between any two linear elements,
issuing from t h e point (x, y, z), can be calculated. L e t I, m, n and V, m\ n
be t h e direction-cosines of t h e two lines in t h e unstrained state, and 0 t h e
angle between t h e m ; let l m n, and £/, m,, n, be t h e direction-cosines of 1} 1}
t h e corresponding lines in t h e strained state, and 8, t h e angle between

them. From t h e formulae such as (2) we find
cos 6, = ^ ^ 7 {cos 0 + 2 (e lV xx + e mm! yy -f € nri) zz + e (nan! + m'n) yz
+ e (nV + n'Z) + e (Im + I'm)),

zx xy (9)
where ds /ds and ds^jds' are t h e ratios of t h e lengths, after and before
1
strain, of corresponding linear elements in t h e two directions.

W e observe t h a t , if t h e two given directions are t h e positive directions of
t h e axes of y and z t h e formula becomes
}
eyz = V{(1 + 2 6 ^ ) (1 + 2e )} cos 6 yy l9 (10)
and we t h u s obtain an interpretation of t h e q u a n t i t y e . Similar inter yz
pretations can be found for e and e . zx F r o m t h e above formula it appears

xy
also t h a t , if t h e axes of x, y, z are parallel to t h e principal axes of t h e strain

at a point, linear elements, issuing from t h e point, in t h e directions of these
axes continue to cut each other at right angles after t h e strain.
W e may show that, in general, this is t h e only set of three orthogonal
linear elements, issuing from a point, which remain orthogonal after t h e
strain. For the condition t h a t linear elements which cut at right angles in
the unstrained state should also cut at r i g h t angles in t h e strained state is
obtained by p u t t i n g cos 8 and cos 8, both equal to zero in equation (9). W e
thus find t h e equation
{(1 + 2 6 ^ ) 1 + } V + {€ l+
xy (1 + 2e ) m + e ii} m
yy yz
+ {exzl + e m + (1 + 2e )n) n' = 0,

yz zz
wherein M' + m m ' + M ^ O . This equation shows t h a t each of two such

linear elements, (besides being at right angles to t h e other), is parallel to
t h e plane which is conjugate to t h e other with respect to t h e reciprocal
strain ellipsoid. A n y set of t h r e e such elements must therefore, (besides
being at right angles to each other), be parallel to conjugate diameters
of this ellipsoid.
The formulae so far obtained may be interpreted in t h e sense t h a t a
small element of t h e body, which has, in t h e unstrained state, t h e shape and
orientation of t h e reciprocal strain ellipsoid, corresponding with t h a t point
which is at t h e centre of t h e element, will, after strain, have t h e shape of a
sphere, and t h a t any set of conjugate diameters of t h e ellipsoid will become
three orthogonal diameters of t h e sphere.
28. Strain ellipsoid.
W e m i g h t express t h e ratio ds,: ds in t e r m s of t h e direction of the linear

element in t h e strained state instead of t h e unstrained. If we solved t h e
equations of t y p e (2) for I, m, n we should find t h a t these are linear functions
of I,, m,, n, with coefficients containing ds,/ds as a factor; and, on squaring
2 2 2
and adding and replacing I + m + n by unity, we should find an equation
of t h e form
, . , , du du dw
where a,, ... depend only on .
T h e ellipsoid represented by t h e equation
2
(a,x -f b,y + c,zf -f (a x + b y + c z) + (a x + b y + c zf = const,
2 2 2 3 s z
would have t h e property t h a t its central radius vector, in any direction, is

proportional to t h e ratio ds,: ds for t h e linear element which, in the strained
state, lies along t h a t direction. This ellipsoid is called t h e strain ellipsoid.
T h e lengths of t h e principal axes of this ellipsoid and of t h e reciprocal
strain ellipsoid are inverse to each other, so that, as regards shape, t h e
ellipsoids are reciprocal to each o t h e r ; b u t their principal axes are not in
general in t h e same directions. I n fact t h e principal axes of t h e strain
ellipsoid are in t h e directions of those linear elements in the strained state
which have undergone stationary (maximum or m i n i m u m or minimax)
extension. T h e simplest way of finding these directions is to observe t h a t
t h e corresponding linear elements in t h e unstrained state are parallel to t h e
principal axes of t h e strain, so t h a t their directions are known. The formulae
of type (2) express t h e direction-cosines, in the strained state, of any linear
element of which t h e direction-cosines, in t h e unstrained state, are given.
T h e direction-cosines of t h e principal axes of t h e strain ellipsoid can t h u s be
found from these formulae.
29. Alteration of direction by the strain.

T h e correspondence of directions of linear elements in t h e strained and
u n s t r a i n e d states can be made clearer by reference to the principal axes of
t h e strain. W h e n t h e axes of coordinates are parallel to the principal axes,
t h e equation of t h e reciprocal strain ellipsoid is of t h e form
2 2 2 2 2 2
(1 + e,) x + (1 + e ) y + (1 + € ) z = const. 2 s
w h e r e e , e , e are t h e principal extensions. I n the formula (9) for t h e

t 2 3
cosine of the angle between t h e strained positions of two linear elements we

have to p u t
2 2
l + 2e xx = ( l l + 2 e = ( l 4-e ) ,
w 2 1 + 2e = (1 + e ) ,
zz 3 €yz= e = €=
zx xy 0.
L e t the line (l' m\ n') of t h e formula (9) t a k e successively t h e positions
t
-of t h e three principal axes, and let t h e line (I, m, n) be any chosen line in
the unstrained state.
_1
W e have to equate ds'/ds,' in t u r n to (1 + e ) - \ (1 4- € )-\ (1 + e ) , and we 2 2 3
Lave to p u t for ds/ds, t h e expression

2 2 2 2 2 2
[(1 + e,) 1 + (1 + e ) m + (1 + e ) ^ ] " i
2 3
T h e formula then gives the cosines of the angles which t h e corresponding

linear element in t h e strained state makes with the principal axes of t h e
s t r a i n ellipsoid. Denoting these cosines by X, fi v, we find t
2 2 2 2 2 2
(X, fM, v) = [(1 + e,) 1 + (1 4- e ) m + (1 + e ) n ]-i 2 B {(1 + ) I, (1 + e ) m, (1 +
€l 2
By solving these for I, m, n we find
X /Li V
5
1 + €!' 1 + e 2 1+ e {
H e r e Z, m, w are t h e direction-cosines of a line in the unstrained state

referred to the principal axes of t h e strain, and X, ft, v are t h e direction-
cosines of the corresponding line in t h e strained state referred to the
principal axes of t h e strain ellipsoid. T h e operation of deriving the second
of these directions from t h e first may therefore be made in two steps. The
first s t e p * is t h e operation of deriving a set of direction-cosines (X, fi, v)
from t h e set (I, m, n); and t h e second step is a rotation of t h e principal axes
of t h e strain into the positions of t h e principal axes of t h e strain ellipsoid.
The formulae also admit of interpretation in t h e sense t h a t any small
element of t h e body, which is spherical in t h e unstrained state, and has
a given point as centre, assumes after strain t h e shape and orientation of t h e
strain ellipsoid with its centre at t h e corresponding point, and any set of
three orthogonal diameters of the sphere becomes a set of conjugate
diameters of the ellipsoid.
3 0 . Application to cartography.
The methods of this Chapter would admit of application to the problem of constructing
maps. The surface to be mapped and the plane map of it are the analogues of a body in
the unstrained and strained states. The theorem that the strain about any point is
sensibly homogeneous is the theorem that any small portion of the map is similar to one
of the orthographic projections of the corresponding portion of the original surface. The
analogue of the properties of the strain-ellipsoid is found in the theorem that with any
small circle on the original surface there corresponds a small ellipse on the map; the
dimensions and orientation of the ellipse, with its centre at any point, being known, the
scale of the map near the point, and all distortions of length, area and angle are deter
minate. These theorems form the foundation of the theory of cartography. [Cf. Tissot,
Memoire sur la representation des surfaces et les projections des cartes geographiques, Paris,
1881.]
31. Conditions satisfied by the displacement.

The components of displacement u, v, w are not absolutely arbitrary
functions of x, y, z. I n t h e foregoing discussion it has been assumed t h a t
they are subject to such conditions of differentiability and continuity as will
secure t h e validity of t h e " t h e o r e m of t h e total differential For our
purpose this theorem is expressed by such equations as
du _ du dx du dy du dz
ds dx ds dy ds dz ds'
Besides this analytical restriction, there are others imposed by the
assumed condition t h a t t h e displacement must be such as can be conceived
to take place in a continuous body. Thus, for example, a displacement, by
* This operation is one of homogeneous pure strain. See Article 33, infra.
t Cf. Harnack, Introduction to the Calculus, London, 1891, p. 92.
which every point is replaced by its optical image in a plane, would be
excluded. T h e expression of any component displacement by functions,
which become infinite at any point within t h e region of space occupied by
t h e body, is also excluded. Any analytically possible displacement, by which
t h e length of any line would be reduced to zero, is also to be excluded. W e
are t h u s concerned with real transformations which, within a certain region
of space, have t h e following properties : (i) T h e new coordinates
(x 4- u, y 4- v, z + w)
T
are continuous functions of t h e old coordinates (x, y, z) w hich obey t h e
theorem of t h e total differential, (ii) T h e real functions u, v, tu are such
t h a t t h e quadratic function
2 2 2
( 1 4- 2e )xx I + ( 1 4- 2e ) yy m + ( 1 + 2e ) n 4- 2e mn zz yz + 2e nl
zx + 2e lm
xy
is definite and positive, (iii) T h e functional determinant denoted by 1 + A

is positive and does not vanish.
T h e condition (iii) secures t h a t t h e strained state is such as can be
produced from t h e unstrained state, by a continuous series of small real
displacements. I t can be shown t h a t it includes t h e condition (ii) when t h e
transformation is real. From a geometrical point of view, this amounts to
t h e observation that, if the volume of a variable tetrahedron is never reduced
to zero, none of its edges can ever be reduced to zero.
I n t h e particular case of homogeneous strain, the displacements are linear
functions of t h e coordinates. T h u s all homogeneous strains are included
among linear homogeneous transformations. The condition (iii) t h e n ex
cludes such transformations as involve t h e operation of reflexion in a plane
in addition to transformations which can be produced by a continuous series
of small displacements. Some linear homogeneous transformations, which
obey t h e condition (iii), express rotations about axes passing through t h e
origin. All others involve t h e strain of some line. I n discussing homogeneous
strains and rotations it will be convenient to replace (x + u, y + v, z +w) by
(x y
u lt z ).r
32. F i n i t e h o m o g e n e o u s strain.
W e shall t a k e t h e equations by which t h e coordinates in t h e strained
state are connected with the coordinates in the unstrained state to be
xx = ( 1 4- O N ) x 4- a y + a z, 12 13
3/i = ax +
21 ( 1 4- a ) y + a ,z, L
22 2 (13)
a
Zi = ajfl# 4 a&y + ( 1 + Bs) z< ^
The corresponding components of strain are given by the equations
2 2 2
£xx = flu 4- i ( a n + a 21 4- « ),
31
The quantities e , denned in Article 8, do not lose their importance
xx
when t h e displacements are not small. The notation used here may be
identified with t h a t of Article 8 by writing, for t h e expressions
^22> ^33 > ^23 ~t~ ^32 > ^31 ~f~ ^13 J ^12 "f" Q>21> ^32 ~~ ^23? &13 — ^31? ^21 — $32 5
the expressions &xxi @yy> @zzi @yz> &zx> @xy> ^^X)

< /
2 ur . z
Denoting t h e radius vector from t h e origin to any point P , or (x, y, z), by r, we

may resolve the displacement of P in t h e direction of r, and consider t h e ratio
of t h e component displacement to t h e length r. L e t E be this ratio. W e may
define E to be t h e elongation of t h e material in t h e direction of r. W e find
y
E = \{&-*)l+(&-y) -H*i-*)$\ (is)
and this is the same as
2 2 2 2
Er = e x xx + ey yy + ez zz + e yz
yz + e zx zx + e xy xy (16)
A quadrie surface obtained by equating t h e right-hand member of this
equation to a constant may be called an elongation quadrie. I t has t h e
property t h a t t h e elongation in any direction is inversely proportional to
the central radius vector in t h a t direction. I n t h e case of very small dis
placements, t h e elongation quadrie becomes t h e strain quadrie previously
discussed (Article 11). The invariant expressions noted in Article 13 (c) do
not cease to be invariant when the displacements are not small.
The displacement expressed by (13) can be analysed into two constituent
displacements. One constituent is derived from a potential, equal to half
t h e right-hand member of ( 1 6 ) ; this displacement is directed, at each point,
along t h e normal to t h e elongation quadrie which passes through t h e point.
The other constituent may be derived from a vector potential
2 2
+ 4 m y + m (x
z + y )] (17)
by t h e operation curl.
33. H o m o g e n e o u s pure strain.

The direction of a line passing t h r o u g h t h e origin is unaltered by t h e
strain if t h e coordinates x, y, z of any point on t h e line satisfy the equations
+ fln)# + fli2y + aw** <x i^ + ( l + flzQy + flmg
2
x ~ y
_a x sl + a y + (1 + dm) z
S2
z
If each of these quantities is p u t equal to X, t h e n X is a root of t h e cubic
equation
1 + a - X a n a 12 rs
a 21 1 + a. — X 22 ct 23
- 0 (19)
a 31 a 32 1+ a —X 33
L. E. 5
The cubic has always one real root, so t h a t there is always one line of which
t h e direction is unaltered by t h e strain, and if t h e root is positive t h e sense
of t h e line also is unaltered. W h e n there are three such lines, they are not
necessarily orthogonal; but, if they are orthogonal, they are by definition the
principal axes of t h e strain. I n this case t h e strain is said to be pure. It
is worth while to give a formal definition, as follows :—Pure strain is such
t h a t t h e set of three orthogonal lines which remain orthogonal retain their
directions and senses.
W e ma}^ prove t h a t t h e sufficient and necessary conditions t h a t t h e strain
corresponding with t h e equations ( 1 3 ) , may be pure, are (i) t h a t t h e quad
ratic form on t h e left-hand side of ( 2 0 ) below is definite and positive, (ii) t h a t
vanish. T h a t these conditions are sufficient may be proved as
follows:—When zr m , vr vanish, or a = a ,
X} y z t h e equation ( 1 9 ) is t h e
23 32
discriminating cubic of t h e quadrie

2 2 2
( 1 + O H ) X + ( 1 + a ) y + ( 1 + a ) z + 2a yz 4- 2a zx + 2a xy = const.; ( 2 0 )
22 33 23 31 12
t h e left-hand member being positive, t h e cubic has three real positive roots,
which determine three real directions according to equations ( 1 8 ) ; and these
directions are orthogonal for they are t h e directions of t h e principal axes of
the surface ( 2 0 ) . F u r t h e r they are t h e principal axes of t h e elongation quadrie
2 2 2
ax
n +ay 22 + a z + 2a yz + 2<z zx + 2a xy = const.,
33 23 31 12 (21)
for this surface and ( 2 0 ) have their principal axes in t h e same directions.
The vanishing of m m and m are necessary conditions in order t h a t t h e
Xi y z
strain may be pure. To prove this we suppose t h a t equations ( 1 3 ) represent

a pure strain, and t h a t t h e principal axes of t h e strain are a set of axes of
coordinates £, n> £ T h e effect of t h e strain is to transform any point (£, 77, £)
into ( £ 1 , % > $ 1 ) in such a way t h a t when, for example, rj and f vanish, % and £i
also vanish. Eeferred to principal axes, t h e equations ( 1 3 ) must be equivalent
to t h r e e equations of t h e form
£ = Vi = (l + ^)V, & = (i + *K, (22)
where e , e are t h e principal extensions. W e may express t h e coordinates
2 3
£, i), % in terms of x, y, z by means of an orthogonal scheme of substitution.

W e t a k e this scheme to be
X y z 1!
h n x \
V h m 2 n 2
C h n 3
T h e n we have
= ( 1 -f €,) I, (kx + m,y + n z) x + (1 + e ) 2 l (l x + m y + n z)

2 2 2 2
+ (1 + e ) s k (l x + m y + n z).
3 3 3
Hence a = (1 +
l2 km, + ( 1 + e ) l m 2 2 2 + (1 + € ) 3 lm.
3 3
W e should find the same expression for a , and in t h e same way we should
21
find identical expressions for t h e pairs of coefficients a , a and a , a .

23 32 31 13
I t appears from this discussion t h a t a homogeneous pure strain is

equivalent to three simple extensions, in three directions mutually at right
angles. These directions are those of the principal axes of t h e strain.
3 4 . Analysis of any h o m o g e n e o u s strain into a pure strain and a

rotation.
I t is geometrically obvious t h a t any homogeneous strain may be produced
in a body by a suitable pure strain followed by a suitable rotation. To
determine these we may proceed as follows:—When we have found the
strain-components corresponding with the given strain, we can find the
equation of the reciprocal strain ellipsoid. T h e lengths of the principal axes
determine the principal extensions, and t h e directions of these axes are those
of the principal axes of the strain. T h e required pure strain has these
principal extensions and principal axes, and it is therefore completely
determined. The required rotation is t h a t by which the principal axes of
t h e given strain are brought into coincidence with the principal axes of
the strain ellipsoid. According to Article 28, this rotation turns three
orthogonal lines of known position respectively into three other orthogonal
lines of known position. The required angle and axis of rotation can there
fore be determined by a well-known geometrical construction. [Cf. Kelvin
and Tait, Nat. Phil, P a r t I. p. 69.]
35. Rotation*.
When the components of strain vanish, the displacement expressed by (13) of Article
32 is a rotation about an axis passing through the
origin. We shall take 6 to be the angle of rotation
and shall suppose the direction-cosines I, m, n of
the axis to be taken so that the rotation is right-
handed. Any point P, or (x, y, z\ moves on a circle
having its centre (C) on the axis, and comes into a
position P or (x\, y , z ). Let X, /x, v be the direc
ly x x
tion-cosines of CP in the sense from G to P, and let

\ , Pi, v be those of CP, in the sense from G to P .
x x
From P, let fall P N perpendicular to CP. The di

X
rection-cosines of NP in the sense from iV"to P, aret

X
mv — njjL, n\ — lv, Ip — mX.
Let f, f), £ be the coordinates of G. Then these Fig. 4.

satisfy the equations
so that g = l(l% + my -f nz) with similar expressions for rj, £.
* Cf. Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil. Part i. p. 69, and Minchin, Statics, Third E d u . , Oxford
1886, vol. 2, p. 103.
f The coordinate axes are taken to be a right-handed system.
The coordinates of P, are obtained by equating the projection of CP, on any coordinate
axis to the sums of the projections of ON and NP,. Projecting on the axis of x we find,
taking p for the length of CP or CP,,
X p=Xpcos0 +(mi/— nfx) p sin6,
x
or x, - £ = (x - {) cos 6 + {m {z - f) - n (y - n)} sin 6,

or x, = x + (mz - ny) sin 6 - {x - 1 (Ix + my+nz)} (1 - cos 6) (23)
Similar expressions for y, and z, can be written down by symmetry.
The coefficients of the linear transformation (13) become in this case
2
a =-(l-Z )(l-cos<9),
u
a = - n sin 6 + Im (1 - cos 6),

12
.(24)
a, — msin 6+ln (1 — cos 6\
z
and it appears, on calculation, that the components of strain vanish, as they ought to do.
36. S i m p l e extension.
In the example of simple extension given by the equations
x = (l+e)x,
1 y,=y, z,=z,
the components of strain, with the exception of e vanish, and xx
The invariant property of the reciprocal strain ellipsoid may be applied to find the
components of a strain which is a simple extension of amount e and direction I, m,
We should find
2 z
I 2mn
The same property may be applied to determine the conditions that a strain specified by
six components may be a simple extension. These conditions are that the invariants
€ € e e € € € € —
xx yy zz~^~& { yz zx xy~~ x x \ z ~ ••• •••)
vanish. The amount of the extension is expressed in terms of the remaining invariant
by the formula J {1 + 2 (€ + € +€ )} — 1, the positive value of the square root being taken.
xx yy sz
Two roots of the cubic in K, (7) of Article 26, are equal to unity, and the third is equal
to 1 + 2 ( 6 ^ + ^ + 6^). The direction of the extension is the direction (I, m, n) that is
given by the equations
2 633/ + € m + e n
xy xz e l + 2cyym+c n
xy yil € J, + € m + 2e n
x yz 2Z
21 ~~ 2m ~;~ " 2n - * * * + *ira + *«-
37. S i m p l e shear.
In the example of simple shear given by the equations
x, = x + sy, y, = y, z, = z y
the components of strain are given by the equations

€
xx = = €
zz ~ 0> €
yz — zx ~ e
Oj €
yy — €
xy ~ S t
By putting s = 2 tana we may prove that the two principal extensions which are not zero
are given, as in Article 3, by the equations
1 + 6 = seca - tana,
1 1 -j- e = sec a + tan a .
2
We may prove that the area of afigurein the plane of y is unaltered by the shear and
that the difference of the two principal extensions is equal to the amount of the shear.
Further we may show that the directions of the principal axes of the strain are the
bisectors of the angle AOx in Fig. 2 of Article 5, and that the angle through which the
principal axes are turned is the angle a. So that the simple shear is equivalent to a " pure
shear " followed by a rotation through an angle a, as was explained before.
By using the invariants noted in Article 26, we may prove that the conditions that
a strain with given components c , ... may be a shearing strain are
xx
2 ( xx "i" 7jy
€ €
+ 4 ( yy zz"f" *zz xx ~f" xx yy)
~h zz)
€ €
€ € € € €
( \z ~f~ ^zx "f" *xy)
€ €
~ 0?
4exx yy zz 4" *yz *zx xy ~~ xx \ z ~~ yy *zx
€ € e € € € €< €
~ zz ^xy e =
0j
and that the amount of the shear is / {2 fasB + fyi,+ N
38. Additional results relating to shear.

A good example of shear* is presented by a sphere built up of circular cards in parallel
planes. If each card is shifted in its own plane, so that the line of centres becomes a
straight line inclined obliquely to the planes of the cards, the sphere becomes an ellipsoid,
and the cards coincide with one set of circular sections of the ellipsoid. It is an instructive
exercise to determine the principal axes of the strain and the principal extensions.
We may notice the following methods f of producing any homogeneous strain by a
sequence of operations :—
(a) Any such strain can be produced by a simple shear parallel to one axis of planes
perpendicular to another, a simple extension in the direction at right angles to both axes,
an uniform dilatation and a rotation.
(b) Any such strain can be produced by three simple shears each of which is a shear
parallel to one axis of planes at right angles to another, the three axes being at right angles
to each other, an uniform dilatation and a rotation.
39. Composition of strains.

After a body has been subjected to a homogeneous strain, it may again be
subjected to a homogeneous s t r a i n ; and t h e result is a displacement of t h e
body, which, in general, could be effected by a single homogeneous strain.
More generally, when any aggregate of points is transformed by two homo
geneous linear transformations successively, t h e resulting displacement is
equivalent to t h e effect of a single linear homogeneous transformation. This
statement may be expressed by saying t h a t linear homogeneous transforma
tions form a group. T h e particular linear homogeneous transformations with
which we are concerned are subjected to t h e conditions stated in Article 31,
and they form a continuous group. The transformations of rotation, described
in Article 35, also form a g r o u p ; and this group is a sub-group included in
the linear homogeneous group. T h e latter group also includes all homo
geneous strains; b u t these do not by themselves form a group, for two
successive homogeneous strains + may be equivalent to a rotation.
* Suggested by Mr R. R. Webb. Cf. Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil, Part i. p. 122.
t Cf. Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil Part i. §§ 178 et seq.
X A transformation such as (13) of Article 32, supposed to satisfy condition (iii) of Article 31,
expresses a rotation if all the components of strain (14) vanish. In any other case it expresses a
homogeneous strain.
T h e result of two successive linear homogeneous transformations may be
expressed conveniently in t h e notation of matrices. I n this notation t h e
equations of transformation (13) would b e w r i t t e n
25
0*i, Vi> *i) = ( 1
+ On a
i2 <h* ) to y> z\ ( )
(t 21 1 "f" &22 ^23
^31 ^32 I "I" ^33
and t h e equations of a second such transformation could in t h e same way be
written
2 6
0»2, 2/2, * ) = ( 1 + &H
3 &12 &1S ) ^1, * l ) ( )
1
&21 + ^22 ^23
6 31 & S2 1+ 6 33
By t h e first transformation a point (a?, y, z) is replaced by (x y z,), and b y lt lt
the second (x y z,) is replaced by (x , y z ). T h e result of t h e two

1} lt 2 2i 2
operations is t h a t (x y, z) is replaced by (x y , z )\ and we have

y 2} 2 2
to, Jfe, # ) = ( 1 +
2 C N CM c 1 8 )(SD, y, Z), (27)
C21 1 "f" C 2 2 C23
#31 C32 1 + C33
where c = 6 + ^ 4- & N O N
lx n + & I 2 ^ I + ba,
l3 31
c =612 12
+ C&12 + ^11 «12 + ^12^22 + ^13^32,
I n regard to this result, we notice (i) t h a t t h e transformations are n o t in

general commutative ; (ii) t h a t t h e result of two successive pure strains is
not in general a pure s t r a i n ; (iii) t h a t t h e result of two successive trans
formations, involving very small displacements, is obtained by simple super
position, t h a t is by t h e addition of corresponding coefficients. T h e result
(ii) may be otherwise expressed by t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t pure strains do n o t
form a group.
40. Additional results relating t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of strains.

When the transformation (26) is equivalent to a rotation about an axis, so that its
coefficients are those given in Article 35, we may show that the components of strain
corresponding with the transformation (27) are the same as those corresponding with the
transformation (25), as it is geometrically evident they ought to be.
In the particular case where the transformation (25) is a pure strain referred to its
principal axes, [so that d = € a = e , a = e , and the remaining coefficients vanish], and
n lf 22 2 33 3
the transformation (26) is a rotation about an axis, [so that its coefficients are those given
in Article 35], the coefficients of the resultant strain are given by such equations as
l+c = (l+ ){l-(l-P)(l-co 0)},
n f l S
c
i 2 ~ ( i
+ e
2 ) { -
^ s m
0+ (1 -cos0)},
The quantities w , m corresponding with this strain are not components of rotation,
x y)
the displacement not being small. We should find for example

2& = c - c = 21 sin 6 + (e + e ) I sin 6 + (e - e ) mn (1 - cos 6).
x 32 23 2 3 2 3
We may deduce the result that, if the components of strain corresponding with the
transformation (27) vanish, and the condition (iii) of Article 31 is satisfied, the rotation
expressed by (27) is of amount 6 about an axis (£, m, n) determined by the equations
C C
32 ~ 23 _ 13 ~ °31 _ ° 2 \ ~ V2 __ C C
% s m Q
I m 7i
We may show that the transformation expressed by the equations
x x
1== -w y-\-'UjyZ^
z y = y - - u j z + 'UJ x,
l x z z = z— m
l y %+ 'uT y
x
represents a homogeneous strain compounded of uniform extension of all lines which are
at right angles to the direction (iu : TZy : zu ) and rotation about a line in this direction.
x z
The amount of the extension is A / ( 1 + ra^ + S 7 + o r / ) 1 , and the tangent of the angle of 2
y
2
rotation is s/(™x + ™y + &z )-

2 2
2
In the general case of the composition of strains, we may seek expressions for the
resultant strain-components in terms of the strain-components of the constituent strains
and the coefficients of the transformations. If we denote the components of strain
corresponding with (25), (26), (27) respectively by (e ) ... e , ... (€ ) , ..., we find such xx (n XlXl xx e
formulse as
€ € 2 a2 a 2 €
( xx)c — ( xx)a + (1 + ^n) ^xiXi + 21 + 31 z\zi
+ aae 21 3l y]Zl + (1 +a ) a e n 31 ZiXl + (l +a ) n ae,

21 xm
(e )c
yt = (cv»)a + 2<h.2 13*xWL + a 2 1
i + 2i) 23 ym a a €
+ ( 2 1 a
+ 3s) «32**m
a a a a a a l a
+ {(l+a ) 22 (1 + % ) + 23 32} *y,ei + {(l + 3s) l2 + M lz)*z&x
3 + { ( + 2 2 ) #13 + ^12%*} €
x l V l -
CHAPTEE II.
ANALYSIS OF STRESS.
4 1 . T H E notion of stress in general is simply t h a t of balancing internal

action and reaction between two parts of a body, t h e force which either part
exerts on t h e other being one aspect of a stress*. A familiar example is t h a t
of tension in a b a r ; t h e part of t h e bar on one side of any normal section
exerts tension on the other part across t h e section. Another familiar example
is t h a t of hydrostatic pressure. A t any point within a fluid, pressure is
exerted across any plane drawn through t h e point, and this pressure is
estimated as a force per unit of area. For the complete specification of the
stress at any point of a body we should require to know t h e force per unit of
area across every plane drawn through the point, and t h e direction of t h e
force as well as its m a g n i t u d e would be p a r t of t h e specification. For a
complete specification of t h e state of stress within a body we should require
to know the stress at every point of t h e body. T h e object of an analysis of
stress is to determine t h e n a t u r e of t h e quantities by which t h e stress at
a point can be specified -f\ I n this Chapter we shall develope also those
consequences in regard to t h e theory of t h e equilibrium and motion of
a body which follow directly from t h e analysis of stress.
42. Traction across a plane at a point.

We consider any area S in a given plane, and containing a point 0 within
a body. W e denote t h e normal to t h e plane drawn in a specified sense by v,
and we t h i n k of the portion of t h e body, which is on t h e side of t h e plane
towards which v is drawn, as exerting force on t h e remaining portion across
t h e plane, this force being one aspect of a stress. W e suppose t h a t t h e
force, which is t h u s exerted across t h e particular area S, is statically equi
valent to a force R, acting at 0 in a definite direction, and a couple G, about
a definite axis. If we contract the area S by any continuous process, keeping
* For a discussion of the notion of stress from the point of view of Rational Mechanics,
see Note B. at the end of this book.
+ The theory of the specification of stress was given by Cauchy in the Article ' De la pression
ou tension dans un corps solide' in the volume for 1827 of the Exercices de mathematiques.
the point 0 always within it, t h e force R and t h e couple G tend towards zero
limits, and t h e direction of t h e force tends to a limiting direction (I, m, n).
We assume t h a t t h e n u m b e r obtained by dividing t h e n u m b e r of units of
force in t h e force R by t h e n u m b e r of units of area in t h e area S (say R/S)
tends to a limit F which is not zero, and t h a t on t h e other hand G/S tends
y
to zero as a limit. W e define a vector q u a n t i t y by t h e direction (I, m, n), t h e

numerical measure F, and t h e dimension symbol
-1 2
(mass) ( l e n g t h ) (time)" .
This quantity is a force per unit of a r e a ; we call it t h e traction across t h e
plane v at t h e point 0. W e write X , Y , Z for t h e projections of this vector
v v v
on t h e axes of coordinates. T h e projection on t h e normal v is

X cos (x, v) + Y cos (y, v) + Z cos (z, v).
v v v
If this component traction is positive it is a tension; if it is negative it is a

pressure. If dS is a very small area of t h e plane normal to v at t h e point 0 ,
the portion of t h e body, which is on t h e side of t h e plane towards which v is
drawn, acts upon the portion on the other side with a force at t h e point 0 ,
specified by
(X dS, Y dS, v Z dS); v v
this is t h e traction upon the element of area dS.

I n t h e case of pressure in a fluid a t rest, t h e direction (I, m> n) of t h e
vector (X , Y Z ) is always exactly opposite to t h e direction v. I n t h e cases
v V) v
of viscous fluids in motion and elastic solids, this direction is in general

obliquely inclined to v.
43. Surface Tractions a n d B o d y Forces.

W h e n two bodies are in contact, t h e n a t u r e of t h e action between t h e m
over t h e surfaces in contact is assumed to be t h e same as the n a t u r e of t h e
action between two portions of t h e same body, separated by an imagined
surface. If we begin with any point 0 within a body, and any direction
for v, and allow 0 to move u p to a point 0' on t h e bounding surface, and
v to coincide with the outward drawn normal to this surface at 0', t h e n
XVi Y , Z tend to limiting values, which are t h e components of t h e surface-
v v
traction at 0 ' ; and X^SS, Y SS Z SS are t h e forces exerted across the

V > V
element SS of t h e bounding surface by some other body having contact

with the body in question in t h e neighbourhood of t h e point 0'.
I n general other forces act upon a body, or upon each part of t h e body, in
addition to t h e tractions on its surface. The type of such forces is t h e force
of gravitation, and such forces are in general proportional to t h e masses of
particles on which they act, and, further, they are determined as to magnitude
and direction by t h e positions of these particles in t h e field of force. I f
X, Y, Z are t h e components of t h e intensity of t h e field at any point, m t h e
mass of a particle at t h e point, t h e n m l , mY, mZ are t h e forces of t h e field
t h a t act on t h e particle. T h e forces of t h e field may arise from t h e action of
particles forming part of t h e body, as in t h e case of a body subject to its own
gravitation, or of particles outside t h e body, as in t h e case of a body subject
to t h e gravitational attraction of another body. I n either case we call t h e m
body forces.
44. Equations of Motion.

The body forces, applied to any portion of a body, are statically equi
valent to a single force, applied a t one point, together with a couple. T h e
components, parallel to t h e axes, of. t h e single force are
jjjpX dxdydz, jjjp Y dxdydz, jjjpZdxdydz,
where p is t h e density of t h e body a t t h e point (x, y, z), and t h e integration

is taken through t h e volume of t h e portion of t h e body. I n like manner, t h e
tractions on t h e elements of area of t h e surface of t h e portion are equivalent
to a resultant force and a couple, and t h e components of t h e former are
jfx dS,
v fJY dS,
v ffz dS,
v
where t h e integration is taken over t h e surface of t h e portion. T h e centre of

mass of t h e portion moves like a particle under t h e action of these two sets
of forces, for they are all t h e external forces acting on t h e portion. If then
(f , f , f ) is t h e acceleration of t h e particle which is at t h e point (x, y, z)
x y z
at time t, t h e equations of motion of t h e portion are three of t h e t y p e *

x( x
///Pf ^ dydz = ffj Xdxdydz+
P ffx dS, v ....(1)
where t h e volume-integrations are taken through t h e volume of t h e portion,

and t h e surface-integration is taken over its surface.
Again t h e equations, which determine t h e changes of moment of m o m e n t u m
of t h e portion of t h e body, are three of t h e type
z z
jjjp(yfz *" fv) dxdydz = jjjp (y ~ zY) dxdydz + jj(yZ v - zY ) dS;
v
(2)
and, in accordance with t h e theorem f of t h e independence of t h e motion of
the centre of mass and t h e motion relative to t h e centre of mass, t h e origin
of t h e coordinates x, y, z may be t a k e n to be a t t h e centre of mass of t h e
portion.
The above equations (1) and (2) are t h e types of t h e general equations of
motion of all bodies for which t h e notion of stress is valid.
* The equation (1) is the form assumed by the equations of the type 2ra# = 2X, of my
Theoretical Mechanics, Chapter V I . ; and the equation (2) is the form assumed by the equations
of the type 2 m (yz - zy)=2 (yZ - zY) of the same Chapter.
t Theoretical Mechanics, Chapter VI.
45. Equilibrium.
W h e n a b o d y is at rest u n d e r t h e a c t i o n of body forces and surface tractions, t h e s e are
subject to t h e c o n d i t i o n s of equilibrium, w h i c h are o b t a i n e d from e q u a t i o n s (1) a n d (2) b y
omission of t h e t e r m s c o n t a i n i n g f , x f,
y f.
z W e h a v e t h u s six e q u a t i o n s , v i z . : three
of t h e t y p e
jj j Xdxdydz
P + j jx dS=0,v (3)
and three of t h e t y p e
jj jp(yZ-zY) dxdydz + j j (yZ -zY ) v v dS=0 (4)
I t follows t h a t if t h e b o d y forces a n d surface tractions are g i v e n arbitrarily, there will

not b e equilibrium.
I n t h e particular case where there are n o b o d y forces, e q u i l i b r i u m c a n n o t be m a i n t a i n e d
u n l e s s t h e surface t r a c t i o n s satisfy six e q u a t i o n s of t h e t y p e s
j j X dS=0,
v a n d j j (yZ - zY ) v v dS=0.
4 6 . L a w of E q u i l i b r i u m of surface tractions o n small v o l u m e s .

From t h e forms alone of equations (1) and (2) we can deduce a result of
great importance. L e t t h e volume of integration be very small in all its
dimensions, and let P denote this volume. If we divide both members of
equation (1) by P, and then pass to a limit by diminishing I indefinitely, we
find the equation
lim. l-*ffX dS v = 0.
1=0
Again, if we t a k e t h e origin within t h e volume of integration, we obtain by a
similar process from (2) t h e equation
3
lim. l- JJ(yZ - zY ) dS = 0. v v
1=0
The equations of which these are types can be interpreted in the s t a t e m e n t :
The tractions on the elements of area of the surface of any portion of a body,
which is very small in all its dimensions, are ultimately, to a first approxima
tion, a system of forces in equilibrium.
4 7 . Specification of stress at a point.

Through any point 0 in a body, there passes a doubly infinite system of
planes, and t h e complete specification of the stress at 0 involves the know
ledge of t h e traction at 0 across all these planes. W e may use t h e results
obtained in t h e last Article to express all these tractions in terms of t h e
component tractions across planes parallel to the coordinate planes, and to
obtain relations between these components. W e denote the traction across
a plane x = const, by its vector components (X , Y , Z ) and use a similar x x x
notation for t h e tractions across planes y = const, and z — const. The capital
letters show t h e directions of t h e component tractions, and t h e suffixes the
planes across which they act. The sense is such t h a t X is positive when it x
is a tension, negative when it is a pressure. If t h e axis of x is supposed

drawn upwards from t h e paper (cf. Fig. 5), and t h e paper is placed so as to
pass through 0, t h e traction in question is exerted by t h e part of t h e body
above t h e paper upon t h e part below.
W e consider-the equilibrium of a tetrahedral portion of t h e body, having
one vertex at 0 , and the three edges t h a t meet at this vertex parallel to t h e
axes of coordinates. T h e remaining vertices are t h e intersections of these
edges with a plane near to 0. W e denote
the direction of t h e normal to this plane,
drawn away from t h e interior of the tetra
hedron, by v, so t h a t its direction cosines
are cos (x> v), cos(y, v), cos(#, v). Let A
be t h e area of the face of the tetrahedron
t h a t is in this p l a n e ; the areas of t h e
remaining faces are
A cos (x, v), A cos (y, v), A cos (z, v).
For a first approximation, when all the
edges of the tetrahedron are small, we may
take t h e resultant tractions across t h e face
to be X „ A , and those on t h e remain
Fig. 5.
ing faces to be — X A cos(x, v), ..... T h e X
sum of t h e tractions parallel to on all the faces of the tetrahedron can be

t a k e n to be
XAv — XA x cos (x, v) — X A y cos (y, v) — X A Z cos (z, v).
By dividing by A , in accordance with the process of t h e last Article, we
obtain t h e first of equations (5), and the other equations of this set are
obtained by similar processes; we t h u s find t h e three equations
X =X
v x cos (x, v) 4- Xy cos (y, v) + X cos (z, v), "
z
Y= v Y cos(x,x v)+ Y cos (y, v)+

y Y cos(z, z v), L (5)
Z = Z cos (x, v) 4- Z cos (y, v) 4- Z cos (z, v).
v x y z
By these equations t h e traction across any plane through 0 is expressed in

terms of the tractions across planes parallel to the coordinate planes. By these
equations also the component tractions across planes, parallel to t h e coordinate
planes, at any point on t h e bounding surface of a body, are connected with
t h e tractions exerted upon t h e body, across t h e surface, by any other body in
contact with it.
Again, consider a very small cube (Fig. 6) of t h e material with its edges
parallel to the coordinate axes. To a first approximation, the resultant
tractions exerted upon t h e cube across t h e faces perpendicular to the axis
of x are A X ^ , AY ,AZ , for t h e face for which x is greater, and — A X ^ ,
X X
— AY , —AZ
X Xi for the opposite face, A being t h e area of any face. Similar
expressions hold for t h e other faces. The value of Jj(yZ — zY ) dS for t h e u v
cube can be taken to be IA (Z — Y ), where I is t h e length of any edge. By
y z
the process of t h e last Article we obtain the first of equations (6), and t h e
other equations of this set are obtained by similar processes; we t h u s find
the three equations
Zy X? = Z • X x
v .(6)
Fig. 6.
By equations (6) the n u m b e r of quantities which must be specified, in

order t h a t t h e stress at a point may be determined, is reduced to six, viz.
three normal component tractions X , Y , Z , and three tangential tractions
x y z
Y, Z, X.
z x y These six quantities are called the components of stress* at t h e
point.
The six components of stress are sometimes written xx, yy,zz, yz, zx, xy.
A notation of this k i n d is especially convenient when use is made of t h e
orthogonal curvilinear coordinates of Article 19. T h e six components of
stress referred to t h e normals to t h e surfaces a, /3, 7 a t a point will hereafter
be denoted by aa, /3/3, 77, fiy, 7a, a/3.
4 8 . Measure of stress.
The state of stress within a body is determined when we know t h e values
a t each point of t h e six components of stress. Each of these stress-components
is a traction of t h e kind described in Article 42, so t h a t it is measured as a
-2
force per unit area. The dimension symbol of any stress-component is ML^T .
* A symmetrical method of specifying the stress is worked out by Lord Kelvin (Article 10 foot
note). The method is equivalent to taking as the six components of stress at a point the tensions
per unit of area across six planes which are perpendicular respectively to the six edges of a
chosen tetrahedron.
A stress may accordingly be measured as so m a n y " tons per square inch,"
or so many " dynes per square centimetre," or more generally, as so many
8
units of force per unit of area. [One ton per square inch = 1*5 45 x 10 dynes
per square centimetre.]
6
For example, the pressure of t h e atmosphere is about 10 dynes per square
centimetre. As exemplifying t h e stresses which have to be allowed for by
engineers we may note t h e s t a t e m e n t of W. C. U n w i n * t h a t the Conway
bridge is daily subjected to stresses reaching 7 tons per square inch.
49. Transformation of Stress-components.
Since t h e traction at a given point across any plane is determined when

t h e six components of stress at t h e point are given, it m u s t be possible to
express t h e six components of stress, referred to any system of axes, in terms
of those referred to another system. Let t h e components of stress referred
to axes of x\ y\ z' be denoted by XV, • • • 5 and let the new coordinates be given
in terms of t h e old by t h e orthogonal scheme of transformation
X y z
x' h n
i
y' h m 2 n 2
z' h m 3 n s
T h e n equations (5) show t h a t t h e component tractions across t h e plane x

(in t h e directions of t h e axes of x, y, z) are given by t h e equations
X> = lX
x 1 x + mX Y y + n,X , z j
Yv^hYv + m^y + nÂ (7)
Also, since t h e traction across any plane is a vector, we have t h e equations

X V = l,X > +.Y > x x + n, Ztf, J
To, = kX , x + m Y > + n Z >, I

2 x 2 x (8)
Z'tf = l Xaf + m Y > + 7l Z >. J
3 B x 3 x
O n substituting from (7) in (8), and t a k i n g account of (6), we find formulae of

t h e type
2
XV = l, X + mfYy+n^Z,
x + 2m n Y 1 1 z + Zn l Z 1 1 x + 2^ m X , y
1 1 2/
X' > = IJ X
y 2 X + mmY
1 2 y + n,n Z 2 z + {m n + m n^) Y x 2 2 z \ (9)
+ (nJ + n l )Z 2 2 1 x + (l in + l m )X .
1 2 2 1 y )
These are t h e formulas for t h e transformation of stress-components.

* The Testing of Materials of Construction, London 1888, p. 9.
5 0 . The stress quadrie.
The formulae (9) show t h a t , if t h e equation of t h e quadrie surface
2 2 2
Xx
x + Y y + Zz
y z + 2 Y yz + 2Z zx
z x + 2X xy y = const .(10)
is transformed by an orthogonal substitution so t h a t the left-hand member
2
becomes a function of x\ y', z', the coefficients of x , ... 2y'z', ... in t h e left-
hand member are X <, ... Y'g, .... x
The quadrie surface (10) is called the stress quadrie. I t has t h e property
t h a t t h e normal stress across any plane t h r o u g h its centre is inversely pro
portional to t h e square of t h a t radius vector of t h e quadrie which is normal
to t h e plane. If the quadrie were referred to its principal axes, the tangential
tractions across the coordinate planes would vanish. The normal tractions
across these planes are called principal stresses. W e learn t h a t there exist,
at any point of a body, three orthogonal planes, across each of which
the traction is purely normal. These are called t h e principal planes of
stress. We also learn t h a t to specify completely t h e state of stress at any
point of a body we require to know the directions of the principal planes of
stress, and t h e magnitudes of t h e principal stresses; and t h a t we may then
obtain t h e six components of stress, referred to any set of orthogonal
planes, by t h e process of transforming t h e equation of a quadrie surface from
one set of axes to another. T h e stress at a point may be regarded as a
single quantity related to directions; this quantity is not a vector, b u t has
six components in much t h e same way as a strain*.
5 1 . T y p e s of stress.
(a) Purely normal stress.
I f t h e traction across e v e r y p l a n e at a p o i n t is n o r m a l t o t h e plane, t h e t e r m s c o n t a i n
i n g products yz, zx, xy are a l w a y s a b s e n t from t h e e q u a t i o n of t h e stress quadrie, however
t h e rectangular axes of coordinates m a y b e chosen. I n t h i s case a n y set of orthogonal
lines passing t h r o u g h t h e p o i n t can b e t a k e n to b e t h e principal a x e s of t h e quadrie. It
follows t h a t t h e quadrie is a sphere, a n d t h e n c e t h a t t h e normal s t r e s s - c o m p o n e n t s are all
equal i n m a g n i t u d e a n d h a v e t h e s a m e s i g n . If t h e y are p o s i t i v e t h e stress is a t e n s i o n ,
t h e s a m e in all d i r e c t i o n s round t h e p o i n t . If t h e y are n e g a t i v e t h e s t r e s s is pressure,
w i t h t h e like property of e q u a l i t y i n all d i r e c t i o n s t .
(6) Simple tension or pressure.
A s i m p l e t e n s i o n or pressure is a s t a t e of stress at a point, w h i c h is s u c h t h a t t h e
traction across one p l a n e t h r o u g h t h e p o i n t i s normal t o t h e plane, a n d t h e traction across
a n y perpendicular p l a n e v a n i s h e s . T h e e q u a t i o n of t h e stress quadrie referred t o i t s
principal axes w o u l d be of t h e form
2
X' ,x'
x —const.
so t h a t t h e quadrie c o n s i s t s of a pair of p l a n e s n o r m a l t o t h e direction of t h e t e n s i o n ,
or pressure. T h e c o m p o n e n t s of s t r e s s referred t o arbitrary a x e s of x, y, z w o u l d be
f 2 2
X = X' ,l\
x x Fy = X >m , x Z =X' ,n ,
z x Y = X' ,mn,
z x Z =X' ml,
x x X = X' dm,
y x
where (I, m, n) i s t h e direction of t h e t e n s i o n , or pressure, a n d X' , x is i t s m a g n i t u d e . If t h e

s t r e s s is t e n s i o n X' > is p o s i t i v e ; if t h e stress is pressure X' > is negative.
x x
* In the language of Voigt it is a tensor-triad. Cf. Article 14 (b) supra.

f This is a fundamental theorem of rational Hydrodynamics, cf. Lamb, Hydrodynamics, p. 2.
It was proved first by Cauchy, see Ency. d. math. Wiss., Bd. 4 , Art. 15, p. 52.
(c) Shearing Stress.
The result expressed by equations (6) is independent of t h e directions of
the axes of coordinates, and may be stated as follows:—The tangential
traction, parallel to a line I, across a plane at right angles to a line V, t h e
two lines being at right angles to each other, is equal to the tangential
traction, parallel to V, across a plane at right angles to I. I t follows t h a t t h e
existence of tangential traction across any plane implies the existence of
tangential traction across a perpendicular plane. T h e term shearing stress is
used to express t h e stress at a point specified by a pair of equal tangential
tractions on two perpendicular planes.
We may use the analysis of Article 4 9 to determine the corresponding principal
stresses and principal planes of stress. Let the stress quadrie be 2X' > x'y' = const., so
y
that there is tangential traction parallel to the axis x' on a plane y' — const., and equal
tangential traction parallel to the axis y' on a plane x' — const. Let the axes of x, y, z be
the principal axes of the stress. The form %X' >x'y' is the same as
y
and this ought to be the same as

X x*+Y y*+Z z\
x y z
We therefore have Z —0, X — — Y — X' <;

z x y y
and we find that the shearing stress is equivalent to tension across one of the planes, that
bisect the angles between the two perpendicular planes concerned, and pressure across the
other of these planes. The tension and the pressure are equal in absolute magnitude, and
each of them is equal to either tangential traction of the shearing stress.
The diagram (Fig. 7), illustrates the equivalence of the shearing stress and the principal
stresses. Shearing stress equivalent to such principal stresses as those shown in the
left-hand figure may be expected to produce shearing strains in which planes of the material
that are perpendicular to the axis of y' before the application of the stress slide in a
direction parallel to the axis of x\ and planes perpendicular to the axis of x' slide in a
direction parallel to the axis of y'. Thus shearing stress of the type X may be expected
y
to produce shearing strain of the type e . (See Article 14 (c).)

xy
(d) Plane Stress.
A more general type of stress, which includes simple tension and shearing stress as
particular cases, is obtained by assuming that one principal stress is zero. The stress
quadrie is then a cylinder standing on a conic as base, and the latter may be called the
stress conic; its plane contains the directions of the two principal stresses which do not
vanish. Taking this plane to be at right angles to the axis of z, the equation of the stress
conic is of the form
2 2
X x + Y y + 2X xy = const.
x y y
and the shearing stresses Z and Y are zero, as well as the tension Z . In the particular
x z z
case of simple tension the stress conic consists of a pair of parallel lines, in the case of
shearing stress it is a rectangular hyperbola. If it is a circle there is tension or pressure
the same in all directions in the plane of the circle.
5 2 . Resolution of a n y stress-system into uniform t e n s i o n a n d

shearing stress.
T h e quantity X + Y + Z is invariant as regards transformations from
x y z
one set of rectangular axes to another. W h e n t h e stress-system is uniform

normal pressure of amount p, this q u a n t i t y is — Sp. I n general, we may call
t h e quantity i (X + Y + Z ) t h e " mean tension a t a point " ; and we may
x y z
resolve t h e stress-system into components characterised respectively by t h e

existence and non-existence of mean tension. F o r this purpose we m a y
put
Then t h e stress-system expressed by %X — ^(Y + Z ), ... involves no mean X y z
tension. This system has t h e property t h a t t h e s u m of t h e principal stresses

vanishes; and it is possible t o choose rectangular axes of coordinates x\ y\ z
in such a way t h a t t h e normal tractions X' >, Y' > Z'^, corresponding with x y y
these axes, vanish. Accordingly, stress-systems, which involve no mean

tension at a point, are equivalent to shearing stresses only, in t h e sense t h a t
three orthogonal planes can b e found across which t h e tractions are purely
tangential. I t follows t h a t any stress-system a t a point is equivalent to
tension (or pressure), t h e same in all directions round t h e point, together
with tangential tractions across three planes which cut each other a t right
angles.
53. Additional results.

The proofs of the following results* may serve as exercises for the student:
(i) The quantities
2 2 2
X + Y +Z,
x y Z Y Z -\-Z X
y z 2 x +XY- x y Y -Z -X ,
z x y
2 2 2
Xx Y Z -\-2 Y Z X
y z z x y - X Y — YZ
x y x — ZX z y
are invariant as regards orthogonal transformations of coordinates.
* The results (i)—(v) are due to Cauchy and Lame.

L. E. 6
(ii) If X , Y , Z are principal stresses, the traction across any plane is proportional
x y z
to the central perpendicular on the parallel tangent plane of the ellipsoid

2 2 2 2 2 2
x jX + y l Y + z /Z =const.
x y
This is Lame's stress-ellipsoid. The reciprocal surface was discussed by Cauchy; its
central radius vector in any direction is inversely proportional to the traction across the
plane at right angles to that direction.
2 2 2
(iii) The quadrie surface x IX +y /Y + z /Z =const, (in which X , ... are principal
x y z x
stresses), called Lame's stress-director quadrie, is the reciprocal of the stress quadrie with
respect to its centre; the radius vector from the centre to any point of the surface is in the
direction of the traction across a plane parallel to the tangent plane at the point.
(iv) The planes across which there is no normal traction at a point envelope a cone of
the second degree which is the reciprocal of the asymptotic cone of the stress quadrie at
the point. The former cone is Lame's cone of shearing stress. When it is real, it separates
the planes across which the normal traction is tension from those across which it is pressure;
when it is imaginary the normal traction across all planes is tension or pressure according
as the mean tension J (X + Y + Z ) is positive or negative.
x y s
(v) If any two lines x and x' are drawn from any point of a body in a state of stress,
and planes at right angles to them are drawn at the point, the component parallel to x' of
the traction across the plane perpendicular to x is equal to the component parallel to x of
the traction across the plane perpendicular to x'.
This theorem, which may be expressed by the equation x =x <, is a generalization of x x
the results (6) of Article 47.

(vi) Maxwell's electrostatic stress-system*.
Let V be the potential of a system of electric charges, and let a stress-system be
determined by the equations
_ l _ dVdV r =
z
~4TT dy dz '
, __1_ dVdV
*~47r dz dx'
, _ 1_ dV d_V
v
~~4,jv dx dy'
It may be shown, by taking the axis of x to be parallel to the normal at (x, y, z) to the
equipotential surface at the point, that one principal plane of the stress at any point is the
tangent plane to the equipotential surface at the point, and that the traction across this
plane is tension of amount R /8ir, while the traction across any perpendicular plane is
2
pressure of the same amount, R being the resultant electric force at the point so that
(vii) If u, v, w are the components of any vector quantity, and X ,... are the components x
of any stress, the three quantities

X u + X v-\~Z w,
x y XyU+Y v+ Y w, Z u+ Y v 4- Z w
x y z x 2 z
are the components of a vector, i.e. they are transformed from one set of rectangular axes
to another by the same substitution as u, v, w.
54. The stress-equations of m o t i o n a n d of equilibrium.

In the equations of t h e type (1) of Article 44, we substitute for X , v ...
* Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd Edn., Oxford, 1881, vol. 1, ch. 5.
from equations (5). W e t h e n have, as t h e equation obtained by resolving all
t h e forces parallel to the axis of x,
jjjpf dxdydz
x = JJ (pXdxdydz
+ jj[X cos (x, v) + X cos (y v) + X cos (z, v)} dS. .. .(11)

x y t z
W e apply Green's transformation* to t h e surface-integral, and transpose, t h u s

obtaining t h e equation
+ + + o i 2
K " ' f ' ^ ^ ^ / - ) " ^ = < >
I n this equation t h e integration may be t a k e n through any volume within

t h e body, and it follows t h a t t h e equation cannot be satisfied unless the
subject of integration vanishes at every point within t h e body. Similar
results would follow by transforming t h e equations obtained by resolving all
t h e forces parallel to t h e axes of y and z. W e t h u s obtain t h r e e equations of
motion of t h e type
dX dX dX x y z
+ pX = f (13)
dx dy dz P x
If t h e body is held in equilibrium, f ,f ,f x y z are zero, and t h e equations of

equilibrium are
dX ^ dXy j dZ ^ X =
x x 0
dx dy dz " '
r .(14)
dx dy dz
^Z x dYz + dZ^ + pZ =0
dx dy dz
wherein Y , Z X have been written for the equivalent Z X Y .
z Xy y yy z> x
If t h e body moves so t h a t t h e displacement (u, v, w) of any particle is

always very small, we may p u t
2 2
dhi d v dw
y 2
~d¥ dt ' W
instead of f , f , f , t h e t i m e being denoted by t; t h e equations of small
x y z
motion are therefore

2
dXy du
+Px
dx + dy +
dXy dYy dY z
+ Y .(15)
dx + dy dz
P
~p
dt*
dZ dY dZ z
x
+
z
+ + PZ
dx dy
* The transformation is that expressed by the equation
d
j J { £ c o s (x v) + 7ioos(y
i 1 v) + £cos(z, v)}dS = j j j(^ + ^ + %) dxdydz.
Other forms of equations of equilibrium and of motion, containing fewer
unknown quantities, will be given hereafter. W e distinguish the above
forms (14) and (15) as t h e stress-equations.
5 5 . Uniform stress and uniformly varying stress.

We observe that the stress-equations of equilibrium (14) hold within a body, and
equations (5) hold at its boundary, provided that, in the latter equations, v is the direction
of the normal to the bounding surface drawn outwards and X„, ... are the surface tractions.
The equations may be used to determine the forces that must be applied to a body to
maintain a given state of stress.
When the components of stress are independent of the coordinates, or the stress is the
same at all points of the body, the body forces vanish. In other words, any state of
uniform stress can be maintained by surface tractions only.
We shall consider two cases :
(a) Uniform pressure. In this case we have
X = Y — Z — — p, Y — Z — Xy — 0,
x y z z x
where p is the pressure, supposed to be the same at all points and in all directions round
each point. The surface tractions are equal to the components of a pressure p exerted
across the surface of the body, whatever the shape of the body may be. We may conclude
that, when a body is subjected to constant pressure p, the same at all points of its surface,
and is free from the action of body forces, the state of stress in the interior can be a state
of mean pressure, equal to p at each point, unaccompanied by any shearing stress.
(b) Simple tension. Let T be the amount of the tension, and the axis of x its direction.
Then we have X = T, and the remaining stress-components vanish. We take T to be the
x
same at all points. The surface traction at any point is directed parallel to the axis of x,
and its amount is ^cos(^, v). If the body is in the shape of a° cylinder or prism, of any
form of section, with its length in the direction of the axis of x, there will be tensions on
its ends of amount T per unit area, and there will be no tractions across its cylindrical
surface. We may conclude that when a bar is subjected to equal and opposite uniform
normal tensions over its ends, and is free from the action of any other forces, the state of
stress in the interior can be a state of tension across the normal sections, of the same
amount at all points.
Uniform traction across a plane area is statically equivalent to a force at the centroid
of the area. The force has the same direction as the traction, and its magnitude is
measured by the product of the measures of the area and of the magnitude of the traction.
If the traction across an area is uniform as regards direction and, as regards magnitude,
is proportional to distance, measured in a definite sense, from a definite line in the plane
of the area, we have an example of uniformly varying stress. The traction across the area
is statically equivalent to a single force acting at a certain point of the plane, which is
identical with the " centre of pressure " investigated in treatises on Hydrostatics. There
Is an exceptional case, in which the line of zero traction passes through the centroid of the
area; the traction across the area is then statically equivalent to a couple. When the line
of zero traction does not intersect the boundary of the area, the traction has the same sign
at all points of the area ; and the centre of pressure must then lie within a certain curve
surrounding the centroid. If the area is of rectangular shape, and the line of zero traction
is parallel to one side, the greatest distance of the centre of pressure from the centroid
is ^-th of that side. This result is the engineers' " rule of the middle third*."
* Ewing, Strength of Materials, p. 104.
56. Observations c o n c e r n i n g the stress-equations.
(a) The equations of type (13) may be obtained by applying the equations of type (1)
[Article 44] to a small parallelepiped bounded by planes parallel to the coordinate planes.
The contributions of the faces x and x+dx to j j X dS can be taken to be ~X dydz and v x
{X + (dX /dx)dx} dydz, and similar expressions for the contributions of the remaining
x x
pairs of faces can be written down.

(b) The equations of moments of type (2) are already satisfied in consequence of
equations (6). In fact (2) may be written
(dz dz dz \ fdr dr dr
x x z
= j j jp (yZ~ zY) dxdydz
+ j J [y{^cos(#, v) + Z co$(y, v) + Z cos(z, v)} y z
— z{Y x cos (x, v) Y cos (y, v) + Y cos (z, v)}] dS,

y z
by substituting for f , ... from the equations of type (13), and for Y , Z from (5). By
x v v
help of Green's transformation, this equation becomes
/// {Zy — Y ) dx dydz — 0 ; z
and thus the equations of moments are satisfied identically in virtue of equations (6). It
will be observed that, equations (6) might be proved by the above analysis instead of that
in Article 47.
(c) When the equations (14) are satisfied at all points of a body, the conditions of
equilibrium of the body as a whole (Article 45) are necessarily satisfied, and the resultant
of all the body forces, acting upon elements of volume of the body, is balanced by the
resultant of all the tractions, acting upon elements of its surface. The like statement is
true of the resultant moments of the body forces and surface tractions.
(d) An example of the application of this remark is afforded by Maxwell's stress-system
described in (vi) of Article 53. We should find for example
dX dX dZ 1 dV . x v x 9Tr
dx dy dz 4?r dx '
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
where v stands for d /dx + d \dy + d /dz . It follows that, in any region throughout which
2
V F = 0 , this stress-system is self-equilibrating, and that, in general, this stress-system is
2
in equilibrium with body force specified by - v V •> ^ 5 per unit volume.
Hence the tractions over any closed surface, which would be deduced from the formulse for
1 fdV dV dV\ 2
X,
x are statically equivalent to body forces, specified by — v V , , j per
unit volume of the volume within the surface.
(e) Stress-functions.
In the development of the theory we shall be much occupied with bodies in equilibrium
under forces applied over their surfaces only. In this case there are no body forces and
no accelerations, and the equations of equilibrium are
dx dx dz x dx, dr, dr. dz dr dz,
+ + = 0 + + = 0 + + 0 ( 1 6 )
-^ %T ^ ' dV ~dJ ^ ' ^ "37 ^ - '
while the surface tractions are equal to the values of (X , Y , Z ) at the surface of the body. v v v
The differential equations (16) are three independent relations between the six components
of stress at any point; by means of them we might express these six quantities in terms of
three independent functions of position. Such functions would be called "stress-functions."
So long as we have no information about the state of the body, besides that contained in
equations (16), such functions are arbitrary functions.
One way of expressing the stress-components in terms of stress-functions is to assume*
3
V--l2(i
l z x
X - - ^ *
v
~ dydz' ~ dzdx' ~ dxdy'
and then it is clear that the equations (16) are satisfied if
a 9 2 2
v A J l x * r- -!*i + ^ ^_ X2,9 xi
x 2 + 2 v 2 2 z 2 2
~ dy dz ' ~ dz dx ' ~ 'dx "*~ dy '
Another way is to assumed
_ _ 3
v 2
)z' * dzdx' " dxdy'
l z + x +
~ 2dx\ dx ty* dz )> ~ 2dy\dx dy dz)'
y
~ Zdz\dx*~dy dz)'
These formulae may be readily verified. It will be observed that the relations between
the x functions and the \fr functions are the same as those between the quantities e , ... xx
and the quantities e , ... in Article 17.

yz
5 7 . Graphic representation of stress.

States of stress pay be illustrated in various ways by means of diagrams, but complete
diagrammatic representations cannot easily be found. There are cases in which the
magnitude and direction of the stress at a point can be determined by inspection of a
drawing of a family of curves, just as magnetic force may be found by aid of a diagram
of lines of force. But such cases are rare, the most important being the stress in a
twisted bar.
In the case of plane stress, in a body held by forces applied at its boundary, a complete
representation of the stress at any point can be obtained by using two diagrams f. The
stress is determined by means of a stress-function ^, so that
xJ^L x F - ^ 2 R - - ^ -
ly 2
8
(17)
v A }
* dy ' ~dx ' , ~ dxdy' * '
the plane of the stress being the plane of y, and % being a function of x, y, z. If the
3v dy
'curves ~— const, and ~ = const, are traced for the same value of z and for equidifferent
L
ox oy -
values of the constants, then the tractions at any point, across planes parallel to the planes
Pi
of (x, z) and (y, z\ are directed respectively along the tangents to the curves = const, and
^ — const, which pass through the point, and their magnitudes are proportional to the
closeness of consecutive curves of the respective families.
* Maxwell, Edinburgh Roy. Soc. Trans, vol. 26 (1870), = Scientific Papers, vol. 2, p. 161.
The particular case of plane stress was discussed by Gr. B. Airy, Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1862.
f G. Morera, Rome, Acc. Lincei Rend. (Ser. 5), t. 1 (1892). The relations between the two
systems of stress-functions were discussed by Beltrami and Morera in the same volume.
X J. H . Michell, London Math. Soc, Proc, vol. 32 (1901).
Partial representations by graphic means have sometimes been used in. cases where a
complete representation cannot be obtained. Of this kind are tracings or models of the
"lines of stress." These lines are such that the tangent to any one of them at any point
is normal to a principal plane of stress at the point. Through any point there pass three
such lines, cutting each other at right angles. These lines may determine a triply orthogonal
set of surfaces, but in general no such set exists. When such surfaces exist they are
described as "isostatic surfaces*" and from a knowledge of them the directions of the
principal stresses at any point can be inferred.
Distributions of stress may also be studied by the aid of polarized light. The
method f is based on the experimental fact that an isotropic transparent body, when
stressed, becomes doubly refracting, with its optical principal axes at any point in the
directions of the principal axes of stress at the point.
58. Stress-equations referred to curvilinear orthogonal coordi-

natesj.
The required equations may be obtained by finding t h e transformed
expression for jjX dS v in t h e general equation (1) of Article 44. Now
we have, by equations (5),

X = X cos (x, v) + X cos (y, v) + X cos (z, v),
v x y z
and cos (x, v) = cos (a, v) cos (x, a) + cos (ft, z>).cos (x, ft) + cos (y, v) cos (x, y ) ,
so t h a t X = \X
v X cos (x, a) -f X y cos (y, a) + X cos (z, a)} cos (a, v)
z
+ two similar expressions

= X cos (a, v) + Xp cos (ft, v) + X
a y cos (y, v),
where, for example, X denotes the traction in direction x, at a point (a, ft, y ) ,
a
across t h e t a n g e n t plane at t h e point to t h a t surface of t h e a family which

passes through the point. According to t h e result (v) of Article 53 this is
the same as a , t h e traction in t h e direction of t h e normal to t h e a surface at
x
t h e point, exerted across t h e plane x — const, which passes through t h e point.

F u r t h e r we have, by equations (5),
a — aa cos ( a , x) + aft cos (ft, x) + y a cos (y, x).

x
Again, cos (a, v) dS is t h e projection of t h e surface element dS, about any

point of S, upon t h e t a n g e n t plane to the a surface which passes t h r o u g h t h e
* These surfaces were first discussed by Lame, J. de Math. (Liouville), t. 6 (1841), and Lecons
suf les coordonnees curvilignes. The fact that they do not in general exist was pointed out by
Boussinesq, Paris C:R:, t. 74 (1872). Cf. Weingarten, J.f. Math. [Crelle), Bd. 90 (1881).
f. The method originated with D. Brewster, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1816. It was de
veloped by F. E . Neumann, Berlin Abh. 1841, and by Maxwell, Edinburgh Roy. Soc. Trans.,
vol. 20 (1853) = Scientific Papers, vol. 1, p. 30. For a more recent experimental investigation, see
J. Kerr, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 26 (1888). Reference may also be made to M. E . Maseart,
Traite d'Optique, t. 2 (Paris 1891), pp. 229 et seq.
X Other methods of obtaining these equations will be given in Chapter VII. and in the Note
on the applications of moving axes at the end of this book.
point, and this projection is dftdy/h h . 2 3 Hence
dftdy
jjX dS v = jj{aL0i cos (a, x) + aft cos (ft, x) + ya cos (7, x)}
7 < a
4- JJ{a/3 cos (a, x)+ /3/3 cos (/3, x) + £ y cos (7, #)} ^ ^
da d/3
+ JJ [ya cos (a, #) + £ y cos (/3, x) + 77 cos (7, x)}
ho
W h e n we apply Green's transformation to this expression we find
X dS=
v \\\dadftdy\~ j ~ r [oiOL cos (a, x) + a/3 cos (ft, x) + ya cos (7, x))
+ d/3 —y- {a/3 cos (a, # ) + ft ft cos (/3, a?) -J- (3y cos (7, a?)}
d_
+ dy j^Y {ya cos (a, a?) + /3y cos (/3, a?) + 77 cos (7, x)}
1
and, since (AiA A ) dad/3 dy is t h e element of volume, we deduce from (1)
2 3
t h e equation
pf = pX +
x h h h l^-
1 2 8 r ^ r cos (a, #) + aft cos (/3, a?) -f 7a cos (7, #)}
7 - 7 - {a/3 cos (a, x) +ftft cos (/3, #) + fty cos (7, a?)}
+ dft
3
a c o s + c o s x c o s
97 o r ^ ^ ° ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
.(18)
T h e angles denoted by (a, x), ... are variable with a, & 7 because the
normals to the surfaces a = const., ... vary from point to point. I t may be
shown* t h a t for any fixed direction of x t h e differential coefficients of
cos(a, ... are given by nine equations of t h e type
cos (a,
a, x)
x) = - L ~ f^-
da dt3[hJ- ^> - %{hJ- t' > C08 x) f, COs(r x)
d
C 0 S ( a x ) h C 0 S (/3 x) 0 0 8 ( a X) = h C0S (7
3/3 ' = L £) • ' ' Jy ' k £) • '
W e now t a k e t h e direction of t h e axis of x to be t h a t of t h e normal to
the surface a = const, which passes through t h e point (a, ft., 7). After t h e
differentiations have been performed we p u t
cos (a, x) = l, cos (ft, x) — 0, cos (7, x) — 0.
W e take f a for t h e component acceleration along t h e normal to t h e surface
* See the Note on applications of moving axes at the end of this book. In the special case of
cylindrical coordinates the corresponding equations can be proved directly without any difficulty.
a = const., and F for t h e component of body force in t h e same direction.
a
E q u a t i o n (18) then becomes

r „ , , , , /5 aa 3 3 7d\
( l 9 )
The two similar equations containing components of acceleration and body-

force in t h e directions of t h e normals to /3 = const, and 7 = const, can be
written down by symmetry.
59. Special cases of stress-equations referred to curvilinear co

ordinates.
(i) I n t h e case of cylindrical coordinates r, 6, z (cf. A r t i c l e 22) t h e stress-equations are
drr Idrd drz rr—66 ^ x

+ + + F
W rW ~&7 -T-+P r = Pfr>
drt) 1 d06 d6z 2rd , „ ,
+ +
¥ r ¥ + ¥ 7 +pF = fe,
e P
drz 1 dSz dzz rz .
(ii) I n t h e case of plane stress referred to cylindrical coordinates, w h e n there is equi

l i b r i u m u n d e r surface t r a c t i o n s only, t h e s t r e s s - c o m p o n e n t s , w h e n expressed i n t e r m s of
t h e stress-function x of e q u a t i o n s (17), are g i v e n b y t h e e q u a t i o n s *
66 2
r r
~ 2 2
r d6 +d> r r ~dr ' dr \r dB,
(iii) I n t h e case of polar coordinates r, 6, <p t h e s t r e s s - e q u a t i o n s are
(iv) W h e n t h e surfaces a, ft y are i s o s t a t i c so t h a t /§y=y^ = a/3 = 0, t h e e q u a t i o n s can

b e w r i t t e n in s u c h forms + as
oa p 1 3 p 1 2
where p 1 2 and p 1 3 are t h e principal radii of curvature of t h e surface a — const, w h i c h cor

respond respectively w i t h t h e curves of intersection of t h a t surface and t h e surfaces
/3 = const, and y—const.
* J. H. Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 31 (f899), p. 100.

f Lame, Coordonnees curvilignes, p. 274.
CHAPTEE III.
THE ELASTICITY OF SOLID BODIES.
60. I N the preceding Chapters we have developed certain kinernatical

and dynamical notions, which are necessary for t h e theoretical discussion
of t h e physical behaviour of material bodies in general. W e have now
to explain how these notions are adapted to elastic solid bodies in par
ticular.
An ordinary solid body is constantly subjected to forces of gravitation,
and, if it is in equilibrium, it is supported by other forces. W e have no
experience of a body which is free from t h e action of all external forces.
F r o m t h e equations of Article 54 we know t h a t t h e application of forces to
a body necessitates t h e existence of stress within t h e body.
Again, solid bodies are not absolutely rigid. By t h e application of suitable
forces they can be made to change both in size and shape. W h e n t h e
induced changes of size and shape are considerable, t h e body does not, in
general, r e t u r n to its original size and shape after t h e forces which induced
the change have ceased to act. On t h e other hand, when t h e changes are
not too great t h e recovery may be apparently complete. The property of
recovery of an original size and shape is t h e property t h a t is termed
elasticity. The changes of size and shape are expressed by specifying
strains. The " unstrained state " (Article 4), with reference to which strains
are specified, is, as it were, an arbitrary zero of reckoning, and the choice of
it is in our power. W h e n t h e unstrained state is chosen, and t h e strain is
specified, the internal configuration of t h e body is known.
W e shall suppose t h a t the differential coefficients of the displacement
(u v, w), by which t h e body could pass from t h e unstrained state to the
}
strained state, are sufficiently small to admit of t h e calculation of t h e strain

by t h e simplified methods of Article 9 ; and we shall regard t h e con
figuration as specified by this displacement.
For t h e complete specification of any state of t h e body, it is necessary to
know t h e temperature of every part, as well as t h e configuration. A change
of configuration may, or may not, be accompanied by changes of temperature.
61. Work and energy.

Unless t h e body is in equilibrium under the action of t h e external forces,
it will be moving through t h e configuration t h a t is specified by the displace
ment, towards a new configuration which could be specified by a slightly
different displacement. As the body moves from one configuration to
another, t h e external forces (body forces and surface tractions) in general
do some w o r k ; and we can estimate t h e quantity of work done per unit of
time, t h a t is to say the rate at which work is done.
Any body, or any portion of a body, can possess energy in various ways.
I f it is in motion, it possesses kinetic energy, which depends on t h e distri
bution of mass and velocity. I n t h e case of small displacements, to which
we are restricting the discussion, t h e kinetic energy per unit of volume is
expressed with sufficient approximation by t h e formula
i n which p denotes the density in the unstrained state. I n addition to t h e

molar kinetic energy, possessed by the body in bulk, t h e body possesses
7
energy w hich depends upon its state, i.e. upon its configuration and t h e
temperatures of its parts. This energy is called " intrinsic energy"; it is to
be calculated by reference to a standard state of chosen uniform t e m p e r a t u r e
a n d zero displacement. The total energy of any portion of t h e body is t h e
sum of the kinetic energy of t h e portion and the intrinsic energy of t h e
portion. The total energy of t h e body is t h e sum of t h e total energies of
any parts*, into which it can be imagined to be divided.
As the body passes from one state to another, the total energy, in general,
is altered; b u t t h e change in t h e total energy is not, in general, equal to t h e
work done by the external forces. To produce t h e change of state it is,
in general, necessary t h a t heat should be supplied to t h e body or with
drawn from it. The q u a n t i t y of heat is measured by its equivalent in work.
The First Law of Thermodynamics states t h a t the increment of t h e
total energy of the body is equal to the sum of the work done by the
external forces and the quantity of heat supplied.
We may calculate t h e rate at which work is done by t h e external forces.
The rate at which work is done by the body forces is expressed by the formula
(i)
where t h e integration is t a k e n through the volume of t h e body in t h e

unstrained state. T h e r a t e at which work is done by t h e surface tractions
is expressed by the formula
* For the validity of the analysis of the energy into molar kinetic energy and intrinsic energy
it is necessary that the dimensions of the parts in question should be large compared with
molecular dimensions.
where t h e integration is t a k e n over t h e surface of t h e body in t h e unstrained
state. This expression may be transformed into an integral t a k e n t h r o u g h
t h e volume of t h e body, by t h e use of Green's transformation and of t h e
formula? of t h e type
X*= X x cos (x, v) + X y cos (y, v) + X cos (z, v), z
We use also t h e results of t h e type Y — Z and t h e notation for strain- z yi
components e W e find t h a t t h e r a t e at which work is done by t h e

xxy
surface tractions is expressed by t h e formula
'(dX« dXy + dZ^ dU + (dXy ^Yy^dY^dV

_|_ IZ^L ) — + - ^ + ^ +
\dx + dy
dz J dt \ dx dy dz J dt
dxdydz
+
7 x,
de
Xi
' dt
+
dt + / t z
W e may calculate also t h e r a t e a t which t h e kinetic energy increases.

\ dx
dt
dy dz J dt _
y
de,
dt
dxdydz. ...(2)
This rate is expressed with sufficient approximation by t h e formula

2 2
[([ fdhcdu d vdv , d wdw\ 7 , , / O N
where t h e integration is taken t h r o u g h t h e volume of t h e body in t h e

unstrained state. If we use t h e equations of motion, (15) of Article 54,
we can express this in the form
dX dX
///
x v
PX + dxdydz.
dx ' dy dz dt^ ^
I t appears hence t h a t t h e expression
d d de..
X + Y 4^+z
dt y z 4^ + y
dt
z
dt
+z x
AR + y
dt
dxdydz (4)
represents t h e excess of t h e r a t e at which work is done by t h e external forces

above t h e r a t e of increase of t h e kinetic energy.
62. E x i s t e n c e of the strain-energy-function.
Now let hT denote t h e increment of kinetic energy per unit of volume,

x
which is acquired in a short interval of time St. L e t <$U be t h e increment of

intrinsic energy per u n i t of volume, which is acquired in the same interval.
L e t S W be t h e work done by t h e external forces in t h e interval, and let SQ be
1
t h e mechanical value of t h e heat supplied in t h e interval. Then t h e F i r s t

Law of Thermodynamics is expressed by t h e formula
Jff(ST 1 + 8U) dxdydz ^BW +SQ 1 (5)

Now, according to t h e final result (4) obtained in Article 6 1 , we have
SW.-fffsT.dxdydz
j(X Se
x xx + Tyheyy + Z Se z zz + Y Sez yz +Z Se x zx + X Se ) y xy dxdydz,.. .(6)
where Se ,...
xx represent t h e increments of t h e components of strain in t h e
T
interval of t i m e St H e n c e w e have
fjfs Udxdydz = SQ+jfj(X Se x xx + ...) dxdydz (7)
T h e differential q u a n t i t y SU is t h e differential of a function U, which is an

one-valued function of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and t h e quantities t h a t determine
t h e configuration. T h e value of this function V, corresponding with any
state, is t h e measure of t h e intrinsic energy in t h a t state. I n t h e standard
state, the value of IT is zero.
If t h e change of state takes place adiabatically, t h a t is to say in such
a way t h a t no heat is gained or lost by any element of t h e body, SQ vanishes,
and we have
S U — X Se x xx + Y Se
y yy + Z Se z zz + Y Se z yz + Z Se x zx + X Se y xy (8)
T h u s t h e expression on t h e right-hand side is, in this case, an exact
differential; and there exists a function W, which has t h e properties ex
pressed by t h e equations
dW dW
u
u v x x &yz
The function W represents potential energy, per unit of volume, stored u p in

t h e body by t h e strain; and its variations, when t h e body is strained adiaba
tically, are identical with those of t h e intrinsic energy of t h e body. I t is
probable t h a t t h e changes t h a t actually take place in bodies executing small
and rapid vibrations are practically adiabatic.
r
A function w hich has t h e properties expressed by equations (9) is
called a " strain-energy-function."
If t h e changes of state take place isothermally, i.e. so t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
of every element of t h e body remains constant, a function W having t h e
properties expressed by equations (9) exists. To prove this we utilise t h e
Second Law of Thermodynamics in the form that, in any reversible cycle of
changes of state performed without variation of t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e sum of t h e
elements SQ vanishes*. T h e sum of t h e elements SU also vanishes; and it
follows t h a t t h e sum of t h e elements expressed by t h e formula
2 (X Se x xx + Y Se y yy + Z Se z zz + Y Se z yz + Z Se x zx + X Se )
y xy
* Gf. Kelvin, Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. 1, p. 291.

also vanishes in a reversible cycle of changes of state without variation of
temperature. Hence the differential expression
X Se + Y he + Z Se -f Y Be + Z Se + X 8e
x xx y yy Z zz z yz x zx y xy
is an exact differential, and t h e strain-energy-function W exists.

W h e n a body is strained slowly by gradual increase of t h e load, and
is in continual equilibrium of t e m p e r a t u r e with surrounding bodies, t h e
changes of state are practically isothermal.
6 3 . Indirectness of experimental results.

The object of experimental investigations of the behaviour of elastic
bodies may be said to be t h e discovery of numerical relations between t h e
quantities t h a t can be measured, which shall be sufficiently varied and
sufficiently numerous to serve as a basis for t h e inductive determination of
the form of t h e intrinsic energy-function, viz. the function U of Article 62.
This object has not been achieved, except in the case of gases in states t h a t
are far removed from critical states. I n t h e case of elastic solids, t h e con
ditions are much more complex, and the results of experiment are much
less c o m p l e t e ; and t h e indications which we have at present are not
sufficient for t h e formation of a theory of t h e physical behaviour of a solid
body in any circumstances other than those in which a strain-energy-function
exists.
W h e n such a function exists, and its form is known, we can deduce from i t
t h e relations between t h e components of stress and t h e components of strain ;
and, conversely, if, from any experimental results, we are able to infer such
relations, we acquire thereby data which can serve for t h e construction of t h e
function.
T h e components of stress or of strain within a solid body can never, from
t h e n a t u r e of the case, be measured directly. If their values can be found,
it m u s t always be by a process of inference from measurements of quantities
t h a t are not, in general, components of stress or of strain.
I n s t r u m e n t s can be devised for measuring average strains in bodies of
ordinary size, and others for measuring particular strains of small superficial
parts. For example, the average cubical compression can be measured by"
means of a piezometer; t h e extension of a short length of a longitudinal
filament on t h e outside of a bar can be measured by means of an extenso-
meter. Sometimes, as for example in experiments on torsion and flexure, a
displacement is measured.
External forces applied to a body can often be measured with g r e a t
exactness, e.g. when a bar is extended or bent by hanging a weight at one
end. I n such cases it is a resultant force t h a t is measured directly, not
t h e component tractions per unit of area t h a t are applied to the surface of
t h e body. I n the case of a body under normal pressure, as in t h e experi
m e n t s with t h e piezometer, t h e pressure per unit of area can be measured.
In any experiment designed to determine a relation between stress and
strain, some displacement is brought about, in a body partially fixed, by t h e
application of definite forces which can be varied in amount. W e call these
forces collectively " t h e load/*'
64. Hooke's L a w .
Most hard solids show t h e same type of relation between load and
measurable strain. I t is found that, over a wide range of load, t h e measured
strain is proportional to t h e load. This s t a t e m e n t may be expressed more
fully by saying t h a t
(1) when t h e load increases t h e measured strain increases in t h e same
ratio,
(2) when the load diminishes t h e measured strain diminishes in t h e
same ratio,
(3) when t h e load is reduced to zero no strain can be measured.
The most striking exception to this s t a t e m e n t is found in t h e behaviour of
cast metals. I t appears to be impossible to assign any finite range of load,
within which t h e measurable strains of such metals increase and diminish in
the same proportion as the load.
The experimental results which hold for most hard solids, other t h a n cast
metals, lead by a process of inductive reasoning to t h e Generalized Hooke s
Law of the proportionality of stress and strain. T h e general form of t h e
law is expressed by the s t a t e m e n t :—
Each of the six components of stress at any point of a body is a linear
function of the six components of strain at the point.
It is necessary to pay some attention to the way in which this law represents the
experimental results. In most experiments the load that is increased, or diminished, or
reduced to zero consists of part only of the external forces. The weight of the body
subjected to experiment must be balanced; and neither the weight, nor the force employed
to balance it, is, in general, included in the load. At the beginning and end of the experi
ment the body is in a state of stress; but there is no measured strain. For the strain that
is measured is reckoned from the state of the body at the beginning of the experiment as
standard state. The strain referred to in the statement of the law must be reckoned from
a different state as standard or " unstrained " state. This state is that in which the body
would be if it were freed from the action of all external forces, and if there were no internal
stress at any point of it. We call this state of the body the "unstressed state." Reckoned
from this state as standard, the body is in a state of strain at the beginning of the experi
ment ; it is also in a state of stress. When the load is applied, the stress is altered in
amount and distribution; and the strain also is altered. After the application of the load,
the stress consists of two stress-systems : the stress-system in the initial state, and a
stress-system by which the load would be balanced all through the body. The strain,
reckoned from the unstressed state, is likewise compounded of two strains: the strain from
the unstressed state to the initial state, and the strain from the initial state to the state
assumed under the load. The only things, about which the experiments can tell us any
thing, are the second stress-system and the second strain; and it is consonant with the
result of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s to a s s u m e t h a t t h e law of proportionality holds for t h i s s t r e s s
a n d strain. T h e general s t a t e m e n t of t h e l a w of proportionality i m p l i e s t h a t t h e s t r e s s i n
t h e initial s t a t e also is proportional t o t h e strain i n t h a t state. I t also i m p l i e s t h a t b o t h
t h e initial state, a n d t h e s t a t e a s s u m e d u n d e r t h e load, are derivable from t h e u n s t r e s s e d
s t a t e b y d i s p l a c e m e n t s , of a m o u n t sufficiently s m a l l to a d m i t of t h e calculation of t h e
strains by t h e simplified m e t h o d s of A r t i c l e 9. If t h i s were n o t t h e case, t h e s t r a i n s w o u l d
not be c o m p o u n d e d b y s i m p l e s u p e r p o s i t i o n : and t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y of load and m e a s u r e d
strain would n o t i m p l y t h e proportionality of s t r e s s - c o m p o n e n t s a n d s t r a i n - c o m p o n e n t s .
65. F o r m of t h e strain-energy-function.
T h e experiments which lead to t h e enunciation of Hooke's Law do not
constitute a proof of t h e t r u t h of t h e law. The law formulates in abstract
terms t h e results of many observations and experiments, b u t it is much
more precise t h a n these results. T h e mathematical consequences which can
be deduced by assuming t h e law to be true are sometimes capable of
experimental verification; and, whenever this verification can be made, fresh
evidence of t h e t r u t h of t h e law is obtained. W e shall be occupied in sub
sequent chapters with t h e deduction of these consequences; here we note
some results which can be deduced immediately.
W h e n a body is slightly strained by gradual application of a load, and
t h e t e m p e r a t u r e remains constant, t h e stress-components are linear functions
of t h e strain-components, and t h e y are also partial differential coefficients of
a function (W) of t h e strain-components. T h e strain-energy-function, W,
is therefore a homogeneous quadratic function of t h e strain-components.
The known theory of sound waves* leads us to expect t h a t , when a body
is executing small vibrations, t h e motion takes place too quickly for any
portion of t h e body to lose or gain any sensible q u a n t i t y of heat. I n this
case also t h e r e is a strain-energy-function; and, if we assume t h a t Hooke's
Law holds, t h e function is a homogeneous quadratic function of the strain-
components. W h e n t h e stress-components are eliminated from t h e equations
of motion (15) of Article 54, these equations become linear equations for t h e
determination of t h e displacement. T h e linearity of them, and the way
in which t h e time enters into t h e m , m a k e it possible for t h e m to possess
solutions which represent isochronous vibrations. T h e fact t h a t all solid
bodies admit of being thrown into states of isochronous vibration has been
emphasized by Stokesf as a peremptory proof of the t r u t h of Hooke's Law for
the very small strains involved.
The proof of t h e existence of W given in Article 62 points to different
coefficients for t h e terms of IT expressed as a quadratic function of strain-com
ponents, in t h e two cases of isothermal and adiabatic changes of state. These
coefficients are the " elastic constants," and discrepancies have actually been
* See Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, Chapter XI.

f See Introduction, footnote 37.
found in experimental determinations of the constants by statical methods,
involving isothermal changes of state, and dynamical methods, involving adia-
batic changes of s t a t e * . T h e discrepancies are not, however, very serious.
To secure t h e stability of t h e body it is necessary t h a t t h e coefficients of

the terms in t h e homogeneous quadratic function W should be adjusted
so t h a t t h e function is always positive *f\ This condition involves certain
relations of inequality among t h e elastic constants.
If Hooke's Law is regarded as a first approximation, valid in the case of

very small strains, it is n a t u r a l to assume t h a t t h e terms of t h e second order
in t h e strain-energy-function constitute likewise a first approximation. If
terms of higher order could be taken into account an extension of t h e theory
might be made to circumstances which are at present excluded from its
scope. Such extensions have been suggested and partially worked out by
several writers
66. Elastic constants.
According to the generalized Hooke's Law, t h e six components of stress

at any point of an elastic solid body are connected with t h e six components
of strain at t h e point by equations of t h e form
e e
Xx = Cn6 x + Ci2 yy "h Ci3 zz
X û^yz "i" 0 e
i5 zx + Cy^C y^
X
Y z — Cêxx + C&Gyy + C^6 ZZ + C^Gy + C^C

Z ZX + <?46 &xy >
The coefficients in these equations, c , ... are t h e elastic constants of t h e

n
substance. They are t h e coefficients of a homogeneous quadratic function

2 W, where W is t h e strain-energy-function; and they are therefore con
nected by the relations which ensure t h e existence of t h e function. These
relations are of t h e form
c = c,
rs sr (r, 5 = 1, 2, ... 6), (11)
and the n u m b e r of constants is reduced by these equations from 36 to 2 1 .
* The discrepancies appear to have been noticed first by P. Lagerhjelm in 1827, see Todhunter
and Pearson's History, vol. 1, p. 189. They were made the subject of extensive experiments by
G-. Wertheim, Ann. de Chimie, t. 12 (1844). Information concerning the results of more recent
experimental researches is given by Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson) in the Article * Elasticity' in
Ency. Brit., 9th edition, reprinted in Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. 3. See also W. Voigt, Ann.
Phys. Ghem. (Wiedemann), Bd. 52 (1894).
f Kirchhoff, Vorlesungen uber...Mechanik, Vorlesung 27. For a discussion of the theory of
stability reference may be made to a paper by R. Lipschitz, J.f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 78 (1874).
J Reference may be made, in particular, to W. Voigt, Ann. Phys. Chem. (Wiedemann), Bd. 52,
1894, p. 536 and Berlin Berichte, 1901.
L. E. 7
We write t h e expression for 2 W in t h e form
Climax 4~ %Ci2 xx yy e e
4~ G
^ i3^xx zz e
4" 2 ^ 4 6 ^ 6 ^
&XX&ZX 4~ î6^xx^xy
2
4- c 2 6 2/y
2 + 2c 23 4" 2 c 24 ^2/2; 4~ 2 c 5 6 ^ 3a& 4* 2 c 6 ^ 6 ^
2 26
2
4" C $e 3 zz 4" %C 6zz6yz
M 4" ÎO^ZZ&ZX 4" 2 c 6 e 3 6 z z x y
&yz®zx 4" ÂQ^yz^xy

2
4* Css^ ^ + ^C e 6 y m zx X
4" Cm&xy
(12)
T h e theory of Elasticity has sometimes been based on t h a t hypothesis;
concerning t h e constitution of matter, according to which bodies are regarded
as made u p of material points, a n d these points are supposed to act on each
other a t a distance, t h e law of force between a pair of points being t h a t t h e
force is a function of t h e distance between t h e points, and acts in t h e line
joining t h e points. I t is a consequence of this hypothesis* t h a t t h e co
efficients in t h e function W are connected b y six additional relations, whereby
their n u m b e r is reduced to 15. These relations are
c = c , C31 = C55, c = c , I
23 44 (13) 12 66
^14 ~ C56) — ^46? ^45 =

^36« J
W e shall refer to these as " Cauchy's relations " ; b u t we shall not assume
t h a t they hold good.
67. M e t h o d s of determining t h e stress i n a body.

If we wish to know t h e state of stress in a body to which given forces a r e
applied, either as body forces or as surface tractions, we have to solve t h e
stress-equations of equilibrium (14) of Article 54, viz.
dx dy dz r •(14>
dZ x dY z dZ z _ _
and t h e solutions must be of such forms t h a t they give rise to t h e right,

expressions for t h e surface tractions, when t h e latter are calculated from the;
formulas (5) of Article 47, viz.
X — X cos (x, v) + X cos (y, v) + Z cos (z, v)
v x y x y
.(15)
The equations (14) with t h e conditions (15) are not sufficient to d e t e r m i n e

t h e stress, and a stress-system m a y satisfy these equations and conditions,
and y e t fail to be t h e correct solution of t h e problem; for t h e stress-compo-
* See Note B at the end of this book.
nents are functions of t h e strain-components, and t h e latter satisfy t h e six
equations of compatibility (25) of Article 17, viz. three equations of t h e type
2
~~d& dy "dydz'
and three of t h e t y p e
dydz dx \ dx dy dz J'
W h e n account is t a k e n of these relations, there are sufficient equations to
determine t h e stress.
Whenever t h e forces are such t h a t t h e stress-components are either
constants or linear functions of t h e coordinates, the same is t r u e of t h e
strain-components, and t h e equations of compatibility are satisfied identically.
W e shall consider such cases in the sequel.
I n t h e general case, t h e problem may in various ways be reduced to t h a t
of solving certain systems of differential equations. One way is to form, by
t h e method described above, a system of equations for t h e stress-components
in which account is t a k e n of t h e identical relations between strain-components.
Another way is to eliminate t h e stress-components and express the strain-
components in terms of displacements by using t h e formulae
y
_ du dv _ dw
€ x x =
dx } eyy=
dy> 6zz==
dz' . I
_dw dv __du dw _ dv du *(^)
6yz + ezx 6xy +
~dy ~dz> ~dz^dx' ~dx dy'
Both these methods will be illustrated in t h e sequel.
If t h e displacement can be obtained, t h e strain-components can be found
by differentiation, and the stress-components can be deduced. If, on t h e
other hand, the stress can be determined, the strains can be deduced, and t h e
displacement can be found by t h e method indicated in Article 18.
I t will be proved in Chapter VII. t h a t t h e solution of any problem of
the kind considered here is effectively unique. We shall assume for t h e
present t h a t any solution, which satisfies all the conditions, is the solution.
68. F o r m of the strain-energy-function for isotropic solids.

If we refer t h e stress-components and strain-components to a new system
of axes of coordinates x, y\ z' instead of x, y, z, t h e stress-components must
be transformed according to t h e formulae of Art. 49, and t h e strain-components
must be transformed according to the formulae of Article 12. W h e n we substi
t u t e for X , ... and e ... in the equations of the types (10) we find t h a t the
x XX)
stress-components X >,... and t h e strain-components e > >,... are connected by

x x x
linear equations. These may be solved for t h e X' >, ... and the result will be x
t h a t t h e X' >,... are expressed as linear functions of e^, ... with coefficients,
x
7—2
which depend on t h e coefficients c , ... in the formula (12), and also on the
n
quantities by which t h e relative situations of t h e old and new axes are

determined. The results might be found more rapidly by transforming
t h e expression 2W according to the formulae of Article 12. T h e general
result is t h a t t h e elastic behaviour of a material has reference to certain
directions fixed relatively to the material. If, however, the elastic constants
are connected by certain relations, t h e formulae connecting stress-components
with strain-components are independent of direction. The material is then
said to be isotropic as regards elasticity. I n this case the function W is
invariant for all transformations from one set of orthogonal axes to another.
If we knew t h a t there were no invariants of t h e strain, of t h e first or second
degrees, independent of t h e two which were found in Article 13 (c), we could
conclude t h a t t h e strain-energy-function for an isotropic solid must be of
t h e form
e 2 2 2 2
\A (e xx H~ yy + e ) *f* %B (e
zz yz + e zx 4- e xy — 4<e e yy zz — 4*e e zz xx — 4*e e ).
xx yy
We shall hereafter (Chapter VI.) perform t h e transformation, and verify t h a t

this is t h e actual form of TT.
A t present we shall assume this form and deduce some of the simpler
consequences of it. I t will be convenient to write X + 2/x in place of A and
fj, in place of B. W e shall suppose t h e material to be homogeneous, so t h a t
X and fi are t h e same at all points.
69. Elastic constants and m o d u l u s e s of isotropic solids.

W h e n W is expressed by the equation
2 W= ( \ + 2/*) (e + e + e f
xx yy zz
2 2
+ ft (&yz ~f~ e + e y zx X 4*e eyy zz ê e zz xx ^c e ),
xx yy (1^)
t h e stress-components are given by t h e equations
X = \A + 2fie ,
x xx Yy = \k + 2/uLeyy, Z = \& + 2fie z i
Y = fi€yz
z > Z = fie x zx , Xy—[ie xy
where A is written for e xx + e yy -f e . zz
A body of any form subjected to the action of a constant pressure p, the

same at all points of its surface, will be in a certain state of stress. As we
have seen in Article 55, this state will be given by the equations
X =Yy
x = Z = - z P > Y =Z
z x = X = 0.
y
According to equations (18), t h e body is in a state of strain such t h a t

exx = eyy = e = -p/(S\ zz + 2fi),
eyz — e = e y— 0.
zx X
T h e cubical compression is p/(X + §//,).

W e write k = X + f/x (19)
T h e n k is t h e quantity obtained by dividing t h e measure of an uniform
pressure by t h e measure of t h e cubical compression produced by it. It'
is called t h e modulus of compression.
W h a t e v e r t h e stress-system may be, it can be resolved, as in Article 52,.
into mean tension, or pressure, and shearing stresses on t h r e e orthogonal
planes. The mean tension is measured by £ (X + Y + Z ). We learn x y z
t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y obtained by dividing t h e measure of t h e mean tension

at a point by t h e measure of t h e cubical dilatation at t h e point is a constant
q u a n t i t y — t h e modulus of compression.
A cylinder or prism of any form, subjected to tension T which is uniform
7
over its plane ends, and free from traction on its lateral surfaces, w ill be in
a certain state of stress. As we have seen in Article 5 5 this state will be
given by t h e equations
X = T,
x Y = Z=
y z Y = Z — Xy
z x = 0.
According to equations ( 1 8 ) t h e body will be in a state of strain such t h a t

T(\ + fi) XT
w z z
/ i ( 3 \ + 2/i)' 2 / x ( 3 \ + 2 u)"
/
( 8 X + V )
W e write E = , (20)
X + ft
X .(21)
2 ( \ + ft)
Then E is t h e q u a n t i t y obtained by dividing the measure of a simple
longitudinal tension by t h e measure of the extension produced by it. I t is
known as Young s modulus. T h e n u m b e r cr is t h e ratio of lateral contraction
to longitudinal extension of a bar under terminal tension. I t is known as
Poisson s ratio.
Whatever t h e stress-system may be, t h e extensions in t h e directions of t h e
axes and t h e normal tractions across planes at right angles to t h e axes are
connected by t h e equations
e =E->{X -<r{Yy+Z %
xx x \ z
eyy = E-i{Y -a(Z +X )}, y z I x (22)

e„ = E-* {Z -a(X +Yy)}.) z x
Whatever t h e stress-system may be, the shearing strain corresponding

with a pair of rectangular axes and t h e shearing stress on t h e pair of planes
at right angles to those axes are connected by an equation of the form
Xy = fte xy (23)
This relation is independent of the directions of t h e axes. The q u a n t i t y ft is
called the rigidity.
70. Observations concerning t h e stress-strain relations i n isotropic
solids.
(a) W e m a y note t h e relations
X- ;v ^ - T . M= :r—~ r, k =— r (24)
(6) If <T were >\, h would be negative, or the material would expand under pressure.
If a were < — 1, jx would be negative, and the function IF would not be a positive quadratic
function. We may show that this would also be the case if k were negative*. Negative
values for a are not excluded by the condition of stability, but such values have not been
found for any isotropic material.
(c) The constant k is usually determined by experiments on compression, the
constant E sometimes directly by experiments on stretching, and sometimes by experi
ments on bending, the constant /x usually by experiments on torsion. The value of the
constant a is usually inferred from a knowledge of two among the quantities E, k,
(d) If Cauchy's relations ( 1 3 ) of Article 6 6 are true, X = JU and o- = J .
(e) Instead of assuming the form of the strain-energy-function, we might assume
some of the relations between stress-components and strain-components and deduce the
relations (18). For example J we may assume (i) that the mean tension and the cubical
dilatation are connected by the equation ^(X +Y + Z ) = kA, (ii) that the relation x y z
X' '~pe t
V xly holds for all pairs of rectangular axes of af and y'. From the second assumption
we should find, by taking the axes of x, y, z to be the principal axes of strain, that the
principal planes of stress are at right angles to these axes. With the same choice of axes
we should then find, by means of the formulee of transformation of Articles 1 2 and 4 9 ,
that the relation
Xll+
x x 2 Yym^ + Z^n^fi (2e J l
x 1 2 + 2e m m
yy 1 2 + 2e n n )
Z2 1 2
holds for all values of l , ... which satisfy the equation

x
It follows that we must have

X - 2fxe
x xx = Y- y 2ê =Z - yy Z 2fie . zz
Then the first assumption shows that each of these quantities is equal to (£-§/x) A. The
relations (18) are thus found to hold for principal axes of strain, and, by a fresh application
of the formulae of transformation, we may prove that they hold for any axes.
( / ) Instead of making the assumptions just described we might assume that the
principal planes of stress are at right angles to the principal axes of strain and that the
relations ( 2 2 ) hold for principal axes, and we might deduce the relations (18) for any axes.
The working out of this assumption may serve as an exercise for the student.
(g) We may show that, in the problem of the compression of a body by pressure
uniform over its surface which was associated with the definition of Tc, the displacement is
expressed by the equations §
u v w p
x y z 3k'
(h) We may show that, in the problem of the bar stretched by simple tension T
which was associated with the definitions of E and a-, the displacement is expressed by the
equations
u__v_ o-T_ XT ™ _T _ (\+fi) T
x~ y~ E~ 2/x(3X + 2 ^ ) ' z ~ E~~ fi (3X + 2/x)*
* 2W may be written
(X + fa) (exx +e yy + ef
zz + |/t {(e yy - ef
zz + (e„ - e)
xx
2
+ {exx - e f} yy + /i {e > + ej
yz + 2
e ).
xy
f Experiments for the direct determination of Poisson's ratio have been made by P. Cardani,
Phys. Zeitschr. Bd. 4, 1 9 0 3 , and J. Morrow, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 6), vol. 6 (1903). M. A. Oornu,
Paris, C.R., t. 6 9 (1869), and A. Mallock, Proc. Roy. Soc, vol. 2 9 (1879) determined <j by
experiments on bending.
X This is the method of Stokes. See Introduction, footnote 3 7 .
§ A displacement which would be possible in a rigid body may be superposed on that given in
the text. A like remark applies to the Observation (h). Cf. Article 18, supra.
7 1 . Magnitude of elastic constants and m o d u l u s e s of s o m e isotropic
solids.'
To give an idea of t h e order of m a g n i t u d e of the elastic constants and
moduluses of some of the materials in everyday use a few of t h e results of
experiments are tabulated here. The table gives t h e density (p) of t h e
material as well as t h e elastic constants, t h e constants being expressed as
multiples of an unit stress of one dyne per square centimetre. Poissons
ratio is also given. The results marked " E " are t a k e n from J. D. Everett's
Illustrations of the C.G.S. system of units, London, 1891, where the authorities
for t h e m will be found. Those marked " A " are reduced from results of more
recent researches recorded in a paper by A m a g a t in t h e Journal de Physique
(Ser. 2), t. 8 (1889). I t m u s t be understood t h a t considerable differences are
found in t h e elastic constants of different samples of nominally t h e same
substance, and t h a t such a designation as " steel," for example, is far from
being precise.
Material P E k a Keference
Steel 7*849 2-139 x 1 0 12

1-841 x l O 1 2
8-19 x 1 0 1 1
•310 E
2-041 x 1 0 1 2
1-43 xlO 1 2
•268 A
Iron (wrought) 7-677 1-963 x l O 1 2
1-456 x l O 1 2
7-69 x 1 0 1 1
•275 E
B r a s s (drawn) 8-471 1-075 x l O 1 2
3-66 x I D 11
E
Brass 1-085 x l O 1 2
1-05 xlO 1 2
•327 A
Copper 8-843 l-234x 10 1 2
1-684 x l O 1 2
4-47 x 1 0 1 1
•378 E
1 2
1-215 x l O 1 2
1-166 X l O •327 A
Lead 1-57 xlO 1 1
3-62 xlO 1 1
•428 A
1 1
Glass 2-942 6-03 xlO 1 1
4-15 xlO 1 1
2-40 x l O •258 E
?) 6-77 xlO 1 1
4-54 xlO 1 1
•245 A
72. Elastic constants i n general.

Materials such as n a t u r a l crystals or wood which are not isotropic are
said to be ceolotropic. The analytical expression of Hooke's Law in an
seolotropic solid body is effected by t h e equations (10) of Article 66. In
matrix notation we may write t h e equations
(-5^0 > Yy, Z , Z 1 Z) ZX) Xy) = ( c u c12

C
13 C 1 4
C15 #16 ) (&xx> e
yy> e
zz> &yz> @z%y &xy),
&21 ^22 <?24
£33 £34 £35
C 4 1 C 4 2
C43 C45
(?54
C
#63 C
64 65
where c = c , (r, s= 1, 2, ... 6).

rs sr
These equations may be solved, so as to express t h e strain-components
in t e r m s of t h e stress-components. If I I denotes t h e d e t e r m i n a n t of t h e
quantities c and G denotes t h e minor d e t e r m i n a n t t h a t corresponds with
rs> rs
c , so t h a t
rs
.(26)
t h e equations t h a t give t h e strain-components in terms of t h e stress-
components can be w r i t t e n
where G = G (r, s = 1, 2, ... 6).

rs sr
T h e quantities - | c , ... c , ... are t h e coefficients of a homogeneous

n 12
quadratic function of e , This function is t h e strain-energy-function

xx
expressed in terms of strain-components.

T h e quantities ^G /H, ... 0 / I I , . . . are t h e coefficients of a homogeneous
n 1 2
quadratic function of X , .... This function is the strain-energy-function

x
expressed in t e r m s of stress-components.
73. M o d u l u s e s of elasticity.
We may in various ways define types of stress and types of strain.
F o r example, simple tension [ X J , shearing stress [ F J , m e a n tension
(X + Y + Z )] are types of stress. T h e corresponding types of strain are
x y z
simple extension [e ], shearing strain [e ], cubical dilatation [e + e -{- e \

xx yz xx yy zz
We may express t h e strain of any of these types t h a t accompanies a stress

of t h e corresponding type, when there is no other stress, by an equation of t h e
form
stress = M x (corresponding strain).
Then M is called a " m o d u l u s of elasticity." T h e quantities H/Gnj N/C 4 4 are
examples of such moduluses.
The modulus t h a t corresponds with simple tension is known as Young's
modulus for t h e direction of t h e related tension. T h e modulus t h a t corre
sponds with shearing stress on a pair of orthogonal planes is known as t h e
rigidity for t h e related pair of directions (the normals to t h e planes). T h e
modulus t h a t corresponds with mean tension or pressure is known as t h e
modulus of compression.
W e shall give some examples of t h e calculation of moduluses.
(a) Modulus of compression.
W e have to assume that X =Y =Z , x y z and the remaining stress-components vanish ;
t h e corresponding strain is cubical dilatation, a n d w e m u s t therefore calculate e +e +e .
xx yy zz
W e find for t h e m o d u l u s t h e expression

n/(0 11+ C +0 +2C 3+2a3 2C ).
a2 S3 2 1+ 12 .(28)
As in Article 68, we see that the cubical compression produced in a body of any form by
the application of uniform normal pressure, p, to its surface is p/k, where k now denotes
the above expression (28).
(b) Rigidity.
We may suppose that all the stress-components vanish except Y , and then we have z
He = G Y , so that U/G is the rigidity corresponding with the pair of directions y, z.

yz U Z u
If the shearing stress is related to the two orthogonal directions (I, m, n) and (l\ m', n'\
the rigidity can be shown to be expressed by
f f 2
n+(C , G ,... G , ...)(2lV, 2mm', 2nn', mn'+m'n, nl' + n'l, lm + l m) , ...(29)
u 22 12
where the denominator is a complete quadratic function of the six arguments 2lV, ... with
coefficients G , G , .... u 22
(c) Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio.

We may suppose that all the stress-components vanish except X , and then we have x
e
H- xx—G X , so that U/G is the Young's modulus corresponding with the direction x.
n x n
In the same case the Poisson's ratio of the contraction in the direction of the axis of y
to the extension in the direction of the axis of x is — C /G . The value of Poisson's ratio 12 u
depends on the direction of the contracted transverse linear elements as well as on that of
the extended longitudinal ones.
In the general case we may take the stress to be tension X' > across the planes x' = const., x
of which the normal is in the direction (I, m, n). Then we have

2 2 2
X = l X' ,,
x x Y =-m X' ,,
y x Z =n X' ,,
z x
Y =mnX'' >,
z x Z =nlX' >,
x x X — lmX' i,
y x
and we have also

2 2 2
e 'x' = e xl + e m> +^n + e mn+e nl + e lm;
X X yy yz zx xy
it follows that the Young's modulus E corresponding with this direction is

2 2
n-KCii, ^ 2 2 , . . . ^ i 2 > - . . ) (P, ™ , n\ mn, nl, lm) , (30)
2
where the denominator is a complete quadratic function of the six arguments I , ... with
coefficients G , ... . n
f
If (V, m , n') is any direction at right angles to x', the contraction, -e > >, y y in this
direction is given by the equation
e 2
xxl' + tyy^ + V ' + e m'n'+e n'V + e l'm',
e
y'v> = 2 2
yz zx xy
and the corresponding Poisson's ratio <r is expressible in the form
- S ^ + « ' * ' ^ + - ^ + ^ A ^ ] . - W
2
where <fi is the above-mentioned quadratic function of the arguments I , ..., and the
differential coefficients are formed as if these arguments were independent. It may be
observed that o-/E is related symmetrically to the two directions in which the corresponding
contraction and extension occur.
If we construct the surface of the fourth order of which the equation is
2 2 2 2
(G , G , ... G , ...) (x , y , z , yz, zx, ^ ) = const.,
n 22 12 (32)
then the radius vector of this surface in any direction is proportional to the positive
fourth root of the Young's modulus of the material corresponding with that direction*.
* The result is due to Cauchy, Exercices de Mathematiques, t. 4 (1829), p. 30.

74. Thermo-elastie equations.
T h e application of the two fundamental laws of Thermodynamics to t h e
problem of determining the stress and strain in elastic solid bodies when
variations of t e m p e r a t u r e occur has been discussed by Lord Kelvin*. The
results at which he arrived do not permit of the formulation of a system of
differential equations to determine t h e state of stress in t h e body in t h e
manner explained in Article 67.
At an earlier date D u h a m e l f had obtained a set of equations of t h e
required kind by developing the theory of an elastic solid regarded as a
system of material points, and F . E. N e u m a n n , starting from certain
assumptions J, had arrived at t h e same system of equations. These
assumptions may, when t h e body is isotropic, be expressed in the follow
ing form:—The stress-system at any point of a body strained by variation
of temperature consists of two superposed stress-systems. One of these is
equivalent to uniform pressure, t h e same in all directions round a point, and
proportional to t h e change of t e m p e r a t u r e ; t h e other depends upon the
r
strain at the point in t h e same way as it w ould do if t h e t e m p e r a t u r e were
constant.
These assumptions lead to equations of the form
d
^ + ^ + ^ + px=B~ (33)
where ft is a constant coefficient and 6 is the excess of temperature above

t h a t in t h e unstrained state. The stress-system a t any point has com
ponents
-pd + X, x -!3d+Y , y -pe + z I z
, Zx , Xyt \
in which X ,...
x are expressed in terms of displacements by t h e formulae (18)
of Article 69. T h e equations are adequate to determine the displacements
when 0 is given. W h e n 6 is not given an additional equation is required,
and this equation may be deduced from the theory of conduction of heat, as
was done by D u h a m e l and N e u m a n n .
The theory t h u s arrived at has not been very much developed. Attention
has been directed especially to t h e fact t h a t a plate of glass strained by
unequal heating becomes doubly refracting, and to the explanation of this
effect by t h e inequality of the stresses in different directions. The reader who
wishes to pursue the subject is referred to t h e following memoirs in addition
to those already c i t e d : — C . W. Borchardt, Berlin Monatsberichte, 1873;
* See Introduction, footnote 43.

f Paris, Mem....par divers savans, t. 5 (1838).
J See his Vorlesungen ilber die Theorie der ElastieiUit der festen Korper, Leipzig, 1885, and
cf. the memoir by Maxwell cited in Article 57 footnote.
J . Hopkinson, Messenger of Math. vol. 8 ( 1 8 7 9 ) ; Lord Rayleigh, Phil.
Mag. (Ser. 6) vol. 1 (1901) = Scientific Papers, vol. 4, p. 5 0 2 ; E. Almansi,
Torino Atti, t. 32 (1897); P. Alibrandi, Giornale di matem. t. 38 (1900).
I t must be observed t h a t t h e elastic " constants " themselves are functions
of the temperature. I n general, t h e y are diminished by a rise of tempera
t u r e ; this result has been established by t h e experiments of Wertheim*,
Kohlrauschf and Macleod and Clarke^.
75. Initial stress.

The initial state of a body may be too far removed from t h e unstressed
s t a t e to permit of the stress and strain being calculated by t h e principle of
superposition as explained in Article 64. Such initial states may be induced
by processes of preparation, or of manufacture, or by t h e action of body
forces. I n cast iron t h e exterior parts cool more rapidly t h a n the interior,
a n d t h e unequal contractions t h a t accompany t h e unequally rapid rates of
cooling give rise to considerable initial stress in t h e iron when cold. If a
sheet of metal is rolled up into a cylinder and t h e edges welded together the
body so formed is in a state of initial stress, and t h e unstressed state cannot
be attained without c u t t i n g the cylinder open. A body in equilibrium
under t h e m u t u a l gravitation of its parts is in a state of stress, and when
t h e body is large t h e stress may be enormous. The E a r t h is an example of
a body which must be regarded as being in a state of initial stress, for t h e
stress t h a t must exist in the interior is much too great to permit of t h e
calculation, by the ordinary methods, of strains reckoned from the unstressed
state as unstrained state.
If a body is given in a state of initial stress, and is subjected to forces,

changes of volume and shape will be produced which can be specified by
a displacement reckoned from t h e given initial state as unstrained state.
We may specify the initial stress at a point by t h e components
{0)
X x +X ',....X I n like manner we may specify the density in the initial
state by p and t h a t in t h e strained state by p + p , and we may specify t h e
0 0
body force in the initial state by (X F , Z ) and t h a t in the strained state

0} 0 0
by (X + X', F + F', Z + Z'). T h e n t h e conditions of equilibrium in t h e

0 0 Q
initial state are three equations of the type
+ p„X„ = 0 (35)
dx dy - dz
* Ann. de Chimie, t. 12 (1844).

+ Ann. Phys. Chem. (Poggendorff), Bd. 141 (1870).
X A result obtained by these writers is explained in the sense stated in the text by Lord Kelvin
in the Article 'Elasticity' in Ency. Brit, quoted in the footnote to Article 65.
and three boundary conditions of t h e type
{ ]
XJ* cos (x, v ) + X * 0 y cos (y, v ) + Z ® cos (*, v ) = 0,
0 x 0 (36)
in which v denotes t h e direction of t h e normal to t h e initial boundary.
0
T h e conditions of equilibrium in t h e strained state are three equations of

the form
<L(X^+X ')+^(X^+X ') x y
+1 {ZJ» + Z ') + ( , + p') ( Z + X') = 0

x P 0 (37)
and t h r e e boundary conditions of the type

(X ® + X«') cos (x, v) + (X/> + X ) cos (y, v)
x y
f
+ (Z ®+Z ')cos(z v) x x } = X, v (38)

in which (X , Y , Z ) is t h e surface traction at any point of t h e displaced
v v v
boundary. These equations may be transformed, when t h e displacement is

small, by using the results (35) and (36), so as to become three equations of
the type
+ + + z + 0 (89)
^ W ¥ ^ ' ^=
and three boundary conditions of t h e type
X x cos (x, v) + Xy cos (y, v) + Z cos (z, v) x
i0)
= X„ — X { C O S (x, v) — C O S (x,
x VQ)}
- Xy® {cos (y, v) - cos (y, v )} 0
- Z ® {cos (s, v) - cos (z, |/ )}.

x 0
If t h e initial stress is not known the equations (35) and conditions (36)
are not sufficient to determine it, and no progress can be made. If t h e
initial stress is known t h e determination of the additional stress (X \ ...) x
cannot be effected by means of equations (39) and conditions (40), without

knowledge of t h e relations between these stress-components and t h e dis
placement. To obtain such knowledge recourse m u s t be had either to experi
ment or to some more general theory. Experimental evidence appears to be
entirely wanting*.
Cauchy-J* worked out t h e consequences of applying t h a t theory of material
points to which reference has been made in Article 66. H e found for X , ... x
expressions of the form
+ + +
(5-|-5) «.-| * - 5 '-"
* Reference may be made to a paper by F. H . Cilley, Amer. J. of Science (Silliman), (Ser. 4),
vol. 11 (1901).
t See Introduction and cf. Note B at the end of this book.
where (u, v, w) is t h e displacement reckoned from t h e initial state, and
{X ,
x ...) is a stress-system related to this displacement by t h e same
equations as would hold if t h e r e were no initial stress. I n t h e case of
isotropy these equations would be (18) of Article 69 with X p u t equal to /JL.
{0)
I t may be observed t h a t t h e terms of X , ... t h a t contain X , ... arise from
x x
t h e changes in t h e distances between Cauchy's material points, and from

changes in t h e directions of t h e lines joining t h e m in pairs, and these changes
are expressed by means of t h e displacement (u, v, w).
S a i n t - V e n a n t * has obtained Cauchy's result by adapting t h e method of

Green, t h a t is to say by the use of the energy-function. His deduction has
been criticized by K. Pearson f, and it cannot be accepted as valid. Green's
original discussion £ appears to be restricted to t h e case of uniform initial
stress in an unlimited elastic medium, and t h e same restriction characterizes
Lord Kelvin s discussion of Green's theory §.
* J. de Math. [Liouville), (Ser. 2), t. 8 (1863).

f Todhunter and Pearson's History, vol. 2, pp. 84, 85.
+ See the paper quoted in the Introduction, footnote 81.
§ Baltimore Lectures on Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Theory of Light, London, 1904,
pp. 228 et seq.
CHAPTER IV.
THE RELATION BETWEEN THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF

ELASTICITY AND TECHNICAL MECHANICS.
76. L i m i t a t i o n s of the m a t h e m a t i c a l theory.

The object of this Chapter is to present as clear an idea as possible
of t h e scope and limitations of the mathematical theory in its application
to practical questions. T h e theory is worked out for bodies strained
gradually at a constant temperature, from an initial state of no stress to
a final state which differs so little from t h e unstressed state t h a t squares
and products of t h e displacements can be neglected; and further it is worked
out on t h e basis of Hooke's Law, as generalized in the statements in
Article 64. I t is known t h a t many materials used in engineering structures,
e.g. cast iron, building stone, cement, do not obey Hooke's Law for any
strains t h a t are large enough to be observed. I t is known also t h a t those
materials which do obey the law for small measurable strains do not obey
it for larger ones. T h e statement of the law in Article 64 included t h e
s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e strain disappears on removal of t h e load, and this part
of it is absolutely necessary to the mathematical theory ; b u t it is known
t h a t t h e limits of strain, or of load, in which this condition holds good are
relatively narrow. Although there exists much experimental knowledge*
in regard to t h e behaviour of bodies which are not in t h e conditions to
which t h e mathematical theory is applicable, yet it appears t h a t the ap
propriate extensions of t h e theory which would be needed in order to
incorporate such knowledge within it cannot be made until much fuller
experimental knowledge has been obtained.
* Information in regard to experimental results will be found in treatises on Applied
Mechanics. The following may be mentioned :—W. J. M. Rankine, Applied Mechanics, 1st
edition, London, 1858, (there have been numerous later editions); W. C. Unwin, The testing of
materials of construction, London, 1888; J. A. Ewing, The Strength of Materials, Cambridge, 1899;
Flamant, Stabilite des constructions, Resistance des materiaux, Paris, 1896; C. Bach, Elasticitdt
und Festigkeit, 2nd edition, Berlin, 1894; A. Foppl, Vorlesungen uber technische Mechanik,
Bd. 3, Festigkeitslehre, Leipzig, 1900. Very valuable experimental researches were made in
recent times by J. Bauschinger and recorded by him in Mittheilungen aus dem mechanisch-
technischen Laboratorium... in Milnchen-, these researches have been continued by A. Foppl. New
facts in regard to the nature of permanent set in metals, which are likely to prove to be very
important, have been brought to light by J. A. Ewing and W. Rosenhain, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.
(Ser. A), vols. 193, 195, (1900, 1901).
The restriction of t h e theory to conditions in which t h e strain disappears
on removal of the load is usually expressed by saying t h a t the body must
be strained within t h e limits of "perfect e l a s t i c i t y T h e restriction to
conditions in which t h e measurable strain is proportional to the load is
sometimes expressed by saying t h a t t h e body must be strained within the
limits of " l i n e a r elasticity." T h e expression " l i m i t s of elasticity" is used
sometimes in one of these senses and sometimes in the other, and t h e limits
are sometimes specified by means of a " stress " or a " traction," i.e. by a load
per unit of area, and sometimes by the measurable strain.
W h e n t h e strain does not disappear after removal of the load, the strain
which remains when t h e load is removed is called "set," and the excess
of t h e strain which occurs under the load above t h e set is called " elastic
strain." T h e strain is t h e n compounded of set and elastic strain. A body
which can be strained without t a k i n g any set is sometimes said to be in
a " s t a t e of e a s e " up to t h e strain at which set begins.
77. Stress-strain diagrams.

One of t h e greatest aids to scientific investigation of t h e properties
of m a t t e r subjected to stress is the use of these diagrams, They are usually
constructed by taking t h e strain developed as abscissa, and the stress
producing it as t h e corresponding ordinate. For most materials t h e case
selected for this kind of t r e a t m e n t is t h e extension of bars, and, in t h e
diagram, t h e ordinate represents the applied traction, and t h e abscissa t h e
extension of a line traced on t h e bar parallel to its length and rather near
the middle. The extension is measured by some kind of extensometer*.
The load at any instant is known, and t h e traction is estimated by assuming
this load to be distributed uniformly over the area of t h e cross-section of t h e
specimen in t h e initial state. If any considerable contraction of the section
were to occur t h e traction would be underestimated. The testing machine,
by means of which t h e experiments are made, is sometimes fitted with an
automatic recording apparatus*!" by which t h e curve is d r a w n ; but this
cannot be done satisfactorily with some types of machine j .
I t is clear that, in general, the quantities recorded by such arrangements
are t h e traction, estimated as stated, and t h e extension which it produces
immediately. Special methods of experimenting and observing are required
if elastic strain is to be distinguished from set, and if t h e various effects t h a t
depend upon time are to be calculated.
The general character of t h e curve for moderately hard metals under
extension, is now well known. I t is for a considerable range of stress very
* Several kinds of extensometers are described by Ewing and Unwin.

f Unwin, loc. cit.
X Bauschinger, Mittheilungen, xx. (1891).
112 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS [CH. IV
nearly straight. Then comes a stage in which t h e curve is generally concave

downwards, so t h a t t h e strain increases faster t h a n it would do if it were
proportional to t h e t r a c t i o n ; in this stage t h e strain is largely a permanent
set. As t h e traction increases there comes a region of well-marked dis
continuity, in which a small increase of traction produces a large increase
of set. The traction at the beginning of this region is called the Yield-Point.
After a further considerable increase of traction t h e bar begins to t h i n down
at some section, determined apparently by accidental circumstances, and there
it ultimately breaks. W h e n this local t h i n n i n g down begins t h e load is
usually eased off somewhat before r u p t u r e occurs, and the bar breaks with
less than the m a x i m u m traction. T h e maximum traction before r u p t u r e is
called the " breaking s t r e s s " of the material, sometimes also the " u l t i m a t e
strength " or " tenacity."
Fig. 8. Fig. 9.
F i g u r e 8 shows t h e character of the diagram for "weld iron." I t is

reduced from one of Bauschinger's curves. Similar diagrams for mild steel
are drawn in many books. A is t h e limit of linear elasticity ; between A and
B t h e strain increases rather faster t h a n between 0 and A and at a varying
rate, B is t h e yield-point and D represents t h e maximum traction. Fig. 9
is reduced from one of Bauschinger's curves for cast iron. There is no
sensible range, and so no limit, of linear elasticity, and no yield-point.
Diagrams may be constructed in t h e same way for thrust and contraction,

b u t the forms of them are in general different from t h e above. I n particular,
there is no yield-point under thrust. I n t h e case of cast iron it has been
verified t h a t the curve is continuous through t h e origin, where there is an
inflexion*.
* See e.g. Ewing, loc. cit., p. 31.
77, 78] LIMITS OF ELASTICITY 113
78. Elastic limits.

The diagrams do not show the limits of perfect elasticity when these
are different from t h e limits of linear elasticity. These limits usually are
different, and t h e former are lower t h a n t h e latter*. The numerical
measures of the limits for extension and contraction are usually different
for the same specimen. T h e limits are not very well defined. The limit
of perfect elasticity for any type of stress would be determined by t h e
greatest traction which produces no set, b u t all t h a t experiment can tell us
is t h e smallest traction for which set can be measured by means of our
instruments. T h e limits of linear elasticity are shown by the diagrams, b u t
they are liable to t h e same kind of uncertainty as the limits of perfect
elasticity, inasmuch as t h e determination of t h e m depends upon the degree
of accuracy with which t h e diagrams can be drawn.
The limits of linear elasticity can be raised by overstrain*h If a bar of
steel, not specially hard, is subjected to a load above the elastic limit, and
even above the yield-point, and this load is maintained until a permanent
state is reached, it is found afterwards to possess linear elasticity up to a
higher limit t h a n before. If the load is removed, and the bar remains for
some time unloaded, t h e limit is found to be raised still further, and may be
above the load which produced the overstrain.
On the other hand, t h e limits of elasticity can be lowered by overstrain J.
If a bar of iron or mild steel is subjected to a load above t h e yield-point,
and then unloaded and immediately reloaded, its elasticity is found to be very
imperfect, and the limit of linear elasticity very low; b u t if t h e bar remains
unloaded for a few days it is found to have recovered partially from the effects
of the previous overstraining, and the longer the period of rest t h e more com
plete is t h e recovery. W r o u g h t iron recovers much more rapidly than steel.
I n the case of cast iron, not previously subjected to tests, any load t h a t
produces a measurable strain produces some set, and there is no appreciable
range of linear elasticity. After several times loading and unloading, the
behaviour of t h e metal approaches more closely to t h a t of other metals
as exemplified in Fig. 8. These results suggest t h a t the set produced in
the first tests consists in t h e removal of a state of initial stress.
The yield-point also is raised by overstrain, if the original load is above
the original yield-point, and the amount by which it is raised is increased
by allowing a period of r e s t ; it is increased still more by maintaining constant
t h e load which produced t h e original overstrain. This effect is described as
" hardening by overstrain/'
* Bauschinger, Mittheilungen, XIII. (1886).

f Ibid.
X See e.g. Ewing, loc. cit., pp. 33 et seq., and the tables in Bauschinger's Mittheilungen, XIII.
L. E. 8
T h e following t a b l e * gives some examples of t h e limit of linear elasticity
and t h e yield-point for some kinds of iron. The results, given in atmospheres,
are in each case those for a single specimen not previously tested.
Metal Elastic limit Yield-point
Weld-iron 1410 1920

1830 2180
I n g o t iron 2390 2780
JJ 2660 2960
Steel (Bessemer) 1780 2650
79. Time-effects. Plasticity.

T h e length of time t h a t a body has been subjected to considerable load
generally affects t h e strain produced, and t h e length of time t h a t a strained
body has been free from load generally affects t h e extent of t h e elastic
recovery. T h e latter effect was discovered by W. W e b e r f in 1835 and
has been called Elastische Nachwirkung or elastic after-working; t h e former
appears to have been first noted by VicatJ in 1834. W h e n a body has been
strained by a load surpassing t h e limit of perfect elasticity, and is set free,
t h e set gradually diminishes. T h e body never returns to its primitive
condition, and t h e ultimate deformation is the " p e r m a n e n t set," t h e part
of t h e strain t h a t gradually disappears is called "elastic after-strain." To
produce the effect noted by Vicat very considerable stress is generally
required. H e found t h a t wires held stretched, with a tension equal to one
quarter of t h e breaking stress, retained t h e length to which this tension
brought t h e m throughout the whole time of his experiments (33 months),
while similar wires stretched with a tension equal to half t h e breaking stress
exhibited a notable gradual increase of extension. T h e gradual flow of
solids under great stress, indicated by these experiments, has been made
t h e subject of exhaustive investigation by H. Tresca§. H e found, in his
experiments on t h e punching and crushing of metals, results which point
to the conclusion that all solids* when subjected to very great pressure
ultimately flow, i.e. take a set which increases with t h e time. This capacity
* Extracted from results given by Bauschinger, Mittheilungen, XIII. We may take 1000
9
atmospheres =6*56 tons per square inch =1-0136 x 10 C . G . S . units of stress.
t De ftli JBombycini vi Elastica. Gottingen, 1841. An off-print of a paper communicated to
the Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, 1835, and practically translated in
Ann. Phys. Ghem. (Poggendorff), Bde. 34 (1835) and 54 (1841).
t Note sur Vallongement progressif du fil defer soumis d diverses tensions. Annales des ponts
et chaussees, ler semestre, 1834.
§ Paris, Memoires...par divers savans, tt. 18 (1868), and 20 (1872). An account of some of
Tresca's experiments is given by Unwin, loc. cit. pp. 46 et seq.
of solids to flow under great stress is called plasticity, A solid is said to be
" hard " when the force required to produce considerable set is great, " soft "
or " plastic " when it is small. A substance must be termed " fluid " if con
siderable set can be produced by any force, however small, provided it is
applied for a sufficient time.
I n experiments on extension some plasticity of t h e material is shown
as soon as the limit of linear elasticity is exceeded*. If the load exceeding
this limit is removed some set can be observed, b u t this set diminishes at
a rate which itself diminishes. If t h e load is maintained t h e strain gradually
increases and reaches a constant value after t h e lapse of some time. If the
load is removed and reapplied several times, both t h e set and the elastic
strain increase. None of these effects are observed when t h e load is below
the limit of linear elasticity. The possibility of these plastic effects tends
to complicate the results of testing, for if two like specimens are loaded at
different rates, t h e one which is loaded more rapidly will show a greater
breaking stress and a smaller ultimate extension t h a n t h e other. Such
differences have in fact been observedf, b u t it has been shown^: t h a t
under ordinary conditions of testing t h e variations in the rate of loading
do not affect t h e results appreciably.
80. Viscosity of Solids.

" Viscosity " is a general term for all those properties of m a t t e r in virtue
of which t h e resistance, which a body offers to any change, depends upon the
rate at which the change is effected. The existence of viscous resistances
involves a dissipation of t h e energy of the substance, the kinetic energy of
molar motion being transformed, as is generally supposed, into kinetic energy
of molecular agitation. The most marked effect of this property, if it exists
in the case of elastic solids, would be t h e subsidence of vibrations set u p in
the solid. Suppose a solid of any form to be struck, or otherwise suddenly
disturbed. I t will be thrown into more or less rapid vibration, and t h e
stresses developed in it would, if there is genuine viscosity, depend partly on
the displacements, and partly on t h e rates at which they are effected. The
parts of the stresses depending on t h e rates of change would be viscous
resistances, and they would ultimately destroy t h e vibratory motion. Now
the vibratory motion of elastic solid bodies is actually destroyed, b u t t h e
decay appears not to be the effect of viscous resistances of t h e ordinary type,
t h a t is to say such as are proportional to t h e rates of strain. I t has been
pointed out by Lord Kelvin § t h a t , if this type of resistance alone were
involved, the proportionate diminution of the amplitude of the oscillations
* Bauschinger, Mittheilungen, X I I I . (1886).
t Cf. Unwin, loc. cit., p. 89.
t Bauschinger, Mittheilungen, xx. (1891).
§ Sir W. Thomson, Article 'Elasticity,' Eney. Brit, or Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. 3,
Cambridge, 1890, p. 27.
per unit of time would be inversely proportional to t h e square of t h e period;
b u t a series of experiments on the torsional oscillations of wires showed t h a t
this law does not hold good.
Lord Kelvin pointed out t h a t the decay of vibrations could be accounted
for by supposing that, even for the very small strains involved in vibratory
motions, the effects of elastic after-working and plasticity are not wholly
absent. These effects, as well as viscous resistances of the ordinary type, are
included in t h e class of hysteresis phenomena. All of them show t h a t t h e
state of t h e body concerned depends at any instant on its previous states as
well as on the external conditions (forces, temperature, &c.) which obtain at
t h e instant. Hysteresis always implies irreversibility in t h e sequence of
states t h r o u g h which a body passes, and is generally traced to the molecular
s t r u c t u r e of matter. Accordingly, theories of molecular action have been
devised by various investigators* to account for viscosity and elastic after-
working.
81. iEolotropy induced by permanent set.

One of the changes produced in a solid, which has received a p e r m a n e n t
set, may be t h a t the material, previously isotropic, becomes eeolotropic. The
best known example is t h a t of a bar rendered seolotropic by permanent
torsion. W a r b u r g + found that, in a copper wire to which a p e r m a n e n t twist
had been given, t h e elastic phenomena observed could all be explained
on t h e supposition t h a t t h e substance of the wire was rendered seolotropic
like a rhombic crystal. W h e n a weight was h u n g on t h e wire it produced, in
addition to extension, a small shear, equivalent to a partial untwisting^ of
t h e wire ; this was an elastic strain, and disappeared on the removal of t h e
load. This experiment is important as showing that processes of manu
facture may induce considerable seolotropy in materials which in the un-
worked stage are isotropic, and consequently t h a t estimates of strength,
founded on the employment of the equations of isotropic elasticity, cannot be
strictly interpreted §.
82. Repeated loading.

A body strained within its elastic limits may be strained again and
again without receiving any injury; thus a watch-spring may be coiled and
* The following may be mentioned:—J. C. Maxwell, Article ' Constitution of Bodies,' Ency.
Brit, or Scientific Papers, vol. 2, Cambridge, 1890; J. G. Butcher, London Math. Soc. Proc,
vol. 8 (1877); 0 . E . Meyer, J. f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 78 (1874); L. Boltzmann, Ann. Phys. Chem.
{Poggendorff), Ergzgsbd. 7 (1878). For a good account of the theories the reader may be
referred to the Article by F . Braun in Winkelmann's Handbuch der Physik, Bd. 1 (Breslau, 1891),
pp. 321—342. For a more recent discussion of the viscosity of metals and crystals, see W. Voigt
Ann, Phys. Chem. (Wiedemann), Bd. 47 (1892).
t Ann. Phys. Chem. (Wiedemann), Bd. 10 (1880).
X Cf. Lord Kelvin, loc. cit., Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. 3, p. 82.
§ Cf. Unwin, loc. cit., p. 25.
uncoiled one hundred and twenty millions of times a year for several years
without deterioration. B u t it is different when a body is strained repeatedly
by rapidly varying loads which exceed t h e limits of elasticity. Wohler's*
experiments on this point have been held to show t h a t the resistance of
a body to any kind of deformation can be seriously diminished, by rapidly
repeated applications of a load. The result appears to point to a gradual
deteriorationf of t h e quality of the material subjected to repeated loading,
which can be verified by t h e observation t h a t after a large n u m b e r of appli
cations and removals of t h e load, bars may be broken by a stress much
below the statical breaking stress.
Bauschingerj made several independent series of experiments on the
same subject. I n these t h e load was reversed 100 times a minute, and
the specimens which endured so long were submitted to some millions of
repetitions of alternating stress. I n some cases these severe tests revealed
t h e existence of flaws in the material, b u t the general result obtained was
t h a t t h e strength of a piece is not diminished by repeated loading, provided
t h a t t h e load always lies within the limits of linear elasticity.
An analogous property of bodies is t h a t to which Lord Kelvin § has called
attention under t h e name "fatigue of elasticity." H e observed t h a t t h e
torsional vibrations of wires subsided much more rapidly when the wires
had been kept vibrating for several hours or days, than when, after being
at rest for some days, they were set in vibration and immediately left to
themselves.
Experimental results of this kind point to the importance of taking into
account the manner and frequency of t h e application of force to a structure
in estimating its strength.
83. H y p o t h e s e s concerning the conditions of Rupture.

Various hypotheses have been advanced as to t h e conditions under which
a body is ruptured, or a structure becomes unsafe. Thus Lame|| supposed it
to be necessary t h a t t h e greatest tension should be less t h a n a certain limit.
PonceletIF, followed by Saint-Venant**, assumed t h a t the greatest extension
must be less t h a n a certain limit. These measures of tendency to rupture
agree for a bar under extension, b u t in general they lead to different limits
* Ueber Festigkeitsversuche mit Eisen und Stahl, Berlin, 1870. An account of Wohler's
experiments is given by Unwin, loc. cit., pp. 356 et seq.
t A different explanation has been proposed by K. Pearson, Messenger of Math. vol. 20 (1890).
X Mittheilungen, xx. (1891) and xxv. (1897) edited by Foppl.
§ Loc. cit., Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. 3, p. 22.
|| See e.g. the memoir of Lame and Clapeyron, quoted in the Introduction (footnote 39).
IF See Todhunter and Pearson's History, vol. 1, art. 995.
** See especially the Historique Abrege in Saint-Venant's edition of the Legons de Navier,
pp. cxcix—ccv.
of safe loading*. Again, Tresca followed by G. H. Darwinf* makes t h e
maximum difference of the greatest and least principal stresses t h e measure
of tendency to r u p t u r e , and not a very different limit would be found by
following Coulomb'st suggestion, t h a t the greatest shear produced in t h e
material is a measure of this tendency. An interesting modification of this
view has been suggested and worked out geometrically by 0 . Mohr§. I t
would enable us to take account of t h e possible dependence of t h e condition
of safety upon the n a t u r e of the load, i.e. upon t h e kind of stress which
is developed within t h e body. The manner and frequency of application of
t h e load are matters which ought also to be t a k e n into account. The con
ditions of r u p t u r e are b u t vaguely understood, and may depend largely on
these and other accidental circumstances. A t the same time t h e question is
very important, as a satisfactory answer to it might suggest in many cases
causes of weakness previously unsuspected, and, in others, methods of econo
mizing material t h a t would be consistent with safety.
I n all these hypotheses it is supposed t h a t the stress or strain actually

produced in a body of given form, by a given load, is somehow calculable.
The only known method of calculating these effects is by t h e use of t h e
mathematical theory of Elasticity, or by some more or less rough and ready
rule obtained from some result of this theory. Suppose the body to be
subject to a given system of load, and suppose t h a t we know how to solve t h e
equations of elastic equilibrium with t h e given boundary-conditions. Then
t h e stress and strain at every point of t h e body can be determined,
and t h e principal stresses and principal extensions can be found. L e t T be
t h e greatest principal tension, 8 t h e greatest difference of two principal
tensions at t h e same point, e the greatest principal extension. Let T be t h e 0
breaking stress as determined by tensile tests. On the greatest tension

hypothesis T must not exceed a certain fraction of T . On t h e stress-
0
difference hypothesis S must not exceed a certain fraction of T . On t h e 0
greatest extension hypothesis e must not exceed a certain fraction of T jE, 0
where E is Young's modulus for t h e material. These conditions may be

written
T<T /&,
0 S<T I<!>
0 9 e<T /Ê
0
and the n u m b e r <3> which occurs in t h e m is called t h e " factor of safety."
* For examples see Todhunter and Pearson's History, vol. 1, p. 550 footnote.
f ' On the stresses produced in the interior of the Earth by the weight of Continents and
Mountains,' Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. 173 (1882). The same measure is adopted in the account
of Prof. Darwin's work in Kelvin and Tait's Nat. Phil. Part n. art. 832'.
X 'Essai sur une application des regies de Maximis &c.,' Mem. par divers Savans, 1776,
Introduction.
§ Zeitschrift der Deutschen Ingenieure, Bd. 44 (1900). A discussion by Voigt of the views of
Mohr and other writers will be found in Ann. Phys. (Ser. 4), Bd. 4 (1901).
Most English and American engineers adopt the first of these hypotheses,
b u t take to depend on t h e kind of strain to which t h e body is likely to be u
subjected in use. A factor 6 is allowed for boilers, 10 for pillars, 6 for axles,
6 to 10 for railway-bridges, and 12 for screw-propeller-shafts and parts of
other machines subjected to sudden reversals of load. I n France and
Germany the greatest extension hypothesis is often adopted.
Eecently a t t e m p t s have been made to determine which of these hypo
theses best represents t h e results of experiments. The fact t h a t short pillars
can be crushed by longitudinal pressure excludes t h e greatest tension hypo
thesis. If it were proposed to replace this by a greatest stress hypothesis,
according to which r u p t u r e would occur when any principal stress (tension
or pressure) exceeds a certain limit, then t h e experiments of A. F o p p l * on
bodies subjected to very great pressures uniform over their surfaces would be
very important, as it appeared t h a t r u p t u r e is not produced by such pressures
as he could apply. These experiments would also forbid us to replace t h e
greatest extension hypothesis by a greatest strain hypothesis. There remain
for examination t h e greatest extension hypothesis and the stress-difference
hypothesis. Wehage's e x p e r i m e n t s f on specimens of wrought iron subjected
to equal tensions (or pressures) in two directions at right angles to each
other have thrown doubt on t h e greatest extension hypothesis. From
experiments on metal tubes subjected to various systems of combined stress
J. J. Guest J has concluded t h a t t h e stress-difference hypothesis is t h e one
which accords best with observed results. The general tendency of modern
technical writings seems to be to attach more importance to the limits
of linear elasticity and t h e yield-point t h a n to t h e limits of perfect elasticity
and the breaking stress, and to emphasize the importance of dynamical tests
in addition to the usual statical tests of tensile and bending strength.
84. S c o p e of the m a t h e m a t i c a l theory of elasticity.

Numerical values of the quantities t h a t can be involved in practical
problems may serve to show the smallness of t h e strains t h a t occur in
structures which are found to be safe. Examples of such values have been
given in Articles 1, 48, 7 1 , 78. A piece of iron or steel with a limit of linear
elasticity equal to 10J tons per square inch, a yield-point equal to 14 tons
per square inch and a Young's modulus equal to 13000 tons per square inch
would take, under a load of 6 tons per square inch, an extension 0*00046.
Even if loaded nearly u p to the yield-point t h e extension would be small
enough to require very refined means of observation. The neglect of squares
and products of the strains in iron and steel structures within safe limits of
loading cannot be t h e cause of any serious error. The fact t h a t for loads much
* Mittheilungen (Mtinchen), xxvn. (1899).

t Mittheilungen der mechanisch-technischen Versuchsanstalt zu Berlin, 1888.
X Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 48 (1900). Mohr (loc. cit.) has criticized Guest.
below t h e limit of linear elasticity t h e elasticity of metals is very imperfect may
perhaps be a more serious cause of error, since set and elastic after-working
are unrepresented in the mathematical t h e o r y ; b u t the sets t h a t occur
within the limit of linear elasticity are always extremely small. The effects
produced by unequal heating, wdth which t h e theory cannot deal satis
factorily, are very important in practice. Some examples of t h e application
of t h e theory to questions of strength may be cited h e r e : — B y Saint-Venant's
theory of the torsion of prisms, it can be predicted t h a t a shaft transmitting
a couple by torsion is seriously weakened by t h e existence of a dent having
a curvature approaching to t h a t in a r e e n t r a n t angle, or by the existence of
a flaw parallel to t h e axis of t h e shaft. By t h e theory of equilibrium of a
mass with a spherical boundary, it can be predicted t h a t the shear in t h e
neighbourhood of a flaw of spherical form may be as great as twice t h a t at
a distance. T h e result of such theories would be t h a t t h e factor of safety
should be doubled for shafts t r a n s m i t t i n g a couple when such flaws may
occur. Again it can be shown t h a t , in certain cases, a load suddenly applied
may cause a strain twice* as great as t h a t produced by a gradual application
of the same load, and t h a t a load suddenly reversed may cause a strain
three times as great as t h a t produced by t h e gradual application of t h e same
load. These results lead us to expect t h a t additional factors of safety will be
required for sudden applications and sudden reversals, and they suggest t h a t
these extra factors may be 2 and 3. Again, a source of weakness in structures,
some parts of which are very thin bars or plates subjected to thrust, is a pos
sible buckling of t h e parts. T h e conditions of buckling can sometimes be
determined from the theory of Elastic Stability, and this theory can then be
made to suggest some method of supporting t h e parts by stays, and t h e best
places for them, so as to secure t h e greatest strength with t h e least ex
penditure of materials; b u t t h e result, at any r a t e in structures t h a t may
receive small permanent sets, is only a suggestion and requires to be verified
by experiment. F u r t h e r , as has been pointed out before, all calculations of
t h e strength of structures rest on some result or other deduced from t h e
mathematical theory.
More precise indications as to t h e behaviour of solid bodies can be

deduced from t h e theory when applied to obtain corrections to very exact
physical measurements-f\ For example, it is customary to specify t h e tem
perature at which standards of length are correct; b u t it appears t h a t t h e
effects of such changes of atmospheric pressure as actually occur are not too
small to have a practical significance. As more and more accurate instru
ments come to be devised for measuring lengths t h e time is probably not far
* This point appears to have been first expressly noted by Poncelet in his Introduction a
la Mecanique industrielle, physique et experimentale of 1839, see Todhunter and Pearson's
History, vol. 1, art. 988.
+ Cf. C. Chree, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 6), vol. 2 (1901).
distant when the effects produced in the length of a standard by different
modes of support will have to be taken into account. Another example
is afforded by t h e result t h a t t h e cubic capacity of a vessel intended to
contain liquid is increased when the liquid is p u t into it in consequence
of the excess of pressure in the parts of t h e liquid near t h e bottom of t h e
vessel. Again, t h e bending of the deflexion-bars of magnetometers affects
the measurement of magnetic force. Many of t h e simpler results of t h e
mathematical theory are likely to find important applications in connexion
with t h e improvement of measuring apparatus.
OHAPTEE V.
EQUILIBRIUM OF ISOTROPIC ELASTIC SOLID BODIES.
85. Recapitulation of t h e general theory.

As a preliminary to the further study of the theory of elasticity some parts of the
general theory will here be recapitulated briefly.
(a) Stress. The state of stress at a point of a body is determined when the traction
across every plane through the point is known. The traction is estimated as a force per
unit of area. If v denotes the direction of the normal to a plane the traction across the
plane is specified by means of rectangular components X , Y , Z parallel to the axes v v v
of coordinates. The traction across the plane that is normal to v is expressed in terms of
the tractions across planes that are normal to the axes of coordinates by the equations
a)
Z =Z cos
v X v) -VZ cos (y, v) + Z cos (z, v).
y z
The quantities X ,..

Xi are connected by the equations
Y —Zy,
z Z =X ,
x z Xy — Y x , (2)
The six quantities X Y Z , Y , Z , X are the "components of stress." Their values
Xi yi g 3 x v
at any point depend in general upon the position of the point.

(b) Stress-equations. In a body in equilibrium under body forces and surface
tractions the components of stress satisfy the following equations at every point in
the body :—
.(3)
In these equations p is the density and (X, Y Z) the body force per unit of mass.
9
The components of stress also satisfy certain equations at the surface of the body.
If v denotes the direction of the normal drawn outwards from the body at any point
of its surface and {X Y , Z ) denotes the surface traction at the point, the values of the
Vy v v
components of stress at the point must satisfy the equations (1), in which X , ... are v
written for X , —
v
(c) Displacement. Under the action of the forces the body is displaced from the
configuration that it would have if the stress-components were zero throughout. If
y, z) denotes the position of a point of the body in the unstressed state, and +
y+v z+w) denotes the position of the same point of the body when under the action
9
of the forces, (u, v, w) denotes the displacement, and the components of displacement
u, v, w are functions of y, z.
(d) Strain. The strain at a point is determined when the extension of every linear
element issuing from the point is known. If the relative displacement is small, the
extension of a linear element in direction (I, m, n) is
2 2 2
^x l +e y7n +e n -{-ey mn + e nl-\-e ylm,
X y 22 2 zx X (4)
where e , ... denote the following :—
xx
du dv dw \
6 x x = e y v = 6zz=
dx> dy> dz> I *
_dw dv _du dw _dv du j
eyz + esx + exv +
~ty dz' ~d~z dx~> ~dx d^'J
The quantities e , ... e are the "components of strain."
xx yz
The quantities w , cr^, m determined by the equations

x z
^ dw dv du dw _ dv du . s
2 w = 2 r o = ( 6 )
* ^ - & ' " aJ-^' ^^Tx-Ty
are the components of a vector quantity, the "rotation." The quantity A determined
by the equation
du dv div /H .
A = + 7 )
s + ^ ¥ <
is the " dilatation."
(e) Stress-strain relations. In an elastic solid slightly strained from the unstressed
state the components of stress are linear functions of the components of strain. When the
material is isotropic we have
X X = \ A + 2FXE XX9 Y = \A-{-2ê ,
y yy Z Z = \ A + 2fjLe zi
, .(8)
Yz~ftVyzy Z ~\xc ,
x zx X = fj,e y ;
y X
and by solving these we have

exx=-jjj{X -(r (Y + Z )}, e =^{Y -o-(Z
x y z yy y z + X )}, x e =^{Z -<r
zz z (X + Y )}, )
x y
_2(l+<r) _ 2 ( l + cr) _ 2 ( l + <r) j

V
E 2X~ J£ ^Xl V y— X -G, , uXyy J
where
(3X4-2^) ^X
( 1 0 )
^ — T + 7 ~ ' " - 2 1 x ^ 1 )
The quantity E is " Young's modulus," the number o- is " Poisson's ratio," the quantity
/x is the "rigidity," the quantity
X + § / L I , =K, is the "modulus of compression."
86. Uniformly varying stress.

We considered some examples of uniform stress in connexion with the definitions of
E , K, etc. (Article 69). The cases which are next in order of simplicity are those in which
the stress-components are linear functions of the coordinates. We shall record the results
in regard to some particular distributions of stress.
(a) Let the axis of z be directed vertically upwards, let all the stress-components
except Z vanish, and let Z =gpz, where p is the density of the body and g is the acceleration
z z
due to gravity.
The stress-equations of equilibrium (3) are satisfied if X = 0 , F—0, Z— —g. Hence this
state of stress can be maintained in a body of any form by its own weight provided that
suitable tractions are applied at its surface. The traction applied at the surface must be
of amount gpz cos v\ and it must be directed vertically upwards. If the body is a
cylinder or prism of any form of cross-section, and the origin is at the lower end, the cylinder
is supported by tension uniformly distributed over its upper end. If I is the length of the
cylinder this tension is gpl, and the resultant tension is equal to the weight of the cylinder.
The lower end and the curved surface are free from traction.
The strain is given by the equations
&xx ~ yy6
~ 5 &zz ~ > &yz ~ &zx " xy ~ e
0*
To find the displacement* we take first the equation

dw _ gpz
Tz~^>
which gives
1
9P 2 ,
:Z +w
W = =
2 E °>
where w is a function of x and y.
0 The equations e =e =0 yz zx give
du _ dw 0 dv __ dw 0#
dz~~ dx ' dz dy '

and therefore we must have
where u and v are functions of x and y.

0 0 The equations
du _dv _ o-gpz
dx~'dy~ E
give
9 2 2
dx~ ' dy~ dx ~ E ' dy ~ E '
The equation e — 0 gives
xy
dy dx ' dxdy
The equations containing w can be satisfied only by an equation of the form
0
where a , j3', y are constants. The equations containing u v show that u is a function 0i 0 0
of y, say F (y\ and v is a function of x, say F (x\ and that these functions satisfy the
± 0 2
equation
dy dx '
and this equation requires that dF ($)\dy and dF (x)jdx should be constants, y and — y say.
x 2
Hence we have
•*i(y) = yV + a» F (x)=-y'x
2 + (3,
* The work is given at length as an example of method.

where a and /3 are constants. The complete expressions for the displacements are
therefore
(TOO , .
u= --^-zx-a'z+yy + a,
v = - ^ z y - $ z - i x + $ ,
The terms containing a , ft y , a', ft, y represent a displacement which would be

possible in a rigid body. If the cylinder is not displaced by rotation we may omit a', ft, y.
If it is not displaced laterally we may omit a , ft If the point (0, 0, I) is not displaced
vertically, we must have y— — i The displacement is then given by the equations
« = - ^ , v — tHf, W = l ^ ( W + < r M (11)
Any cross-section of the cylinder is distorted into a paraboloid of revolution about the
vertical axis of the cylinder, and the sections shrink laterally by amounts proportional to
their distances from the free (lower) end.
(6) A more general case* is obtained by taking

Xx= Y = -p+gp'z,
v Z=
2 -p+g(p-p)l+gpz,
Y =Z
Z X =X —0. y
This state of stress can be maintained in a cylinder or prism of any form of length 21
suspended in fluid of density p' so as to have its axis vertical and the highest point (0, 0, I)
of its axis fixed ; then p is the pressure of the fluid at the level of the centre of gravity
of the cylinder.
The displacement may be shown to be given by the equations
w=-^[Q.-*r)p-g(p-p')I\ + \g{p-*rpf)(#-l?) [ (12)
+ g^W-(l-«r)p'}-
(c) By putting
X =Y =Z =-p+gpz,
x y s Y =Z =X =0,
z x y
we obtain the state of stress in a body of any form immersed in liquid of the same density,
p being the pressure at the level of the origint. The displacement may be shown to
be given by the equations
! I" (13)
c 2 2
3\ + 2fjL-pz+igp(z -x -y%
* C. Chree, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 6), vol. 2 (1901).

t E . and F . Cosserat, Paris G. R., t. 133 (1901).
(d) L e t all t h e stress-components except Y s and Z x v a n i s h , a n d let t h e s e be g i v e n
by the equations
Y _ Z _
z x
Mr
x -y
where r is a c o n s t a n t and JJL is t h e rigidity.
T h i s s t a t e of stress can b e m a i n t a i n e d i n a bar of circular s e c t i o n w i t h i t s axis coinciding
w i t h t h e axis of z b y tractions applied a t i t s e n d s only. I f a i s t h e radius of t h e circle t h e
tractions o n t h e t e r m i n a l s e c t i o n s are statically e q u i v a l e n t t o couples of m o m e n t ^Tra^fxr
a b o u t t h e axis of z, so t h a t w e h a v e t h e p r o b l e m of a round bar held t w i s t e d b y opposing
couples.
T h e d i s p l a c e m e n t m a y b e s h o w n to be g i v e n b y t h e e q u a t i o n s
u=—ryz, V=TZX, w=0, (14)
so t h a t a n y s e c t i o n is t u r n e d in i t s o w n plane t h r o u g h a n angle rz, w h i c h is proportional
t o t h e d i s t a n c e from a fixed section. T h e c o n s t a n t r m e a s u r e s t h e t w i s t of t h e bar.
87. Bar bent by couples*.

Our next example of uniformly varying stress is of very great importance.
W e take t h e stress-component Z to be equal to — ER^x, z where is a
constant, and we t a k e t h e remaining stress-components to vanish. If this
state of stress existed within a body, in t h e shape of a cylinder or prism
having its generators in t h e direction of the axis of z, there would be no
body force, and there would be no tractions on t h e cylindrical boundary.
T h e resultant traction over any cross-section is of amount jjz dxdy z ; and this
vanishes if the axis of z coincides with the line of centroids of the normal
sections in the unstressed state. W e take this to be t h e case. Then the bar
is held in t h e specified state of stress by tractions over its terminal sections
only, and t h e traction across any section is statically equivalent to a couple.
The component of t h e couple about t h e axis of z vanishes. The
component about the axis of y is jJER-Wdxdy, or it is EIjR, where I is the
moment of inertia of the section about an axis through its centroid parallel
to the axis of y. The component of the couple about the axis of x is
^j — ER^xydxdy, and this vanishes if the axes of x and y are parallel to
principal axes of inertia of the cross-sections. W e shall suppose t h a t this

is the case.
T h e strain-components are given by t h e equations
du dv ax dw _ x
fa^dy^Ti' Tz^~~~R>
dw dv _du ^dw _dv_ _^du _ ^ m
dy dz dz dx dx dy '
* The theory was given by Saint-Venant in his memoir on Torsion of 1855. See Introduction,
footnote 50 and p. 20.
86-88] BY TERMINAL COUPLES 127
and t h e displacement may be shown to be given by t h e equations

1 2 2
u = ^R- (z + <rx - ay% v = crR^xy, w = - Rr^xz (15)
This example corresponds with t h e bending of a bar by couples. The line

1 2
of centroids of t h e cross-sections is displaced according to t h e law u = ^R~ z ,
so t h a t it becomes very approximately an arc of a circle of large radius R, in
the plane (x> z), which is the plane of t h e bending couple EIjR; t h e centre
of the circle is at x = R, z = 0 .
88. Discussion of the solution for the bending of a bar by

terminal couple.
The forces applied at either end of t h e bar are statically equivalent to
a couple of moment EI JR. This couple, called t h e " b e n d i n g moment,"
is proportional to t h e curvature 1/JR. W h e n the bar is b e n t by a given
couple M the line of centroids of its cross-sections, called t h e " central-line,"
takes a curvature MjEI in t h e plane of t h e couple. The formulae for t h e
components of strain show t h a t t h e linear elements of t h e material which,
in t h e unstressed state, are in t h e plane x = 0 undergo no extension or
contraction. This plane is called t h e " neutral plane " ; it is t h e plane drawn
through t h e central-line at right angles to t h e plane of bending. The same
formulae show t h a t linear elements of t h e material which, in t h e unstressed
state, are parallel to t h e central-line are contracted or extended according
as they lie on t h e same side of t h e neutral plane as t h e centre of curvature
or on the opposite side. The amount of the extension or contraction of a
longitudinal linear element at a distance x from the neutral plane is t h e
absolute value of MxjEI or x/R. T h e stress consists of tensions and pressures
across t h e elements of t h e normal sections. I t is tension at a point where
the longitudinal filament passing through t h e point is extended, and pressure
at a point where t h e longitudinal filament passing through t h e point is
contracted. T h e amount of t h e tension or pressure is the absolute value
of Mxjl, or ExjR.
Fig. 10.
The formulae for t h e displacement show t h a t t h e cross-sections remain

plane, b u t t h a t their planes are rotated so as to pass through t h e centre
of curvature, as shown in F i g u r e 1 0 . The formulae for t h e displacement
also show t h a t t h e shapes of the sections are changed. If, for example, the
section is originally a rectangle with boundaries given by the equations
x = ± a, y = + /3,
in a plane z = 7, these boundaries will become the curves t h a t are given

respectively by t h e equations
2 2
x + ct- - \* (a - y )/R = 0, y + /3 - <r/3x/R = 0.
The latter are straight lines slightly inclined to their original directions;
the former are approximately arcs of circles of "radii Rjcr, with their planes
Fig. 11.
parallel to the plane of (x, y) and their curvatures turned in t h e opposite

y
sense to t h a t of t h e line of centroids. The change of shape of t h e cross-

sections is shown in F i g u r e 11. The neutral plane, and every parallel plane,
is strained into an anticlastic surface, with principal curvatures of magnitudes
Fig. 12.
1 l
R" in the plane of {x, z) and <rR~ in the plane of (x, y), so t h a t t h e shape
of t h e bent bar is of t h e kind illustrated in Figure 12, in which t h e front
face is parallel to the plane of bending (x, z).
T h e distortion of t h e b o u n d i n g surfaces x — ± a i n t o anticlastic surfaces, a d m i t s of
v e r y e x a c t verification b y m e a n s of t h e interference fringes w h i c h are produced b y l i g h t
t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h a plate of glass h e l d parallel a n d very close t o t h e s e surfaces of t h e
bent bar. C o r n u * h a s u s e d t h i s m e t h o d for a n e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of Poisson's
ratio for glass b y m e a n s of t h e b e n d i n g of glass bars. T h e v a l u e obtained w a s a l m o s t
exactly J.
. * Paris, C. R., t. 69 (1869). The method has been used for several materials by Mallock.
See Article 70 (c), footnote.
I t i s w o r t h w h i l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l energy of strain. T h e value of t h e strain-
2
e n e r g y - f u n c t i o n a t a n y p o i n t i s easily found t o be \Ex \B?. T h e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y of strain
2
of t h e p a r t of t h e bar b e t w e e n t w o normal s e c t i o n s d i s t a n t I apart i s ^(EIjE ) I, s o t h a t
2
t h e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y p e r u n i t of l e n g t h is \EIjR .
89. Saint-Venant's principle*.

I n t h e problem of Article 87, t h e tractions, of which t h e b e n d i n g moment
EIjR is t h e statical equivalent, a r e distributed over t h e terminal sections
in t h e m a n n e r of tensions and pressures on t h e elements of area, these tensions
and pressures being proportional t o t h e distance from t h e n e u t r a l plane. B u t
t h e practical u t i l i t y of t h e solution is n o t confined t o t h e case where this
distribution of terminal traction is exactly realised. T h e extension to other
cases is m a d e b y means of a principle, first definitely enunciated by Saint-
Venant, and known as t h e " principle of t h e elastic equivalence of statically
equipollent systems of load." According to this principle, t h e strains t h a t
are produced i n a body by t h e application, t o a small p a r t of i t s surface,
of a system of forces statically equivalent to zero force a n d zero couple,
are of negligible m a g n i t u d e a t distances which a r e large compared w i t h
t h e linear dimensions of t h e part. I n t h e problem i n hand, we infer t h a t ,
w h e n t h e length of t h e b a r is large compared with a n y diameter of i t s
cross-section, t h e s t a t e of stress and strain set u p i n i t s interior b y t h e
terminal couple is practically independent of t h e distribution of t h e tractions,
of which t h e couple is t h e resultant, in all t h e portions of t h e b a r except
comparatively small portions near i t s ends.
90. Rectangular plate bent b y c o u p l e s f .

T h e problem solved in Article 87 admits of generalization in another
direction. A bar of rectangular section is a particular case of a brick-shaped
b o d y ; and, when two parallel faces a r e near together, such a body is a
rectangular plate. W e have therefore proved t h a t a plate can b e held,
so t h a t i t s faces a r e anticlastic surfaces, by couples applied t o one pair
of opposite edges, and having their axes parallel t o those edges. T h e ratio
of t h e principal curvatures is t h e n u m b e r <r. I t is clear t h a t , b y means
of suitable couples simultaneously applied to t h e other pair of opposite edges,
t h e plate can b e bent into a cylindrical form, or t h e ratio of curvatures can
be altered i n any desired way.
I t is most convenient to t a k e t h e faces of t h e plate t o be given by
t h e equations
z = ± h,
so t h a t t h e thickness is 2h. T h e coordinate z t h u s takes t h e place of t h e
coordinate which we called x i n t h e case of t h e bar. T h e requisite stress-
components are X and Y , and both are proportional to t h e coordinate z. If
x y
* Stated in the memoir on Torsion of 1855.

t Kelvin and Tait, Nat Phil, Part II, pp. 265, 266.
L. E. 9
we assume t h a t all t h e stress-components except X x and Y vanish, and t h a t
y
these are given by t h e equations

Xx = Eaz, Y = E(3z,
y (16)
where a and /3 are constants, we rind t h a t t h e displacement is given by
t h e equations
u = (a — afi) xz, v — (/3 — era) yz,
w = - 4 (« - <r/9) - i ( £ - era) i/ - £<r (a + 2
0) z\} (17)
H e n c e any surface which in t h e unstrained state was parallel to t h e faces

becomes curved so t h a t the curvatures in t h e planes of (x, z) and (y, z) are
respectively crfi — a and act — /3. These are t h e principal curvatures of t h e
surface. If these quantities are positive, t h e corresponding centres of
curvature lie in t h e direction in which z is positive. L e t R and R be t h e 1 2
radii of curvature so t h a t
2 2
1 dw a 1 dw
+ + ( 1 8 )
t h e n a
*-I^(i 5 ) '
The state of curvature expressed by i2 and R is maintained by couples 2 2
applied to t h e edges. T h e couple per unit of length, applied to t h a t edge

x — const, for which x has t h e greater value, has its axis parallel to t h e axis
of y, and its a m o u n t is
IJ« > x dz
w h l c h 1 8
- 3 r-"^ U BJ• +
An equal and opposite couple must be applied to t h e opposite edge. The

corresponding couple for t h e other pair of edges is given by
h
\ _-zY dz,
y which is +
T h e v a l u e of t h e strain-energy-function a t a n y p o i n t c a n b e s h o w n w i t h o u t difficulty
to be
•and t h e p o t e n t i a l energy of t h e b e n t plate per u n i t of area i s
I t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h i s expression c o n t a i n s t h e s u m a n d t h e p r o d u c t of t h e principal
curvatures.
91. E q u a t i o n s of equilibrium i n terms of displacements.

In t h e equations of type
dXv. dXoi dZai -rr-
90, 91] GENERAL EQUATIONS 131
we s u b s t i t u t e for t h e normal stress-components X ... such expressions as X}
\ A -f 2/ubdu/da), and for t h e tangential stress-components Y ... such expressions Z)
as fi (dwjdy + dv/dz); and we t h u s obtain t h r e e equations of t h e t y p e
(\ + fi)^ + M,V*u + pX = 0, -...(19).

2 2 2
, du , dv , dw _ 3 A3 2 3
2
where A = ^ V = .
2 + 2
dxdy^dz' da?^dy 3*
These equations may be written in a compact form
A + ( V W ) + P ( Z 7 = ( 2 0 )
( K +
^ ' ly' I ) ^ *' ' ' ' ^ °
If we introduce t h e rotation
(OTa, ,OT )= J curl (w,
2 w),
__ 1 /3w 9fl 3M dw dv du\
~2\dy~dz' dz~dx ' dx"' dy)
and m a k e use of t h e identity
( 3
dx'
d
dy'
d \
A - 2 curl «,),
t h e above equations (20) t a k e t h e form
(X + 2p,)(^, 1, I ) A - 2/a curl ( „ w « , <*,) + p ( X , Y, Z)-0...

y .(21)
W e m a y note t h a t t h e equations of small motion (Article 54) can be

expressed in either of t h e forms
or
2
/ d 3 3\ 3
(X + 2fi) L-_, , g-J A - 2ya curl ( ^ , -sr.,, w ) + p (X, Y, Z) = p ^ (u, v, w). 2
V
(22)
T h e traction (X„, Y , Z ) across a plane of which t h e normal is in t h e
v v
direction v> is given by formulas of t h e type

>• v ( . du\ , , (dv du\ , , (du dw\ x
X = cos (x, v) ÂA + 2fi
v -f cos (y, ) y M ^ + - j + cos (5, „) ^ - + ^ j ;
and this m a y be w r i t t e n in either of t h e forms

A Idu / \ die / \dv , / \ dw) / o o x
X„ = AA cos (a?, 1;) + ^ | ^ + cos (a?, 1,) — + cos (y, v) ^ + cos (s, 1/) , . . .(23)
{du c o s
1
or X v = AA cos (x, v) + 2/JL ™y (*> ^) + cos (y, , ... (24)
where
du , .du , \du
t ' , .du
— = cos v)^ + cos (y, v) ^ + cos ( 5 , * ) ^ .
If v is the normal to t h e bounding surface drawn outwards from t h e body,
and t h e values of A, dujdx, . . . are calculated a t a point on t h e surface, t h e
right-hand m e m b e r s of ( 2 3 ) and t h e similar expressions represent t h e com
ponent tractions per unit area exerted upon t h e body across t h e surface.
92. E q u i l i b r i u m under surface tractions only.

W e record here some results deducible from t h e displacement-equations
X + A
.< *>(!' ly' | ) + ^(ft«,«)-0 (25)
(i) By differentiating the left-hand members of these equations with respect to x, y, z,

and adding the results, we find
2
(X + 2 ^ ) v A = 0, (26)
so that A is an harmonic function, i.e. a function satisfying Laplace's equation, at all
points within the body.
(ii) It follows from this and (25) that each of u, v, to satisfies the equation
4
V 4> = 0 (27)
at all points within the body. All components of strain and of stress also satisfy this
equation.
(iii) Again, by differentiating the left-hand member of the third of equations (25) with
respect to y, and that of the second with respect to z, and subtracting the results, we find
2
V ^=0 (28)
Similar equations are satisfied by w and v r so that each of the components of the
v e i
rotation is an harmonic function at all points within the body.

(iv) T h e stress-components satisfy a system of partial differential
equations. I n order to obtain t h e m it is convenient to introduce a q u a n t i t y
T
©, t h e sum of t h e principal stresses at any p o i n t ; w e have
= ( 3 \ + 2fi) A ; . . . . . . (29)
t h u s © is an h a r m o n i c function a t all points within t h e body.
F u r t h e r we find*
I n like m a n n e r we find
"••S^S-
Similar formulae can. be obtained for V F , V % , V Z , V X . a 2
• 2
« The
y X y
coefficient 2 (A,.+ fi)/(3\ + 2ft) is 1 / ( 1 + c r ) .

* The equations of types (30) and (31) were given by Beltrami, Borne, Acc. Lincei Bend
(Ser. 5), t. 1.(1892).
-93] SATISFIED BY T H E STRESS-COMPONENTS 133
(v) As an example of the application of these formulae, we may observe that Maxwell's
'ess-system, described in (vi) of Article 53, cannot occur in an isotropic solid body free
>m the action of body forces and slightly strained from a state of no stress*. This
pears at once on observing that X -\-Y -\-Z , as given for that system, is not an
x y z
jrmonic function.
93. Various m e t h o d s a n d results.

(i) The equations of types (30) and (31) may also be deduced f from the stress-equations
.) and the equations of compatibility of the strain-components (Article 17).
We have, for example,
e = E^{(l
xx + cr)X -CRE},X ... e — 2(l+<r) E~ Y .
yz
1
Z
hus the equation

2
de yy + 9^_3 = We yz
2 2
dz dy dydz
ecomes
p{(l + c r ) r , - a e } + ^ { ( l + cr)^-cre}==2(l + cr)|g.

d Y d Z x d Z z
Tow ' =
dy dx dz '
dz dx dy '
1
dy dz ox \oz dy J dy* dz
2 2 2
_ dX dY x y dZ z
2 2 2
~ dx dy dz
iYe have therefore
( 1 + < r ) [v*e - yz. - g ] - , ( * e - | f ) = o ;

2
MD, on adding the three equations of this type, we find that V e must vanish, and the
aquation reduces to
2
(l ) V X , + g = = 0 + ( r (29 6w)
We may in like manner deduce equation (31) from the equation de x
2 f ^ ^ J L ( - y* i * j ^ de
d e
dydz dx \ dx dy dz
(ii) It may be shown £ that the stress-functions % X3 °f Article 56 satisfy three v
equations of the type
v + ' ^ + i P h w - * —<»>
and three equations of the type
0' 2
r ,[(i+<r)V *i-e]=o, (33)
where 9 is written for
V (X1 + X2+X3) FAT D Z 2 W
* Minchin, Statics, 3rd edn. Oxford, 1886, vol. 2, Oh. 18.

t Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 31 (1900), p. 100.
X Ibbetson, Mathematical ^Theory of Elasticity, London, 1887.
I t m a y be s h o w n also t h a t t h e stress f u n c t i o n s \J/2I YJR of t h e s a m e A r t i c l e satisfy
3
t h r e e e q u a t i o n s of t h e t y p e
( l - > ^ + 3 = 0, 05)
and three e q u a t i o n s of t h e t y p e
where 0 is w r i t t e n for
D2 D D2
±L + LH + ±3 ( 3 7 )
dydz dzdx dxdy

(iii) I t m a y b e s h o w n * also t h a t , w h e n t h e r e are b o d y forces, t h e s t r e s s - c o m p o n e n t s
satisfy e q u a t i o n s of t h e t y p e s
« F . i 8»e a- (DX DY DZ\ DX
2
A R ! R , 1 3e DZ DY ,, . Q
A N D V 2 Y + = p p ( 3 9 )
° T ^ W * ~ t y ~ ^
T h e e q u a t i o n s of t h e s e t w o t y p e s w i t h t h e e q u a t i o n s (3) are a c o m p l e t e s y s t e m of
e q u a t i o n s satisfied b y t h e s t r e s s - c o m p o n e n t s .
9 4 . Plane strain and plane stress.
S t a t e s of plane strain and of plane stress can be maintained in bodies
of cylindrical form by suitable forces. W e take t h e generators of t h e cylin
drical bounding surface to be parallel to t h e axis of z, and suppose t h a t t h e
terminal sections are at right angles to this axis. T h e body forces, if any,
m u s t be at right angles to this axis. W h e n t h e lengths of t h e generators
are small in comparison with the linear dimensions of t h e cross-section t h e
body becomes a plate and t h e terminal sections are its faces.
I n a state of plane strain, the displacements u, v are functions of OC, y only
and t h e displacement w vanishes (Article 15). All t h e components of strain
and of stress are independent of z\ the stress-components Z , Y vanish, and x z
t h e strain-components e , e , e vanish. The stress-component Z does not

zx yz zz z
in general vanish. T h u s the maintenance of a state of plane strain requires

t h e application of tension or pressure, over t h e terminal sections, adjusted
so as to keep constant t h e lengths of all the longitudinal filaments.
W i t h o u t introducing any additional complication, we may allow for an
uniform extension or contraction of all longitudinal filaments, by t a k i n g w
to be equal to ez> where e is constant. T h e stress-components are then
expressed by t h e equations
Z , = (X + ^ ) | + x ( | + e ), F , = 0,
•F,-(X + 2 M ) | + X ( | + .), *.-0,
* Michell, loc. cit.

93, 94] AND PLANE STRESS 135
T h e functions u, v are to be determined by solving t h e equations of equi

librium. W e shall discuss t h e theory of plane strain more fully i n
Chapter I X .
In a state of plane stress parallel to t h e plane of {x, y) t h e stress-
components Z , Y Z vanish, b u t t h e displacements u v, w are n o t in
x Zy z y
general independent of z. I n particular t h e strain-component e does n o t zz
vanish, and in general it is not constant, b u t we have

dw X (du dv\ \ A / i l A V
e = + = A ( 4 0 )
- = ^ - x T v t e ^ - v -
The maintenance, in a plate, of a state of plane stress does not require t h e
application of traction to t h e faces of t h e plate, b u t it requires t h e body
forces and tractions at t h e edge to be distributed in certain special ways.
W e shall discuss t h e theory more fully in Chapter i x .
An important generalization* can be made by supposing t h a t t h e normal
traction Z vanishes throughout t h e plate, b u t t h a t t h e tangential tractions
z
Z , Y vanish at t h e faces z = + h only. If t h e plate is t h i n t h e deter

x z
mination of t h e average values of t h e components of displacement, strain

and stress taken over t h e thickness of the plate may lead to knowledge nearly
as useful as t h a t of t h e actual values at each point. W e denote these average
values by u, ... e , ... X ... so t h a t we have for example
xx Xi
1 h
u=(2h)- f udz. ; (41)
J - h
W e integrate both members of t h e equations of equilibrium over t h e thick
ness of t h e plate, and observe t h a t Z and Y vanish at t h e faces. We t h u s x z
find that, if there are no body forces, t h e average stress-components X x>
X , Yy satisfy t h e equations
y
dX^^dXy^^ dXy_ dYy^ + 0 . gs

4
dx dy ' dx dy
Since Z vanishes equations (40) hold, and it follows t h a t t h e average dis
z
placements u, v are connected with t h e average stress-components X , X , Y , x y y
by t h e equations
Y _ (du dv\ du
A x + +
- \ ^ { f a dy) ^dx>
n
.(43)
Y
X + 2/JL \dx ayJ dy
(dv du\
Kdy dx)'
S t a t e s of stress such as are here described will be termed states of "generalized
plane stress."
* Cf. L. N. G. Filon, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 201 (1903).
95. B e n d i n g of narrow rectangular b e a m by terminal load.
A simple example of the generalized type of plane stress, described in
Article 94, is afforded by a beam of rectangular section and small breadth (2h),
bent by forces which act in directions parallel to t h e plane containing t h e
length and t h e depth. W e shall take the plane of (a?, y) to be t h e mid-plane
of t h e beam (parallel to length and d e p t h ) ; and, to fix ideas, we shall regard
t h e beam as horizontal in t h e unstressed state. The top and bottom surfaces
of t h e beam will be given by y — + c, so t h a t 2c is t h e depth of t h e beam, and
we shall denote t h e length of t h e beam by I. W e shall take t h e origin at one
end, and consider t h a t end to be fixed.
From t h e investigation in Article 87, we know a state of stress in t h e
beam, given by X — — EyjR; x and we know t h a t t h e beam can be held in
s
this state by terminal couples of moment ±hc E/R about axes parallel to t h e
axis of z. T h e central-line of t h e beam is bent into an arc of a circle of
radius R. The traction across any section of t h e beam is t h e n statically
equivalent to a couple, t h e same for all sections, and equal to t h e terminal
couple, or bending moment.
w L e t us now suppose t h a t the beam
is bejit by a load W applied at the
end x = I as in Fig. 13. This force
cannot be balanced by a couple at any
section, b u t t h e traction across any
section is equivalent to a force W
and a couple of m o m e n t W (I — x).
T h e stress-system is therefore not so
simple as in t h e case of bending
YV by couples. T h e couple of moment
W (I — x) could be balanced by
tractions X , given by t h e equation
x
Fig. 13.
and t h e average traction X across the breadth would be t h e same as X .

x x
We seek to combine with this traction X a tangential traction X , so t h a t

x y
the load W may be equilibrated. The conditions to be satisfied by X are y
the following:—
(i) Xy m u s t satisfy t h e equations of equilibrium
dX . dXy dX,
x
= 0, y =—0,
dx dy dx
(ii) X y m u s t vanish when y= ± c,
(iii) 2A j Xydy m u s t be equal to W.

J -c
These are all satisfied by p u t t i n g
X y - ^ W ^ - f ) (45)
[t follows t h a t t h e load W can be equilibrated by tractions X and X , with- x y
Dut Y yi provided t h a t t h e terminal tractions, of which W is t h e resultant,

2 2
axe distributed over t h e end so as to be proportional to c — y . As in
Article 89, t h e distribution of t h e load is important near t h e ends only, if t h e
Length of t h e beam is great in comparison with its depth.
We may show that a system of average displacements which would correspond with
this system of average stresses is given by the equations
^ . V (46)
Since these are deduced from known stress-components a displacement possible in a rigid
body might be added, so as to satisfy conditions of fixity at the origin.
These conclusions may be compared with those found in the case of bending by couples
(Article 88). We note the following results :—
(i) The tension per unit area across the normal sections (X ) is connected with the
x
bending moment, W{l-sc\ by the equation

tension = - (bending moment) (y/I)
where y is distance from the neutral plane, and / is the appropriate moment of inertia.
S t h a t W G l i a V G t h e e ( u a t i o n
(ii) The curvature 2 2
{D VJDX ) ^ Y is ' ° l
curvature = (bending moment)/^/).
(iii) The surface of particles which, in the unstressed state, is a normal section does
not continue to cut at right angles the line of particles which, in the same state, is the line
of centroids of normal sections. The cosine of the angle at which they cut when the beam
is bent is (dvldx + du/dy) , and this is 3 Wl8fxhc.
y=Q
(iv) The normal sections do not remain plane, but are distorted into curved surfaces.
A line of particles which, in the unstressed state, is vertical becomes a curved line, of
\ j normal of central line
tangent of central line
\ central tangent
Fig. 14.
138 GENERAL EQUATIONS [CH. Vj
w h i c h t h e e q u a t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e expression for u as a function of y w h e n x i

constant. T h i s e q u a t i o n is of t h e form pp
3
u = ay + /3?/ ,
a n d t h e corresponding d i s p l a c e m e n t c o n s i s t s of a part ay w h i c h does n o t alter the
p l a n e n e s s of t h e section c o m b i n e d w i t h a part w h i c h does. I f we c o n s t r u c t t h e c u r v e
3
x=(3y a n d place it w i t h i t s origin (x = 0, y = 0) on t h e strained central-line, and i t s t a n g e n t
at t h e origin along t h e t a n g e n t to t h e line of particles which, in t h e u n s t r e s s e d s t a t e , i s
vertical, t h e curve will b e t h e locus of t h e s e particles in t h e strained state.
Fig. 14 s h o w s t h e form i n t o w h i c h a n i n i t i a l l y vertical filament i s b e n t a n d t h e r e l a t i v e
s i t u a t i o n of t h e central t a n g e n t of t h i s line a n d t h e normal of t h e strained central-line.
96. E q u a t i o n s referred to orthogonal curvilinear coordinates.

The equations such as (21) expressed in terms of dilatation and rotation
can be transformed immediately by noticing t h e vectorial character of t h e
/ 9 9 9 \
terms. I n fact the terms ^ , ^- , A may be read as " t h e gradient of A , "

and t h e n t h e equations (22) may be read
(X -f 2/JL) (gradient of A ) — 2fi (curl of OT)
+ p (body force) = p (acceleration), (47)
where stands temporarily for t h e rotation ( i v , T x , ^ T \ and t h e factors x y Z
such as X + 2/JU are scalar.

Now t h e gradient of A is t h e vector of which t h e component, in any
direction, is t h e r a t e of increase of A per unit of length in t h a t direction ;
and t h e components of this vector, in t h e directions of t h e normals to t h r e e
orthogonal surfaces a, /3, y (Article 19), are accordingly
9A 9A 9A
hl lh
da> d(3> dy'
W e have already transformed the operation curl, and t h e components of
rotation, as well as t h e dilatation (Article 2 1 ) ; and we may therefore regard
A and known in terms of t h e displacement. The equation (47)
is then equivalent to three of t h e form
(X + 2„) K f a - 2MA | © + A £ ) +PF. = P ? £ (48)
where F , F$ F are, as in Article 58, t h e components of t h e body force in

a y y
t h e directions of t h e normals to the three surfaces.
97. Polar coordinates.

A s a n e x a m p l e of t h e e q u a t i o n s (48) w e m a y s h o w t h a t t h e e q u a t i o n s of equilibrium
u n d e r n o b o d y forces w h e n referred t o polar coordinates t a k e t h e forms
(A+2,0 sin 0 g - ^ - I ( m , sin 6)) = 0, j

+ 0 ( 4 9 )
* wim%M*™-%- >\
(X + 8 )
M r sin 6^ - 2p (ar* sin 6) - -^j = 0. I
We may show also that the radial components of displacement and rotation and the
dilatation satisfy the equations
2
; ^V K) + ( H r i r | - 2 M A = 0,
2 2
; V A = 0, V ( r a ) = 0; r
but that some solutions of these equations correspond with states of stress that would
require body force for their maintenance*.
98. Radial displacementf.
The simplest applications of polar coordinates relate to problems involving purely radial
displacements. We suppose that the displacements ue, u$ vanish, and we write U in place
of u . Then we find from the formulae of Articles 22 and 96 the following results :—
T
(i) The strain-components are given by

_ d u _ u
(ii) The dilatation and rotation are given by
(iii) The stress-components are given by
(iv) The general equation of equilibrium, under radial body force B, is
(v) If B=0, the complete primitive of the equation just written is

2
U=Ar + Br~ ,
where A and B are arbitrary constants. The first term corresponds with the problem of
compression by uniform normal pressure [Article 70 (g)]. The complete primitive cannot
represent a displacement in a solid body containing the origin of r. The origin must
either be outside the body or inside a cavity within the body.
(vi) The solution in (v) may be adapted to the case of a shell bounded by concentric
spherical surfaces, and held strained by internal and external pressure. We must have
dU U _ f~Po when r=r.r , 0
,x u)'# »f-{;j
+ + when r—r-L,
where p is the pressure at the external boundary (r = r ), and p is the pressure at the
0 0 x
internal boundary (r—rj). We should find

3
1 ?vy*-p ?\) 0 , _1 ?VV (Pi -Po) I 2
3X + 2/A r£-rj* ^ 4/x rf-rf r'
The radial pressure at any point is
•L 1 r^ 7*-^ •* 0 ^.3 — r-^ '
* Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc. vol. 32 (1901), p. 24.

+ Most of the results given in this Article are due to Lame, Legons sur la theorie...de
Velasticite, Paris 1852.
and the tension in any direction at right angles to the radius is
1 r£ R 0
3
+ 2R 3
1 r 0
3
2R 3
+ R X
3
P O 3 3
' ~ 2 ~ R * R - R '
In caser p =3 0 , the greatest tension is the superficial tension at the inner surface, of amount
iPi (Q 0
r 3 r s r 3
+ ^ i )/( o ~ i )'•> d the greatest extension is the extension at right angles to the
a R
radius at the inner surface, of amount i

Pi
(vii) If in the general equation of (iv) R = — gr/r where g is constant, the surface r=r 0i (]
is free from traction, and the sphere is complete up to the centre, we find
1 gpr r / 5 \ + 6FX
U=- 0
10 X + 2FJI \ 3 \ + 2FI R -,
0
This corresponds with the problem of a sphere held strained by the mutual gravitation
of its parts. It is noteworthy that the radial strain is contraction within the surface
^ = r / { ( 3 - a - ) / ( 3 + 3cr)}, but it is extension outside this surface.
0 X
The application of this result to the case of the Earth is beset by the serious difficulty
which has been pointed out in Article 75.
99. D i s p l a c e m e n t symmetrical about an axis.

The conditions t h a t t h e displacement may take place in planes through
an axis, and be t h e same in all such planes, would be expressed, by reference
to cylindrical coordinates r, 0, z by the equations y
u = 0, du /d0 = du /d0 = 0.
Q r z
I t will be convenient to write U for u , and w for u . r z The strain-components

are then expressed by the equations
dU dw
dr ' % u @zz —
r ' .(50)
6 r z
_du dw +
e = e&z re = 0.
~ dz
j
T h e cubical dilatation
dU U
A== +
and dw
t h e rotation dU
+
are expressed
dw by t h e equations
dr r dz ' ^ ^z~~dr ' '«r*=0 ...(51)
2 6== } v
I t will be convenient to write w for vr . e T h e equations of motion in terms of

displacements t a k e t h e forms
( * + 2 / * ) - ^ + 2 / . ^ + p#. = p/„
.(52)
(X + 2 ,)f -^l(r^) + pF = pf ;
f z z z
a n d t h e stress-equations of equilibrium take the forms

drr
~ drz
~ rr
~ - -66
dr dz r
drz dzz rz ^ ~
r
dr dz r
I n case w = ez, where e is constant, and d U/dz = 0, we have a state of plane
strain, with an uniform longitudinal extension superposed. I n this case
rz — 0. I n case zz, rz, F vanish, we have a state of plane stress.
z
100. Tube under pressure.

J I n t h e case of plane strain, under no body forces, t h e displacement U
jsatisfies t h e equation
d_/dU
dr\dr r) ^ '
of which t h e complete primitive is of t h e form
U=Ar + B/r ....(55)
W e may adapt this solution to t h e problem of a cylindrical t u b e under
internal and external pressure, and we may allow for an uniform longitudinal
extension e. W i t h a notation similar to t h a t in (vi) of Article 98, we should
find for t h e stress-components
r 2 r
P^ ~ P* » , ° V
(7(7 = :
2
- -y - - - 1
2
~ —
2
, w
r — r — r-c r
— JX_ Pfl^zlfl . (3X + 2fi) ft
0 0
2 2 1
Z
fi r - r
Z
" X + ' X + fi •
and for t h e constants A. and B in (55)
, 'piTf-por? \ e _ B=z (pi-p ) 0 nW 7
2 V ;
^ ~ 2 (X + » (r 0
2
- r, ) 2
2 ( \ + /a)' 2/, (r » - n
0 )
The constant e may be adjusted so t h a t the length is maintained c o n s t a n t ;
then e — 0, and there is longitudinal tension zz of amount
2 2
X p^ - pr 0
X + jut, r — r 0
2
x
2
I t may also be adjusted so t h a t there is no longitudinal tension; then

zz — 0 and
2 2
X(p^ - pr ) Q 0
2 2
fi (3X + 2/JL) (r 0 -r )'
W h e n p vanishes, and e is not too great, t h e greatest tension is the circum
Q
ferential tension, 66, at t h e inner surface, r = r , and its amount is 1
2 2 2 2
p (r +r )l(r -r ).
x
The greatest extension is t h e circumferential extension, e , ee at t h e same

surface.
If a closed cylindrical vessel is under internal pressure p and external ±
pressure p , t h e resultant tension

0 77-(r 0
2
— rf)zz m u s t balance t h e resultant
pressure on t h e ends, and we m u s t therefore have t h e equation
2 2 2
7T (r - r?) zz = 7T (r p Y - r p ).
0 0
This equation gives for e t h e v a l u e *
1 pjr^-p^l
2 v
SX + 2/j, rj-r
If we assume t h a t t h e ends of t h e vessel are plane, and neglect t h e alteration
of their shape under pressure, t h e volume of t h e vessel will be increased by
f
n-r l (er + 2U ), where Z denotes t h e length of t h e inside of t h e cylinder,
1 1 1 1 x
a n d U-I is t h e value of U at r — r W i t h t h e above value of e this is

lt
2 2
' 3 _ _ p^r - p r 0 0 1 (ffi-ffo)r/
2 2 2 2
.(59)
S\ + 2fi r - r fji r - r
In like mauner, if we denote by l t h e length of t h e outside of t h e cylinder,

0
and neglect the change of volume of the ends, t h e volume within t h e external
boundary of t h e vessel will be increased by
.(60)
SX + 2fi r 2
-
T h e quantity l differs from l by t h e sum of t h e thicknesses of t h e ends.
0 x
I n t h e case of a long cylinder this difference is unimportant. T h e constant

3/(3X + 2\x) is 1/k, t h e reciprocal of t h e modulus of compression. When t h e
difference between l and l is neglected, t h e result accords with a more general
Q x
result j", which can be proved for a closed vessel of any form under internal
a n d external pressure, viz. if V and V are t h e internal and external volumes in
1 0
t h e unstressed state, t h e n V — V is increased by t h e a m o u n t

0 1 — p V )/k, 0 0
when internal and external pressures p , p are applied. I n obtaining t h e 1 Q
results (59) and (60) we have not t a k e n proper account of t h e action of t h e

ends of t h e cylinder, for we have assumed t h a t these ends are stretched in
t h e i r own planes so as to fit t h e distended cylinder, and we have neglected
t h e changes of shape and volume of t h e ends ; further, we have supposed t h a t
t h e action of t h e ends upon the walls of the vessel is equivalent to a tension
uniformly distributed over t h e thickness of t h e walls. T h e results will
provide a good approximation if t h e length of t h e cylinder is great in com
parison with its radii and if t h e walls are very thin.
* The problem has been discussed by numerous writers including Lame, loc. cit. ante p. 139.
It is important in the theory of the piezometer. Cf. Poynting and Thomson, Properties of Matter,
London 1902, p. 116. The fact that e depends on k( = \ + %fi) and not on any other elastic
constant has been utilized for the determination of k by A. Mallock, Proc. Roij. Soc. London,
vol. 74 (1904).
f See Chapter v n . infra.
§100-102] CIRCULAR CYLINDER 143
101. Application to gun-construction.

I n e q u a t i o n s (56), t h e s t r e s s - c o m p o n e n t s rr a n d 6 6 are expressed b y formulae of t h e t y p e
jfwhere A and B are c o n s t a n t s . T h e s e c o n s t a n t s are d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e internal and

external pressures. W e h a v e therefore a s o l u t i o n of t h e s t r e s s - e q u a t i o n s i n a t u b e under
internal and external pressure w h i c h is applicable in other cases b e s i d e s t h e case where
t h e material would, i n t h e absence of t h e pressures, be i n t h e u n s t r e s s e d state. The
solution h a s been t a k e n t o b e applicable t o s t a t e s of initial stress, a n d h a s been applied t o
t h e t h e o r y of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of c a n n o n * . A t one t i m e c a n n o n were c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h e
form of a series of tubes, each t u b e being h e a t e d so t h a t i t could slip over t h e n e x t interior
t u b e ; t h e outer t u b e contracted b y cooling a n d exerted pressure on t h e inner. Cannon so
c o n s t r u c t e d were found t o be stronger t h a n single t u b e s of t h e s a m e t h i c k n e s s . If, for
example, we t a k e t h e case of t w o t u b e s b e t w e e n w h i c h t h e r e is a pressure P, a n d s u p p o s e
/ t o be t h e radius of t h e c o m m o n surface, t h e initial s t r e s s m a y b e t a k e n t o be g i v e n b y
the equations
'o
— x T — Kr 2 r2 T 2 + r2 f
/ / —
P lT o', - Te = P- ° . (r >r>r )
and
p d e = P
™~- -?W=7r - ^ 7 ^ ? > (r'>r> ). ri
T h e additional s t r e s s w h e n t h e c o m p o u n d t u b e i s subjected to internal pressure p m a y be

t a k e n t o be g i v e n b y t h e e q u a t i o n s
2 2 r
r-f r^ — r 'QQ— i r
o 2
+ f 2
T h e d i m i n u t i o n of t h e h o o p t e n s i o n 66 a t t h e i n n e r surface r—r x m a y be t a k e n as a n
i n d e x of t h e increased s t r e n g t h of t h e c o m p o u n d tube.
102. Rotating cylinder f .

A n e x a m p l e of e q u a t i o n s of m o t i o n is afforded b y a r o t a t i n g cylinder. In equations
2
(52) w e h a v e to p u t / = -co r, r where co is t h e angular v e l o c i t y .
T h e e q u a t i o n s for t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s are
(X + 2 + + V
^ dr 17 + 7 Tz) ^dz\dz~ - Trr "° '
J X 7
\ (61)
d
, A N fiU & M ^ (dU dw\ (dU dw\ I
(X + 2fx) + + =
dz K¥r -r- dJ)-^ U 7 ~ dr) ^ \~dJ ~ dr) °> i
w i t h t h e conditions
rr=rz=0 when r—a or r — a',
rz = zz = 0 w h e n z= ±1,
T h e cylindrical b o u n d i n g surface is here t a k e n t o be r=a, and it is supposed t h a t there

is a n axle-hole g i v e n b y r — a!; t h e t e r m i n a l s e c t i o n s are t a k e n t o b e g i v e n b y z = +I, so
t h a t t h e cylinder is a shaft of l e n g t h 21, or a disk of t h i c k n e s s 21.
* A. G. Greenhill, Nature, vol. 42 (1890). Cf. Boltzmann, Wien Berichte, Bd. 59 (1870).
t See papers by C. Chree in Cambridge Phil. Soc.lProc., vol. 7 (1891, 1892), pp. 201, 283.
The problem had been discussed previously by several writers among whom Maxwell (loc. cit.
Article 57), and Hopkinson, Mess, of Math. (Ser. 2), vol. 2 (1871) may be mentioned.
144 ROTATING SHAFT [CH. V |
Case (a). Rotating shaft.

An approximate solution can be obtained in the case of a long shaft, by treating the'
problem as one of plane strain, with an allowance for uniform longitudinal extension, e.
We regard the cylinder as complete, i.e. without an axle-hole; and then the approximate
solution satisfies the equations
rz=--Q throughout,
rr—O when r — a,
but it does not satisfy zz=0 when z—±1. The uniform longitudinal extension e can
be adjusted so that the tractions zz on the ends shall have no statical resultant, i.e.
/ zzrdr—O ;
Jo
and then the solution represents the state of the shaft with sufficient exactness over the
greater part of the length, but is defective near the ends. [Cf. Article 89.]
We shall state the results in terms of E and cr. We should find
W s s e z 6 2
— ' > ( \
where the constants A and e are given by the equations

2 2 2 2
. co pa 3 —5a- co pa (r
63
•' >/•: i ' V > -IE <>
The stress-components are given by the equations
2 2 2 2
- a> p(a -r )3-2o- - o) p/3-2a- 2 l+2o- 2
.(64)
p (a4 - 2
2
2R )
l-o-
Instead of making the resultant longitudinal tension vanish, we might suppose that
the tension is adjusted so that the length is maintained constant. Then we should have
6 = = 0 , ^ffiP-arKi+'TKi-ar). ....(65)
olL 1 — cr
the first two of equations (64) would still hold, and the longitudinal tension would be
given by the equation
: ? : 5 2 r
: ^ - " - - r " - ^ , ' fee)
4 1 - o- v ;
Case (6). Rotating disk.

An approximate solution can be obtained in the case of a thin disk, by treating
the problem as one of plane stress. If the disk is complete, the approximate solution
satisfies the equations zz = 0, rz = 0 throughout, so that the plane faces of the disk are free
from traction; but it does not satisfy the condition rr = 0 when r — a. Instead of this it,
makes j rrdz vanish at r = a, so that the resultant radial tension on any portion of
the rim between the two plane faces vanishes*; and it represents the state of the disk-
in the parts that are not too near the edge.
* A small supplementary displacement corresponding with traction - rr at the edge surface

and zero traction over the plane faces would be required for the complete solution of the problem.
See a paper by F. Purser i n Dublin, Trans. R. Irish Acad., vol. 32 (1902).
In this case U, as a function of r, satisfies the equation
4/*(X + /i) d /dU i U\ 2
+ = ; ( 6 7 )
-tW^V,U- 7J --^
and we also have
+ { b }
dz ~ H~2/i\ar rJ' dr " 3* >
from which we may deduce the equation
2 ;
a* " 4 M ( x + M ) ^
These equations, with the condition that j rr dz vanishes when r = a, determine,': U

and apart from a displacement which would be possible in a rigid body; and we may
impose the conditions that U and w vanish at the origin (r = 0, z = 0), and that 2sr which, 5
is equal to dU/dz — dw/dr, also vanishes there. We should then find that U w are given by f
the equations
v = ( 1 _ { ( 3 + < r )
w a ) a
* ~ ( 1 + ( r ) r 2 } +
° m 1 7 ( 1 + < 7 ) ( P _ 3 ? 2 )
'
1- (70)
»=- <r « 3 + <r) a*- 2 (1 + o-) ^ } _ i ± f (P. - *»);
from these equations we should deduce the following expressions for the stress-com
ponents :—
7r = ^ ( 3 + CR) 6+ *R1 -crCRJ '+ * P~ 3, ),2

j (VI)
2 2 rt
( 3 + CR)a -(H-3CR)r }+-""
8 1-CR J
When there is a circular axle-hole of radius a' we have the additional condition that
i ^ m
rr dz = 0 when r — a', but now the displacement may involve terms which would be
infinite at the axis. We should obtain the complete solution by adding to the above
expressions for U and w terms U' and w\ given by the equations
(72)
2
™ ' = - ^ F <R(3 + <R)«' , J
and these displacements correspond with additional stresses given by the equations
S-!£(3 + «r) ^ = ^ ( 3 + , ) ( ^ + ^ ' 2
) ; (73)
these are to be added to the expressions given in (71) for rr and 06.
L. E .
10
CHAPTER VI.
EQUILIBRIUM OF ,EOLOTROPIC ELASTIC SOLID BODIES.
103. S y m m e t r y of structure.
The dependence of t h e stress-strain relations (25) of Article 72 upon t h e
directions of the axes of reference has been pointed out in Article 68. The
relations are simplified when t h e material exhibits certain kinds of symmetry,
and t h e axes of reference are suitably chosen. I t is necessary to explain
the geometrical characters of t h e kinds of symmetry t h a t are observed in
various materials. T h e n a t u r e of the seolotropy of t h e material is not
completely determined by its elastic behaviour alone. The material may
be asolotropic in regard to other physical actions, e.g. t h e refraction of light.
If, in an seolotropic body, two lines can be found, relatively to which all t h e
physical characters of t h e material are the same, such lines are said to be
" equivalent." Different materials may be distinguished by t h e distributions
in them of equivalent lines. For t h e present, we shall confine our attention
to t h e case of homogeneous materials, for which parallel lines in like senses
are equivalent; and we have t h e n to consider t h e distribution of equivalent
lines meeting in a point. For some purposes it is important to observe t h a t
oppositely directed lines are not always equivalent. W h e n certain crystals
are undergoing changes of temperature, opposite ends of particular axes
become oppositely electrified; this is t h e phenomenon of pyro-electricity.
W h e n certain crystals are compressed between parallel planes, which are
at right angles to particular axes, opposite ends of these axes become
oppositely electrified; this is the phenomenon of piezo-electricity*. We
accordingly consider t h e properties of a material relative to rays or directions
of lines going out from a p o i n t ; and we determine t h e n a t u r e of the
symmetry of a material by t h e distribution in it of equivalent directions.
A figure made u p of a set of equivalent directions is a geometrical figure
exhibiting some kind of symmetry.
* For an outline of the main facts in regard to pyro- and piezo-electricity the reader may
consult Mascart, Legons sur Velectricite et le magnetisme, t. 1, Paris, 1896, or Liebisch,
Physikalische Krystallographie, Leipzig, 1891.
103, 104] SYMMETRY 147
104. Geometrical s y m m e t r y * .
W h e n a surface of revolution is turned through any angle about the axis
of revolution, t h e position of every point, which is on t h e surface b u t not
•on t h e axis, is c h a n g e d ; b u t t h e position of t h e figure as a whole is un
changed. I n other words, t h e surface can be made to coincide with itself,
after an operation which changes t h e positions of some of its points. Any
geometrical figure which can be brought to coincidence with itself, by an
operation which changes t h e position of any of its points, is said to possess
"symmetry." T h e operations in question are known as "covering operations";
.and a figure, which is brought to coincidence with itself by any such operation,
is said to " a l l o w " t h e operation. T h e possible covering operations include
{1) rotation, either through a definite angle or through any angle whatever,
about an axis, (2) reflexion in a plane. A figure, which allows a rotation
about an axis, is said to possess an " axis of s y m m e t r y " ; a figure, which
allows reflexion in a plane, is said to possess a " plane of symmetry."
I t can be shown t h a t every covering operation, which is neither a rotation
about an axis nor a reflexion in a plane, is equivalent to a combination
of such operations. Of such combinations one is specially important. I t
consists of a rotation about an axis combined with a reflexion in t h e
perpendicular plane. As an example, consider an ellipsoid of semiaxes
<a b, c; and suppose t h a t it is cut in half along t h e plane (a, b), and
t
thereafter let one half be rotated, relatively to t h e other, through ^TT about
t h e axis (c). T h e ellipsoid allows a rotation of amount ir about each
principal axis, and also allows a reflexion in each principal p l a n e ; t h e solid
formed from t h e ellipsoid in the m a n n e r explained allows a rotation of
amount \ir about t h e c axis, combined with a reflexion in t h e perpendicular
plane, b u t does not allow either t h e rotation alone or the reflexion alone.
A figure which allows t h e operation of rotation about an axis combined with
reflexion in a perpendicular plane is said to possess an " axis of alternating
symmetry."
A special case of t h e operation j u s t described arises when t h e angle
of rotation about t h e axis of alternating symmetry is IT. The effect of the
operation, consisting of this rotation and reflexion in a perpendicular plane,
i s to replace every ray going out from a point by t h e opposite ray. This
•operation is known as " c e n t r a l perversion," and the direction of the cor
responding axis of alternating symmetry is arbitrary; a figure which allows
.this operation is said to possess a " centre of symmetry."
I t can be shown t h a t t h e effect of any two, or more, covering operations,
-performed successively, in any order, is either t h e same as t h e effect of
* The facts are stated in greater detail and the necessary proofs are given by Schoenflies,
Krystallsysteme und Krystallstructur, Leipzig, 1891. Reference may also be made to H. Hilton.
Mathematical Crystallography and the Theory of Groups of Movements, Oxford, 1903.
a single covering operation, or else the first and last positions of every point
of t h e figure are identical. We include the latter case in the former by
u
introducing t h e identical operation" as a covering operation; it is t h e
operation of not moving any point. W i t h this convention the above state
ment may be expressed in the form :—the covering operations allowed by any
symmetrical figure form a group.
With every covering operation there corresponds an orthogonal linear
transformation of coordinates. W h e n t h e operation is a rotation about an
axis, the determinant of t h e transformation is + 1 ; for any other covering
operation, t h e determinant is — 1. All the transformations, t h a t correspond
with covering operations allowed by t h e same figure, form a group of linear
substitutions.
105. Elastic symmetry.

I n an isotropic elastic solid all rays going out from a point are equivalent.
If an seolotropic elastic solid shows any kind of symmetry, some equivalent
directions can be found; and t h e figure formed with t h e m is a symmetrical
figure, which allows all the covering operations of a certain group. W i t h
this group of operations, there corresponds a group of orthogonal linear sub
s t i t u t i o n s ; and the strain-energy-function is unaltered by all the substitutions
of this group. T h e effect of any such substitution is t h a t the components
of strain, referred to t h e new coordinates, are linear functions of t h e
components of strain, referred to t h e old coordinates. I t will be convenient
to determine the relations between elastic constants, which must be satisfied
if the strain-energy-function is unaltered, when the strain-components are
transformed according to such a substitution.
Let the coordinates be transformed according to the orthogonal scheme
x y
z
x' h m 1 %
y' h m. 2 n 2
z' h m 3
We know from Article 12 t h a t t h e components of strain are transformed

according to formulae of the types
2 2
e 'x' = e k
X xx + e m?
yy +en zz + e^m^ + e^n^ + e l m^
xy Y \
e ' > = 2 (e l l
y Z xx 2 s + e mm yy 2 s + e n n^
zz 2 + e (m n
yz 2 z + m n ) +e (n l + nj )
B 2 zx |- • • •(!)
2 3 2
+ e (l m + l m ).)
xy 2 3 d 2
If t h e material possesses, at each point, a centre of symmetry, a figure

consisting of equivalent rays going out from t h e point allows t h e operation
of central perversion. The corresponding substitution is given by the
equations
= y' = -y, z' = -z.
This substitution does not affect any component of strain, and we may
conclude that the elastic behaviour of a material is in no way dependent
upon the presence or absence of central symmetry. The absence of such
symmetry in a material could not be detected by experiments on the relation
between stress and strain.
I t remains to determine t h e conditions which must hold if the strain-
energy-function is unaltered, when the strain-components are transformed
by the substitutions t h a t correspond with the following operations:—
(1) reflexion in a plane, (2) rotation about an axis, (3) rotation about an
axis combined with reflexion in t h e plane at right angles to the axis.
We shall take the plane of symmetry to be the plane of x, y, and the
axis of symmetry, or of alternating symmetry, to be t h e axis of z. The
angle of rotation will be taken to be a given angle 0, which will not in
t h e first instance be thought of as subject to any restrictions.
The conditions t h a t the strain-energy-function may be unaltered, by any
of t h e substitutions to be considered, are obtained by substituting for e > >, x x
2
in the form c e ^ + their values in terms of e ,
n x and equating the xx
2
coefficients of t h e several terms to their coefficients in t h e form c e + — u xx
The substitution which corresponds with reflexion in the plane of (x, y)

is given by t h e equations
x=x, y' = y, z=-z;
and t h e formulae connecting t h e components of strain referred to t h e two
systems of axes are
&X'X' ^ @XX ) ^y'y' = 6yy , Q'>
Z Z = 6ZZ >
&y'z' ~ ~~ yz> z'x' ~ &zx> &x'y' ~ x y e e e
The conditions t h a t the strain-energy-function may be unaltered by this

substitution are
14 ~ 15 C-24 25 34 35 C
46 56C
0 (2) = = C = C = C = C = C =
The substitution which corresponds with rotation through an angle 0

about the axis of z is given by t h e equations
f
x = x cos 0 + y sin 0, y' — — x sin 0 + y cos 0, z — z\ (3)
and the formulae t h a t connect the components of strain referred to t h e two
systems of axes are
c 2 2 y
e%'x' = &xx ° s 0 + £yy sin 0 + e sin 0 cos 0, xy
2 2
e > > = e sin 0 + e cos 0 — e sin 0 cos 0,
y y xx yy xy
e Q
z'z' — zz> \ ^
c o s
Cy'z' &yz 0 — &zx
= &> y i n
= e sin 0 + e cos 0,
e 'x'
Z yz zx
2 2
e y = — 2e sin 0 cos 0 + 2e
x xx yy sin 0 cos 0 + e xy (cos 0 — sin 0}. '
The algebraic work required to determine the conditions that the strain-energy-function
may be unaltered by this substitution is more complicated than in the cases of central
perversion and reflexion in a plane. The equations fall into sets connecting a small
number of coefficients, and the relations between the coefficients involved in a set of
equations can be obtained without much difficulty. We proceed to sketch the process.
We have the set of equations
C C C O s 4 2c s m 2 C O S 2 C S m 4 - 4c C O s B S m 4c S m 3 C 0 S 4c s m 2 C O s 2
ll = ll ^ + 12 0 ^ + 22 ^ l6 0 # ~ 26 0 0 + 66 ^
c = C s m 4 2c s m 2 c o s 2 c c o s 4 3 3 2 2
22 n ^ + i2 ' ^ ^ + 22 ^ + 4c sin (9 cos 0 -f- 4c cos 0 sin 0 + 4c sin 0 cos 0,
16 26 66
C = C S M 2 C O S 2 C C O s 4 s m C S m 2 C O s 2 2 C C S M C 0 S C O S 2 _ S M 2
12 ll ^ 0 + 12 ( $+ * ^) + 22 $ ^ + ( 16 ~ 2G) ^ 0( ^ 0)
2 2
— 4<? sin 0 cos 0,66
C = C S m 2 C 0 S 2 2c S m 2 C O s 2 C S m 2 C O s 2 2 6 _ C S m C 0 S C O s 2 S m 2
66 ll ^ ^ — l2 ^ # + 22 ^ # + ( 'l6 26) # ^( #" ^)
2 2 2
+ c (cos 0 - sin 0) , 66
3 2 2 3 2 2
c = c cos 0 sin 0 — c sin 0 cos 0 (cos 0 — sin 0) — c sin 0 cos 0 + c cos 0 (cos 0 - 3 sin^ 0)
16 n 12 22 16
2 2 2 2 2
+ c sin 0 (3 cos 0 - sin 8) - 2c sin 0 cos 0 (cos 0 - sin 0),
26 66
3 2 2 3 2 2 2
c = c sin 0 cos 0 + c sin 0 cos 0 (cos 0 — sin 0) - c cos 0 sin 0 + c sin 0 (3 cos 0 — sin 0)
2Q n 12 22 16
2 2 2 2 2
+ c cos 0 (cos 0—3 sin 0)-f-2c sin 0 cos 0 (cos 0 — sin 0).
26 GQ
The equations in this set are not independent, as is seen by adding the first four. We
form the following combinations :—
C C C S m 4 4
1Q + 26 = ~ 22) # COS 0 + (C + %) (COS 0 - sill 0), 16
C C = C COs4 S m 4 — c C S m C 0 S
l l - 22 ~ 22) ( ^ ~~ ^) 4 ( 16 + 2e) ^ A
from which it follows that, unless sin 0 = 0, we must have
C = C C €
11 22) 2Q— ~ 16'
When we use these results in any of the first four equations of the set of six we find
c c
( n ~ i 2 ~ % m) ^ ^ + i6 ^ ^( ^ ~~ ^ ) ^5 c
s m 2 c o s 2 2 c s m
C O S C O S 2 S M 2 =
and when we use them in either of the last two equations of the same set we find
2 2 2 2
- 8c sin 6 cos 6 + (c — c - 2c ) sin 6 cos 6 (cos 0 — sin 0) = 0 ;
16 u 12 66
and it follows that, if neither sin 0 nor cos 0 vanishes, we must have
= c
6G i ( n ~~ ^12)? 16 0* C C =
Again we have the set of equations

C = C C O s 2 C S m 2 — 2c> S m C 0 S
13 13 ^ + 23 ^ 36 ^ ^?
C = C c C 0 S 2 2c S m C 0 S
23 13 S m 2
^ "T" 23 ' ^ + 36 ^ ^5
2 2
c = (c - c ) sin 0 cos 0 + c (cos 0 — sin 0);
36 13 23 36

C C C =
13~ 23' 36 0*
In like manner we have the set of equations
2 2
c = c cos 0+c sin 0 + 2c sin 0 cos 0,
44 u 55 45
C C S m 2 C C O s 2 _ 2c S m C 0 S
55 = 44 ^ + 55 ^ 45 ^ ^»
C _ C C S m C 0 S C COs2 S m 2
45 = ( 44 ~ 55) ^ ^ + 45 ( #~ ^) 5
In like manner we have the set of equations

c = c cos 0 + c sin 0,
34 34 35
_ C S m C C 0 S
%= 34 0 + 35 ^5
from which it follows, since cos 6^1, that we must have
C = C =
34 35 ^-
Finally we have the set of equations

c o s 2 2 3 2 2
c
i4 ~ c
i4 c o s 3
^ + i5 c
<9 sin <9 + c sin 0 cos 6 + c sin 6 - 2c cos 0 sin 6 - 2<? sin (9 cos 0,
2i 25 46 56
c = c c o s 2 G 3 s m 2 2 2
ib ~ u ^ sin # + i5 cos ^ - % s m 3
^ + 25 c
# cos 0 + 2c sin 0 cos 6 - 2c cos 6 sin 0, 46 66
s m 2 3 3 2 2 2
c
2 4 = i4 c
<9 cos 0 -f c sin 6 + c cos 0 + c cos 0 sin 6 +
15 M 25 26' 46 cos <9 sin 6 + 2c sin 56 6 cos 0,
c 2 3 2 2
c
25 ~ u
# cos <9 - c cos (9 sin 6 + c cos (9 - 2c sin S cos 6 -f- 2c cos 0 sin (9,
s i n 3
# +
c
i5sin 2
2i 25 46 66
c o s 2 2 2 2
c
46 — i4 c
# sin 0 + c sin 0 cos 6 - c cos 6 sin 0 - c sin S cos 0 15 24 25
2 2
+ (c cos 0 + c sin 6) (cos 0 - sin 6), 46 56
2 2 2 2
c — — c sin 6 cos 0 -f- c cos (9 sin 6 + c sin 0 cos 6 - c cos 6 sin 0
m u 15 24 25
2 2
- (c sin 6 - c cos 6) (cos 0 - sin 6). 46 m
From these we form the combinations

c + c = (c 4- c ) cos (9 + (% + c ) sin <9, u 24 14 24 25
i6 + % = ~ ( i4 + %) sin 6 + (c + c ) cos 0; c c
15 25
and it follows, since cos 0^=1, that we must have

c + c =:0,
14 24 c + c = 0.
16 25
Assuming these results, we form the combinations
C
( 15 + 4 ) = ( 14 - 5 ) C
6
C C
6
S i n
0+ C
( 15 + % > ) C 0 S
# 5
from which it follows that
C = C C = — C
14 56> 1 5 46'
Assuming these results, we express all the coefficients in the above set of equations in terms
T
of c and c , and the equations are equivalent to tw o:—
46 m
3 2 2 3
c (1 - cos 6 + 3 sin 6 cos 6) - c (3 cos 6 sin 0 - sin 6) = 0,
46 56
2 3 3 2
c (3 cos 6 sin 0 - sin 6) + c (1 - cos <9 + 3 sin 6 cos <9) = 0.
46 56
2
The condition that these may be compatible is found to reduce to (1 - cos &) (1 + 2 cos #) = 0;
so that, unless cos 6 = — we must have
= =
C
46 = = C
56 0-
W e have t h u s found t h a t , if t h e strain-energy-function is unaltered by

a substitution which corresponds with rotation about t h e axis z through any t
angle other t h a n IT, ^TT, f-7r, t h e following coefficients m u s t vanish :—

Cl6> C
26> ^36> C
46> C
56> ^45; C , 14 C 4, 2 C , 15 C , 25 C , 34 C35 J (5)
and the following equations must hold among t h e remaining coefficients :—

C N = C 2, 2 C 13 = C23, C 44 = C 5, 5 C 66 = "2 (CU —c ) 12 (6)
W h e n the angle of rotation is 7r, t h e following coefficients vanish :—
^14 > ^24 J ^15 j *?25 > C
46) > C , 34 C5 35 (7)
no relations between t h e remaining coefficients are involved. When the
angle of rotation is \ I T , the following coefficients vanish :—
(8)
and t h e following equations connect t h e remaining coefficients:—
Cn — C , 22 C 13 = C , 23 C44 = C, 55 C 6
2 — CJQ (9)
W h e n the angle of rotation is § IT, t h e following coefficients vanish :—
(10)
and t h e following equations connect the remaining coefficients :—
C
ll ~ ^22? C
13 = =
^23 > ^44 = =
^55> C
66 =
"2" (^11 ^12);
= = =
^14 ~ ^24 ~ ^56 > ^15 ^25 ^46*
I n like manner, when t h e axis of z is a n axis of alternating symmetry,

and t h e angle of rotation is not one of t h e angles TT, \nr, \ir, t h e same
coefficients vanish as in t h e general case of a n axis of symmetry, a n d t h e
same relations connect t h e remaining coefficients. W h e n t h e angle is IT, we
have the case of central perversion, which has been discussed already. W h e n
t h e angle is \nr, t h e results a r e t h e same as for direct symmetry. W h e n
the angle is \TT, t h e results are t h e same as for an axis of direct symmetry
with angle of rotation §7r.
106. Isotropic solid.

I n t h e case of a n isotropic solid every plane is a plane of symmetry, and
every axis is a n axis of symmetry, and t h e corresponding rotation may be of
any amount. The following coefficients must vanish: —
^14; ^15) ^16? ^24) ^25? ^26) C
34 > ^35> C 3 6 ,
C
45> ^46> ^56 ...(12)
and the following relations must hold between t h e remaining coefficients :—
= = = = =
Cn ~ @22 ~ ^33> ^23 £31 ~ Cl2> ^44 ^55 ^66 2" (^11 ^ l O ' •(^^)
T h u s the strain-energy-function is reduced to t h e form

2 e
"2" (®"x% 4" C yy + &zz) + C12 i^yy^zz @ZZ xx "T* ^xx^yy)
+ i ((hi - C12) ( e \ J Z + e\x + e\y), (14)

which is t h e same as t h a t assumed i n Article 68. f x ? '
107. S y m m e t r y of crystals.
A m o n g aeolotropic materials, some of t h e most important are recognized
as crystalline. The structural symmetries of crystalline materials have been
studied chiefly by examining t h e shapes of t h e crystals. This examination
has led to t h e construction, in each case, of a figure, bounded b y planes,
and having t h e same symmetry as is possessed in common by t h e figures
of all crystals, formed naturally in t h e crystallization of a material. T h e
figure in question is t h e " crystallographic form" corresponding with t h e
material.
F . N e u m a n n * propounded a fundamental principle in regard t o t h e
physical behaviour of crystalline materials. I t may be stated as follows:—
Any kind of symmetry, which is possessed by t h e crystallographic form
of a material, is possessed by t h e material i n respect of every physical
* See his Vorlesungen uber die Theorie der Elasticitat, Leipzig, 1885.
quality. In other words we may say t h a t a figure consisting of a system
of rays, going out from a point, and having t h e same symmetry as t h e
crystallographic form, is a set of equivalent rays for the material. The law
is an induction from experience, and the evidence for it consists partly in
a posteriori verifications.
It is to be noted that a crystal may, and generally does, possess, in respect of some
physical qualities, kinds of symmetry which are not possessed by the crystallographic
form. For example, cubic crystals are optically isotropic. Other examples are afforded
by results obtained in Article 105.
The laws of the symmetry of crystals are laws which have been observed to be obeyed
by crystallographic forms. They may be expressed most simply in terms of equivalent
rays, as follows:—
(1) The number of rays, equivalent to a chosen ray, is finite.
(2) The number of rays, equivalent to a chosen ray, is, in general, the same for all
positions of the chosen ray. We take this number to be N— 1, so that there is a set of N
equivalent rays. For special positions, e.g. when one of the rays is an axis of symmetry,
the number of rays in a set of equivalent rays can be less than N.
(3) A figure, formed of N equivalent rays, is a symmetrical figure, allowing all the
covering operations of a certain group. By these operations, the N equivalent rays are
interchanged, so that each ray comes at least once into the position of any equivalent ray.
Any figure formed of equivalent rays allows all the covering operations of the same group.
(4) When a figure, formed of N equivalent rays, possesses an axis of symmetry, or an
axis of alternating symmetry, the corresponding angle of rotation is one of the angles
It can be shown that there are 32 groups of covering operations, and no more, which
obey the laws of the symmetry of crystals. With each of these groups there corresponds
a class of crystals. The strain-energy-function corresponding with each class may be
written down by making use of the results of Article 105; but each of the forms which
the function can take corresponds with more than one class of crystals. It is necessary
to describe briefly the symmetries of the classes. For this purpose we shall now introduce
a few definitions and geometrical theorems relating to axes of symmetry:—
The angle of rotation about an axis of symmetry, or of alternating symmetry, is 2>rr/n,
where n is one of the numbers : 2, 3, 4, 6. The axis is described as " w-gonal." For
7i = 2, 3, 4, 6 respectively, the axis is described as "digonal," "trigonal," "tetragonal,"
"hexagonal." Unless otherwise stated it is to be understood that the agonal axis is an
axis of symmetry, not of alternating symmetry.
The existence of a digonal axis, at right angles to an %-gonal axis, implies the existence
of n such axes; e.g. if the axis z is tetragonal, and the axis x digonal, then the axis y and
the lines that bisect the angles between the axes of x and y also are digonal axes.
The existence of a plane of symmetry, passing through an n-gonal axis, implies the
existence of n such planes; e.g. if the axis z is digonal, and the plane x — 0 is a plane of
symmetry, then the plane y = 0 also is a plane of symmetry.
If the w-gonal axis is an axis of alternating symmetry, the two results just stated still
hold if n is uneven ; but, if n is even, the number of axes or planes implied is \n.
* The restriction to these angles is the expression of the " l a w of rational indices."
108. Classification of crystals.
The symmetries of the classes of crystals may now be described by reference to the
groups of covering operations which correspond with them severally:—
One group consists of the identical operation alone; the corresponding figure has no
5
symmetry; it will be described as "asymmetric. ' The identical operation is one of the
operations contained in all the groups. A second group contains, besides the identical
operation, the operation of central perversion only; the symmetry of the corresponding
figure will be described as "central." A third group contains, besides the identical
operation, the operation of reflexion in a plane only; the symmetry of the corresponding
figure will be described as "equatorial." Besides these three groups, there are 24 groups-
for which there is a " principal axis"; that is to say, every axis of symmetry, other than
the principal axis, is at right angles to the principal axis; and every plane of symmetry
either passes through the principal axis or is at right angles to that axis. The five
remaining groups are characterised by the presence of four axes of trigonal symmetry
equally inclined to one another, like the diagonals of a cube.
When there is an ^-gonal principal axis, and no plane of symmetry through it, the
symmetry is described as "^-gonal"; in case there are digonal axes at right angles to the
principal axis, the symmetry is further described as "holoaxial"; in case there is a plane
of symmetry at right angles to the principal axis, the symmetry is further described as.
"equatorial"; when the symmetry is neither holoaxial nor equatorial it is further
described as "polar." When there is a plane of symmetry through the agonal principal
axis, the symmetry is described as "di-n-gonal"; it is further described as "equatorial"'
or "polar," according as there is, or is not, a plane of symmetry at right angles to the
principal axis.
When the principal axis is an axis of alternating symmetry, the symmetry is described
as "di-^-gonal alternating," or "ft-gonal alternating," according as there is, or is not, a-
plane of symmetry through the principal axis.
The appended table shows the names* of the classes of crystals so far described, the
symbols + of the corresponding groups of covering operations, and the numbers of the
classes as given by VoigtJ. It shows also the grouping of the classes in systems and
the names of the classes as given by Lewis §.
The remaining groups, for which there is not a principal axis, may be described by
reference to a cube: and the corresponding crystals are frequently called "cubic," or
"tesseral," crystals. All such crystals possess, at any point, axes of symmetry which are
distributed like the diagonals of a cube, having its centre at the point, and others, which
are parallel to the edges of the cube. The latter may be called the "cubic axes." The
symmetry about the diagonals is trigonal, so that the cubic axes are equivalent. The
symmetry with respect to the cubic axes is of one of the types previously named. There
are five classes of cubic crystals, which may be distinguished by their symmetries with
respect to these axes. The table shows the names of the classes (Miers, Lewis), the
symbols of the corresponding groups (Schoenflies), the numbers of the classes (Voigt), and
the character of the symmetry with respect to the cubic axes.
* The names are those adopted by H. A. Miers, Mineralogy, Oxford, 1902.

f The symbols are those used by Schoenflies in his book Krystallsysteme unci Krystallstructur..
X Rapports presentees au Congres International cle Physique, t. 1, Paris, 1900.
§ W. J. Lewis, Treatise on Crystallography, Cambridge, 1899. The older classification in six
(sometimes seven) " s y s t e m s " as opposed to the 32 " c l a s s e s " is supported by some modern
authorities. See V. Goldschmidt, Zeitschr. f. Krystallographie, Bde. 31 and 32 (1899).
Name of class Symbol of Number of Name of class
System [Miers] group class
[Lewis]
[Schoenflies] [Voigt]
Triclinic 1 Asymmetric 2 Anorthic I
Ci
or -j Central 1 Anorthic II
Anorthic 1
Monoclinic Equatorial s 4 Oblique 11
or -j Digonal polar o 2
5 Oblique I
Oblique Digonal equatorial 3 Oblique III
Rhombic I Digonal holoaxial V / Prismatic I

or -j Didigonal polar cj> 8 Prismatic III
Prismatic Didigonal equatorial yh 6 Prismatic II
/ Trigonal polar 13 Rhombohedral I

Trigonal holoaxial 10 Rhombohedral IV
Trigonal equatorial 27 Rhombohedral YI
Ditrigonal polar 11 Rhombohedral V
Ditrigonal equatorial 26 Rhombohedral VII
Hexagonal Hexagonal polar 25 Hexagonal I
and J o e
Rhombohedral ' Hexagonal alternating s 9

12 Rhombohedral II
Hexagonal holoaxial A 23 Hexagonal V
Hexagonal equatorial o e
h 24 Hexagonal II
Dihexagonal polar 22 Hexagonal III
Dihexagonal alternating 9 Rhombohedral III
i Dihexagonal equatorial /),» 21 Hexagonal IV
Tetragonal polar 18 Tetragonal III

Tetragonal alternating s 4 20 Tetragonal VII
Tetragonal holoaxial 15 Tetragonal V
Tetragonal < Tetragonal equatorial 17 Tetragonal IV
Ditetragonal polar 16 Tetragonal VI
Ditetragonal alternating 19 Tetragonal I
Ditetragonal equatorial 14 Tetragonal II
Name of class Symbol of group Number Symmetry with respect

[Miers] [Lewis] [Schoenflies] [Voigt] to the cubic axes
tesseral polar Cubic III T 32 digonal

tesseral holoaxial Cubic I 0 29 tetragonal
tesseral central Cubic IV rp{h) 31 digonal equatorial
ditesseral polar Cubic V 30 tetragonal alternating
ditesseral central Cubic II 28 tetragonal equatorial
109. Elasticity o f crystals.
W e can now p u t down t h e forms of t h e strain-energy-function for t h e

different classes of crystals. F o r t h e classes which have a principal axis
we shall take this axis as axis of z; when t h e r e is a plane of symmetry
t h r o u g h t h e principal axis we shall take this plane as t h e plane (%, z)\
when there is no such plane of symmetry b u t there is a digonal axis a t right
angles t o t h e principal axis we shall t a k e this axis as axis of y. F o r t h e
crystals of t h e cubic system we shall t a k e t h e cubic axes as coordinate axes.
The classes will b e described b y their group symbols as in t h e tables of
Article 1 0 8 ; we shall first write down t h e symbol or symbols, and t h e n t h e
corresponding strain-energy-function; t h e omitted terms have zero coefficients,
and t h e constants with different suffixes are independent. T h e r e s u l t s * are
as follows:—
Groups C , S —(21 1 2 constants)

2 e e
i>Cii6 xx "f" Q\i®xx®yy "T* ^€> 6 XX ZZ + Oi^Bxx^yz C\5@xx zx ~f~ Ci6&xx xy
t
-f" \C 2fL&yy ~f" C23@yy@zz "f" C^yy^yz C25&yy@zx ~r* C ^G y6 y
2 y X
2
+ \cê zz "1" c e € ?A zz yz + cê e zz zx -f cê e zz xy
+ \C\\&'yZ ~T" ^4 6y e 5 Z zx + 0^6y 6 y Z x
2
~l~ ^c e x 55 2 ~f~ 0 6 6y
5Q zx X
"f* \Cm$xy
h
Groups S, G C —(13) 2> 2 constants)
G 2
2 ii6 xx "f" c Q 6yy 12 xx 4- c e e 13 xx 2Z + Ci e 6 y
Q xx X
H~ ^cê^yy 4- c e ye 2S y zz + c eyye 26 xy
~T" \c Q" zz zz + G^Qzz^xy
C^Cyz ~T C^Gyz^ZX
zx
V h
Groups V, C , V —(9 2 constants)
"sT^n&XX "1" Gi 6 6yy 2 xx + Cis6 x x e z z
-f" \G G"yy 22 ~\~ C %Gyy6 Z

2 Z
+ c
2 3s zz e2
+ ^c e y 44
2
Z + -%c e 55
2
zx + \c e .
m
2
xy
Groups C , S —(7 3 6 constants)

G
\ n&xx 4- c e e
12 xx yy 4- c e e
ls xx zz +ce e u xx yz -f cee 15 xx zx
+ ^C-] 6"yy1 + C eyye1S ZZ G^GyyGy Z 0\^6yy6 ZX
G e e e
+ ^[Css&zz + i 44 %z ~~ i 5 y z x y
c
2 2
4- \G^G ZX + c e u z x 6 y X 4- ^ ( c n — c ) 6 ^. 12
* The results are due to Yoigt.

v
Groups D , 3 C , S —(6 constants)s 6
U
e e
^ u ^ x x "f" Ci20%% yy "T" Ci3@xx zz 4" Ci e 6zx5 xx
4" \^\\^yy + CisByyCzz ^15^yy6zx

2
4" ^ 3 3 + ^0ê y + \Cê^ x Z Z ^\^y e yz x
4" 4(^11 ~ ^12)
A
Groups C * D , C , D , tf * C^, D * — ( 0 constants)
s 8 6 6 6 6
\V\\Wxx 4" 0j e 6yy

2 xx + Ci36 (?zzxx
+ \G2&&zz 4" "k 4A^ yz 4" \v±\&zx

c 2
+ ~ ~ ^12)
ft
Groups 0 , $ , 0 —(7 constants)
4 4 4
C12 &xx&yy -j- (j\z&xx®zz + Ci6@xx@xy
+ 2^n^ «/^ "f" Ciz6yy zz

2
e e e
îe yy xy
l
"i -
"2^336^2 + ^c e^y u Z -f- \cô zx 4~2"C e ^ y.
66
2
?
4
Groups D , 0 / , >SV, A * — ( 6 constants)
4
2^11^2/2/ 4" Viz&yy®zz "f" 2^33^*22
A d
Groups T, 0, 3F , T , 0^—(3 constants)
2
i^n (^"aa; H" ^2/2/ ~f" ^ggr) H" # 1 2 ($yy®zz H" &zz@xx ~T" ^xxVyy) ~f" "2"C 44
2
(# ?/2: ~f~ &"xy)'
110. Various t y p e s of symmetry.

Besides t h e kinds of symmetry shown by crystals there are others which
merit special attention. W e note t h e following cases:—
(1) T h e material m a y possess a t each point three planes of symmetry
at right angles t o each other. Taking these t o be t h e coordinate planes
the formula for t h e strain-energy-function would be
2 2 2
2 W = ^ e ^ + 5 e ^ + Oe ,z + 2 + 2Ge e .+ Z2 aix 2He e xx yy
+ Le%z + Me* + N'e\y zx (15)

This formula contains a n u m b e r of those which have been obtained for
various classes of crystals.
(2) T h e material m a y possess an axis of symmetry in t h e sense t h a t
all rays a t right angles t o this axis are equivalent. Taking t h e axis of
symmetry t o be t h e axis of z, t h e formula for t h e strain-energy-function
would be
2 W = A (e\ + e\y) 4- Ce\ +-2F(e

x z yy + e ) e + 2 (A - 2N)
xx zz
@xx &yy
+ L(e% + e% ) + Ne\ (16) z x y
Bodies which show this kind of symmetry may b e described as " transversely
isotropic/' I t is to be noted t h a t cubic crystals are not transversely isotropic.
For a cubic crystal A=B=C, F= G = H, L = M=N, b u t t h e relation
H=A-2N does not hold.
(3) The material may possess symmetry of one of the kinds already
discussed, or of some other kind, b u t t h e axes of symmetry may be directed
differently at different points*. I n such cases we may be able to choose
a system of orthogonal curvilinear coordinates so t h a t t h e normals to t h e
orthogonal surfaces at a point become lines with reference to which t h e
strain-energy-function is simplified. For example, formula (15) might hold
for axes of x, y, z directed along t h e normals to the surfaces of reference
at a point, or t h e material might be transversely isotropic with reference
to the normals and t a n g e n t planes of a family of surfaces. This kind of
symmetry of structure may be possessed by curved plates of metal. W h e n
a body possesses symmetry in this way it is said to possess " curvilinear
seolotropy."
111. Material with three orthogonal planes of symmetry.

Moduluses.
I n t h e cases w h e r e formula (15) holds, Y o u n g ' s m o d u l u s E for a n arbitrary direction
(l u m l9 is given by the equation
4 2 2 2 2 2
1_Z 1 2m n 1 1 2n l* 2l m x
lr + + + ( 1 7 )
E~E ~ E E 1 2 3 '
where E^ E , E are t h e Y o u n g ' s m o d u l u s e s for t h e three principal directions, a n d t h e
2 3
E's a n d F'a are g i v e n b y s u c h e q u a t i o n s a s

2
1 BG-F 2 _2{GH-AF) 1
+ ( 1 8 )
A H G ' F~ A H G L
H B F H B F
G F G G F G
T h i s case h a s been discussed b y S a i n t - V e n a n t f . H e s h o w e d t h a t there are in general
13 directions for w h i c h E b e c o m e s a m a x i m u m or m i n i m u m . Of t h e s e 3 are t h e a x e s of
y, z\ 2 others lie i n each of t h e coordinate planes b e t w e e n t h e axes, and t h e r e m a i n i n g
4 lie one in each of t h e trihedral a n g l e s formed b y t h e coordinate planes. H e also found
t h a t all t h e s e directions e x c e p t t h e first t h r e e will be i m a g i n a r y if F lies b e t w e e n E and E , x 2 3
F lies b e t w e e n E and E , a n d F lies b e t w e e n E a n d E , a n d if t h e 3 q u a n t i t i e s s u c h as

2 3 t 3 x 2
+ H A V E N O T A 1 1 T H E S A M E 8 I G N
i - f) 3 (i - t ) ( f 3 fJ -
I n t h e n o t a t i o n of t h i s A r t i c l e t h e rigidity for directions m , n ) and (l , m , n )
2 2 3 3 3 is
t h e reciprocal of t h e expression
2 2 2 2
SIMf mm 2 n n (2 1\ /2 1\ , / 2 1 \ "I 7 7 7 7
4 + + m 2 m + 71 1 1 + 1 1
L^T ^ "V U " L) ^ { F - M) n* * * * [f " n) * *™*"*J
2 3
2 2 2
(m n +m n ) 2 3 3 2 {n l + n l )
2 3 (l m + l m )
3 2 2 3 3 2
+ + + ( 1 9 )
L M T
* This kind of seolotropy was noted by Saint-Venant, J. de Math. (Liouville), (Ser. 2), t. 10
(1865), who worked out some examples of its application. The case of a cylindrical distribution
has been discussed by Voigt, Gottingen Nachrichten, 1886.
f See the ' Annotated Clebsch,' pp. 95, et seq.
The rigidities for the pairs of axes at right angles to the planes of symmetry are
L, M, N.
With the same notation we could show that the Poisson's ratios for contractions parallel
to the axes of y and z respectively, when the stress is tension across the planes x = const., are
fory, E (1/2N-1/F ),
1 and for z, E (ll2M-l/F )
3 (20) 1 2
The values for other pairs of directions can be written down without difficulty (Article 73).
With the same notation we may show that the modulus of compression is the reciprocal of
A* A JL A A A _ I _ A _ 1 m \
+ + + + + ( }
W E E 7\
± ¥ F
2 L M N 3 2 3
In the case of cubic crystals we may show that the value of E, Young's modulus for
tension in direction (I, m, n), is given by the equation*
A _ ;
JL
_L + jl _ 2 ( )
y " ° ' | (m ^ + ^ ^ + ^m ) 2 2 2 2 2
(22)
Provided that the coefficient of the second term is positive, E is a maximum in the
directions of the principal axes, and a minimum in the directions of lines equally inclined
to the three principal axes; further it is stationary without being a maximum or a
minimum in the directions of lines bisecting the angles between two principal axes, and
remains constant for all lines given by l±m±n = 0.
1 1 2 . E x t e n s i o n and bending of a bar.

As examples of distributions of stress in an seolotropic solid body, we may take the
problems of extension of a bar and bending of a bar by terminal couples. We shall
suppose that the material has, at each point, three planes of symmetry of structure, so that
the strain-energy-function is given by the formula (15); we shall suppose also that the bar
is of uniform section, that the axis of z is the line of centroids of its normal sections, and
that the axes of x and y are parallel to principal axes of inertia of its normal sections, so
that the line of centroids and the said principal axes are at right angles to planes of
symmetry.
(a) Extension.
We suppose that all the stress-components except Z vanish, and take Z — Ee, where e z z
is constant, and E is the Young's modulus of the material corresponding with tension Z . z
We find the displacement in the form

u= — o-^x, v=-o- €y, 2 w=€Z, (23)
where o- is the Poisson's ratio for contraction parallel to the axis of x when there is
t
tension Z , and o- is the corresponding ratio for contraction parallel to the axis of y.
z 2
(b) Bending by couples.

1
We assume that all the stress-components vanish except Z , and take Z - z z -EB'~ x,
where B is constant.
We find that the displacement is given by the equations
1 2 2 2 1 1
u = ^B~ (z + a x -<r y \
1 2 v = o- B~ xy, 2 w=-B~ xz, (24)
and that the traction across a normal section is statically equivalent to a couple about an
2
axis parallel to the axis of y, of moment EI IB, where / = jj x dxdy, the integration being
taken over the cross-section.
The interpretation of the result is similar to that in Article 88.
* A figure showing the variation of 1\E with direction is drawn by Liebisch, Physikalische
Krystallographie (Leipzig, 1891), p. 564.
113. Elastic constants of crystals. Results of experiments.
The elastic constants of a number of minerals have been determined by W. Voigt* by
experiments on the twisting and bending of rods. Some of his principal results are
6
stated here. The constants are expressed in terms of an unit stress of 10 grammes' weight
per square centimetre.
For Pyrites (cubic), the constants are
c = 3680,
n c = 1075,
44 c =-483,
12
and we have
Principal Young's modulus, .#=3530,
Principal Rigidity, c = p = 1075 :
44
also by calculation we find Principal Poisson's ratio a-=—\ nearly.

These results are very remarkable, since they show that these moduluses of pyrites are
much greater than those of steel f, and further that a bar of the material cut in the
direction of a principal axis when extended expands slightly in a lateral direction\. The
6
modulus of compression is about 1070 x 10 grammes' weight per square centimetre, which
is considerably smaller than that of steel.
The table shows the values of the constants for three other minerals for which the
energy-function has the same form as for Pyrites. In this table <? is the principal rigidity, 44
and E is the principal Young's modulus.
Material E C
12 c 44
Fluor Spar 1470 1670 457 345

Rock-salt 418 477 132 129
Potassium Chloride 372 375 198 65-5
Except in the case of rock-salt, Oauchy's condition (c = c ) is not even approximately

12 u
verified, and the differences are much greater than could be accounted for by assuming
experimental errors.
h
Beryl is a.hexagonal crystal of the class specified by the group D for which the G
constants are
c = 2746, c = 2409, c = 980, c = 674, c =666.
u 33 12 13 44
For a bar whose axis is in the direction of the principal axis of symmetry #=2100.
For a bar whose axis is in the direction of a secondary axis of symmetry E= 2300. The
first of these is about the same as that for steel, and the second is rather greater. The
principal rigidities are 666 and 980, of which the first is. less and the second considerably
greater than the rigidity of steel. Cauchy's relations are approximately verified.
Quartz is a rhombohedral crystal of the class specified by the group D . 3 The
constants are
c = 8 6 8 , c =1074, c = 1 4 3 , c = 70, c = 582,
u 33 1 3 12 44 c = 15 -171,
and E in the direction of the principal axis is 1030.
* For references see Introduction, footnote 55.

+ See table, Article 71.
$ It has been suggested that these somewhat paradoxical results may be due to "twinning "
of the crystals.
h
Topaz is a rhombic crystal (of the class specified by the group V ) whose principal
Young's moduluses and rigidities are greater than those of ordinary steel. The constants
of formula (15) are for this mineral
^=2870, 5 = 3560, (7=3000, F=900, £ = 860, #=1280,
Z=1100, J/=1350, iV=1330.
The principal Young's moduluses are 2300, 2890, 2650.
Barytes is a crystal of the same class, and its constants are
.1=907, £ = 800, (7=1074, ^=273, £ = 275, # = 4 6 8 ,
Z = 122, J/=293, iV=283.
These results show that for these materials Cauchy's reduction is not valid.
114. Curvilinear seolotropy.

As examples of curvilinear seolotropy (Article 110) we may take the problems of a tube
(Article 100) and a spherical shell (Article 98) under pressure, when there is transverse
isotropy about the radius vector*.
(a) In the case of the tube we should have
d
M = rA-+For
J^+&e, .(25)
zz = Ae + F-^- + H-,
or r
where H is written for A - 2N. The displacement U is given by the equation
G ^ + C J U _ A J J + { F - H U ( 2 6 )
A z
or r or r r
of which the complete primitive is
n n F— H
U=ar +l3r- + .—-êr, (27)
A— 0
n being written for J (A/C), and a and £ being arbitrary constants. The constants can be
adjusted so that rr has the value — p at the outer surface r=r , and -p at the inner
0 0 t
surface r = r . The constant e can be adjusted ' so as to make the resultant of the
1
2 r 2 o n
longitudinal tension zz over the annulus r >r>r balance the pressure TT (pî - Po o )
0 x
an end of the cylinder.

(6) In the case of the sphere we should find in like manner that the radial displacement
U satisfies the equation
o%+?%-w-»%«, m
n n
so that U = ar -i + fir- ~i,
where <n? = ± jl + 8 ,
* Saint-Venant, J. de Math. (Liouville), (Ser. 2),»t. 10 (1865).

L. E. 11
162 CURVILINEAR iEOLOTROPY [CH. VI
and we can find the formula
which agrees with the result obtained in (vi) of Article 98 in the case of isotropy.
The cubical dilatation of the spherical cavity is the value of 3U/r when r=r , and x
this is
This result has been applied by Saint-Venant to the theory of piezometer experiments,
in which a discrepancy appears to have been observed between the results obtained and
the dilatation that should theoretically be found to occur if the material were isotropic.
The solution in (30) contains 3 independent constants and Saint-Venant held that these
could be adjusted so as to explain the experiments in question.
CHAPTER VII.
GENERAL THEOREMS.
115. The variational equation of m o t i o n * .

Whenever a strain-energy-function, W, exists, we may deduce t h e
equations of motion from t h e Hamiltonian principle. For t h e expression
of this principle, we take T to be t h e total kinetic energy of t h e body,
and V to be t h e potential energy of deformation, so t h a t V is the volume-
integral of W. W e form, by t h e rules of the Calculus of Variations, t h e
variation of t h e integral / (T — V) dt, taken between fixed initial and final
values (t and t ) for t. I n varying t h e integral we assume t h a t t h e

0 ±
displacement alone is subject to variation, and t h a t its values at t h e initial

and final instants are given. W e denote t h e variation so formed by
W e denote by SW the work done by t h e external forces when t h e displace

1
m e n t is varied. Then t h e principle is expressed by t h e equation
a)
W e may carry out t h e variation of I Tdt. W e have
and therefore
Su + ^ Bv + Sw) dxdydz (2)
* Cf. Kirchhoff, Vorlesungen uber ...Mechanik, Vorlesung 11.

H e r e t and t are t h e initial and final values of t> and Su, ... vanish for
0 ±
both these values. The first term may therefore be o m i t t e d ; and t h e

equation (1) is then transformed into a variational equation of motion.
Further, SV is j jjsWdxdydz, and SW 1 is given by t h e equation
SW^fjjp (XSu + YSv + ZSw) dxdydz + jj(X Su v + Y Sv + Z Sw)

v v dS.
Hence the variational equation of motion is of t h e form

p Su+ Sv+
(S % w ) } y 8w + BW dxd dz
- jjjp (XSu + YSv + ZSw) dxdydz-jj(X Su v + Y Sv + Z Sw) dS - 0. ...(3)

v v
Again, b W is r — be xx + r — be w + ... + z — - oe , xy
where, for example, Se xx is dSu/dx. Hence jjjSWdxdydz m a y b e transformed,

by integration by parts, into the sum of a surface integral and a volume
integral. We find
SWdxdydz •
dW , dW , , dW x , M *
/// — cos (x, v) + ~— cos (y, v) -f ~— cos (z, v)\

'xx oe y
X oe zx
bu
+ ... + ...] dS
J
c^dW c^dJV ...(4) 3_3Fu dxdydz.
•a.9# 3 ^ 3y de dz de J xy zx
The coefficients of t h e variations Su,... under the signs of volume integration

and surface integration in equation (3), when transformed by means of (4),
m u s t vanish separately, and we t h u s deduce three differential equations of
motion which hold at all points of the body, and three conditions which
hold at the boundary. The equations of motion are of t h e t y p e
2 P
P dt dx de xx dy de xy dz de '
zx ^ '
and t h e surface conditions are of the type
dw ( .\dw ,dw , ,
( v ,. a
— cos (x, v) + cos (y, v) + ^—- cos (z, v) = X v (6)

Ovxx 0&xy 06 z x
116. Applications of the variational e q u a t i o n .

(i) A s a n e x a m p l e * of t h e application of t h i s m e t h o d we m a y obtain t h e e q u a t i o n s
(19) of A r t i c l e 58. W e h a v e
* Cf. J. Larmor, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. 14 (1885).

and, by the formulae (36) of Article 20, we have also
ddUa . 7 7 3 ' / 1 \ . . , T C) f l
s n o w e
Every term of j j j 8W ^^hh^ * ^° ^ transformed by the aid of the formulae of
the type
j j f 5a dadfidy — jj h h £ cos ( a , v) dS,

2 3
and the integral will then be transformed into the sum of a surface integral and a volume
integral, in such a way that no differential coefficients of bu , dup, du occur. We may a y
collect, for example, the terms containing 8u in the volume integral. They are a
•III _da \h h 2 3 deaa J h da \hj

3 de-- h da \kj
2 de
^dadfidy.
yt
The equations in question can be deduced without difficulty.

(ii) As another example, we may obtain equations (21) of Article 91 and the second
forms of equations (22) of the same Article. For this purpose we observe that
2 2 d d d V
e -4e e -4zzr + 4 ( ™ l - - ^ \
Hence the strain-energy-function in an isotropic body may be expressed in the form

2 2 1 2 —
I fdxo dv dv div\ + t w 0 s i m i l a r t e r m s ~~1
W= i(X + 2fM) A + 2/x (ray + my + m ) + 2/x g| ~ ^ ^) J•
N o w
FF FR/dtvddv dwddv\ fdvdbtu dvd$iv\~]

¥) Ha
7 7 7
"JJJ L - 5 " - 5 - 5 -ar) J * * *

= c o s c o s S v + c o s ( y c o s ;
/ / I ^ ^ ¥ ~ ^ ^"1 { '" ^ ~ ^' ^ § y } ^
n n o con
and therefore the terms of the type 2\i ~ f^^f) ^ ^ ^° ^ tribute anything to
the volume integral in the transformed expression for Jjj dW'dxdydz. Hence the
equations of motion or of equilibrium can be obtained by forming the variation of
instead of the variation of J j j Wdxdydz. The equations (21) and the second forms of
equations (22) of Article 91 are the equations that would be obtained by this process.
The result here found is that the differential equations of vibration, or of equilibrium,
of an isotropic solid are the same as those of a body possessing potential energy of deforma
tion per unit of volume expressed by the formula
2 2 2
1 (X + 2jx) A + 2fx (w + w + w ). 2
x
The surface conditions are different in the two cases. In MacCullagh's theory of optics* it
was shown that, if the luminiferous sether is incompressible and possesses potential energy
2
according to the formula 2/z (sr^-r-s^+sj's ), the observed facts about reflexion and re
fraction of light are accounted for; the surface conditions which are required to hold for
the purposes of the optical theory are precisely those which arise from the variation of the
volume integral of this expression. Larmorf has described a medium, which possesses
potential energy in the required manner, as " rotationally elastic." The equations of
motion of a rotationally elastic medium are formally identical with those which govern
the propagation of electric waves in free 8Gther.
117. The general problem of equilibrium.

W e seek to determine t h e state of stress, and strain, in a body of given
shape which is held strained by body forces and surface tractions. For this
purpose we have to express t h e equations of t h e t y p e
as a system of equations to determine t h e components of displacement,

u, v, w; and t h e solutions of them m u s t be adapted to satisfy certain
conditions a t t h e surface S of t h e body. I n general we shall take these
conditions to be, either (a) t h a t t h e displacement is given at all points of S,
or (b) t h a t t h e surface tractions are given at all points of S. I n case (a),
t h e quantities u, v, w have given values at S; in case (b) t h e quantities of
t h e type
dW
d@xx
have given values at S. I t is clear that, if any displacement has been found,
which satisfies t h e equations of type (7), and yields t h e prescribed values for
t h e surface tractions, a small displacement which would be possible in a rigid
body may be superposed and t h e equations will still be satisfied; t h e strain
and stress are not altered by t h e superposition of this displacement. It
follows that, in case (6), t h e solution of t h e equations is indeterminate, in t h e
sense t h a t a small displacement which would be possible in a rigid body may
be superposed upon any displacement t h a t satisfies t h e equations.
T h e question of t h e existence of solutions of t h e equations of type (7)
which also satisfy t h e given boundary conditions will not be discussed here.
I t is of more importance to remark that, when t h e surface tractions are
given, t h e equations and conditions are incompatible unless these tractions,
with t h e body forces, are a system of forces which would keep a rigid body
in equilibrium. Suppose in fact t h a t u, v, w are a system of functions which
satisfy t h e equations of type (7). If we integrate t h e left-hand member
of (7) t h r o u g h t h e volume of t h e body, and transform t h e volume-integrals
* Dublin, Trans. R. Irish Acad. vol. 21 (1839) = Collected Works of James MacCullagh, Dublin,
1880, p. 145.
t Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 185 (1894).
of such terms as ^ - ( = — j by Green's transformation, we find t h e equation
OX \06%x'
JJ X dS v + jfj pXdxdydz = 0 (8)
If we multiply the equation of type (7) which contains Z by y, and t h a t

which contains Y by z, and subtract, we obtain t h e equation
JJJ L l9# \de J dy \de j dz \de j)

zx yz zz [dx \de ) dy \de xy
+ p (yZ — zY) dxdydz =0;
and, on transforming this by Green's transformation, we find t h e equation
jj (yZ v - zY ) dS + jjj
v p(yZ- zY) dxdydz = 0 (9)
I n this way all t h e conditions of statical equilibrium may be shown to hold.
118. U n i q u e n e s s of s o l u t i o n * .
We shall prove the following t h e o r e m : — I f either the surface displace
ments or the surface tractions are given the solution of t h e problem of
equilibrium is unique, in t h e sense t h a t t h e state of stress (and strain) is
determinate without ambiguity.
We observe in t h e first place t h a t the function W, being a homogeneous
quadratic function which is always positive for real values of its arguments,
cannot vanish unless all its arguments vanish. These arguments are t h e
six components of s t r a i n ; and, when they vanish, t h e displacement is one
which would be possible in a rigid body. Thus, if W vanishes, t h e body is
only moved as a whole.
Now, if possible, let u\ v\ w and u", v", w" be two systems of displace
ments which satisfy t h e equations of type (7), and also satisfy t h e given
,r
conditions at t h e surface S of t h e body. T h e n u! — u!\ v — v'\ w—w is a
system of displacements which satisfies t h e equations of t h e type
+ +
dx {de ) dy (fo^) dz {de ) ® xx za
throughout t h e body, and also satisfies conditions at t h e surface. Denote
this displacement by (u, v, w). Then we can write down t h e equation
JJJ L \da\de J dy\de ) dz\de xx xy zx
\dx\de J dy\de ) dz\de xy yy yz

d
( J?\
\dx\de w ( —)Y
J dy\de ) dz\de
i l
d
dxd dz = 0
))\
d
+ 1
^ '
zx yz zz
Cf. Kirchhoff, J. f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 56 (1859).

and this is t h e same as
cos (x, v) = h cos (y, v) ^—• + cos (z, v)

u
06 x x v@xy &zx
4- two similar expressions dS
dxdydz = 0.
{ ) u
uv x x Wyy W z z W y z ^zx &xy
W h e n the surface conditions are of displacement u, v, w vanish at all points

of S; and when they are of traction the tractions calculated from u, v, w
vanish at all points of S. I n either case, t h e surface integral in t h e above
equation vanishes. The volume integral is JJJ2Wdxdydz; and since TT is

necessarily positive, this cannot vanish unless W vanishes. Hence (u, v, w)
is a displacement possible in a rigid body. W h e n t h e surface conditions are
of displacement u, v, w m u s t vanish, for they vanish at all points of 8.
119. T h e o r e m of m i n i m u m energy.
The theorem of uniqueness of solution is associated with a theorem of
minimum potential energy. W e consider the case where there are no body
forces, and t h e surface displacements are given. The potential energy of
deformation of the body is the volume integral of t h e strain-energy-function
taken through t h e volume of t h e body. W e may state t h e theorem in the
form:—
The displacement.which satisfies the differential equations of equilibrium,
as well as the conditions at t h e bounding surface, yields a smaller value for
t h e potential energy of deformation t h a n any other displacement, which
satisfies t h e same conditions at the bounding surface.
L e t (u, v, w) be t h e displacement which satisfies t h e equations of
equilibrium throughout t h e body and t h e conditions at the bounding surface,
and let any other displacement which satisfies t h e conditions at t h e surface
f
be denoted by (u + u', v + v\ w -f w ). The quantities u\ v\ w' vanish at t h e
surface. W e denote collectively by e t h e strain-components calculated from
u v, w and by e' the strain-components calculated from u\ v, w'\ we denote
y y
by f(e) the strain-energy-function calculated from t h e displacements u, v, w,

with a similar notation for the strain-energy-function calculated from t h e
other displacements. We. write V for t h e potential energy of deformation
corresponding with t h e displacement (u, v, w), and V for the potential energy 1
of deformation corresponding with the displacement (u -f u\ v + v', w + vf).

T h e n we show t h a t V — V m u s t be positive.
1
W e have
Vt-V^ffjlfie+e') -f(e)} dxdydz
Vi-V^ffj le'%^ + f(e') dxdydz,
because f(e) is a homogeneous quadratic function of t h e arguments denoted

f
collectively by e. Herein f (e ) is necessarily positive, for it is the strain-
f
energy-function calculated from t h e displacement (u, v, w ). Also we have,
in the ordinary notation,
v,dfU) du dw dvdw dw'dw •

- = • -| — • -j
de dx dexx dy de yy dz de zz
/du/ dtf\ dW fdvf_ duj_\ dW_ /cV du_\ dW_

\dy dz) de yz \dz dx J de zx \dx dy J de '
xy
We transform the volume integral of this expression into a surface integral

and a volume integral, neither of which involves differential coefficients of
u' v', w. The surface integral vanishes because u, v', w' vanish at the
y
surface. The coefficient of u' in the volume integral is

a rdW\ d /dw\ d_fdw\
9
dx \de Jx dy \de ) xy dz \de ) zx
and this vanishes in virtue of the equations of equilibrium. In like manner

the coefficients of v and w' vanish. I t follows t h a t
V^V^jjjfie) dxdydz,
which is necessarily positive, and therefore V < V . 1
The converse of this theorem has been employed to prove that there exists a solution
of the equations of equilibrium which yields given values for the displacements at the
boundary*. If we knew independently that among all the sets of functions u, v, w, which
take the given values on the boundary, there must be one which gives a smaller value to
/// Wdxdydz than any other gives, we could infer the truth of this converse theorem.
The same difficulty occurs in the proof of the existence-theorem in the Theory of
Potentialt. In that theory it has been attempted to turn the difficulty by devising an
explicit process for constructing the required function |. In the case of two-dimensional
potential functions the existence of a minimum for the integral concerned has been proved
by Hilbert§.
* Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson), Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. vol. 153 ( 1 8 6 3 ) - M a t h , and Phys.
Papers, vol. 3, p. 351.
f The difficulty appears to have been pointed out first by Weierstrass in his lectures on the
Calculus of Variations. See the Article * Variation of an integral' in Ency. Brit. Supplement,
[Ency. Brit., 10th ed., vol. 33 (1902)].
X See, e.g., C. Neumann, Untersuchungen uber das logarithmische und Neioton'sche Potential,
Leipzig, 1877.
§ ' Ueber das Dirichlet'sche Princip,' (Festschrift zur Feier des 150 jahrigen Bestehens d. Konigl.
Ges. d. Wiss. zu Gottingen), Berlin, 1901.
120. T h e o r e m concerning the potential energy of deformation*.
The potential energy of deformation of a body, which is in equilibrium
under given load, is equal to half t h e work done by t h e external forces,
acting through t h e displacements from t h e unstressed state to t h e s t a t e
of equilibrium.
The work in question is
IjJp (uX + vY+wZ) dxdydz + jj (uX v + vY + wZ ) v v dS.
The surface integral is the sum of three such terms as

[f (dW dW dW )
11 u < =— cos (x, v) + ~— cos (y, v) + ~— cos (z, v)\dS;
and t h e work in question is therefore equal to
d dW d dw d dW\ ) 7 7 7
dxdexx dyde xy dzde J zx j *

fff ( dw dw dw dw dw dW\ , . .
+ e +em
III \ *° ^ ^ « • ^ * * d^J + e + e y z + + d x d
y d z
-
The first line of this expression vanishes in virtue of t h e equations of

equilibrium, and t h e second line is equal to 2 jjjWdxdydz. Hence the
theorem follows at once.
1 2 1 . T h e reciprocal t h e o r e m +.
L e t u, v, w be any functions of x, y, z, t which are one-valued and free
from discontinuity throughout t h e space occupied by a body ; and let us
suppose t h a t u, v, w are not too great at any point to admit of their being
displacements within t h e range of " s m a l l displacements" contemplated in
the theory of elasticity founded on Hooke's Law. Then suitable forces
could maintain the body in t h e state of displacement determined by u, v, w.
The body forces and surface tractions t h a t would be required can be
determined by calculating t h e strain-components and strain-energy-function
from the displacement (u, v, w) and substituting in the equations of
t h e types
P
dx \de )xx dy \de ) xy dz \de ) zx ~ df '
X = cos (x, v) =— 1 + cos (y, v)

v =— + cos (z, v) ~—.
\v€"x,x' \0&xy J U@zx
* In some books the potential energy of deformation is called the '' resilience " of the body.
t The theorem is due to E . Betti, II nuovo Cimento (Ser. 2), tt. 7 and 8 (1872). It is a
special case of a more general theorem given by Lord Rayleigh, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 4
(1873) = Scientific Papers, vol. 1, p. 179. For a general discussion of reciprocal theorems
in Dynamics reference may be made to a paper by H. Lamb, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 19
(1889), p. 144.
T h e displacement u, v, w is one t h a t could be produced by these body forces
and surface tractions.
Now let (u, v, w), (u, v', w') be two sets of displacements, (X, Y, Z) and
(X', Y', Z') the corresponding body forces, (X , Y , Z ) and (X' , Y' , Z' ) v v v v v v
t h e corresponding surface tractions. T h e reciprocal theorem is as follows:—

The whole work done by the forces of the first set (including kinetic
reactions), acting over the displacements produced by the second set, is equal
to the whole work done by the forces of the second set, acting over the displace
ments produced by the first.
The analytical statement of the theorem is expressed by t h e equation
+ JJ (X u' v + Y v + ZjuT) dS
v
+ f i ( Z > + F > + Z\w) dS (11)
I n virtue of the equations of motion and t h e equations which connect

t h e surface tractions with stress-components, we may express t h e left-hand
member of (11) in terms of stress-components in t h e form of a sum of t e r m s
containing u', v\ w explicitly. The terms in v! are
U + + d x d d z
\\ {dx {de ) xx dy {de ) xy dz {de J} z y
I t follows t h a t the left-hand member of (11) may be expressed as a volume

i n t e g r a l ; and it takes t h e form
.dW , dW , , dW , dW , dW'
+ 6 Y Y dxdydz.
6xx
7)Pu a x x
7)P
u t !
yy
+ 6 z z
? p zz
u t !
+ 6 y z
dp
vvyz
+ 6 z x
?)pWzx + 6 x y
dp uc
xy_
By a general property of quadratic functions, this expression is symmetrical in

f
the components of strain of t h e two systems, e ,... and e , I t is there xx xx
fore t h e same as t h e result of transforming t h e right-hand member of (11).
122. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of average strains*.

W e may use the reciprocal theorem to find t h e average values of t h e
strains produced in a body by any system of forces by which equilibrium
can be maintained. For this purpose we have only to suppose t h a t u', v, w
are displacements corresponding with a homogeneous strain. The stress-
* The method is due to Betti, loc. cit.
components calculated from u, v', w are then constant throughout t h e body.
Equation (11) can be expressed in t h e form
jjj{e X'
xx x + eyyY'y + e Z' zz z + e Y'
yz z + e Z'
zx x + e X'y) xy dxdydz
= jjjp (Xu' + Tv' + Zv/) dxdydz + ff (X u!

v
f
+ Y v + Z w') dS... .(12)
v v
If X' is t h e only stress-component of t h e uniform stress t h a t is different

x
from zero t h e corresponding strain-components can be calculated from t h e

f
stress-strain relations, and t h e displacements (u, v', w ) can be found. Thus
t h e quantity JJJ e dxdydz xx can be determined, and this quantity is t h e

product of t h e volume of t h e body and t h e average value of t h e strain-
component e t a k e n t h r o u g h t h e body. I n t h e same way t h e average of
xx
any other strain can be determined. To find t h e average value of t h e

cubical dilatation we t a k e t h e uniform stress-system to consist of uniform
tension t h e same in all directions round a point.
123. Average strains i n a n isotropic solid body.
I n t h e case of an isotropic solid of volume V t h e average value of e xx is
^jjjp{Xx-a(Yy + Zz)}dxdydz + ^jj{Xvx-cj(Yvy + Z z)}

y dS;...(lS)
t h e average value of e is yz
P ( Y z + Z y ) Y
WV jjj d%dydz + ^yjf p( ^ + ^y)dS; (14)
t h e average value of A is
jjjp (Xx + Yy + Zz) dxdydz + jj (X x v + Y y + Z z) dS... .(15)

v v
The following results* may be obtained easily from these formulae :—

(i) A solid cylinder of any form of section resting on one end on a horizontal plane is
shorter than it would be in the unstressed state by a length Wl/2Eco, where IT is its
weight, I its length, a> the area of its cross-section. The volume of the cylinder is less
than it would be in the unstressed state by WI/6L
(ii) When the same cylinder lies on its side, it is longer than it would be in the
unstressed state by cr Wh/Eco, where h is the height of the centre of gravity above the
plane. The volume of the cylinder is less than it would be in the unstressed state by
Wh/Sk.
(iii) A body of any form compressed between two parallel planes, at a distance c
apart, will have its volume diminished by pc/3k, where p is the resultant pressure on
either plane. If the body is a cylinder with plane ends at right angles to its generators,
* Numerous examples of the application of these formuhe, and the corresponding formulas
for an seolotropic body, have been given by C. Chree, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. 15
(1892), p. 313.
a n d t h e s e e n d s are in c o n t a c t w i t h t h e c o m p r e s s i n g planes, i t s l e n g t h will be d i m i n i s h e d
b y pc/Eco, where o> is t h e area of t h e cross-section.
(iv) A vessel of a n y form, of internal volume V x and external volume V, 0 when

subjected t o internal pressure p x a n d e x t e r n a l pressure p , 0 will be deformed so t h a t the
v o l u m e V — V of t h e material of t h e vessel is d i m i n i s h e d b y t h e a m o u n t (p V — p V-^/k.
0 1 0 0 i
124. The general p r o b l e m of vibrations. U n i q u e n e s s of solution.

W h e n a solid body is held in a state of strain, and t h e forces t h a t
maintain t h e strain cease to act, internal relative motion is generally set up.
Such motions can also be set up by the action of forces which vary with t h e
time. I n t h e latter case they may be described as " forced motions." I n
problems of forced motions the conditions at t h e surface may be conditions
of displacement or conditions of traction. W h e n there are no forces, and the
surface of t h e body is free from traction, t h e motions t h a t can take place are
" free vibrations." They are to be determined by solving t h e equations of
t h e type
2
d_fdW\ . d ;dW\ . 3 fdW\ du
+ + P 2
dx de J x dy {de J xy dz \de ) zx dt '
in a form adapted to satisfy t h e conditions of t h e type
, dW x .dW e , ,dW A / 1 ( 7 X
cos (x, v ) ^ + cos(y,v)^— + cos(z,v)^— = 0 (17)
<Jt/ x x UV y
X
at t h e surface of t h e body. There is an infinite number of modes of free

vibration, and we can adapt t h e solution of t h e equations to satisfy given
conditions of displacement and velocity in t h e initial state.
W h e n there are variable body forces, and the surface is free from traction,
free vibrations can coexist with forced motions, and the like holds good for
forced motions produced by variable surface tractions.
The methods of integration of the equations of free vibration will

occupy us immediately. W e shall prove here t h a t a solution of t h e
equations of free vibration which also satisfies given initial conditions of
displacement and velocity is u n i q u e * .
If possible, let there be two sets of displacements (u\ v\ w') and (u'\ v", w")
which both satisfy t h e equations of type (16) and the conditions of type (17),
and, at a certain instant, t — t , let (u\ v\ w') = (u" v \ w") and
Q y
>dt' dt' dt)~~[dt dt ' dt

The difference (v! — u", v' — v", w' — w") would be a displacement which would
also satisfy the equations of type (16) and t h e conditions of type (17), and.
at t h e instant t — t , this displacement and t h e corresponding velocity would
0
* Cf. F. Neumann, Vorlesungen iiber...Elasticitat, p. 125.

vanish. L e t (u, v, w) denote this displacement. W e form t h e equation
d d d
d
±\ ^ ( ) dW dW
( \ dW
( \
/>/// _dt\ P
dt 2
dx \de ) xx dy \de J xy dz \de ) zx
2
dv { ffv
dv d fdW\ dd_/dj_
/dW\ d fdW\)
r 2
dt dt dx *xy/ dy \de J yy dz \de J j yz
2
dw { dw d_ fdW\ _ d_ fdW\ d fdW\\
+ p
dxdydz = 0,.. (18)
dt\ W dx\de ) zx dy\de , yz dz {de ) zz
in which t h e components of strain, e and t h e strain-energy-function, W, xx
are to be calculated from t h e displacement (u, v, w). T h e t e r m s containing p

can be integrated with respect to t, and t h e result is t h a t these t e r m s are
equal to t h e kinetic energy at time t calculated from dujdt,for t h e kinetic
energy a t time t vanishes. T h e terms containing W can be transformed into
0
a surface integral and a volume integral. The surface integral is t h e sum

of three t e r m s of t h e type
-JdtJJ dS jcos (*, v) + cos (y v) (^-J } + cos W v)

deZi
and this vanishes because t h e surface tractions calculated from (u, v, w)

vanish. T h e volume integral is
dWde.. t dWde yy t dWde zz [ dWde yz [ dWde zx ^dWde, xy

dt dxdydz,
do dt
xx
de dt yy de dt zz de dt
yz de dt
zx de dt xy
r
a n d this is t h e value of jjj W dxdydz at time t, for W vanishes at the instant
t = t , because t h e displacement vanishes throughout t h e body at t h a t instant.

0
O u r equation (18) is therefore

2
du\ /'dv dw'
+ W\ dxdydz = 0 (19)
di) +
[dt + dt
and this equation cannot hold unless, at the time t, t h e velocity (dujdt,...)
and the strain-energy-function W vanish. There would t h e n be no velocity
and no strain, and any displacement (u, v, w) t h a t could exist would be
possible in a rigid body and independent of the time. Since (u, v, w) vanishes
throughout t h e body at t h e instant t — t , it vanishes throughout the body at 0
all subsequent instants.
125. F l u x of energy i n vibratory m o t i o n .

T h e k i n e t i c energy ^ a n d potential energy V of t h e portion of t h e body w i t h i n a closed
surface S are expressed b y t h e formulae
v
T=jjj 2
±o(u + v + w ) dxdydz, 2 2
=jjj Wdxdydz,
in which the dots denote differentiation with respect to t, and the integration extends
through the volume within 8. We have at once
d / m ~rr\ [ [ [ ( , • ...x dWdii dWdv dWdw
Lvo J ' J { xx ^ yy & vVgz u&
dW/dw dv\ dW/du dw\ dW (dv du\) . 7 7
+ + + + + + dxdydz (20)
^X^ ^) ^ ^) Â^ w\ - -
The right-hand member may be transformed into a volume integral and a surface integral.
The terms of the volume integral which contain u are
\ dxde
///
dyde
. /
dzde„J r
.. 8 dw d dw d dw\ . . .
xx xy
and the terms of the surface integral which contain u are
W , dW , N dW %
COS (#,!/) + «— cos (y, v) + ^— cos (z, v) j- c?>^.
JJ {oe xx
When there are no body forces, we deduce the equation
j (T+V)
t = j j(uX +vY v v + wZy)dS (21)
This equation may be expressed in words in the form:—The rate of increase of the energy
within & is equal to the rate at which work is done by the tractions across S.
According to the theorem (vii) of Article 5 3 the expression —(uX +vY + wZ ) is the v v v
normal component of a vector quantity, of which the components parallel to the axes are
- (uX + vX + wZ \ - (uXy + v Yy + w Y \ - (uZ +vY +wZ,).
x y x 9 x e
This vector therefore may be used to calculate the flux of energy.
126. Free vibrations of elastic s o l i d bodies.

I n t h e theory of the small oscillations of dynamical systems with a finite
n u m b e r of degrees of freedom, it is shown t h a t t h e most general small motion
T
of a system, w hich is slightly disturbed from a position of stable equilibrium,
is capable of analysis into a n u m b e r of small periodic motions, each of which
could be executed independently of the others. The number of these special
types of motion is equal to the n u m b e r of degrees of freedom of t h e system.
Each of t h e m is characterized by t h e following properties:—
(i) The motion of every particle of the system is simple harmonic.

(ii) T h e period and phase of t h e simple harmonic motion are t h e
same for all t h e particles.
(iii) The displacement of any particle from its equilibrium position,
estimated in auy direction, bears a definite ratio to t h e displacement of any
ohosen particle in any specified direction.
W h e n the system is moving in one of these special ways it is said to be
oscillating in a " p r i n c i p a l " (or " n o r m a l " ) mode. T h e motion consequent
upon any small disturbance can be represented as t h e result of superposed
motions in t h e different normal modes.
W h e n we a t t e m p t to generalize this theory, so as to apply it to systems
with infinite freedom, we begin by seeking for normal modes of vibration*.
T a k i n g pjîr for t h e frequency of such a mode of motion, we assume for t h e
displacement the formulae
u = u' cos (pt + e), v — v' cos (pt + e), w = w cos (pt + e), .. .(22)
in which u', v', w are functions of x, y, z, b u t not of t, and p and e are
constants. Now let W be what the strain-energy-function, W, would become
if u, v\ w were t h e displacement, and let X ' ,... be what the stress-components x
would become in the same case. The equations of motion under no body
forces take such forms as
3 + !+ +
# f t *»'=^ <»>
and t h e boundary conditions, when t h e surface is free from traction, t a k e
such forms as
cos (x, v) X' + cos (y, v) X' + cos (z, v) Z' = 0
x (24) y x
These equations and conditions suffice to determine u\ v', w as functions of

x, y, z with an arbitrary constant multiplier, and these functions also involve p.
The boundary conditions lead to an equation for p, in general transcendental
and having an infinite n u m b e r of roots. This equation is known as t h e
" frequency-equation/'
I t t h u s appears t h a t an elastic solid body possesses an infinite n u m b e r
of normal modes of vibration.
Let p p ,... be t h e roots of the frequency-equation, and let t h e normal
l9 2
mode of vibration with period 2 7 r / p be expressed by t h e equations r
u — Au r r cos (p t + e ), v = A v
r r r r cos (p t + e ), w = A w
r r r r cos (p t + e ),.. .(25)
r r
in which A is an arbitrary constant m u l t i p l i e r ; t h e functions u , v , w are

r r r r
called " normal functions."

The result of superposing motions in t h e different normal modes would
be a motion expressed by equations of t h e type
u = Xu <j>
r ri v = Xv (j> r ri w = Xw </) r ri (26)
in which c/> stands for t h e function A cos (p t + € ).
r The statement t h a t r r r
every small motion of t h e system can be represented as t h e result of super

posed motions in normal modes is equivalent to a theorem, viz.: t h a t any
arbitrary displacement (or velocity) can be represented as the sum of a finite
or infinite series of normal functions. Such theorems concerning t h e
expansions of functions are generalizations of Fourier's theorem, and, from
t h e point of view of a rigorous analysis, they require independent proof.
Every problem of free vibrations suggests such a theorem of expansion.
* See Clebsch, Elasticilat, or Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, vol. 1.
1
127. General t h e o r e m s relating to free vibrations*
(i) I n t h e variational equation of motion
ii 8W dxdydz
u v
+jjjp & + $ + ^ dxdydz = 0...(27)
let Uy v, w have t h e forms u cj) , v cf) , w <j> , and let 8u 8v, 8w have t h e forms r r r r r r y
^s</>s> Vs<t>s, u>s4>s> where </> and <j> stand for A cos (p t + e ) and cos (p t +
r 8 r r r s e ),
5
and the constants A and may be as small as we please. Let W become

r
W when u , v , w are substituted for u, v, w, and become W when u , v w

r r r r 8 8 Si s
are substituted for u, v, w. L e t e denote any one of t h e six strain-com

ponents, and let e and e denote what e becomes when u ,v
r w and u , v , w
s r ry r s s s
respectively are substituted for u, v , w. T h e n t h e variational equation takes

t h e form
2
J jJ 2 e}j dxdydz = p r jjj p (u u r s + vv + ww)
r s r s dxdydz.
The left-hand member is unaltered when e and e are interchanged, i.e. when r s
Uy v, w are t a k e n to have t h e forms u <p y... and 8u, 8v 8w are taken to have s S }
2 2
t h e forms u <j) y... and then the right-hand member contains p instead of p .
r r s r
Since p and p are unequal it follows t h a t

r s
p (u u r s + v v + w w ) dxdydz
r 8 r s = 0 (28)
This result is known as the "conjugate property "of t h e normal functions.
(ii) W e may write cf) in t h e forms A cosp t -j- B sin p ty and then r r r r r the
conjugate property of t h e normal functions enables us to determine the
constants A , B in terms of the initial displacement and velocity.
r r We
assume t h a t t h e displacement a t any time can be represented in the
form (26). Then initially we have
u = TA u ,
0 r r v = LA v ,
0 r r w —Â w y
Q r Y (29)
u = HB p ii ,
0 r r r v = %B p v ,
0 r r r w = XB p w ,
0 r r r (30)
where (u v w ) is t h e initial displacement and (u , v w ) is the initial
0> Qy 0 0 0i Q
velocity. On multiplying t h e t h r e e equations of (29) by pu pv > pw ry r r
respectively, and integrating through t h e volume of t h e body, we obtain t h e

equation
2 2 2
Arjjj p (w -f v + w ) dxdydz
r r r = Jjj p (u u + v v -f w w ) dxdydz. 0 r 0 r 0 r .. .(31)
The other coefficients are determined by a similar process.
(iii) The conjugate property of t h e normal functions may be used
* These theorems were given by Clebsch as a generalization of Poisson's theory of the

vibrations of an elastic sphere. See Introduction.
L. E. 12
to show t h a t t h e frequency-equation cannot have imaginary roots. If there
2 2
were a root p of t h e form a + tyS, there would also be a root p of t h e form
r 8
a — c/3. W i t h these there would correspond two sets of normal functions

and u , v , w which also would be conjugate imaginaries. The
s s s
equation
jjjp (u u r s -I- v v 4- w w ) dxdydz
r s r s —0
could not t h e n be satisfied, for t h e subject of integration would be the

product of the positive q u a n t i t y p and a sum of positive squares.
2
I t remains to show t h a t p r cannot be negative. For this purpose we
consider t h e integral
u 2 2 2
jjjp ( r + Vr + w ) r dxdydz,
which is equal to
+ + + +
- * JJJ h h r -ar) - - j
{r)
where X ,... are what X , ... become when u , v , w are substituted for
x x r r r
u, v w. T h e expression last written can be transformed into

}
2 C 0 S ( r ) r )
-Pr~ JJ [ > r { ^ ) ^ + C O s ( y , l / ) Z ^ +COS(^, ^ ) ^ < } + ... + . . . ]
y dS
2
+ p ~ jjj%W
r r dxdydz,
in which t h e surface integral vanishes and t h e volume integral is necessarily

2
positive. I t follows t h a t p is positive. r
128. L o a d suddenly applied or suddenly reversed.

T h e theory of t h e vibrations of solids may be used to prove two theorems
of great importance in regard to t h e strength of materials. T h e first of these
is t h a t t h e strain produced by a load suddenly applied may be twice as great
as t h a t produced by t h e gradual application of the same load; the second is
that, if the load is suddenly reversed, t h e strain may be trebled.
To prove t h e first theorem, we observe t h a t , if a load is suddenly applied
to an elastic system, t h e system will be thrown into a state of vibration
about a certain equilibrium configuration, viz. t h a t which the system would
t a k e if the load were applied gradually. The initial state is one in which
t h e energy is purely potential, and, as there is no elastic stress, this energy
is due simply to the position of t h e elastic solid in t h e field of force
constituting t h e load. If the initial position is a possible position of
instantaneous rest in a normal mode of oscillation of t h e system, t h e n t h e
system will oscillate in t h a t normal mode, and the configuration at t h e end
of a quarter of a period will be t h e equilibrium configuration, i.e. t h e
displacement from t h e equilibrium configuration will t h e n be zero; at t h e
end of a half-period, it will be equal and opposite to t h a t in t h e initial
position. The m a x i m u m displacement from t h e initial configuration will
therefore be twice t h a t in t h e equilibrium configuration. If the system,
when left to itself under t h e suddenly applied load, does not oscillate in
a normal mode t h e strain will be less t h a n twice t h a t in t h e equilibrium
configuration, since t h e system never passes into a configuration in which
the energy is purely potential.
The proof of t h e second theorem is similar. The system being held

strained in a configuration of equilibrium, t h e load is suddenly reversed, and
t h e new position of equilibrium is one in which all t h e displacements are
reversed. This is t h e position about which t h e system oscillates. If it
oscillates in a normal mode the m a x i m u m displacement from t h e equilibrium
configuration is double t h e initial displacement from t h e configuration of no
s t r a i n ; and, at t h e instant when the displacement from t h e equilibrium
configuration is a maximum, t h e displacement from t h e configuration of
no strain is three times t h a t which would occur in t h e equilibrium
configuration.
A typical example of t h e first theorem is t h e case of an elastic string,

to which a weight is suddenly attached. T h e greatest extension of t h e
string is double t h a t which it has, when statically supporting t h e weight.
A typical example of t h e second theorem is t h e case of a cylindrical
shaft held twisted. If t h e twisting couple is suddenly reversed t h e greatest
shear can be three times t h a t which originally accompanied the twist.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE TRANSMISSION OF FORCE.
1 2 9 . I N this Chapter we propose to investigate some special problems

of t h e equilibrium of an isotropic solid body under no body forces. W e
shall take t h e equations of equilibrium in t h e forms
x+
< ^> if ! ) A + ^ ( W ) = O , a)
and shall consider certain particular solutions which tend to become infinite
in t h e neighbourhood of chosen points. These points must be outside t h e
body, or in cavities within t h e body. W e have a theory of t h e solution of
t h e equations, by a synthesis of solutions having certain points as singular
points, analogous to t h e theory of harmonic functions regarded as t h e poten
tials due to point masses. From t h e physical point of view t h e simplest
singular point is a point at which a force acts on t h e body.
130. Force operative at a p o i n t * .

W h e n body forces (X, Y, Z) act on t h e body t h e equations of equi
librium are
( ; v + / a ) A + / i V 2 ( w v w x Y 2
(4' h l) ' > ~)+p( > > ^)=°> -< >
and t h e most general solution of these equations will be obtained by adding
to any particular solution of t h e m t h e general solution of equations (1). T h e
effects of t h e body forces are represented by t h e particular solution. W e
seek such a solution in t h e case where (X, Y, Z) are different from zero
within a finite volume T and vanish outside T. T h e volume T may be t h a t
of t h e body or t h a t of a part of t h e body. For t h e purpose in hand we may
t h i n k of t h e body as extended indefinitely in all directions and t h e volume T
as a part of it. W e pass to a limit by diminishing T indefinitely.
* The results obtained in this Article are due to Lord Kelvin. See Introduction, footnote 66.
W e express t h e displacement by means of a scalar potential cj> and a
vector potential (F, G, H) (cf. Article 16) by means of formulae of t h e type
dx dy dz ' •(3)
and we express t h e body force in like manner by means of formulas of

t h e type
9 * dN_dM z =
.(4)
dx dy dz
2
Since A = V <£, . . . , t h e equations (2) can be written in such forms as
( V ) i v . * \dy
i+ , ( » v ^dz- » vJ. ) \dx, e+ dy| ? - »dzUJo , . . . ( 5 ,
'3a? T r r + e +
and particular solutions can be obtained by writing down particular solutions

of t h e four equations
2
(\ + 2fi) V <£ + p<$> = 0, / x W + pL = 0,
.(6)
ltV*G + pM=0, i£J*H+pN=Q.
Now X, Y, Z can be expressed in forms of t h e type "(4) by p u t t i n g
l ,
7 dr~\
-) dx'dy'dz',
\? dy ^ dz
,3r
•CO
"-) dx'dy'dz',
f
-X dixfdy dz\
where X\ Y\ Z' denote t h e values of X , F , ^ a t any point (x\ y\ z) within

T, r is t h e distance of this point from x, y, z, a n d t h e integration extends
through T. I t is a t once obvious t h a t these forms yield t h e correct
values for X, Y Z a t 9 any point within T, and zero values a t any point
outside T.
W e now pass to a limit by diminishing all t h e linear dimensions of T
indefinitely, b u t supposing t h a t j j jX'dx'dy'dz' has a finite limit. We

pass in this way t o t h e case of a force X 0 acting at (x, y\ z') in t h e direction
of t h e axis of x. W e have to p u t
p jjjX'dx'dy'dz'=X , 0 ....(8)
and then we have

1 dr- 1
1 dr" 1
1 dr~
<f> = -±-X %-,t Z = 0, M = ~ X , % - , J V = _ - i - Z a ~ . ...<9)
4tjt> dx 47T/3 dz 47rp dy
2 1
Now V (dr/dx) = 2dr~ /dx, and we may therefore p u t
_ X 0 dr n - - ^ - d
- T T - - ^ - — ô^
9 9 K }
Sir (\ +2^) da ^ ^~ 8irp~dz' SiTfidy' '"
The corresponding forms for u, v, w are
2
(\+fi)X 0 dr X,
8 T T ^ ( X + 2//,) 47r^r'
2
(X 4- ji) X dr 0
.(11)
V= • 9
8TT{JL ( X + 2/JL) dxdy
2
+ ^)X dr (X 0
w = ———— --
Sirfju (X + 2//,) dxdz'
More generally, the displacement due to force ( X , Y , Z ) acting at t h e 0 0 0
point (x\ y\ z \ is expressed by t h e equation

\ + 3p [X Y Z 0 0 0
(u, v, w)
8TT/M(\ + 2fi) \ r
9 9
r r,
X +p fx-of y-y z-z'\ X (x - x) + Y (y - y') + Z (z - /)
+ Sirfji (X+2[JL)\ r 9
r 9
r J r
0 Q
2
Q
(12)
W h e n t h e forces X, Y, Z act through a volume T of finite size, particular
integrals of t h e equations ( 2 ) can be expressed in such forms as
X + fj>
u = 87TfJL ( X + 2/Jb)
/ (w
r , * rv - a f )J * > r<y tn+z'(< +
r 6 d , d y W , ...(13)
HI[X+fi r '~ ~ r
+ P { x
where t h e integration extends t h r o u g h t h e volume T.

I t may be observed t h a t t h e dilatation and rotation corresponding with
t h e displacement ( 1 1 ) are given by t h e equations
dr- A 0 X dr- 0 0 _ _ X0 dr-
2v 9 x x
= 0, 2 ^ 9 y y
= - ^ \ - r y 9
2 ^ =
z
- - - - ^ ^ - . ...(14)
4><ir(X + 2fi) dx 4bir/ju dz 4mfi dy
131. First type of simple s o l u t i o n s * .

When the force acts at the origin parallel to the axis of z we may write the expressions
for the displacement in the forms
It may be verified immediately that these constitute a solution of equations (1) in all space
except at the origin. We suppose that the origin is in a cavity within a body, and calculate
the traction across the surface of the cavity. The tractions corresponding with (15) over
any surfaces bounding a body are a system of forces in statical equilibrium when the origin
is not a point of the body [cf. Article 117]. It follows that, in the case of the body
* The solution expressed in equations (15) has received this title at the hands of Boussinesq,
Applications des Potentiels
130-132] OPERATIVE AT A POINT 183
with the cavity, the resultant and resultant moment of these tractions at the outer
boundary of the body are equal and opposite to the resultant and resultant moment of
the tractions at the surface of the cavity. The values of these tractions at the outer
boundary do not depend upon the shape or size of the cavity, and they may therefore be
calculated by taking the cavity to be spherical and passing to a limit by diminishing the
radius of the sphere indefinitely. In this way we may verify that the displacement
expressed by (15) is produced by a single force of magnitude 8ttju(X + 2u) -4/(X-i-u) applied
at the origin in the direction of the axis of z.
We write equations (15) in the form
d^r 2
'd r _ X + 2/x
u= — Adxdz • —A w= - A 1 .(16)
oyoz
x
2u dr~
The cubical dilatation A corresponding with the displacement (16) is A , and
the stress-components can be calculated readily in the forms
2
fdr\
m
1
O A to"
X x
+•
X + u.
T =2pA
v
dr-
dz
dr- 1
1
H X+/x dx
dr dr dr*
\ \dzj
1
Z = 2Â
2
toy } Xy = 6flA
dz) +
X+ J' M
dx dy dz
The tractions across any plane (of which the normal is in direction v) are given by the
equations
m 1
fi fi dr'
r r a > dr -1
__ , N dr- ) 1
dx dz dv X+/x ( dx
_ dr dr dr~ , a
3
x
dr— 1
dr ) -1
s~ ^ + ~—- ^cos
dy dz dv X + ju
1
dr' (
3 ( +
| ) X + ja
and, when v is the inwards drawn normal to a spherical surface with its centre at the
origin, these are
6/jiAxz v _6fxAyz 7 _2fiA
3-,+ .(IV)
Whatever the radius of the cavity may be, this system of tractions is statically equivalent
to a single force, applied at the origin, directed along the axis of z in the positive sense,
and of magnitude SttîA (X-f 2/z)/(X + /*).
Some additional results in regard to the state of stress set up in a body by the applica
tion of force at a point will be given in Article 140 infra.
132. Typical n u c l e i of strain.

Various solutions which possess singular points can be derived from that discussed in
Article 131. In particular, we may suppose two points at which forces act to coalesce,
and obtain new solutions by a limiting j>rocess. It is convenient to denote the displace
ment due to force (X , T , Z ) applied at the origin by
0 0 0
(Z ^+ Yu +Zu,
0 0 2 0 3 J r * i + Y0v2 + Z0v39
0 Xw+ 0 x Y w +Z w ),
0 2 0 3
so that for example (u v w ) is the displacement obtained by replacing X by unity in
ly ly x 0
equations (11). We consider some examples* of the synthesis of singularities:—

l
(a) Let a force h~ P be applied at the origin in the direction of the axis of x, and let
an equal and opposite force be applied at the point (A, 0, 0), and let us pass to a limit by
supposing that A is diminished indefinitely while P remains constant. The displacement is
p fdu dv dwA x x
\dx ' dx ' dx J '

We may describe the singularity as a "double force without moment." It is related to
an axis, in this case the axis of x, and is specified as regards magnitude by the
quantity P.
(a') We may combine three double forces without moment, having their axes parallel
to the axes of coordinates, and specified by the same quantity P. The resulting displace
ment is
3 (18)
'{(fe + t + %>
) (S + |4 > +
Now the result (12) shows that we have
^3 = ^ 2 , W = U, X Z U =V 2 L9 (19)
and thus (18) may be written P ( A A , A ), where A is the dilatation when the displace
15 2 3 1
ment is (u v w-j), and so on. Hence the displacement (18) is

v ti
, P (dr- 5^1 dr-)

{ J
47r(X+2/x) \ dx ' dy' dz J ' - ;
We may describe the singularity as a "centre of compression"; when P is negative it
may be called a "centre of dilatation." The point must be in a cavity within the body:
when the cavity is spherical and has its centre at the point, it may be verified that the
traction across the cavity is normal tension of amount
{ iP/(\ + 2 x) rr} T~\
f f
•(b) We may suppose a force h—P to act at the origin in the positive direction of the
axis of x, and an equal and opposite force to act at the point (0, A, 0), and we may pass to
a limit as before. The resulting displacement is
p fdu x dvt dw \ t
We may describe the singularity as a "double force with moment." The forces applied to
the body in the neighbourhood of this point are statically equivalent to a couple of moment
P about the axis of z. The singularity is related to this axis and also to the direction of
the forces, in this case the axis of x.
(b') We may combine two double forces with moment, the moments being about the
same axis and of the same sign, and the directions of the forces being at right angles to
each other. We take the forces to be h—P and — h—P parallel to the axes of x and y at
the origin, - h—P parallel to the axis of x at the point (0, A, 0), and h—P parallel to the
axis of y at the point (A, 0, 0), and we pass to a limit as before. The resulting displace
ment is
_ du^\ (b\ _ d%\ fdv^ _ dw^\
(\dy dx)' \dy dx)' \dy dx)
or it is
£ ^ v ¥ ' ) '
f
* In most of these the leading steps only of the analysis are given. The results (a') and (b )
are due to J. Dougall, Edinburgh Math. Soc. Proc. vol. 16 (1898).
We may describe the singularity as a "centre of rotation about the axis of z" The forces
applied to the body in the neighbourhood of this point are statically equivalent to a
couple of moment 2P about the axis of z; the singularity is not related to the directions
of the forces. In like manner we may have singularities which are centres of rotation
about the axes of x and y, for which the displacements have the forms
( 2 2 )
<2S
^ ) >
(c) We suppose that centres of dilatation are distributed uniformly along a semi-
infinite line. The line may be taken to be the portion of the axis of z on which z is
negative. The displacement is given by equations of the form
2 2 2 2
where B is a constant, and B =x +y + (z-\-z') .
r(r + z)''
and
\]w"=l][-^=V>
and the displacement is given by the equations
u = B -r^— , s v^B-r^—,, w=- (24)
These displacements constitute the "simple solutions of the second type*." The result
may be expressed in the form
(u v, W) = B ( ^ -
9 1 A %\\ g(z + r)
0 (25)
A singularity of the type here described might be called a "line of dilatation," and B
might be called its "strength." If B is negative, the singularity might be called a "line of
compression."
(d) A line of dilatation may be terminated at both ends, and its strength may be
variable. If its extremities are the origin and the point (0, 0, - k), and its strength is
proportional to the distance from the origin, we have
n , p z'dz' p z'dz' f * (z + z') z'dz'
where C is constant.. Now we have

/"* zW p /z+z* _ _Z_\ , 1 _ 1^ z (z+k _ z_\
3 _ 3 2 2
Jo^~joV^ B) r R, x + y \B r) ' 1
2 2 2
where R = a?+y + (z+k) .
1 The integral
The integral remains
remains finite
finite whe
when h is increased indefinitely,
and we have
r°°0W_i 0_ / z\__ i
3 2 2
J R
0 r r —z\ r)~ z + i
Again we have
R*(z + z')z', k k . z + K + R,
v
/ dz = - —• + — = - — + log 1
3 5
Jo B Bi Jo B Ri z+r
* Boussinesq, loc. cit.
This does not tend to a limit when h is increased indefinitely. Let C (U, V, W) denote
the displacement (26); and, in addition to the line of dilatation which gives rise to the
displacement (U, V, TP), let there be a line of compression, with the same law of strength,
extending from the point (A, 0, 0) to the point (A, 0, — k). "We pass to a limit by taking
h to diminish indefinitely and C to increase indefinitely, in such a way that G'h has a
finite limit, G say. The displacement is given by the equations
dU n dV dW n
dx ox ox
dW hx x x
0 W ==z + 5
'dx~ R} R (z+k + RJ ~ rjz + r) 1
and this has a finite limit when k is increased indefinitely, viz. -x/r(z+r). The dis
placement due to such a semi-infinite double line of singularities as we have described here
is expressed by the equations
u = c ( - t T^-T \ 2 *=-tf-7^Tu> (27)

2 9 2
\z + r r(z + r) J r(z-\-r) r(z + r)'
or, as they may be written, 2 2 2
fd d d \
(u, v, v>)—C{^, g^, ^){,log(«+r)-r} (28)
In like manner we may have
(«,*,
/ 92 ,32p-J{92log(«
) = - ( 7 ^ ,
\ + r)-r} (29)
W ¥ 2
(e) Instead of a line-distribution of centres of dilatation, we may take a line-distribu

tion of centres of rotation. From the result of example (6') we should find
u—0. v =
where D is a constant, and the axes of the centres of rotation are parallel to the axis of x.
This gives
u=0, w=D—^-— (30)
v
' r r (z + r)
In like manner we may have
X
u=- , v = 0, w=-D- f x , (31)
or, as they may be written,
(u, v, «) = / > ( ! , 0, - ^ ) { l o g ( « + r)}. (32)
Other formulae of the same kind might be obtained by taking the line of singularities
in directions other than the axis of z.
The reader will observe that, in all the examples of this Article, except (a) and (6), the
components of displacement are harmonic functions, and the cubical dilatation vanishes.
The only strains involved are shearing strains, and the displacements are independent of
the ratio of elastic constants X : ji.
133. Local Perturbations.

Examples (a) and (a!) of t h e last Article show in particular instances how
t h e application of equilibrating forces to a small portion of a body sets
u p strains which are u n i m p o r t a n t at a distance from the portion. The
displacement due to a distribution of force having a finite resultant for a
small volume varies inversely as t h e distance; t h a t due to forces having zero
resultant for t h e small volume varies inversely as the square of t h e distance,
and directly as t h e linear dimension of the small volume. W e may conclude
t h a t t h e strain produced a t a distance, by forces applied locally, depends
upon the resultant of t h e forces, and is practically independent of the mode
of distribution of t h e forces which are statically equivalent to this resultant.
The effect of the mode of distribution of t h e forces is practically confined to
a comparatively small portion of t h e body near to t h e place of application
of the forces. Such local effects are called by Boussinesq " p e r t u r b a t i o n s
locales *."
The statement t h a t the mode of distribution of forces applied locally
gives rise to local perturbations only, includes Saint-Venant's " Principle
of the elastic equivalence of statically equipollent systems of load," which is
used in problems relating to bars and plates. I n these cases, the falling off
of the local perturbations, as t h e distance from t h e place of application of
the load increases, is much more rapid t h a n in the case of a solid body
of which all t h e dimensions are large compared with those of t h e p a r t
subjected to t h e direct action of t h e forces. W e may cite t h e example
of a very thin rectangular plate under uniform torsional couple along its
edges. The local perturbations diminish according to an exponential
function of t h e distance from t h e e d g e f .
134. S e c o n d type of simple solutions.

The displacement is expressed by t h e equations given in Article 132 (c),
viz.:—
U = = B — ^ — r , v = B—r^—r, w = - , (2^ bis)
u = Bd\og(z + r) v = B d J o g p ^ ) w = j ? 3 1 o g ( * + *-).
dx dy dz
I t may be verified immediately t h a t these expressions are solutions of t h e
equations (1) at all points except t h e origin and points on t h e axis of z
at which z is negative. There is no dilatation, and t h e stress-components
are given by t h e equations
* Boussinesq, loc. cit.

t Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil., Part I I . pp. 267 et seq.
188 EFFECT OF PRESSURE APPLIED [CH. V I I I
A t t h e surface of a hemisphere, for which r is constant and z is positive,

these give rise to tractions
2
X p = 2pB—A—r, F, = 2 ^ — r L - , Z ^ ^ , (33)
2 2
r (z + r) r (z + r) r 2 v
t h e normal (p) being drawn towards t h e centre.

1 3 5 . Pressure at a p o i n t o n a plane boundary.
W e consider an elastic solid body to which forces are applied in t h e
neighbourhood of a single point on t h e surface. If all t h e linear dimensions
of t h e body are large compared with those of t h e area subjected to t h e load,
we m a y regard t h e body as bounded by an infinite plane.
W e take t h e origin to be t h e point at which t h e load is applied, t h e
plane z = 0 to be t h e bounding surface of t h e body, and the positive direction
of t h e axis of z to be t h a t which goes into t h e interior of t h e body. T h e
local effect of force applied a t t h e origin being very great, we suppose t h e
origin to be excluded by a hemispherical surface.
The displacement expressed by (15) could be maintained in t h e body by
tractions over t h e plane boundary, which are expressed by t h e equations
s
X + yu, r 3
X + fju r
and by tractions over t h e hemispherical boundary, which are expressed by
t h e equations (17). T h e resultant of t h e latter for t h e hemispherical surface
is a force in t h e positive direction of t h e axis of z of amount
^TT/JLA (X + 2fi)/(X + fi).
The displacement expressed by ( 2 4 ) could be maintained in t h e body by

tractions over t h e plane boundary, which are expressed by t h e equations
X = -2^B~,
t r, = - 2 / . 5 j , Z, = 0, (34)
and by tractions over t h e hemispherical boundary, which are expressed by

t h e equations (33). T h e resultant of t h e latter is a force in t h e positive
direction of t h e axis of z of amount îrfiB.
If we p u t B = — A/JL/(X + /A), t h e state of displacement expressed by t h e
sum of t h e displacements (15) and ( 2 4 ) will be maintained by forces applied
to t h e hemispherical surface only; and, if t h e resultant of these forces is P,
t h e displacement is given by t h e equations
P XZ P X
4TT>6 r 3
47r (X + fi) r(z + r)'
p
v = p
y* y
3
4<7rfjL r 4-7T (X + fju) r (z + r)'
2
P z P(X + 2a) 1
w= — H — — ,
47i>6 r 3
AiTfji (X -h fi) r'
A t all points not too near to t h e origin, these equations express the displace
m e n t due to a pressure of magnitude P applied at the origin.
For the discussion of this solution, it is convenient to regard the plane boundary as
horizontal, and the body as supporting a weight P at the origin. We observe that the
tractions across a horizontal plane are
X z 2 z r
~ 2TT ' ~~ '2TT t*' ~ 27rr >'
so that the resultant traction per unit area exerted from the upper side across the plane
at any point is a force directed along the radius vector drawn from the origin and of
2
magnitude § { P ] i r r ) cos 0 , where 6 is the angle which the radius vector drawn from the
2
origin makes with the vertical drawn downwards. The tractions across horizontal planes
are the same at all points of any sphere which touches the bounding plane at the origin,
and their magnitude is % P \ i r D where D is the diameter of the sphere. These expressions
2
for the tractions across horizontal planes are independent of the elastic constants.
The displacement may be resolved into a horizontal component and a vertical com
ponent. The former is
Psinflr fi 1 1
C b
V L° X + fi (1 4- cos 6) J '
it is directed towards or away from the line of action of the weight according as the
radius vector is without or within the cone which is given by the equation
(X + ft) cos 6 ( 1 + c o s 6) = fi.
When Poisson's ratio for the material is J the angle of the cone is about 68° 32'. At any
point on the bounding plane the horizontal displacement is directed towards the axis and
is of amount ^P/nr (X 4- /x). The vertical displacement at any point is
P /X + 2u
r 2
'
7 — . , + cos (9
it is always directed downwards. Its magnitude at a point on the bounding plane is

JP(X4-2/x)/7rr/i(X + /x). The initially plane boundary is deformed into a curved surface.
The parts which are not too near the origin come to lie on the surface formed by the
revolution of the hyperbola
xz = \ P (X + 2fi)/7rfi (X 4- /x)
about the axis of z.
136. Distributed pressure.
Instead of supposing the pressure to be applied at one point, we may
suppose it to be distributed over an area on t h e bounding plane. Let
(x, y\ 0) be any point of this plane, P ' t h e pressure per unit of area at this
point, r the distance of a point (x, y, z) within t h e body from the point
r
(x', y', 0). Let y(r denote t h e direct potential of a distribution P over t h e
area, % the logarithmic potential of t h e same distribution, so t h a t
^ = jjp'rdxdy, %= j'jF log (z 4- r) dx dy', (36)
where the integrations are taken over t h e area subjected to pressure. We

observe t h a t
V * = 0,
x = 2 g = 2 jjy dx'dy' = 2 * , say, (37)
where <f> is t h e ordinary or inverse potential of t h e distribution P ' . We
9
observe also t h a t ^ = . #
oz
T h e displacement at any point of t h e body produced by t h e distributed
pressure P ' is expressed by t h e equations
1 D
U = - X _ J _
4 7 T (X -f /JL) dx 4}7T/JL dxdz'
47T (X + ylfc) 8y 4 7 T / A 3y 8^ '
These expressions can be simplified by introducing a new function O

determined by t h e equation
fl-,* - (38)
and we have t h e expressions* for t h e displacement

AN AN AN \ + 2 ^ , / O A .
= V W = + ( 3 9 )
*< 3^ =dy> t e Z ^ ( ^ ) +
W e observe t h a t these expressions are finite and d e t e r m i n a t e for all
values of (x, y, z), provided z is positive; and t h a t , as t h e point (x, y, z)
approaches any point {x, y\ 0), they tend to definite finite limits. They
represent t h e displacement a t all points of t h e body, bounded by t h e infinite
plane z = Q, to which pressure is applied over any areaf. T h e normal com
ponent, w, of t h e displacement at any point on t h e surface of t h e body
is (X + 2fi) 0/477-//, +
1 3 7 . Pressure b e t w e e n t w o bodies i n contact.—Geometrical Pre

liminaries.
L e t two bodies be pressed together so t h a t t h e resultant pressure between
t h e m is P . T h e p a r t s of t h e bodies near t h e points of contact will be com
pressed, so t h a t there is contact over a small area of t h e surface of each.
This common area will be called t h e compressed area, and t h e curve t h a t
bounds it t h e curve of compression. W e propose to determine t h e curve
of compression and t h e distribution of pressure over t h e compressed area^.
T h e shapes, in t h e unstressed state, of t h e two bodies near t h e p a r t s
t h a t come into contact can be determined, with sufficient approximation, by
equations of t h e form
z = A a? + B y* + 2H xy, )
1 1 1 1
z = A x* + B y* + 2H xy,
2 2 2 2 J
* These formulae are due to Hertz, J.f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 92 (1881).
f A number of special cases are worked out by Boussinesq, loc. cit.
X The theory is due to Hertz, loc. cit.
t h e axes of z and z being directed along t h e normals drawn towards t h e
Y 2
interiors of t h e bodies respectively. I n t h e unstressed state, t h e bodies are

in contact at t h e origin of (x, y), they have a common t a n g e n t plane there,
and t h e distance apart of two points of them, estimated along t h e common
normal, is expressed with sufficient approximation by t h e quadratic form
2 2
(A + A ) x + {B + B ) y + 2 (H + H ) xy. This expression must be positive
1 2 1 2 x 2
in whatever way the axes of x and y are chosen, and we may choose these
axes so t h a t H + H vanishes. Then A + A and B± + B m u s t be positive.
L 2 ± 2 2
W e may therefore write
A + A = A,
1 % B + B = B,
± 2 H^-H*, (41)
A and B being positive.
If R Ri are t h e principal radii of curvature at t h e point of contact

1}
for the body (1), and R , R those for t h e body (2), and if these have
2 2
positive signs when t h e corresponding centres of curvature are inside t h e

bodies respectively, we have
2 (A + B) = 1/R, + 1 / 1 2 / + 1/12, + 1/22/. (42)

T h e angle (G>) between those normal sections of t h e two surfaces in which
t h e radii of curvature are R R is given by t h e equation 1} 2
A + +2 cos2a (48)
« -*r-(k-M (k-M ik-îk-i) - -
The angle {<o') between t h e (x, z) plane, chosen so t h a t H = — H and t h e 2 u
normal section in which t h e radius of curvature is R is given by t h e x
equation
(
If we introduce an angle T by t h e equation
B A
~
C 0 S T = } ( 4 5 )
B +A ~ ~ \
2
so t h a t 2A c o s e c ^ = 2B s e c ^ r = I/JS1+ 1/J2/+ l/R* + l/B*', (46)
2 2
the shape of t h e " relative indicatrix/' Ax + By = const., depends on the
angle r only.
W h e n the bodies are pressed together there will be displacement of both.
W e take the displacement of t h e body (1) to be ( u v Wj) relative to t h e 1 } l t
axes of (x, y, z^, and t h a t of t h e body (2) to be (u , v , w ) relative to the 2 2 2
axes of (a, y, z ). Since t h e parts within t h e compressed area are in contact

2
after the compression, we m u s t have, at all points of this area,

z + w = - (z
1 1 2 + w ) + a, 2
where a is the value of w -\-w 1 2 at the origin*. Hence within t h e compressed
area we have
2 2
W l + w = a - Ax - By ,
2 . .(47)
and outside t h e compressed area we m u s t have
2 2
w + w > a - Ax - By ,
1 2 (48)
in order t h a t t h e surfaces may be separated from each other.
138. Solution of the problem of the pressure b e t w e e n t w o b o d i e s
i n contact.
W e denote by \ , y^ t h e elastic constants of t h e body (1), and by \ , /x 2 2
those of the body (2). T h e pressure P between t h e bodies is the resultant

of a distributed pressure ( P ' per unit of area) over the compressed area.
We may form functions fa, % i \ for t h e body (1) in t h e same way as 1;
cj), O were formed in Article 136, and we may form corresponding

functions for the body (2). The values of w and w at the common surface 1 2
can then be written,

Wi = %fa> u>2 = % f a , (49)
where ^ = (\ 4- 2 / i ) / 4 7 r / * ( X + ^ ) ,
1 1 2 % = (X 2 + 2 C6 )/4TT^ (X +
/ 2 2 2 p ),2 .. . ( 5 0 )
and fa is the value of fa or fa at t h e surface, i.e. the value of t h e convergent
integral jjp'r^dx'dy' at a point on t h e surface. The value of fa at any
point within t h e compressed area is determined in terms of t h e quantity a

and t h e coordinates of t h e point by the equation
2 2
ô = ^ ^ ( « - ^ - % ) (51)
This result suggests the next step in the solution of the problem. T h e
functions denoted by fa and fa are t h e potentials, on t h e two sides of t h e
plane z = 0 , of a superficial distribution of density P ' within t h e compressed
area, and t h e potential at a point of this area is a quadratic function of t h e
coordinates of the point. W e recall t h e result t h a t t h e potential of a homo
geneous ellipsoid a t an internal point is a quadratic function of the coordinates
* If the points (x y19 ltof the body (1) and (x , y , z ) of the body (2) come into contact, we 2 2 2
must have
x + u = x + u,
1 1 y + v = y + v,
2 2 z + w = -(z + w ) + a;
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
and in equation (47) we identify (x lt y{) with (x , y ). 2 2 We may show that, without making this
identification, we should have
w + w = a - Ax* - By* - 2
1 2 - u) + By 2 2 x (Vl - v ) + H {x^
2 2 - v) +
2 V l (u x ~u )}].
2
2
In the result we shall find for io + w an expression of the order Aa , where a is the greatest
1 2
diameter of the compressed area, and w u ... will be of the same order in a as w + iv ; thus the
1? 2 1 2
terms neglected are of a higher order of small quantities than those retained. If the bodies are
of the same material we have Uj = n and v =v when ^ = x and y =y ,
2 and thus the identification
1 2 2 1 2
of (x , I/J) with (x , y ) leads in this case to an exact result.

1 2 2
of t h e point. W e therefore seek to satisfy the conditions of the problem by
assuming t h a t the compressed area is the area within an ellipse, regarded as
an ellipsoid very much flattened, and t h a t the pressure P ' may be obtained
by a limiting process, t h e whole mass of the ellipsoid remaining finite, and
one of its principal axes being diminished indefinitely. I n t h e case of an
ellipsoid of density p , of which t h e equation referred to its principal axes is
2 2 2 2 2 2
x /a + y /b + z /c =l,
t h e mass would be jrTrpabc; t h e part of this mass t h a t would be contained in
a cylinder standing on the element of area dxdy would be
2 2 2
2pdx'dy'c V(l - a/ ja? - y /b ),
and the potential at any external point would be
00 2
f/ X* l \ •__ Cyfr
2 2
irpabcj^ [I - -^-^ ^ , ^ J {(A + ^ ) ( 6 + f)(^+
b2 + C + t)p
where v is t h e positive root of t h e equation
2 2 2 2 2
x /(a + v) + y /(b + v) + z \{& + v) = 1.
At an internal point we should have t h e same form for the potential with 0
written for v. W e have now to pass to a limit by taking c to diminish in
definitely, and p to increase indefinitely, while a and b remain finite, in such
a way t h a t
(I) frr(pc)ab = P,
(II) 2(pc) V(l-ar'Vo*-yV^)

A + f = -P'b. + ^r) 2 2 2 2
{(a + i|r) (6 + tfr) ifr}* '
(III)of <j>
the third these= conditions
nrab ( c) J being
0 " ^ - satisfied - at all points
P ^ within the compressed
lird of these condi
area. Hence we have
2 2
and ^ + (a - Ax - By )
l & p r U - J * ( 53)
4 2 2 2 2 { D V
Jo V a + f b + ^J {(a + f)(b + ^ ) ^
The equation (52) determines t h e law of distribution of the pressure P l o v e r

t h e compressed area, when t h e dimensions of this area are known. The
equation (53) must hold for all values of x and y within this area, and it is
therefore equivalent to t h r e e equations, viz.
a = f P (% + % )
{(a + ^ ) dyjr
(b + yfr) f}? '
2 2
A = f P (% + % )
5
(A + 2
^{(6 2
+ ^r) f}^
dty
P = f P (% + %)
2 h
{b TW\i<^WH ' i
L. E.
T h e second and third of these equations determine a and b, and t h e first
of them determines a when a and b are known. If we express t h e results in
t e r m s of t h e eccentricity (e) of t h e ellipse, e will be determined by t h e
equation
ds _ r W
B
L (i n= ^ A
i, -(55)
a will be given by the equation
3 .(56)
J.a = SP(^ + ^ ) o ( 1 + 2
£)»{£(!-*>+£)}*
and a will be given by the equation

3P dK .(57)
J 0
We observe t h a t e depends on t h e ratio A : B only. H e r t z has tabulated t h e

2
values of b/a, =(1—-e )*, in terms of the angle r, of which the cosine is
(B — A)/(B + A). H e found t h e following r e s u l t s : —
T = 90° 80° 70° 60° 50° 40° 30° 20° 10° 0°
b/a = 1 0-79 0-62 0-47 0-36 0-26 0-18 o-io 0-05 0
A t points on t h e plane z = 0 which are outside t h e compressed area, <j> is 0
f
t h e potential, at external points in this plane, due to t h e distribution P over
t h e compressed area. I t follows from (49) t h a t at points on t h e surfaces of
the bodies, outside t h e compressed area and not far from it, we m a y write,
with sufficient approximation
2 2
3 P /""A, x y \ dyfr
1- 2 2 1 2
4 } v V a + ^r b + ^J {(a + ty)(b + ^)y\r)i>
where v is t h e positive root of t h e equation

2 2 2 2
x /(a + v) + y /(b + v) = l (58)
Hence we have
2 2
(w + w ) -(a-Ax -
1 2 By )
3P 1 y n . .-(59)
2 2 2 2
^JoV a +>y\r b + fj {(a + <y{r)(b + y}r)y{r}i
Now, when lies between 0 and v, t h e point (x, y), which is on t h e ellipse
2 2 2 2
(58), is outside t h e ellipse x /(a -f yjr) + y j{b + yfr) — 1, and therefore t h e
expression on t h e right-hand side of equation (59) is positive. The condition
of inequality (48) is therefore satisfied.
The assumptions t h a t the compressed area is bounded by an ellipse
2 2 2 2
x \a + y /b = 1, where a and b are determined by the second and third of
equations (54), and t h a t t h e pressure P' over this area is expressed by t h e
formula (52), satisfy all t h e conditions of t h e problem. W h e n P' is known
t h e functions %, 12 for each of t h e bodies can be calculated, and hence
we may determine t h e displacement and t h e distribution of stress in
each body.
Hertz * has drawn the lines of principal stress in the z) plane for the case in which
X=2FX (Poisson's ratio = J). Near the centre of the compressed area the principal planes
of stress are nearly parallel to the coordinate planes, and both tractions are pressures.
As we go from the centre of the compressed area along the axis of the component
traction that is nearly parallel to the surface falls to zero, changes to tension and increases
to a maximum near the edge of the compressed area; it then diminishes more gradually
without changing sign again. The other component is pressure, which continually
diminishes as we go into the interior of the body along a line of stress starting near the
/
A O A
Fig. 15.
•centre of t h e compressed area. T h e s t a t e of stress is illustrated i n Fig. 15, in w h i c h 0 is

t h e centre of t h e compressed area, A A' t h e trace of t h i s area on t h e plane of z); l i n e s
like t h o s e e n d i n g at P are l i n e s of pressure t h r o u g h o u t , lines like t h o s e e n d i n g a t ^ a r e
l i n e s of t e n s i o n t h r o u g h o u t , t h e lines e n d i n g at R are lines of stress i n w h i c h t h e traction
i n t h e central (dotted) portion is pressure, a n d i n t h e r e m a i n i n g portions is tension.
H e r t z m a d e a series of e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h t h e v i e w of t e s t i n g t h e theory. T h e result
t h a t t h e linear d i m e n s i o n s of t h e c o m p r e s s e d area are proportional to t h e cube root of t h e
pressure b e t w e e n t h e bodies w a s verified very e x a c t l y ; t h e d e p e n d e n c e of t h e form of t h e
compressed area u p o n t h e form of t h e relative indicatrix w a s also verified i n cases i n w h i c h
t h e latter could b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h fair accuracy.
139. Hertz's theory of impact.

The results obtained in t h e last Article have been applied to t h e problem
of the impact of two solid bodies-f. The ordinary theory of impact, founded
by Newton, divides bodies into two classes, "perfectly elastic" and "imper
fectly elastic." I n t h e case of t h e former class there is no loss of kinetic
energy in impact. I n t h e other case energy is dissipated in impact. Many
actual bodies are not very far from being perfectly elastic in the Newtonian
sense. Hertz's theory of impact takes no account of t h e dissipation of energy;
t h e compression at t h e place of contact is regarded as gradually produced and
* Verhandlungen des Vereins zur Beforderung des Getverbefleisses, 1882 = Ges. Werke, Bd. 1,
p . 174.
f Hertz, J.f. Math. {Crelle), Bd. 92 (1881).
as subsiding completely by reversal of t h e process by which it is produced.
T h e local compression is t h u s regarded as a statical effect. I n order t h a t
such a theory may hold it is necessary t h a t the duration of the impact should
be a large multiple of the gravest period of free vibration of either body
which involves compression at t h e place in question. A formula for the
duration of t h e impact, which satisfies this requirement when the bodies
impinge on each other with moderate velocities, has been given by Hertz,
and the result has been verified experimentally*.
A t any instant d u r i n g t h e impact, t h e q u a n t i t y a is the relative displace
ment of the centres of mass of t h e two bodies, estimated from their relative
positions at t h e instant when t h e impact commences, and resolved in the
direction of t h e common normal. T h e pressure P between the bodies is the
rate of destruction of t h e m o m e n t u m of either. W e therefore have t h e equation
where d stands for dajdt, and m m are t h e masses of the bodies. Now P is
ly 2
a function of t, so t h a t t h e principal semi-diameters a and b of t h e compressed

area at any instant are also functions of t, determined in terms of P by the
second and third of equations ( 5 4 ) ; in fact a and b are each of t h e m pro
portional to P i Equation (57) shows t h a t a is proportional to P^, or t h a t P
is proportional to a*; we write
P = * a*, a (61)
where
=
Jo {£(1 + ?) ( l - * + t ) P J
e J„ ( T + £)*{?(!-*•+£")}*'
(62)
Equation (60) may now be written
a = -fc fc a*1 2 (63)
where k — (m + m )/'m vi2.
1 1 2 1 This equation may be integrated in t h e form
% (&* - vfy= - ^kâ*, (64)
where v is the initial value of d, i.e. the velocity of approach of t h e bodies
before impact. T h e value of a at the instant of greatest compression is
5 M /v\i
and, if this q u a n t i t y is denoted by a 1( t h e duration of the impact is

da
2
^ / ; ^ , or U**£§y or ( 2 - 9 4 3 2 . . . ) 5 .
* Schneebeli, Arch, des sci. phys., Geneva, t. 15 (1885). Investigations of the duration of
impact in the case of high velocities were made by Tait, Edinburgh Roy. Soc. Trans., vols. 26, 2?
(1890, 1892).
139, 140] OF IMPACT 197
W e may express a in t e r m s of t h e shapes and masses of t h e bodies and

x
t h e velocities of propagation of waves of compression in them ; let V and V 1 2
be these velocities*, p and p t h e densities of t h e bodies, a and a t h e values

1 2 1 2
of Poisson's ratio for t h e two materials ; then

2
(l-^ ) 2
....(66)
so t h a t
«i = 1 - ...(67)
4 (m, + m ) 4 T T { V,% (1 - 2a-,)
2 V.?p (1 - 2<r )
2 2
where
2
i" 2
...(68)
( 1 + £)» + £)}*' , {?(l + 0 ( l - e + ? ) j i j
I t appears t h a t t h e duration of t h e impact varies inversely as t h e fifth root
of t h e relative velocity of approach before impact. T h e order of magnitude
of t h e gravest period of free vibration t h a t would involve compression is
l/A V
x ly and t h u s t h e duration of impact bears to this period a ratio of which
t h e order of m a g n i t u d e is (Vj/v)^.
140. I m p a c t of spheres.
When the bodies are spheres of radii r r , we have l5 2
A=B = $(l/r +llr ), 1 2 e=0, a = &,
.(69)
>
a=£(3 +4 )i ; 1 a
from which we find

a = {a (r^lfa+rz)}*,
.(70)
2
'Ibrrv (3 + # ) m m
t 2 x 2 r + r \^
t 2
16(m + m ) 1 2
Hence the duration of the impact and the radius of the (circular) compressed area are
determined.
In the particular case of equal spheres of the same material the duration of the
impact is
(257R_2 ( l - o - ) * ! *
(2-9432...)
r
.(71)
(l-2<r)«J viyt>
where r is the radius of either sphere, o- is the Poisson's ratio of the material, and V is the
velocity of propagation of waves of compression. The radii of the circular patches that
come into contact are each equal to
ytpTT (i- y '
.(72)
v) Lie i-2(r
g
These results have been verified experimentally t.

* is (XI + 2 x )lp and V is (X +
f 1 1 2
2
2 2/K )/p .8 3
t Schneebeli, Itep. d. P % s . , Bd. 22 (1886), and Hamburger, Tageblatt d. Nat. Vers, in

Wiesbaden, 1887.
141. Effects of nuclei of strain referred to polar coordinates.
We may seek solutions of the equations (1) in terms of polar coordinates, the dis
placement being taken to be inversely proportional to the radius vector R. The displacement
must satisfy equations (49) of Article 97. If we take u and u to be proportional to
r Q
cos ncj), and to be proportional to sin nqb, we may show that*
A- (n + cos 6) tan™ | + B (n - cos 6) cot™ | | ,
r { ja c o s 4 2 2J
where A, B, G, D are arbitrary constants; and then we may show that
6
= r x+3^ d (_Â \ cos / I ^ *\
tanM cottl
rsm6 [ 2/JL d6\cosn(j)J \ 2 2/
+ 0tan»|+#cot»|},
u. = — ^ ^ 7, 7 - cos 0 ( G tan™ - - Z> cot™ - ) - G tan™ - + H cot™ - k

* rsmd { 2FI cosnqb \ 2 2 ) 2 2) \
where G and H are arbitrary constants. In the particular cases where n = 0 or 1 some of
the solutions require independent investigation. These cases include the first type of
simple solutions for any direction of the applied force, the second type of simple solutions,
and the solutions arrived at in Article 132, examples (d), (e). We give the expressions for
the displacements and stress-components in a series of cases.
V Force
Fig. 16.
* J. H. Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 32 (1900), p. 23.
( a ) The first type of simple solutions, corresponding with a force F parallel to the
axis of z, is expressed by the equations
F cos 0 X + 3/x F sin<9
0
4TT/X r ' 2 ( X + 2/x) 47171, r *
the stress-components are expressed by the equations
i2 ;T A M ^ sin 0
The meridian planes (0 = const.) are principal planes of stress; and the lines of principal
stress, which are in any meridian plane, make with the radius vector at any point angles
\js determined by the equation
tan 2yjs=- {2/i/(3X + 5/x)} tan 6.
These lines have been traced by Michell, for the case where X = /x, with the result shown in
Fig. 16, in which the central point is the point of application of the force.
((3) When the line of action of the force F' is parallel to the axis of x, the displace
ment is expressed by the equations
F' sin 6 cos X-f3fi _F^_ cos 6 cos qb _ X + 3/x F' sin # m
U r = U U ;
4 ^ r ' ° ~ 2~(X + 2/1) 4 ^ r ' * ~ 2 (X + 2ju) 47r/x "

^ 3X + 4u JF' sin (9 cos d> ^ n M ^' sin 0 cos $
R I2 2
' ^ X + 2/A 4TT ? X-f2/z47r r
(y) The second type of simple solutions is expressed by the equations

_B B sin<9

B 5
~ o Ta o cos0 « B 1
r 2
r 2» r r l+cos0 ^ ^ V l + cosfl'
5
sin^_
4 2
r 1 + cos 6'
(S) The solution (28) obtained in Article 132 (d) is expressed by the equations
G cos 4> _0 sin <p

G (1 — cos 6) cos 0
rr = 0, dd=-(j)qb=^-2^ r (1 + cos 6) sin 6' 2
G (1 - cos 6) sin 0 (7 sin 0 ^_ 6' coscfr

2 r 2 - /
^ = ^ (l+cos 0)sin0' ^ --^7 l+cos"(9' ^ * V 1+cos <
(e) The solution (31) obtained in Article 132 (e) is expressed by the equations
D sin 0 cos <f> B D . ,
u = r -J- , u — — cos g>, ^, — sm q>;
0 a v ?
r l + cos<9 r ^ * r
^ ^ Z> sin 8 cos (/) r>
r 2
r l+cos<9
1
— Dsin0sin0 — D /' 1 V • A A, \ ^
66=-u — —- £ <h =fi-x
r 2- — . sm$, r<9= - / x - ^ 2 - — - cos$.
r r r 2 2
r* l+cos<9 r \ l + cos<9/ ^ . r ^ l + cos0/ ^
1 4 2 . Problems relating to the equilibrium of c o n e s * .
(i) We may combine the solutions expressed in (a) and (y) of the last Article so as
to obtain the distribution of stress in a cone, subjected to a force at its vertex directed
along its axis, when the parts at a great distance from the vertex are' held fixed. If 6 = a
is the equation of the surface of the cone, the stress-components 0<9, dqj, rd must vanish
when 0 = a, and we have therefore
F
-Q, >* |
cos a X + 2fi 4 7 r 1+
The resultant force at the vertex of the cone may be found by considering the traction in
the direction of the axis of the cone across a spherical surface with its centre at the vertex ;
it would be found that the force is
F
0 0 8 3 a ) + 0 S a + 0 S 2
2(\ + 2fI) ^ ^ ~ ^ ~ ° ) ^ °
and, when F is positive, it is directed towards the interior of the cone.

By putting a = îr we obtain the solution for a point of pressure on a plane boundary
(Article 135).
(ii) We may combine the solutions expressed in (/3), (5), (e) of the last Article so as
to obtain the distribution of stress in a cone, subjected to a force at its vertex directed at
right angles to its axis. The conditions that the surface of the cone may be free from
traction are
~l-cosa .
26—. Dsma = 0,
sma
F'
2C -Z>(l+2c0Sa)--—R ^COSa(l+COS a)=0,
47T ( A + 2 i f i )
C 0 S a
-2C^ t -f-2.Z)sin a + - — ^ ^ , sin a (1 + cos a) = 0,
7 V J
sma 4TT(X + 2/X) '
2
. . „ F' (1+COS a) „ F' (1+COS a)
g l v m g 1
^ - M W - ^ - ^ ( x W
The resultant force at the vertex is in the positive direction of the axis of when F' is
positive, and is of magnitude
F' ( 2 + cosa)X + 2 x / / 1 N2 2
~T ' ^ 7 o ~ (1 - COS a) .
v 1
4 X + 2/x
By combining the results of problems (i) and (ii) we may obtain the solution for force
acting in a given direction at the vertex of a cone; and by putting a — \ir we may obtain
the solution for force acting in a given direction at a point of a plane boundary.
* Michell, loc. cit.
CHAPTER IX.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELASTIC SYSTEMS.
1 4 3 . M E T H O D S of t h e kind considered in t h e last Chapter, depending upon

simple solutions which tend to become infinite at a point, may be employed
also in t h e case of two-dimensional elastic systems. W e have already had
occasion (Chapter v.) to remark t h a t there are various ways in which such
systems present themselves naturally for investigation. They are further
useful for purposes of illustration. As in other departments of mathematical
physics which have relations to t h e theory of potential, it frequently happens
t h a t t h e analogues, in two dimensions, of problems which cannot be solved in
three dimensions are capable of exact solution; so it will appear t h a t in the
theory of Elasticity a two-dimensional solution can often be found which
throws light upon some wider problem t h a t cannot be solved completely.
144. D i s p l a c e m e n t corresponding w i t h p l a n e strain.

I n a state of plane strain, parallel to t h e plane (x, y), t h e displacement w
vanishes, and the displacements u, v are functions of t h e coordinates x, y
only. T h e components of rotation -& and vy vanish, and we shall write x y
ZJ for TH . W h e n there are no body forces, t h e stress-equations of equilibrium

Z
show t h a t t h e stress-components X , Y , X can be expressed in terms of a

x y y
stress-function which is a function of x and y, b u t not of z, by t h e formulae
x -<?x V Jhc x -- lx d
m
x 2 y 2 { )
^ ~dy ' ~dx > d x d y
The identical relation between strain-components (Article 17)
2 2
dy dx dxdy
takes the form
2 2 2 2 2
W e shall denote the operator d /dx + d /dy by V , and t h e n this equation is x
4 = 2
^ i % 0- I* shows t h a t V ^ is a plane harmonic function.
2
T h e equations of equilibrium in terms of dilatation and rotation are
8
K - » r * <* v, ! vg=o + + <«)•
From these we deduce t h a t A a n d w are plane harmonic functions, a n d
t h a t (X + 2fi) A -+ L2{1'GT is a function of t h e complex variable x -f ly. T h e
plane harmonic function is equal to 2 (X + A. W e introduce a new
function £ + crj of # + ^ by means of t h e equation
i 5
f + "7 = 2 A
+ /*) + / ^ l <> + fc 2 d
v\ ()
so t h a t
^ = ^ = (X 2^)A = + 2 - ^ ) V 1 ^ .(6)
Then we have 3?/ 3« ' /
% 2
>^dx~dy* 2(X + M) a*
Also we have 2(A ^ = ?!%_ ^ 2

w =- ^ +^
l X 2
^3# 3* 2(X. + /x) dy dy'
2u - = - - 2u = - j ^ - + ^ OT
3?/ 3«3y 3a? 3?/ 3 y '

dv d x 8 X d v
2a = * | 2M^ = " 1 .
dx dxdy dxdy dx'
I t follows t h a t
These equations enable us to express t h e displacement when t h e stress-

function ^ is known.
Again, when A and are known, we may find expressions for u, v. We
have t h e equations
du dv _ dv_ _ du _ ^ ,gv
3# By ' dx dy ^ ^
These, with (6), give
„ = Af y v
\ a. 1 ^ 4 - 7 /
V = l ( — J £ l (Ûtf
3 y \ 2 ( \ + 2^)/ dat\2fi) '

in which [Article 14 (d)] i/ + is a function of # + ty. W e may p u t
where / is a plane harmonic function, and t h e n u, v can be expressed in
t h e forms
y
2/x ^ 2 ^ ( \ + 2^) 9y 8^'
v (y)
77 X+ H drj df
V = y +
2 (X 4- 2/7) *" 2/A ( \ + 2 / A ) dy dy\
W e m a y s h o w w i t h o u t difficulty t h a t t h e corresponding form of x is
(10)
and we m a y verify t h a t t h e forms (7) for u, v are identical w i t h t h e forms (9).
145. D i s p l a c e m e n t corresponding w i t h p l a n e stress.

I n t h e case of plane stress, when every plane parallel to t h e plane of
x, y is free from traction, we have X — Y = Z — 0. W e wish to d e t e r m i n e
z Z Z
t h e most general forms for t h e remaining stress-components, and for t h e

corresponding displacement, when these conditions are satisfied and no body
forces are in action. W e recall the results of Article 92 (iv). I t was t h e r e
shown t h a t , if © — X 4- Y + Z , t h e function © is harmonic, and t h a t ,
x y z
besides satisfying t h e three equations of the type
dx dy dz '
t h e stress-components also satisfy six equations of t h e types
2 2
1 3© 1 3©
2 x J
1 + cr dx 1 + a oyoz
Since X Zi Y , Z are zero, dS/dz
z z is a constant, /3 say, and we have
© = © + /3^ 0 (13)
where © is a function of x and y, which m u s t be a plane harmonic function
0
since © is harmonic, or we have

a
V 0 = O
1 o (14)
The stress-components X , Y X are derived from a stress-function ^ ,
x yt y
which is a function of x y, z, in accordance with t h e formulae (1), and we have

y
V^x = + (15)
The first of equations (12) gives us
+
df 1 + a dx" '
or, in virtue of (14) and (15),
2 2
d" / 9 v „ \ 1 9 6„ „
I n like manner t h e remaining equations of ( 1 2 ) are
JL(?X + _i_ .l-o. e

2
dxdy \dz 1 -f a /
I t follows t h a t ^ + — — (s) is a linear function of # and y, and this function
2 0
dz 1 + cr
may be taken t o - b e zero without altering t h e values of X^, T^, X^. W e
therefore find t h e following form for %:—
•(16)
where % and ^ are independent of z and satisfy the equations

0
^ . = 6,, V/ % 1 = /3 .(17)
We may introduce a pair of conjugate functions f and 77 of a? and 3/

which are such t h a t
8 9
| = ^ = = @ ^ l = = _ 5 .(18)
3 # dy 0
' 3 ?/ 3 # '
c a n D e
and then t h e most general forms for % and Xi 0 written
2
%o = % i = ^ ( ^ + 2 / ) + ^ (19)
where / and F are plane harmonic functions. The general form for % being
known, formulae for the stress can be found, and t h e displacement can be
deduced.
The displacement (u, v, w) must satisfy the equations
(T
.(20)
dw dv _ du dw _ dv du _ 2 (1 + a) Y
+ 5 +
ty dz~ ' dz + dx~
There is no difficulty in obtaining the formulae*
1 /„ n - 0 d@ \ 0 1 + cr 3 , ,
1 / , o a © 0 \ 1 + ^ 3 ,
.(21)
W = - ^ {1/3 + + ^ 2 ) + ^ @ o } + % i .
A n y small displacement possible in a rigid body may, of course, be super

posed on this displacement.
Equivalent formulae were obtained by Clebsch, Elasticitat, § 39.

146. Generalized p l a n e stress.
W e have shown in Article 94 that, when the stress-component Z z
vanishes everywhere, and t h e stress-components Z and Y vanish at two

x z
plane boundaries z — ± h, t h e average values of the remaining stress-

components X , Y , Xy are determined by the
x y equations
+ dXy ^ Q dXy ^ BYy = ^

3
dx dy dx dy '
and t h a t the average values of t h e displacements u, v are connected with t h e
average values of the stress-components by t h e equations
y + +
.-*(» £) *V>- m
^ (du dd
X +
^ ^ [ d y dx,
where V = 2\fj,/(X + 2fi) (24)

I t follows t h a t u, v are determined by the same equations as if the problem
were one of plane strain, provided t h a t X is replaced by X'. T h e quantities
X , Y , Xy are derived from a stress-function exactly in the same way as in
x y
problems of plane strain.

The average values of t h e displacements in any problem of plane stress
are independent of t h e quantities J3 and F of Article 145, and are the same
as if the problem were one of generalized plane stress. I t appears from this
s t a t e m e n t t h a t the investigation of states of plane strain may be applied to
give an account of the effects produced by some distributions of forces which
do not produce states of plane strain. The problems to which this method
is applicable are problems of the equilibrium of a t h i n plate which is
deformed in its own plane by forces applied in the plane. The actual values
of the stresses and displacements produced in t h e plate are not determined,
unless the forces are so distributed t h a t the state is one of plane stress, b u t
the average values across t h e thickness of t h e plate are determined. Any
such problem can be solved by treating it as a problem of plane strain, and,
in the results, s u b s t i t u t i n g A/ for X.
147. Introduction of nuclei of strain.

We may investigate, solutions of the equations of plane strain which
tend to become infinite at specified points. Such points must not be in t h e
substance of the body, b u t they may be in cavities within t h e body. W h e n
this is the case, it is necessary to a t t e n d to t h e conditions which ensure t h a t
the displacement, rotation and strain are one-valued. W h e n t h e points are
outside t h e body, or on its boundary, these conditions do not in general need
t o be investigated. T h e displacement being determined by certain functions
of x -4- ty, t h e singular points are singularities of these functions. W i t h o u t
m a k i n g an exhaustive investigation of t h e possible singular points and their
bearing upon t h e theory of Elasticity, we shall consider t h e states of stress
t h a t correspond with certain simple types of singular points.
148. Force operative at a point.

The simplest singularity is arrived at by t a k i n g
(X + 2/Lt) A+ i 2 ^ = A (x + ty)-\ (25)
so t h a t t h e origin is a simple pole. Equation (5) becomes in this case
%+ LV = Alog(x + ty) = A (log r + L6), (26)
where r, 6 are polar coordinates in t h e plane of (x, y). T h e corresponding
formulae for u, v are
lop: r + X + fJL A V
2fl
2fi (X + 2/JL)A - + u,
0
.(27)
A X + /j, xy
V = - y.2
2(X+2{M) 2 p ( \ + 2 f i )
To make v one-valued we must p u t

A - A
V lop: r.
2 ( \ + 2/x) ' U
2(X + 2fM)
T h e formulae for u, v t h e n become

X + 3yC6
—- A loo- r A ^ ^
2fji (X
2fi) * ^ 2p (X + 2fi)' .(28)
X -\-
A xy
fj,
2jn (X + 2fi)
T h e stress-components X Xi Y, Xy y are given by t h e equations
2X + :3/C6 2 x +
x - a - (\ X + 2{JL- ( X +^ 2{M
) yl)
rJ 2
X ( fji !
+
2 ( \ + /*)y .(29)
I X+2^ X+2yC6
J/ f /a 2 (X + /x) a? s
U-f-2//, X + 2^ W
The origin must be in a cavity within t h e body; and the statical resultant
of t h e tractions at t h e surface of t h e cavity is independent of t h e shape of
t h e cavity. T h e resultant may be found by taking t h e cavity to be bounded
(in t h e plane) by a circle with its centre at t h e origin. The component in
the direction of the axis of x is expressed by t h e integral
r2ir
J 0
which is equal to — 2Air. The component in t h e direction of t h e axis of y
vanishes, and t h e m o m e n t of the tractions about t h e centre of the cavity also
vanishes. I t follows t h a t t h e state of stress expressed by (29) is that
produced by a single force, of m a g n i t u d e 2irA, acting at t h e origin in the
positive sense of t h e axis of x.
The effect of force at a point of a plate may be deduced by writing
X' in place of X and replacing u, X ... by u, X , .... x> x
149. Force operative at a p o i n t of a boundary.

If t h e origin is at a point on a boundary, t h e term of (27) which
contains 0 can be one-valued indepen
dently of any adjustment of u', v'. It
is merely necessary to fix t h e meaning
of 0. I n Fig. 17, OX is t h e initial
line, drawn into t h e plate, and t h e angle
X0T=a. Then 0 may be taken to lie
in t h e interval
a ^ 0 ^ - (TT - a).
W e may seek t h e stress-system t h a t
would correspond with (27) if v! and v'
were p u t equal to zero. W e should find
Eig. 17.
V _ 2
(X +
A 2(X + v) ary .(30)
l
~ y
X + 2p * r 4
X + 2fju
I n polar coordinates t h e same stress-system is expressed by the equations
^ 2 (X + a) . cos 0
rr = — A . 00 = 0, W? = 0 (31)
\+2fi r
This distribution of stress is described by Michell* as a " simple radial
distribution." Such a distribution about a point cannot exist if the point
is within t h e body. W h e n t h e origin is a point on the boundary, the state of
stress expressed by (31) is t h a t due to a single force at t h e point. W e
calculate t h e resultant traction across a semicircle with its centre at the
origin. The .^-component of the resultant is
-s — 7T + 0.
rr. cos 0. rd0,
or it is — A - ~ 7T. The ^/-component of t h e resultant is

X + 2fjb
rr. sin 0. rd0,
* London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 32 (1900), p. 35.

or it is zero. T h u s t h e resultant applied force acts along t h e initial line and
its amount is TTA (\ + / J L ) / ( X + ] t h e sense is t h a t of t h e continuation
of t h e initial line outwards from t h e body when A is positive.
This result gives us the solution of t h e problem of a plate with a straight
boundary, to which force is applied a t one point in a given direction. Taking
t h a t direction as initial line, and F as t h e a m o u n t of t h e force, t h e stress-
system is expressed by t h e equations
w = - * F — ~ ~ 9
TT r
and these quantities are of course averages t a k e n through t h e thickness
of t h e plate.
150. Case of a straight boundary.

I n t h e particular case w h e r e t h e b o u n d a r y i s t h e a x i s of x, t h e axis of y p e n e t r a t e s i n t o
t h e plate, a n d t h e force a t t h e origin i s pressure F directed n o r m a l l y inwards, t h e average
s t r e s s e s a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t s are expressed b y t h e e q u a t i o n s
2 3 2
^ 2 -^x y ^ 2 -^v ^ 2 ^.xy
F f -ir\
A F xy '
2
2TT (X + f t ) \ 2 / 27TjLt r '
2
.(34)
F(\' + 2u) . F x
V= OQ' T —
, 8
2 r/x(X + )
7 M Zirpr*'
This solution* is the two-dimensional analogue of the solution of the problem of
Boussinesq (Article 135). Since w, v do not tend to zero at infinite distances, there is
some difficulty in the application of the result to an infinite plate; but it may be regarded
as giving correctly the local effect of force applied at a point of the boundary.

1
(i) The stress-function corresponding with (32) of Article 149 is — tt ~ Fr8 sin 6.
(ii) The effect of pressure distributed uniformly over a finite length of a straight
boundary can be obtained by integration. * If p is the pressure per unit of length, and the
axis of x is the boundary, the axis of y being drawn into the body, the stress-function
x 2 2
is found to be \ir~ p {(r 0 - ?\ ^)}, where r B and r , B are polar coordinates with
2 2 i9 x 2 2
the axis of x for initial line and the extremities of the part subject to pressure for origins.
It may be shown that the lines of stress are confocal conies having these points as focit.
(iii) Force at an angle.
The results obtained in Article 149 may be generalized by supposing that the boundary
is made up of two straight edges meeting at the origin. Working, as before, with the case
of plane strain, we have to replace the limit — it + a of integration in the calculation of
* Flamant, Paris, C. R., t. 114, 1892. For the verification by means of polarized light see
Mesnager in Rapports presentes au congres international de physique, t. 1, Paris 1900, p. 348.
Cf. Carus Wilson, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 32 (1891), where an equivalent result obtained by
Boussinesq is recorded.
f Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 34 (1902), p. 134.
the force by - y + a, where y is the angle between the two straight edges. We find for the
^-component of force at the origin the expression
and, for the ^-component of force at the origin, we find the expression
The direction of maximum radial stress is not, in this case, that of the resultant force. The
former of these is the initial line, making
angles a and y - a with the edges; the latter
makes with the same edges angles and
y — <£, where
y sin a — sin y sin (a — y)
tan<£
y cos a + sin y cos ( a — y)'
It follows that the angle a is given by the
force
equation
s i n ( s m s i n
tan a = y f r - y (?-<£).
y cos <fi — sin y cos (y — <fi)'
When a given force F is applied in a given
direction, <fi will be known, and a can be initial line
found from this equation; and the constant
Fig. 18.
A can be determined in terms of the re-
sultant force F. The conditions that the radial stress may be pressure everywhere are
a < ^ r , y — a<^ ; and, in the extreme case a = ^, we should have
y—sm y COS y
tan d> =
The solution is due to Michell *, who remarks that for values of y not exceeding - , the last
result is nearly equivalent to a "rule of the middle third," that is to say, the extreme
value of <fi is nearly equal to | y . If the line of action of the applied force lies within the
middle third of the angle, the radial stress is one-signed.
The stress is given by (32) so that the laws of transmission of stress from an angle are
(i) that the stress is purely radial, (ii) that it is inversely proportional to the distance
from the angle, (iii) that it is proportional to the cosine of the angle made by the radius
vector with a certain line in the plane of the angle.
152. Typical nuclei of strain i n t w o d i m e n s i o n s .

(a) The formulse (28) express the displacements in plane strain, corresponding with
a single force of magnitude 2An acting at the origin in the negative direction of the axis
of x. We may obtain a new type of singular point by supposing that the following forces
are applied near the origin:—
parallel to the axis of x, —2An at the origin and 2An at (A, 0 ) ;
parallel to the axis of y, — 2An at the origin and 2An at (0, h);
* loc. cit. p. 207.

L. E. 14
and we may pass to a limit by supposing that Ah remains constantly equal to B while h is
diminished without limit. The resulting displacement is given by the equations
X + 3 f i 8 X + f l d y 2 d
u=B (lozr) \B K 8( ; ^
2 (X+2/*) dx
M ^ 2/x (X + 2/x) \dx r* dy r
;+ J
n
2 X(\
L + 2 X)
L dy ^2 x(X + 2x) \dy
/ / dx ) '
( l o g r
*'*>-d^(s' | ) ^
This displacement is expressible in polar coordinates by the formulae
B 1
U e = 0 ; ( 3 6 )
^XWf.r'
it involves no dilatation or rotation. The stress is expressed by the formulae
0 ( 3 7 )
- ^ - x T S ^ ' ^ = '
so that the origin is a point of pressure. If the origin is in a circular cavity there is
2
uniform pressure of amount 2/ui?r~ /(X-f2/z) over the cavity.
(6) Again we may obtain a different type of singular point by supposing that the
following forces are applied near the origin:—
parallel to the axis of x, 2 A n at the origin, -2An at the point (0, h),
parallel to the axis of y, —2An at the origin, 2An at the point (h, 0);
and we may pass to a limit as in case (a). We thus obtain the following displacement:—
(i g
U
~ ~ B
^ (X+ 27) dy ° T)
2^ (X + 2/x) \dy r~* +
dx
g ;+
2 M (X + 2/x) 8^ U
2/x (X + 2/x) r 2
9y ^ / ' 2
l 0 g r ( 3 8 )
^*>=f ("4' d l ) •
This displacement is expressible in polar coordinates by the formulae
^, = 0, U9 = Bliir; (39)
it involves no dilatation or rotation. The stress is expressed by the formulae
2
^=^=0, rO=-2Br- , (40)
so that the state of stress is that produced by a couple of magnitude knB applied at the
origin.
(c) We may take (X + 2/x) A + i2/xizr = C\og(x+iy). Since m is not one-valued in a
region containing the origin, we shall suppose the origin to be on the boundary. Equation
(5) becomes
g + ir) = C(xlogr -y6-x) + iC (ylogr+xB-y),
and the displacement may be taken to be given by the formulae
152, 153] TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE STRAIN 211
The stress is then given by the formulae

2
7 81ogr+ r X + /x y _ _
*--&£< ( S)' * n Y
X+2/A
G
We may take 7r ^0^0, the axis of# to be the boundary, and the axis of y to be drawn into
the body. Then the traction on the boundary is tangential traction on the part of the bound
ary for which x is negative; and the traction is of amount Grr (X + /*)/(X + 2ft), and it acts
towards the origin if G is positive, and away from the origin if G is negative. The most
important parts of v, near the origin, are the term containing logr and and if x is
negative both these have the opposite sign to G, so that they are positive when G is
negative. We learn from this example that tangential traction over a portion of a surface
tends to depress "the material on the side towards which it acts*.
153. Transformation of plane strain.

W e have seen t h a t states of plane strain are determined in terms of
functions of a complex variable x + ly, and t h a t the poles and logarithmic
infinities of these functions correspond with points of application of force to
t h e body which undergoes t h e plane strain. If the two-dimensional region
occupied by t h e body is conformally represented upon a different two-
dimensional region by means of a functional relation between complex
variables x'+ iy' and x + cy, a new state of plane strain, in a body of a
different shape from t h a t originally treated, will be found by transforming
t h e function ( \ + 2/i) A + i into a function of x'+ iy by means of t h e
same functional relation. Since poles and logarithmic infinities are conserved
in such conformal transformations, t h e points of application of isolated forces
in the two states will be corresponding points. We have found in Article 149
the state of plane strain, in a body bounded by a straight edge and otherwise
unlimited, which would be produced by isolated forces acting in given direc
tions at given points of t h e edge. W e may therefore determine a state of
plane strain in a cylindrical body of any form of section, subjected to isolated
forces at given points of its boundary, whenever we can effect a conformal
representation of the cross-section of t h e body upon a half-plane. I t will in
general be found, however, t h a t t h e isolated forces are not the only forces
acting on the b o d y ; in fact, a boundary free from traction is not in general
transformed into a boundary free from traction. This defect of correspondence
is the main difficulty in t h e way of advance in the theory of two-dimensional
elastic systems.
W e may approach t h e m a t t e r from a different point of view, by con

4
sidering the stress-function as a solution of V ^ = 0. If we change the
x
independent variables from x, y to x\ 'yf, where x' and y' are conjugate
functions of x and y, t h e form of t h e equation is not conserved, and t h u s t h e
form of the stress-function in the (V, y) region cannot be inferred from
its form in the (x, y) region.
* Cf. L. N. G. Filon, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 198 (1902).
154. Inversion*.
1
The transformation of inversion, x'+ iy — (x 4- iy)' , constitutes an excep
tion to t h e statement at the end of Article 153. I t will be more convenient
in this case to avoid complex variables, and to change t h e independent
variables by means of t h e equations
2 2 2 2
x = k x /r , y — ky / r,
2 2 2
in which k is the constant of inversion, and r stands for x 4- y . W e write
2 2
inl ike manner r' for x' + y'\ Expressed in polar coordinates the equation
= 0 becomes
i d
2 2 = 0; .(41)
r dr \ dr) T +
r2
30 ] 2
r dr \ drj r d6
and, when t h e variables are changed from r, 0 to r, 0, this equation may be
shown to become
,d_
r —, (r" X)\ 2
+ r' d&- 0. ...(42)

r'dr'\ dr') r'*dfr r dr' dr' 2
I t follows that, when ^ is expressed in terms of x', y', r'^% satisfies t h e

equation
+2 2 (r 2%) = 0 ; ( 4 8 )
tf>^ aW ) ' -
2
and therefore r' X is a stress-function in the plane of (x, y').
2
T h e stress-components derived from r' % are given by the equations j -
2 2
r'r' = \ ^ (r' )
2 2 +~ (r ),
r dd X f X
.(44)
d i d
dr
where 0' is t h e same as 0; and we find
f 2
r r = r . rr + 2 ( x —r
dr
fe>= rM+ 2
2(x-r Z , d
J
.(45)
2
7o'=-r .7o,
where rr, 00, r0 are t h e stress-components derived from expressed in
terms of r, 0. Thus the stress in t h e (r, 9') system differs from t h a t in
2
t h e (r, 0) system by t h e factor r , by t h e reversal of the shearing stress
r0, and by t h e superposition of a normal traction 2 - r (3%/9r)}, the
same in all directions round a point. I t follows t h a t lines of stress are
* Michell, loc. cit., p. 208.

f See the theorem (ii) of Article 59.
transformed into lines of stress, and a boundary free from stress is trans
formed into a boundary under normal traction only. F u r t h e r this normal
traction is constant. To prove this, we observe t h a t the conditions of zero
traction across a boundary are
^ ( ^ - ) p - c o s ( 2 / , , ) | | = 0 )
and these are t h e same as
da[dy) ' ds\dxj '
where ds denotes an element of t h e boundary. Hence dx/dos and dx/dy are

constant along t h e boundary, and we have
dx_^dx_olydx=0
ds X
[' dr) ds V dx y ds ds dx ds dy
oy
I t follows t h a t a boundary free from traction in t h e (r, 6) system is trans
formed into a boundary subject to normal tension in the ff) system.
This tension has t h e same value at all points of the transformed boundary,
and its effect is known and can be allowed for.
155. E q u i l i b r i u m of a circular disk under forces i n its p l a n e * .

(i) W e m a y n o w a p p l y t h e transformation of inversion t o t h e problem of A r t i c l e s
149, 150.
iîg. 19.
* The results of (i) and (ii) are due to Hertz, Zeit.f. Math. u. Physik, Bd. 28 (1883) or Ges.
Werke, Bd. 1, p. 283, and Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 32 (1900), p. 35, and vol. 34,
(1902), p. 134.
Let 0' be a point of a fixed straight line O'A (Fig. 19). If O'A were the boundary of
the section of a body in which there was plane strain produced by a force F directed along
-1 f
00'X, the stress-function at P would be — T J - ^ ^ sin where r stands for 0 P; and this
l
may be written -ir~ FBy, where y is the ordinate of P referred to O'X. When we invert
the system with respect to 0, taking Tc—00\ P is transformed to P', and the new stress-
1 2 2 f 2
function is - 7r~ r F(B + B yk y /r 1where B and ir-B are the angles X 0 P \ X0'P\ and
1 2 1 J x 2
we have written T for OP', and y' for the ordinate of P' referred to OX. Further the line
X
O'A is transformed into a circle through (9, 0\ and the angle 2a which 0 0 ' subtends at the
1
centre is equal to twice the angle A O'X. Hence the function - n ~ F'y' (B + B ) is the x 2
stress-function corresponding with equal and opposite isolated forces, each of magnitude
F', acting as thrust in the line 0 0 ' , together with a certain constant normal tension round
the bounding circle.
To find the magnitude of this tension, we observe that, when P' is on the circle,
T cosec B —r cosec B =h cosec (B + B ) = 2R, X z 2 x x 2
where R is the radius of the circle. Further, the formulae (1) of Article 144 give for the
stress-components
3 3 2 2
2F' /cos B cos 6> \ __2F^ /cos B sin B ^ cos<9 sin #
x | 2 Y x x 2 2
X^x
2
ZF' / c o s 6 sin 6 l 1
Also the angle (<fi in the figure) which the central radius vector (R) to P' makes with
the axis of x, when P' is on the circle, is \n — a + 26 or \IT + B — B . Hence the normal XL X 2
tension across the circle is

2 2
X sin (B - 6,) + Y cos (B - B ) + 2X sin (B - B ) cos (B - B \
X 2 V 2 X Y 2 X 2 X
and this is - (F' sin a)jirR.

If the circle is subjected to the two forces F' only there is stress compounded of mean
tension, equal at all points to (i^'sin a)JTrR, and the simple radial distributions about the
points 0 and 0' in which the radial components are
- (2F' cos B )lirr and - (2F' cos B ) / t t t . x x 2 2
(ii) Circular plate subjected to forces acting on its rim.

If the force F' is applied at 0 in the direction 0 0 ' (see Fig. 19) and suitable tractions
are applied over the rest of the rim the stress-function may consist of the single term
1
- 7T~ F'y'B .1 Let r and B be polar coordinates with origin at the centre of the circle and
initial line parallel to 0 0 ' . The angle (r, r ) between the radii vectores drawn from the x
centre and from 0 to any point on the circumference is ^ it — B . The stress-system referred 2
to (r B ) is given by the equations

l5 X
7,
^=-(2/ cos(9 )/( rr ), 1 7 1 B^B = 0,X r\B = 0; X
and therefore, when referred to (r, B), it is given, at any point of the boundary, by the
equations
2 2
Q_ 2F' cos B sin B ^_ 2F' cos B cos B ^ _ 2 ^ cos 6 cos B sin B
X 2 X 2 X 2 2
T
or we have at the boundary
C O S C O S
F' cos B sin B
X 2 ^~A_P' #I $2
TT — 7> ~ 5 r
" — In J
7T It TT It
C 0 S a F
— i^sina. F' . ^2 ^ ' , ' /a a\
where a, = 0 + 6 , is the acute angle subtended at a point on the circumference by the
3 2
chord 00'. Hence the traction across the boundary can be regarded as compounded of
(i) uniform tension — -J- (F' sin a) jrrR in the direction of the normal,
(ii) uniform tangential traction J {F' cos a)/7rR,
(iii) uniform traction -\F'\TTR in the direction 00'.
Let any number of forces be applied to various points of the boundary. If they would
keep a rigid body in equilibrium they satisfy the condition 7,F' cos a = 0 , for 2F'R cos a is
the sum of their moments about the centre. Also the uniform tractions corresponding
with (iii) in the above solution would have a zero resultant at every point of the rim.
Hence the result of superposing the stress-systems of type (32) belonging to each of the
forces would be to give us the state of stress in the plate under the actual forces and a
normal tension of amount - 2 (F' sin O)/2TTR at all points of the rim. The terms i^'sin a
of this summation are equal to the normal (inward) components of the applied forces.
Mean tension, equal at all points to 2 (F' sin a)!%TrR, could be superposed upon this distri
bution of stress, and then the plate would be subject to the action of the forces F' only.
Fig. 20.
(iii) Heavy disk*.

The state of stress in a heavy disk resting on a horizontal plane can also be found.
Let w be the weight per unit of area, and let r, 6 be polar coordinates with origin at
the point of contact A and initial line drawn vertically upwards, as in Fig. 20.
The stress can be shown to be compounded of the systems
(i) X =iw(y+B),
x Y =-iw(y-R\
v X =-\wx,
y
2 1
(ii) 7r=-2ivR r- cos6, 66 = 0, r6 = 0.
The traction across any horizontal section is pressure directed radially from A, and is
1 2 2 2
of amount Iwr- (4R cos 6-r ); the traction across any section drawn through A is
horizontal tension of amount
\w(2Rcos 6-r).
* The solution is due to Michell, loc. cit. p. 207. Figures showing the distribution of stress
in this case and in several other cases, some of which have been discussed in this Chapter, are
drawn by Michell.
156. E x a m p l e s of transformation.
2
(i) The direct method of Article 153 will lead, by the substitution x + iy=k /(x'' + iy')
in the formula
(X + 2^)A + 2ixliju = A (% + iy-k)-\ (46)
to a stress-system in the plane of (#', y'), in which simple radial stress at the point (k, 0)
is superposed upon a constant simple tension (X ) in the direction of the axis x'. If the x
boundary in the (#, y) plane is given by the equation y = (x — k) tan a, the boundary in the
(x\ y') plane will be a circle, and the results given in (i) and (ii) of Article 155 can be.
deduced.
n
(ii) By the transformation x + iy = (x' -f- iy') the wedge-shaped region between y'=0
and y'/x'= tan rr/n is conformally represented on the half plane y > 0 . If we substitute
for x+iy in (46) we shall obtain a state of stress in the wedge-shaped region bounded by
the above two lines in the plane of (x\ y'), which would be due to a single force applied at
1,n
(k , 0), and certain tractions distributed jover the boundaries. When n = 2 the traction
over y = 0 vanishes and that on x ' = 0 becomes tension of amount proportional to
2 2
l/(y' + k) .
z z
(iii) By the transformation z=(e ' - l)/(e ' +1), where 'z=x + iy and z'=x'-\-iy', the
strip between y — 0 and y' = Tr is conformally represented upon the half plane y>0, so
that the origins in the two planes are corresponding points, and the points (±1, 0) in the
plane of (x, y) correspond with the infinitely distant points of the strip. Let a single
force F act at the origin in the (x y) plane in the positive direction of the axis of y.
y
Then the solution is given by the equation
(X + 2/x) A + 2FJUM= —-—.

x r / r
tt X + fi x + iy
Transforming to (x', y') we find
. N N FX + 2U sin y' +1 sinh x
v r r
tt A + fjL cosh x — cos y
1 6 S n
and £4-in = — {( 2 tan~ * ;^ - y'\ - 1 log (cosh x' - cos y')[ -f const.
n
This solution represents the effect of a single force 2 F , acting at the origin in the positive
direction of the axis of y\ and purely normal pressure of amount F/(l + coshx') per unit
f
of length, acting on the edge y = 7r of the strip, together with certain tangential tractions
on the edges of the strip. The latter can be annulled by superposing a displacement
(u\ v') upon the displacement
$ X + fx ,9| r) X+n ,9?7
+ Y y
2x
f 2 x(Xl + 2FI) dy" 2(X + 2/x) 2^ (X + 2/x) dy'
provided that
and this additional displacement does not affect the normal tractions on the boundary.
CHAPTER X.
THEORY OF THE INTEGRATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM

OF AN ISOTROPIC ELASTIC SOLID BODY.
157. Nature of the problem.

The chief analytical problem of t h e theory of Elasticity is t h a t of the
solution of t h e equations of equilibrium of an isotropic body with a given
boundary when t h e surface displacements or t h e surface tractions are given.
T h e case in which body forces act upon t h e body may be reduced, by means
of the particular integral obtained in Article 130, to t h a t in which t h e body
is held strained by surface tractions only. Accordingly our problem is to
determine functions u v, w which within a given boundary are continuous
y 9
and have continuous differential coefficients, which satisfy the system of

partial differential equations
(X + ^ ) ~ + / x V ^ = 0, + ^ + ^ = 0, ( X + / . ) | ^ + 6 V ^ = 0, ...(1)
A
i A da dv dw
where A = ^ +— + — , (2)
ox dy dz
and which also satisfy certain conditions at t h e boundary. W h e n t h e surface
displacements are given, the values of u, v, w at t h e boundary are prescribed.
W e know t h a t t h e solution of t h e problem is unique if fx and 3X + 2//, are
positive. W h e n t h e surface tractions are given t h e values taken at the
surface by the three expressions of t h e type
_ « / x [du du , . dv , dw x , ] x / n N
XA cos (x, v) -f fi + ^ cos (x, v) + ^ cos (y, v) + ^ cos (z, v)> ...(3)
are prescribed, dv denoting an element of t h e normal to t h e boundary. We

know that the problem has no solution unless the prescribed surface tractions
satisfy the conditions of rigid-body-equilibrium (Article 117). W e know
also that, if these conditions are satisfied, and if JJU and 3 \ + 2/x are positive,
t h e solution of t h e problem is effectively unique, in t h e sense t h a t t h e strain
and stress are uniquely determinate, b u t the displacement may have super
posed upon it an arbitrary small displacement which would be possible in
a rigid body.
218 RESUME OF THE THEORY [CH. X
158. R e s u m e of t h e theory of Potential.

T h e methods which have been devised for solving these problems have
a close analogy to t h e methods which have been devised for solving corre
sponding problems in t h e theory of Potential. I n t h a t theory we have t h e
problem of determining a function U which, besides satisfying t h e usual
conditions of continuity, shall satisfy t h e equation
2
V £f=0 (4)
at all points within a given boundary*, and either (a) shall t a k e an assigned
value at every point of this boundary, or (b) shall be such t h a t dU/dv takes
an assigned value a t every point of this boundary. I n case (b) t h e surface-
C fdU
integral jj-^-dS t a k e n over t h e boundary must vanish, and in this case t h e
function U is determinate to an arbitrary constant pres.

There are two main lines of attack upon these problems, which may be
described respectively as t h e method of series and t h e method of singu
larities. To illustrate t h e method of series we consider t h e case of a
spherical boundary. There exists an infinite series of functions, each of
t h e m rational and integral and homogeneous in x, y, z and satisfying
equation (4). L e t t h e origin be t h e centre of t h e sphere, let a be t h e
radius of t h e sphere, and let r denote t h e distance of any point from t h e
n
origin. A n y one of these functions can be expressed in t h e form r S , where n
n is an integer, and S , which is independent of r, is a function of position on

n
the sphere. Then t h e functions 8 have t h e property t h a t an arbitrary

n
function of position on t h e sphere can be expressed by an infinite series

00
of t h e form 2 AJ3 . n T h e possibility of t h e expansion is bound u p with
t h e possession by t h e functions S of t h e conjugate property expressed by
n
t h e equation
r
lS S dSn =Q
m (5)
The function U which satisfies equation (4) within a sphere r = a, and takes
on t h e sphere t h e values of an arbitrary function, is expressible in t h e form
oo j.n
U =• 2 An—^Sn.
a
n=0
If t h e surface integral of t h e arbitrary function over t h e sphere vanishes
there is no term of degree zero (constant t e r m ) in t h e expansion. The
function U which satisfies equation (4) when r < a, and is such t h a t 3 Ujdv has
assigned values on t h e sphere r = <x, is expressed by an equation of t h e form
oo n T
U=XA -^ S . n =i n
* A function which has these properties is said to be " harmonic " in the region within the
given boundary.
T h e application of t h e method of series to t h e theory of Elasticity will be
considered in the next Chapter.
The method of singularities depends essentially upon t h e reciprocal
theorem, known as Green's equation, viz.:
d
\UV*V- VÛ) dxdydz = jjÛ~-V ~^J dS, (6)
in which V and V are any two functions which satisfy the usual conditions
of continuity in a region of space ; t h e volume-integration is taken through
this region (or part of it), and the surface-integration is taken over t h e
boundary of t h e region (or the part). The normal v is drawn away from the
region (or t h e part). The method depends also on t h e existence of a solution
of (4) having a simple infinity (pole) at an assigned p o i n t ; such a solution is
1/r, where r denotes distance from the point. By t a k i n g for V the function
1/r, and, for t h e region of space, t h a t bounded externally by a given surface S
and internally by a sphere 2 with its centre at t h e origin of r, and by
passing to a limit when t h e radius of 2 is indefinitely diminished, we obtain
from (6) the equation
•••<'>
so t h a t JJ is expressed explicitly in terms of t h e surface values of JJ and
dU/dv. The t e r m t h a t contains dJJjdv explicitly is t h e potential of a "simple
sheet," and t h a t which contains JJ explicitly is t h e potential of a "double
sheet." I n general the surface values of JJ and dU/dv cannot both be pre
scribed, and the next step is to eliminate either JJ or dJJjdv—the one t h a t is
not given. This is effected by the introduction of certain functions known
as " Green's functions." L e t a function G be defined by t h e following con
ditions:—(1) the condition of being harmonic at all points within S except
t h e origin of r, (2) the possession of a simple pole at this point with residue
unity, (3) t h e condition of vanishing at all points of S. The function G may be
called "Green's function for t h e surface and the point." T h e function G — 1/r
is harmonic within S and equal to — 1/r at all points on S, and we have t h e
equation
dv \ r j \ r) dv ^
Since G vanishes at all points on S we find t h a t (7) may be written
Hence JJ can be expressed in terms of its surface values if G can be

found.
"When t h e values of dU/dv are given at the boundary we introduce a
function T defined by the following conditions:—(1) t h e condition of being
harmonic at all points within $ except the origin of r and a chosen point A,
(2) t h e possession of simple poles at these points with residues + 1 and — 1 ,
(3) t h e condition t h a t dYjdv vanishes at all points of S. W e find for U t h e
equation
d
4t7r(U-Uj)=fjr ~dS (9)
Hence U can be expressed effectively in terms of t h e surface values of

dUjdv when V is known. T h e function V is sometimes called t h e "second
Green's function."
Green's f u n c t i o n G for a surface a n d a p o i n t m a y b e interpreted as t h e electric p o t e n t i a l
d u e to a p o i n t charge i n presence of an u n i n s u l a t e d c o n d u c t i n g surface. T h e second
Green's f u n c t i o n r for t h e surface, a p o i n t P and a c h o s e n p o i n t A m a y be interpreted a s
t h e v e l o c i t y p o t e n t i a l of i n c o m p r e s s i b l e fluid d u e t o a source and sink a t P and A w i t h i n
a rigid boundary. T h e f u n ct ion s G a n d r are k n o w n for a few surfaces of w h i c h t h e p l a n e
a n d t h e s p h e r e * are t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t .
T h e e x i s t e n c e of Green's f u n c t i o n s for a n y surface, a n d t h e e x i s t e n c e of f u n c t i o n s w h i c h
are h a r m o n i c w i t h i n a surface and t a k e prescribed values, or h a v e prescribed normal r a t e s
of variation, at all p o i n t s on t h e surface are n o t obvious w i t h o u t proof. T h e efforts
t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e to prove t h e s e e x i s t e n c e - t h e o r e m s h a v e g i v e n rise to a m a t h e m a t i c a l
t h e o r y of great interest. M e t h o d s h a v e been d e v i s e d for c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e f u n c t i o n s b y
c o n v e r g e n t processes t ; a n d t h e s e m e t h o d s , a l t h o u g h v e r y complicated, h a v e b e e n successful
for certain classes of surfaces (e. g. s u c h a s are everywhere c o n v e x ) w h e n s o m e restrictions
are i m p o s e d u p o n t h e degree of arbitrariness of t h e prescribed surface values.
Similar e x i s t e n c e - t h e o r e m s are i n v o l v e d i n t h e t h e o r y of E l a s t i c i t y , b u t c o m p a r a t i v e l y
l i t t l e progress h a s as y e t b e e n m a d e w i t h t h e proof of t h e m .
159. D e s c r i p t i o n of Betti's m e t h o d of integration.

T h e adaptation of t h e method of singularities to t h e theory of Elasticity
was made by BettiJ, who showed how to express t h e dilatation A and t h e
rotation (vr m , nr ) by means of formulas analogous to (7) and containing
Xi y z
explicitly t h e surface tractions and surface displacements. These formulae

involve special systems of displacements which have been given in
Chapter v n i . Since A is harmonic t h e equations (1) can be written in
such forms as
2
V [u + l (1 + Xlfi) a?A] = 0, (10)
and t h u s t h e determination of u, v, w when A is known and t h e surface
values of u, v, w are prescribed is reduced to a problem in t h e theory of
Potential. If the surface tractions (X , Y Z ) are prescribed, we observe v V9 v
t h a t t h e boundary conditions can be written in such forms as
^ = ~ X v - ~ A cos (x, v) + vTy cos (z, v) - ™ cos (y, v),

z .. .(11)
* See e.g. Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd edition, Oxford 1881, and W. M. Hicks,
Phil. Trans. Boy. Soc, vol. 171 (1880).
f See e.g. Poincare, Theorie du potentiel Newtonien, Paris 1899.
X See Introduction, footnote 65.
so that, when A and ^ , VT , ^ are found, the surface values of du/dv, dvjdv,
X Y Z
dw/dv are known, and the problem is again reduced to a problem in t h e

theory of Potential. Accordingly Betti's method of integration involves t h e
determination of A, and of IN 7ST in terms of the prescribed surface XI YY
displacements or surface tractions, by t h e aid of subsidiary special solutions

which are analogous to Green's functions.
160. Formula for t h e dilatation.

The formula analogous to (7) is to be obtained by means of the reciprocal
theorem proved in Article 121. W h e n no body forces are in action t h e
theorem takes t h e form
r
j(X u'+Y i/+Z w')dS
v v v = jj(X 'u + Y 'v + Z 'w) dS,
v v v (12)
in which (u, v, w) is a displacement satisfying equations (1) and X , Y , Z v v v
f
are the corresponding surface tractions, and also (u\ v, w ) is a second dis
placement and XJ, Y ', Z ' are t h e corresponding surface tractions. Further,
v v
t h e integration is taken over t h e boundary of any region within which

u, v, w and u\ v\ w satisfy t h e usual conditions of continuity and the
equations (1). W e t a k e for u, v\ w' t h e expressions given in (20) of
Article 132. I t will be convenient to denote these, omitting a factor, by
(0) (0) {0
u v , w , and the corresponding surface tractions by X „ , F„ , Z K
0i 0 0 We V
write
( K 0 , V 0 , W 0 ) = ( ^ , W , -gjrj, (13)
and t h e n t h e region in question m u s t be bounded internally by a closed

surface surrounding t h e origin of r. This surface will be taken to be a
sphere 2, and we shall pass to a limit by diminishing the radius of this
sphere indefinitely. T h e external boundary of t h e region will be taken to
be t h e surface $ of the body.
Since t h e values of cos (x, v), ... at 2 are — xjr, - y/r, - z/r, the contribu
tion of 2 to the left-hand member of (12) is
x ( . rt du dv da z du dw\' dr- 1
ii- r V dx. r dx dy. +

r
-A* dz dx/
x dv dii • z (dw t dv. dr~ ]
dx dy. r \ dy, dz dy
~x (du dw dw dv dw' dr~
+ - XA + 2fi
r ^ \dz dx dy dz dz Jz
which is
"A _ (X* du y, dv
_ _ z*dw\
2
4 4 rf2
\ r dx r dy r dz J
4
'yz /dw dv\ zx du dw' xy /dv ^ du

4
y [dy +
dz) +
r*" dz dx, r \dx dy,
All t h e integrals of type jj yzdZ vanish, and each of those of type jjx d% 2
is
4
equal to ^ 4 7 r r , and therefore t h e limit of t h e above expression when t h e
radius of 2 is diminished indefinitely is 47r(A, - f f^) ( A ) , where ( A ) denotes 0 0
t h e value of A at t h e origin of r.
{0} {0) {0)
Again, since t h e values of X , v T , Z
v v are expressed by formulae of
t h e type
cos (x, v)^ + cos (y, v) ^ + cos (s, v) ~ y
l)x~
t h e contribution of 2 to t h e right-hand side of (12) is
^ ux + vy + wz ^
/pi
Now such integrals as jjxdX vanish, and we therefore expand t h e functions

u, v, w in t h e neighbourhood of the origin of r in such forms as
, x fdu\ (du\ fdu\
and retain first powers of x, y, z. Then in t h e limit, when t h e radius of 2 is

diminished indefinitely, t h e above contribution becomes
du\ (dv\
dx) 0 \dyj 0 \dz)
or — îr/jb ( A ) . 0 Equation (12) therefore yields t h e result
4TT ( \ + 2fi) ( A ) 0 = jj[(X M u+Y ®v

v v + Z ww) -
v ( A > + Y v + Z w )]
0 v 0 v 0 dS.
- (14)
T h e formula (14) is t h e analogue of (7) in regard to t h e dilatation.
This formula has been obtained here by a strictly analytical process, b u t
it m a y also be arrived at synthetically* by an interpretation of t h e displace
m e n t (u , V , W ) . This displacement' could be produced in a body (held by
0 0 0
suitable forces a t t h e boundary) by certain forces applied near t h e origin

of r. L e t forces, each of m a g n i t u d e P , be applied a t t h e origin in t h e
positive directions of t h e axes of coordinates, and let equal and opposite
forces be applied in t h e negative directions of t h e axes of x, y, z respec
tively a t t h e points (h, 0, 0), (0, h, 0), (0, 0, h). L e t us pass to a limit
by increasing P indefinitely and diminishing h indefinitely in such a way
t h a t lim Ph = 47r (X + 2/JL). W e know from Article 132 t h a t t h e displace
m e n t (u v w ) will be produced, and it is clear t h a t t h e work done by
0) 0y 0
* J. Dougall, Edinburgh Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 16 (1898). Betti's reciprocal theorem shows
that the work done by the tractions X ... on the surface S, acting through the displacement
Vi
(u , v , w ), is equal to the work done by certain forces applied at, and near to, the origin,
0 0 0
acting through the displacement (u, v, w), together with the work done by the tractions X„(°), ...
on the surface S, acting through the same displacement.
t h e above system of forces, applied at, and near to, t h e origin, acting through
t h e displacement (u, v, w) is — 47r ( X + 2/m) ( A ) . 0
1 6 1 . Calculation of t h e dilatation from surface data.

(a) When t h e surface displacements are given u, v, w are given a t all
points of 8 b u t X , F„, Z are not given. I n this case we seek a displace
v v
ment which shall satisfy t h e usual conditions of continuity and t h e equations

(1) at all points within S, and shall become equal to (u , v w ) at all points 0 0) 0
on S. L e t this displacement be denoted by (wo', v ', Wo), and let t h e corre 0
( 0 ) ( 0 ) {0)
sponding surface tractions be denoted b y X / , F / , Z ' . Then we m a y v
apply t h e reciprocal theorem to t h e displacements (u, v, w) a n d (u \ v ', w ') Q Q 0
which have no singularities within S, and obtain t h e result
\{X 'Wu
v + Y '«»v + Z,'®w)d8
v = JJ(X,u '+ 0 + dS
= jj(X„u 0 + Yv v a + Zw) v 0 dS.
W e may therefore write equation (14) in t h e form
4TT (X + 2/i) ( A ) 0 .= jJ[(X„<»> - X/«») u + (rw - r F/«») v + (Z® - ZJ®) w] dS.

(15)
{0} ( 0 )
The quantities X — X / , ... are t h e surface tractions calculated from
v
r
displacements u — u , ... and they are therefore t h e tractions required to
0 0
hold t h e surface fixed when there is a " centre of compression " a t t h e origin
of r. To find t h e dilatation a t any point we must therefore calculate t h e
surface tractions required to hold t h e surface fixed when there is a centre of
compression at t h e p o i n t ; and for this we m u s t find a displacement which
(1) satisfies t h e usual conditions of continuity and t h e equations of equili
brium everywhere except a t t h e point, (2) in t h e neighbourhood of t h e point
tends to become infinite, as if there were a centre of compression a t t h e point,
(3) vanishes at t h e surface. T h e latter displacement is analogous to Green's
function.
(b) W h e n t h e surface tractions are given, we begin by observing t h a t
(0) (0) (0)
X„ , F„ , Z are a system of surface tractions which satisfy t h e conditions
v
of rigid-body-equilibrium. L e t (u ", v", iv^") be t h e displacement produced 0
in t h e body by t h e application of these surface tractions. W e m a y apply

t h e reciprocal theorem to t h e displacements (u, v, w) and (u '\ v " w "), 0 0 f 0
which have no singularities within S, and obtain t h e result
jj(X„(°) u + Y ® v + Z ® w)dS = Jf(X Uo"+ Y v "+

v v v v 0 Z w:')dS;
v
and then we may write equation (14) in t h e form

/
4TT(X+2 6)(A) = A 0 {X (u ''-u )
v 0 0 + Y (v ' -v )
v 0 0 + Z (w ''-w )}dS.
v 0 0 ...(16)
To find t h e dilatation a t any point we m u s t therefore find t h e displacement
produced in t h e body when t h e surface is free from traction and there is
a centre of dilatation a t t h e point. This displacement is {u^'— U ,V "— V, 0 0 0
WQ'— W ) ; it is an analogue of Green's function.

0
T h e dilatation can be determined if t h e displacement (u ", w") can b e 0
found. T h e corresponding surface tractions being given, this displacement

is indeterminate in t h e sense t h a t any small displacement possible in a rigid
body m a y be superposed upon it. I t is easily seen from equation (16) t h a t
this indeterminateness does not affect t h e value of t h e dilatation.
162. Formulae for t h e c o m p o n e n t s of rotation.

I D applying the formula (12) to a region bounded externally by the surface JS of the
body, and internally by the surface 2 of a small sphere surrounding the origin of r, we
take for (u\ v', w') the displacement given in (22) of Article 132. It will be convenient to
denote this displacement, omitting a factor, by (w , # w±) * and the corresponding surface 4 4 9
tractions by X (% Y W, Z &. We write

v V v
N> w ) = ^0, - g - , --g—J 4 (17)

The contributions of 2 to the left-hand and right-hand members of (12) may be calculated
by the analytical process of Article 160. We should find that the contribution to the left-
hand member vanishes, and that the contribution to the right-hand member is 8717* ( B T ^ Q ,
where (GJJQ denotes the value of DJ at the origin of r. We should therefore have the
>
X
formula
8 7 r / x ( * O = j j {(Xviii+
0 Y Vtv + Z w )-(XvWu+
u i Y Wv + Z Ww)}
v v dS, (18)
which is analogous to (7). The same result may be arrived at by observing that (w , v , w ) 4 4 4
is the displacement due to forces 47r/x/A applied at the origin in the positive and negative
directions of the axes of y and z respectively, and to equal and opposite forces applied
respectively at the points (0, 0, h) and (0, k, 0), in the limiting condition when h is
diminished indefinitely. It is clear that the work done by these forces acting over the
displacement (u, v, w) is in the limit equal to 4 ^ / ^ ^—- - ^ . Formulae of the same type
as (18) for vsy and ar can be written down.
s
163. Calculation of t h e r o t a t i o n from surface data.

(a)
When the surface displacements are given, we introduce a displacement
(w , 4 w±) which satisfies the usual conditions of continuity and the equations of equi
4 4
librium (1), and takes at the surface the value (w , v , w ) : and we denote by X„'( ), F„'( ), 4 4 4
Z '&) the corresponding surface tractions. Then equation (18) can be written
v
8rrfjL(7jr ) == j J{(X 'W-X W)u+(Y 'W-7„(*))

x 0 v v v v + (Z 'W - Z W) w] dS,
V V (19)
in which the quantities X 'W — X W, ... are the surface tractions required to hold the
V V
surface fixed when a couple of moment 8irfi about the axis of x is applied at the origin in
such a way that this point becomes "a centre of rotation" about the axis of x . The
corresponding displacement (u±-u tf '-s> , w ' — w ) is an analogue of Green's function.
iy 4 4 A A
* This notation i s adopted in accordance with the notation ( w , v , W j ) , ... of Article 132 for x x
the displacement due to unit forces.

(b) When the surface tractions are given we observe that the tractions X ^\ Y ^\ Z ^\ v v v
being statically equivalent to a couple, do not satisfy the conditions of rigid-body-equi

librium, and that, therefore, no displacement exists which, besides satisfying the usual
conditions of continuity and the equations of equilibrium, gives rise to surface tractions
equal to X W, V We must introduce a second centre of rotation at a chosen point A,
A A A
so that the couple at A is equal and opposite to that at the origin of r. Let u^ ), v£ ), w£ )
be the displacement due to a centre of rotation about an axis at A parallel to the axis of x,
so that
(u W, v W, w^)) =
t t (o, (20)
where r denotes distance from A. Let X "W, YJ'$\ Z "W denote the surface tractions
A V V
A A
calculated from the displacement (u±-u£ ), v^-v^ ), w - w ^ ) ) . The conditions of rigid 4
A
body equilibrium are satisfied by these tractions. Let v ", w±") be the displacement 4
which, besides satisfying the usual conditions of continuity and the equations of equi
librium, gives rise to the surface tractions X "(% .... Then, denoting by ('UJ )A the value of
v X
at the point A, we fkid by the process already used to obtain (18) the equation
8*p{(*r )o~(m )A}

x x = j f[{X (u -t ( ))
v i h
A
+ ...}-{XA*)u+...}]dS;
and from this again we obtain the equation
8iriL{(m ) - (vr ) } = jj{Xv (u^-u£ )-<')

x 0 x A
A
+ Yv (v -v£ )-<)
4
A
A
+Z (wi-w£ )-w{')}dS. (21) v
A
The quantities u±-u^ )~ul', ... are the components of displacement produced in the
body by equal and opposite centres of rotation about the axis of x at the origin of r and
a parallel axis at the point A when the surface is free from traction. This displacement
is an analogue of the second Green's function.
The rotation can be determined if such a displacement as (w ", # ", w±) can be found. 4 4
The indeterminateness of this displacement, which is to be found from surface conditions

of traction, does not affect the rotation, but the indeterminateness of i 3 which arises from x
the additive constant (ar )^ is of the kind already noted in Article 15*7.
x
164. B o d y b o u n d e d b y plane—Formulae for the dilatation.

T h e difficulty of proceeding with t h e integration of t h e equations in any
particular case is t h e difficulty of discovering t h e functions which have been
denoted above by . . . . These functions can be obtained when t h e
boundary of t h e body is a p l a n e f . As already remarked (Article 1 3 5 ) t h e
local effects of forces applied to a small part of t h e surface of a body are
deducible from t h e solution of the problem of t h e plane boundary.
L e t t h e bounding plane be z=0, and let t h e body be on t h a t side of
f
it on which z > 0. L e t (x , y, z') be any point of t h e body, (x\ y', — z) t h e
optical image of this point in t h e plane z = 0, and let r, R denote t h e
T
distances of any point (x, y, z) from these tw o points respectively. For t h e
determination of t h e dilatation when t h e surface displacements are given
we require a displacement (u ', v ', w ') which, besides satisfying t h e usual
0 0 0
* J. Dougall, loc. cit. p. 222.

f The application of Betti's method to the problem of the plane was made by Cerruti. (See
Introduction, footnote 68.)
L. E. 15
conditions of continuity and t h e equations of equilibrium (1) in t h e region
z > 0 , shall at t h e plane z = 0 have t h e value (u , v , w ), i.e. (dr^/dx, dr^/dy, 0 0 0
dr^/dz), or, what is t h e same thing, (dR^jdx, dR^/dy, -dBr^dz). I t can

be shown without difficulty* t h a t t h e functions u \ v ' w ' are given by 0 0 t 0
t h e equations
1 2
dR' . X + fju d R~' \ rt
n = -+2
dx \ + Sfi dxdz '
0
+ 2^ r z- J y .(22)
dy X + 3/^ dydz '
1 2
dR- a X + fi d R^
2
dz X + 3fi dz '
(0 {0 {0)
T h e surface tractions X \ Y \ Z on t h e plane z=0 calculated from
v v v
the displacement (u v , w ) are, since cos(z, v) = — 1, given by t h e equations

0y 0 0
1
d r 1 d'R-
X (0)
= 2 ' " - 2/J, y
dzdx dzdx
1
d'r- _ d'R- 1
J. V — .(23)
^ dzdy dzdy
d 2 -l r
d'R- 1
1
Z (0)
= 2 =
-2/x
dz dz ' 2
/
/{0)
and t h e surface tractions X , ... on t h e plane z = 0 calculated from t h e v
displacement (u \ v ', w ') are given by t h e equations

0 0 0
2 x
T'(o) (duo dWo\ o \ + fi d R~
.(24)
\dy dz J \ + 3/i dydz
* If in fact we assume for u ', v ' 0 0 t io ' such forms as the following :—
0
1 l
, dR- , , 3J2-i , , dJR~
u =-^- + zu,
0 v =-^-
0 + zv, 10Q '=--^-- ZW', +
f
we find for u\ v', io the equations
3 _1
, d (du! +dv' +dw'\
(x+M) +Wi.) +(x+ .dw'
) - ow'
+2 .„ \ 9 jR
=2(x+/t) ,
M ^(^ w &J 1 '' &; ^ ^^
x 0 /% rt
3 1
f,_
. d (du' , 31;' d«A 0 /I . . 3w/ rt 9v' rt /A , S ^"'
X
( + + + w V + X+ + 2 A = 2 ( X + M)
M dy \te dy~ Tz) [ ( *> W 9? '
U . \ 3 /3it' 3v' 9wA „ ,) . (du! dv' 9io'\
rt _ 3z</ _ /x N 3
3*
+ + vtc +(X+M)
* f ">ai ¥ ^) " l
+
which are all satisfied by

+
(95 +
¥ + 2
) + 2 4
' ^ = 2 ( X + M )
2
X+ 3a;3^ ' X + 3^ dydz ' X + 3/i dz '
for these functions are harmonic and are such that ~ + + ^ - = 0.
c;?/
( 0 ) ( 0 ) {0)
W e observe t h a t X / , F / , Z ' are equal respectively to t h e products v
{Q) (0) {0)

of X , F„ , Z
V and t h e numerical factor — ( X -I- fi)/(X + 3/z,), and hence t h a t
v
v ",0 w ") 0 = - {(X + 3 / A ) / ( \ + fi)} « <, <)•
I t follows that, when t h e surface displacements are given, t h e value of A

at t h e point (x\ y \ z) is given by t h e equation
A = M + t , + w ( 2 5 )
- R^^ //(£
7 ) |^ ^ )^'
the integration extending over t h e plane of (x, y ) . W h e n t h e surface tractions
are given t h e value of A a t t h e point (V, y ' , z) is
+ z
A
=- wh* \\{ ^ > ^ - w) x +Y (26)
165. B o d y b o u n d e d by p l a n e — G i v e n surface displacements.

;
T h e formula ( 2 5 ) for t h e dilatation a t (x, y , z ) can be written
d (d
A = -
7r(\ + SfJb)dz {dx'JJr
If we introduce four functions L, M, N } </> by t h e definitions
L d d V
= jj^ ® y> M=jj -dxdy, F = jj™dxdy,
.(28)
, _ dL • d_M dN
fJr +
V~dx dy' dz"
these functions of x\ y \ z' are harmonic on either side of t h e plane z—0,
and at this plane t h e values of u, v, w are l i n v = + 0 — i~7 > l i m — ^— ^7,

2 = + 0
LIT oz Air dz
linv — ^— ^ .
= + 0 T h e value of A at (x\ y ' , z) is ^ ^ , and t h e
2 T T dz'
equations of equilibrium can be written
2 X + /J,
V' Z
2TT (X -f Sfi) dx\
X + fju ,3f
v— .(29)
2TT (X + 3fi) Z
dy_
X + fM , dcji
w— 2TT (X + Sfi) dz^
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
where V' = d /dx + d /dy + d \dz' .
The three functions such as
u - {(X + / A ) / 2 T T ( X + Sfi)} z (dob/dx')
ire harmonic in t h e region z > 0, and, a t t h e plane / = 0, they t a k e t h e values
15—2
— frr-iQL/dJ), which are themselves harmonic in t h e same region. It
follows t h a t t h e values of u, v, w at ( Y , y', z') are given by t h e equations*
___}_dL 1 X + fJL dJ> f
U + Z
~ 2irdz' 2>jr\ + 3fjL dx'''
l_d_M 1
V : .(30)
2TT dz' +
2TT X + S/JL Z
dy':
1 dN 1 X + /JL ,d<j>
W
= -2TTW + 2TT X + Sjub
dz''
The simplest example of these formulae is afforded by the case in which u and v vanish
at all points of the surface, and w vanishes at all points except those in a very small area
near the origin. In this case the only points y, z) that are included in the integration
are close to the origin, and $ is the potential of a mass at the origin. We may suppress
the accents on a/, y, z' and obtain the solution
which was considered in Article 131. In the problem of the plane this solution gives the
displacement due to pressure of amount — 47r/x A exerted at the origin when the
plane z = 0 is held fixed at all points that are not quite close to the origin.
1 6 6 . B o d y b o u n d e d by p l a n e — G i v e n surface t r a c t i o n s f.
I t is unnecessary to go t h r o u g h t h e work of calculating the rotations by
t h e general method.
T h e formula (26) for A can be expressed in t h e form
1
A = ^
2TT (A, + fj) dz''

To effect this we introduce a function x such t h a t
dxldz'=l/r at z = 0.
T h e required function is expressed by t h e formula
% = log(z + z'+R); .(31)
it is harmonic in t h e space considered and has t h e property expressed by
t h e equations
.(32)
dz dz'~R
Now at t h e surface z — 0 we have
Y -1 1 2 1 2 1 2
dr~ dR dR- _ dx dr- _ dx dr" __ _d x
dx dx dx' ~ dz'dx" dy "' dy'dz" dz dz' ' 2
If therefore we write
F=jjx xda;dy,
v 0 = ^Y^dxdy, H = j^Zv%dxdy, ^
, d_Fd_G
= dH
+
V dx' dy'*'dz"
* The results are due to Boussinesq. See Introduction, footnote 67.
t The results are due to Cerruti. See Introduction, footnote 68.
t h e value of A at (x\ y\ z) is given by t h e equation
A — 1 ^ .(34)
W e observe also t h a t t h e functions F, G, H, ^ are harmonic and t h a t t h e

values of X , F„, Z a t z' — 0, are equal to
v v
lim^+o-s-^-,
2w dz'*' l i n v ~ + o 2-rrdz'^ z
'- + 0
~ 2TT dz'° •
Now t h e third of t h e equations of equilibrium is
= 0,
and t h e third of t h e boundary conditions is

dw
XA + 2//,
dz''
dw 1 dH2
d^r
or dz' îrjJb dz' 2
4<7r}i (X + fjb) dz' '
Hence at z' — 0
d_ f JL_ dH . 1
A L + J _ = - J— ~ +
3/ ( 47TyC6 3s'j 3/ (47T/^ 3/ 47T (X + fJb)
I t follows t h a t w is given by t h e equation
, 1 ,d±
=
• (35)
1 dH + . 1
W
4>iTfidz' 47r(X, + ^ ) r
47r/tâ^"
Again t h e first of t h e equations of equilibrium is
1 ,d±
= 0,
4>TTfM doe' _
and t h e first of t h e boundary conditions is
(du dw
+ 1 = X
-^3T' 3 ^ *
1
Hence at z = 0
d_ ^ z , d ± 1 2
dF 1 dH 2
3-v/r
dz' 4*TT/JL dx
27TAt 3^ /2
47r^ dx'dz 4<7r/Ji (X + fi) dx
and it follows t h a t u is given by t h e equation

1 ,dyjr
1 dF 1 dH X <hfa T .(36)
27Tfl dz' 4<7rjLL dx' 4>7TfA (X + /^) 3#' z 47TyC6 3#' '
where ^ is an harmonic function which has t h e property 3 ^ / 3 / = i/r. Such
a function can be obtained by introducing a function 12 by t h e equation
O = (z + log 0 + J2) - R (37)

T h e n 12 is harmonic in t h e space considered and has t h e property
%
.(38)
dz ~~ dz' ~ *
If we write
F =jjx ndxdy, G = jJY £ldxdy, H = jjz ndxdy, ^

x v 1 v x v
.(39)
. dFidG dH 1 1
t h e n all the functions F l9 O l9 H1} ^ are harmonic in t h e space considered

and
*£-F, £ = G, d
= H, ^ = * f± T
(40)
dz dz dz dz
I n t h e same way as we found u we may find v in t h e form
1 dG 1 dH X 8^ 1 y3 f
V
2irfi dz 4<7r[i dy' 4TT/^ (X + fi) dy' 4 T T ^ dy'
In the special case of a pressure P applied at the origin, the tractions X , Y vanish v v
everywhere, and Z vanishes except in a small area containing the origin, but J jz
v v dxdy—P.
In this case F and G vanish, and
dII P =
^ dz' r '
where r denotes the distance of (%', y', z') from the origin. Also F and G vanish and x ±
dU
fa = = P log (z' + r). Suppressing the accents we obtain the formula3 (35) of Article 135.
167. Historical N o t e .
The problem of the plane—sometimes also called the "problem of Boussinesq and
Cerruti"—has been the object of numerous researches. In addition to those mentioned
in the Introduction pp. 15,16 we may cite the following :—J. Boussinesq, Paris G. R., 1.106
(1888), gave the solutions for a more general type of boundary conditions, viz.: the normal
traction and tangential displacements or normal displacement and tangential tractions are
given. These solutions were obtained by other methods by V. Cerruti Rome Acc. Lincei
Rend. (Ser. 4), t. 4 (1888) and by J. H. Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc., vol. 31 (1900),
p. 183. The theory was extended by J. H. Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 32
(1901), p. 247, to seolotropic solid bodies which are transversely isotropic in planes parallel
to the boundary. The solutions given in Articles 165 and 166 were obtained by a new
method by C. Somigliana in II Nuovo Gimento (Ser. 3), tt. 17—20 (1885—1886), and this
was followed up by G. Lauricella in R Nuovo Gimento (Ser. 3), t. 36 (1894). Other
methods of arriving at these solutions have been given by H. Weber, Part. Diff.-Gleichungen
d. math. Physik, Bd. 2, Brunswick 1901, by H. Lamb, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 34
(1902), by O. Tedone, Ann. di mat. (Ser. 3), t. 8 (1903), and by K. Marcolongo, Teoria
matematica dello equilibrio dei cor pi elastici, Milan 1904. The extension of the theory to
the case of a body bounded by two parallel planes has been discussed briefly by H. Lamb,
loc. cit., and more fully by J. Dougall, Edinburgh Roy. Soc. Trans., vol. 41 (1904), and also
by O. Tedone, Rend. d. Gircolo mat. di Palermo, t. 18 (1904).
168. B o d y b o u n d e d by p l a n e — A d d i t i o n a l results.
(a) In the calculation of the rotations when the surface tractions are given we may
A
take the point A of Article 163 (6) to be at an infinite distance, and omit u^ \ ... altogether.
We should find for w ", v±", w± the forms
4
l
xdydz X + /x dxdy'
8 2
7 ?
4
// = o„ 8 3
x
2
d 2
x
2
, x 2
3?/ 30 X-H/xSy ~*~30 '
4 2
dydz X + fidydz dydz'
and we may deduce the formula
W
* " " 4 7 r / * L^ + ft 3 / 3 ^ \dx' dy')_ '
In like manner we may prove that

i r x + 2 ^ + ^ _ ^ y j .
"4TT/X [_ \ +p dx'^ dy' \dx' dy'JJ
For the calculation of w we should require a subsidiary displacement which would give
z
x
rise to the same surface tractions as the displacement (dr^/dy, — dr~ \dx, 0), and this
1
displacement is clearly {-dR~ jdy, dR-'t/dx, 0) and we can deduce the formula
1 3 fdG dF\
2
^ ~4:7TfjLdz' \dx' dy'J'
(b) As an example of mixed boundary conditions we may take the case where
u, v, Z are given at z = 0. To calculate A we require a displacement (to, v', w') which at
V
z = 0 shall satisfy the conditions

u' = u , Q V'=V , 0 Z '=Z (°),
V V
where (X ', Y ', Z ' ) is the surface traction calculated from (u' v', w'). Then we may
v v V }
show that the value of A at the origin of r is given by the equation
4TT (X + 2/x) A = j j {(X„(<>) - X ') u + (r (°> - Y ') v-Z v v v V \w - w')} dxdy.

0
We may show further that

1 1
, dR~i , dR- , dR-
u== V= W
-dx~> ~dy-> =~dT>
and then that
3 fdH fdL dM\\ 1 Q
2 ,)dz'\dz' ^[dx'^dy'Jj'
* - 2 7 r ( \ + fJ
and we may deduce the value of (u, v, w) at (x', y', z') in the form
1 dL X+/x , 3 fdH a fdL , dMX\
"~ 2TT dz' 47r/x(X + 2/i) '* w \ w - * r { t e +
w)l'
1 dM X+/x , d_ fdH
V Z
~ 2TT dz 4TT/X (X + 2/x)
_ _1_ dH 1 fdH Q (cL dM\\

W
~ 4TT/X dz' +
4TT (X + 2/x) 13^' 11
\dx' ^dy'J)
' 4TT/X (X+2/x) 30' 133' \3*' ¥ ;j '

(c) As a second example we may take the case where X , Y , w are given at z—0. V v
To calculate A we require a displacement (u" v", w") which at z = 0 shall satisfy the 9
conditions
X " = X (% Y " = Y (% u/' = w , V V V V 0
where X " , Y ", Z " denote the surface tractions calculated from (u", v", w"). We can prove
V v v
that the value of A at the origin of r is given by the equation
4rr (X + 2fi) A = jj{X V (u" - UQ) + Y (v" - v ) + (Z (°) - Z ") w] dxdy,

v 0 v v
and that
1 1 1
dR' „ dR- „ dR-
u V B S W = = ;
" - ^ ' ~^T
and then we can find for A the formula
1 d (dF dG a diT
2TT (X + 2fi) dz' \dx' ^ dy' ^
and for (u, v, w) the formulae
_J_dF l_dff \+fi d (dF x dG _ 1 '
%
~2ir^ dz' 2TT dx' 47r/x(X + 2^) dx' \dx' ^' dy' ^
X+ M , d (dF , dG 9
- W\
d l Y
Z +
' 4 ^ (X + 2/x) dx' \dx' dy'
R
"27T/X 9s' ^ 2TT dy' " 4TT/* (X + 2/x) 3y ^ /
X + /x
47T/*(X + 2 Lt) ' By' \ 3 a / i 3y 3/ / '
1 3iV X+ ^ ,±(dF dG dN\
Z
W
~ 2TT dz' 47T/. (X + 2/*) dz' \dx' +
a y ^ 32' J '
169. Formulse for t h e displacement and strain.

By means of the special solutions which represent the effect of force at a point we
may obtain formula analogous to (7) for the components of displacement. Thus let
(u v w ) represent the displacement due to unit force acting at (x', y\ z') in the
l9 l9 ±
direction of the axis of x, so that

2 2
/ \ X+/x /3V dr dr 0 X + 2/xl\ / y l o .
and let Xfl), Y V), Z 0) be the surface tractions calculated from (u v w^). We apply
V v l9 19
the reciprocal theorem to the displacements (u, v, w) and (u ' v w^, with a boundary 19 19
consisting of the surface S of the body and of the surface 2 of a small sphere surrounding
(x\ y\ z'), and we proceed to a limit as before. The contribution of 2 can be evaluated as
before by finding the work done by the unit force, acting over the displacement (u, v, w),
and the same result would be arrived at analytically. If the body is subjected to body
forces (X, Y Z) as well as surface tractions X Y , Z , we find the formulse*
9 V9 v v
(w)o = j j J p( Xu + Yv 4- Zw{) dxdy dz x ±
+ j^[{X u +Y v ^Z w )^{X Wu^Y Wv+

v 1 v 1 p 1 v v (4.3)
* The formula? of this type are due to C. Somigliana, II Nuovo Gimento (Ser. 3), tt. 17—20
(1885, 1886) and Ann. di mat. (Ser. 2), t. 17 (1889).
168, 169] METHOD OF INTEGRATION 233
where the volume integration is to be taken (in the sense of a convergent integral)
throughout the volume within S. We should find in the same way
(v) —
0 j j jp (Xu 2 -f Yv + Zw ) dx dy dz
2 2
+ j J[(X^+F^ + £ ^ 2
and (w) = jj jp (Xu + Yv + Zw ) dxdy dz

0 3 3 3
+ jf [(X u + Y v +Z w )
v 3 v 3 v 3 - Y Wv+ZJ®v>y} dS.
v
A method of integration similar to that of Betti has been founded upon these formula*.
It should be noted that no displacement exists which, besides satisfying the usual con
ditions of continuity and the equations of equilibrium (1), gives rise to surface tractions
3
equal to XJ^\ Y 0), Zfi\ or to the similar systems of tractions X $\ ... and X ( ),
p for v v
none of these satisfies the conditions' of rigid-body-equilibrium f. When the surface

tractions are given we must introduce, in addition to the unit forces at (x', y', z'), equal and
opposite unit forces at a chosen point A, together with such couples at A as will, with the
unit forces, yield a system in equilibrium. Let v \ w^) be the displacement due to ±
unit force parallel to x at (#', y, z') and the balancing system of force and couple at A>
,{1
and let XJ^\ Y 'W, Z ) be the surface tractions calculated from (u{, v{, w{). Also let
V v
(%", w-l') be the displacement which, besides satisfying the usual conditions of
continuity and the equations of equilibrium (1), gives rise to surface tractions equal to
l 1 l
X '( ), Yyi ), Z '( ). We make the displacement precise by supposing that it and the corre
v v
sponding rotation vanish at A. Then we have
Mo ~' j j jp + Yvi + Zw{) dx dy dz

4
4-j|{Z,(<-V) + n K - V 0 + ^ K - < ) } ^ ( 4)
The problem of determining u is reduced to that of determining (u{, v{, w{). The dis
w
placement (u{ — Uj", Vi' — Vi', ± —Wi") is an analogue of the second Green's function.
If, instead of taking the displacement and rotation to vanish at A, we assign to A a
series of positions very near to (x', y', z'), and proceed to a limit by moving A up to coin
cidence with this point, we can obtain expressions for the components of strain in terms
of the given surface tractions £ In the first place let us apply two forces, each of
- 1
magnitude A at the point (x', y', z') and at the point (x'-rh, y', z'), in the positive and
negative directions respectively of the axis of x. In the limit when h is diminished
v w
indefinitely the displacement due to these forces is ^x) ' MLI> n> II) 9
be the displacement produced in the body by surface tractions equal to those calculated
e n e v a m e
from the displacement ^ » ^x) ' ^ ^ °f (du/dxi) at the point (x\ y', z')
is given by the formula
x +r
(£)o-///K & S^S)^
( 4 5 )
In like manner formulse may be obtained for dv/dy and dw/dz.

* G-. Lauricella, Pisa Ann., t. 7 (1895), attributes the method to Yolterra. It was applied by
C. Somigliana to the problem of the plane in II Nuovo Cimento (1885, 1886).
+ J. Dougall, loc. cit. p. 222. + G. Lauricella, loc. cit.
234 VAKIOUS METHODS [CH. X
1
Again, let us apply forces of magnitude A" in the positive directions of the axes of
y and z at the origin of r, and equal forces in the negative directions of these axes at the
points (V, y', z' + h) and (#', y + k, z') respectively, and proceed to a limit as before. This
system of forces satisfies the conditions of rigid-body-equilibrium, and the displacement
due to it is
fdu z du 2dv 3 dv dw 2 3 dw \
2
\dy dz ' dy dz ' dy dz J'

Let (w , %, w ) be the displacement produced in the body by surface tractions equal to
23 23
those calculated from the displacement + •••» Proceeding as before we

obtain the equation
+ r + +j + , fc
l S).-//M- (l w) -(i4')+Kt l )}' *<*
+ + +
-//[M(S^)-MW(& &M *{(& £)-'4 dS. (46)
In like manner formulae may be obtained for dujdz + divjdx and dv/dx+dujdy.
170. Outlines of various m e t h o d s of integration.
One method which has been adopted sets out from the observation that, when there
are no body forces, & sr , Tzr , as well as A, are harmonic functions within the surface of
Xi y z
the body, and that the vector (sr , sr , w ) satisfies the circuital condition
a y 2
dx dy dz
From this condition it appears that ro^, E 7 , w should be expressible in terms of two in
Y z
dependent harmonic functions, and we may in fact write *

9$ dx dx
+y Z
dx dz dy'
v JrZ X
™ ~dy Tx~ W
a r e
where <fi and x harmonic functions.
The equations of equilibrium, when there are no body forces, can be written in such
forms as
dy
ow 2 00 2 2 Z
"^ dy dz dx^ (dy ^~ dz ) ^ dxdy dxdz
and it follows that
* Cf. Lamb, Hydrodynamics (Cambridge, 1895), pp. 526—528.

169, 170] OF INTEGRATION 235
This expression represents, as it should, an harmonic function; and the quantities

A, w , i n are thus expressible in terms of two arbitrary harmonic functions <fi and x-
x z
If now these functions can be adjusted so that the boundary conditions are satisfied
A and ( w , TJCTY, Esr) will be determined. This method has been applied successfully to the
x s
problem of the sphere by C. Borchardt* and V. Cerrutif.

Another method J depends upon the observation that, in the notation of Article 132,
U v U w W V a n
2~ i) 3— i> 2 — 3> d therefore the surface traction X W can be expressed in V
the form
A / , du du x x
^ dx dx dx)'
where I, on, n are written for cos (x, v), cos (y, v), cos (z, v). The surface tractions
2 s
X ( ), X ( ) can be written down by putting v and w respectively everywhere instead of u
v v
3
in the expression for X Q). It follows that (X W, X W, X„( )) is the displacement produced
V V V
1 2
by certain double forces. In like manner (TV ), YJ®, Y W) and (Z V), Z ( \ ZJ®) areV V v
systems of displacements which satisfy the equations (1) everywhere except at the origin
of r%. On this result has been founded a method (analogous to that of C. Neumann|| in
the theory of Potential) for solving the problem of given surface displacements by means
of series.
* Berlin Monatsber., 1873.

f Comptes rendus de VAssociation Frangaise pour Vavancement de Science, 1885, and Borne Acc.
Lincei Bend. (Ser. 4), t. 2 (1886).
X G. Lauricella, Pisa Ann. t. 7 (1895), and Ann. di mat. (Ser. 2), t. 23 (1895), and II Nuovo
Gimento (Ser. 4), tt. 9, 10 (1899).
§ The result is due to C. Somigliana, Ann. di mat. (Ser. 2), t. 17 (1889).
j| Untersuchungen uber das logarithmische und Neivton'sche Potential, Leipzig, 1877. Cf.
Poincare, loc. cit. p. 220.
CHAPTER XI.
THE EQUILIBRIUM OF AN ELASTIC SPHERE AND EELATED PROBLEMS.
1 7 1 . I N this Chapter will be given examples of t h e application of t h e

method of series (Article 158) to the problem of t h e integration of t h e
equations of equilibrium of an isotropic elastic solid body. Of all t h e
problems which have been solved by this method t h e one t h a t has attracted
t h e most attention has been t h e problem of t h e sphere. I n our t r e a t m e n t
of this problem we shall follow the procedure of Lord Kelvin*, retaining t h e
equations referred to Cartesian coordinates instead of transforming to polar
coordinates, and we shall give his solution of t h e problem. T h e solution is
expressed by means of infinite series, the t e r m s of which involve spherical
harmonics. We shall begin with a general form of solution involving such
functions.
172. Solution i n spherical h a r m o n i c s of positive degrees.

W e propose to solve t h e equations
f • § ) +^ ( w ) = o , (1)
where
*4:4M »
subject to the conditions t h a t u, v, iv have no singularities in t h e neighbour
hood of t h e origin.
Since A is an harmonic function, we may express it as a sum of spherical
solid harmonics of positive degrees, which may be infinite in number. Let
A be a spherical solid harmonic of degree n, t h a t is to say a rational integral
n
homogeneous function of x, y, z of degree n which satisfies Laplace's equation;

t h e n A is of t h e form
* See Introduction, footnote 61. References will be given in the course of the Chapter to
other solutions of the problem of the sphere, and additional references are given by R. Marcolongo,
Teoria matematica dello equilibrio dei corpi elastici (Milan, 1904), pp. 280, 281.
1 7 1 , 172] SOLUTION I N SERIES OF SPHERICAL HARMONICS 237
t h e summation referring to different values of n. T a k e one t e r m A of t h e n
series, and observe t h a t dAn/doc is a spherical solid harmonic of degree n — 1,

and that, if r denotes t h e distance of t h e point (x, y, z) from t h e origin,
V . ( r ^ ) = 2 ( 2 „ + 1 ) ^ .
W e see t h a t particular integrals of equations (1) could be written in

such forms as
2
' X + fi r dA n
oi — _ .
p 2 ( 2 n + l ) dx '
and more general integrals can be obtained by a d d i n g to these expressions
for u , . . . any functions which satisfy Laplace's equation in t h e neighbourhood
of t h e origin, provided t h a t t h e complete expressions for i t , ... yield t h e right
value for A. T h e equations (1) and (2) are accordingly integrated in t h e forms
A = 2A„ 1
in which U , V , W are spherical solid harmonics of degree n, provided

n n n
t h a t these harmonics satisfy t h e equation
Introduce t h e notation
dll n+1 dV n+1 dW n+1
= + + ( o )
+» ^te- -dj- -dT>
t h e n -v/r is a spherical solid harmonic of degree n, and equation (4) requires
TO
t h a t A a n d ty should be connected by t h e equation

n n
_ (2w + l ) / t
( 6 )
^-nX + idn + l ) ^
T h e harmonic function A is t h u s expressed in terms of t h e comple
n
mentary functions U , a n d t h e integrals (3) m a y be expressed as sums

n + 1
of homogeneous functions of degree n in t h e forms
(«,», w) = -%M r*(^, n ^^ ^(U ,V ,W ),

+ n n n ...(7)
where U , V , W are spherical solid harmonics of degree n, M

n n n n is t h e
constant expressed by t h e equation
M _I X +
f* /o\
M n } w
" 2 ( n - l ) \ + (Sn-2)fji
and - fan-! is a spherical solid harmonic of degree n — 1 expressed by t h e
equation
It may be observed that equations (7) also give us a solution of the equations of equi
librium when n is negative, but such a solution is, of course, valid only in regions of space
which exclude the origin. As an example, we may put n= - 1 , and take
U =0, V = 0, W = ljr. n n n
We should thus obtain the solution which was discussed in Article 131.
173. T h e sphere w i t h g i v e n surface d i s p l a c e m e n t s .

I n any region of space containing t h e origin of coordinates, equations (7)
constitute a system of integrals of t h e equations of equilibrium of an isotropic
solid body which is free from t h e action of body forces. W e may a d a p t these
integrals to satisfy given conditions a t t h e surface of a sphere of radius a.
W h e n t h e surface displacements are prescribed, we may suppose t h a t t h e
given values of u, v, w at r = a are expressed as sums of surface harmonics of
degree n in t h e forms
(u, v, w) = X(A , B , G ) (10) r=a n n n
n n n
Then r A , n rB, n rC n are given spherical solid harmonics of degree n.
Now select from (7) t h e terms t h a t contain spherical surface harmonics
of degree n. W e see t h a t when r = a t h e following equations h o l d : —
— JL
A — —M
M a —^—h un , \\
t H 8
- n n+2
„ 2 ^ w i TT
.(11)
T h e right-hand and left-hand members of these equations are expressed

as spherical solid harmonics of degree n, which are equal respectively at t h e
surface r — a. I t follows t h a t they are equal for all values of x, y z. W e y
may accordingly use equations (11) to determine U V , W in terms of n> n n
A-n> -Bft) Gn*
For this purpose we differentiate t h e left-hand and r i g h t - h a n d members

of equations (11) with respect to x, y, z respectively and add t h e results.
Utilizing equation (9) we find t h e equation
c 21
+«4(^.HS>»)4S-) <>
Thus all t h e functions ty are determined in t e r m s of t h e corresponding
n
Ani B , C , and t h e n U ,... are given by such equations as

n n n
r u
77 _ A , M „2 Yn+i
+
a/' ' dx '
The integrals (7) may now be written in t h e forms
2
(«, v, w) = 2 £ (A , B , C )+ %M ^ n n n n+ - r ) • • -(13)
in which
x
M _I + /*
g / n+2
r \ g / n+2
r \ 9 /?
and fn+1 = ^ ^ A > + 2 J + g j ^ »»+.J + ^ C n

By equations (13) t h e displacement a t any point is expressed in terms of
the prescribed displacements at t h e surface of t h e sphere.
174. Generalization of t h e foregoing solution.

(i) The expressions (7) are general integrals of the equations of equilibrium arranged
as sums of homogeneous functions of x, y , z of various integral degrees. By selecting a
few of the terms of lowest orders and providing them with undetermined coefficients
we may obtain solutions of a number of special problems. The displacement in an
ellipsoid due to rotation about an axis has been found by this method*.
n
(ii) If we omit the terms such as A (r/a) from the right-hand members of equations
n
(13) we arrive at a displacement expressed by the equation
(n, v, ») = («»-.*) \dx'

(* A dz)
dy
| ) Vr, ,
9 +1 (14)
This displacement would require body force for its maintenance, and we may show
easily that the requisite body force is derivable from a potential equal to
? [ ( w + l ) X + (3n + 4 ) , . ] ^ l l + 1 ,
and that the corresponding dilatation is — 2(n + l) yjsn + 1 . We observe that, if X and fx
could be connected by an equation of the form
( w + l ) X + ( 3 w + 4 ) * = 0, A (15)
the sphere could be held in the displaced configuration indicated by equation (14) without
any body forces, and there would be no displacement of the surface. This result is in
apparent contradiction with the theorem of Article 118 ; but it is impossible for X and p
to be connected by such an equation as (15) for any positive integral value of n, since the
strain-energy-function would not then be positive for all values of the strains.
(iii) The results just obtained have suggested the following generalization t:—Denote
(X+ /*)//* by r. Then the equations of equilibrium are of the form
ox
We may suppose that, answering to any given bounding surface, there exists a sequence
of numbers, say r r ,
1) which are such that the system of equations of the type
2
T K + + v u 2
d x \ - d x - - w ^ z ~ r * = ° > ( K ^ — )
* C. Chree, Quart. J. of Math. vol. 23 (1888). A number of other applications of the method
were made by Chree in this paper and in an earlier paper in the same Journal, vol. 22 (1886).
f E . and E. Cosserat, Paris C. R., tt. 126 (1898), 133 (1901). The generalization here
indicated is connected with researches on the problem of the sphere by E . Almansi, Rome Acc.
Lincei Rend. (Ser. 5), t. 6 (1897), and on the general equations by Gr. Lauricella, Ann. di mat.
(Ser. 2), t. 23 (1895), and II Nuovo Gimento (Ser. 4), tt. 9, 10 (1899).
possess solutions which vanish at the surface. Denote dU /da; + dV fdy + dW ldz hj A . K K K K
Then A is an harmonic function, and we may prove that, if K! is different from K,

K
IIIA K AK' dx dy dz=0, (16)
when the integration is extended through the volume within the bounding surface. We
may suppose accordingly that the harmonic functions A are such that an arbitrary K
harmonic function may be expressed, within the given surface, in the form of a series
of the functions A* with constant coefficients, as is the case with the functions yjf n+1
when the surface is a sphere.

Assuming the existence of the functions U ... and the corresponding numbers r we Ky Ky
should have the following method of solving the equations of equilibrium with prescribed
displacements at the surface of the body :—Let functions u , v w be determined so as to 0 0i 0
be harmonic within the given surface and to take, at that surface, the values of the given
components of displacement. The function u , for example, would be the analogue of 0
2 — A in the case of a sphere.

n Calculate from u , v w the harmonic function A deter
0 0y 0 0
mined by the equation

A + +
°~dx dz '
Assume for u, v, w within the body the expressions
A
(u, v w) = (u v , w )-r2——(U ,
y 0i 0 0 K V , W ),K K (17)
r —r K
f
where the A s are constants. It may be shown easily that these expressions satisfy the
equations of equilibrium provided that
2A A K K = A. 0
The conjugate property (16) of the functions A enables us to express the constants A by K
the formula
2
A Jjj
K (A*) dxdydz— j J J A A dxdydz, 0 K (18)
the integrations being extended through the volume of the body. The problem is there
fore solved when the functions TJ ... having the assumed properties are found*.
Ky
175. T h e sphere w i t h given surface tractions.

W h e n t h e surface tractions are prescribed, we m a y suppose t h a t t h e
tractions X Y Z a t r = a are expressed as sums of surface harmonics of
r> ry r
various degrees in t h e forms

(X , r Yry Z)= r r a = X(X , n Y nt Z ),n (19)
n n n
so t h a t r X , rY rZ
n are given spherical solid harmonics of degree n.
ny n
Now X . . . are expressed in terms of strain-components by formulae of

ry
the type
* E . and F. Cosserat, Paris C. R., t. 126 (1898), have shown how to determine the functions
i n question when the surface is an ellipsoid. Some solutions of problems relating to ellipsoidal
boundaries have been found by C. Chree, loc. cit. p. 239, and by D . Edwardes, Quart. J. of Math.
vols. 26 and 27 (1893, 1894).
and these are equivalent to formulae of t h e type
rX X dt du
= -xA
r K
+ ~+r~ u, .(20)
fju fju doc dr
in which
%=ux + vy + ivz, .. .(21)
so t h a t f/r* is t h e radial component of t h e displacement.
W e have now to calculate X ,... by means of t h e formulas of type (20) r
from t h e displacement expressed by t h e equations (7). W e know already

t h a t this displacement can be expressed by such formulae as
2 dfan-i .(22)
A - + M a M,
doc
n n + 2
We proceed to calculate X , Y Z from these formulae. I n t h e result r r> r
we shall find t h a t A , B G can be expressed in terms of X , Y ,

n n) Z. n n n n
W h e n these expressions are obtained t h e problem is solved.
W e have at once
2 2
O S (xA n + yB + zC ) — + M a (n
n n n+2 + l)fa +in - Mr n (n - l)^_ x
n n
The terms such as xA r /a are products of solid harmonics, and we
n
transform t h e m into sums of terms each containing a single surface harmonic

by means of such identities as
2n+1 2n+1 2n+1
df r -d d_ fa fa V
xf (x, y,z) = • 2n+1
.(23)
2n + 1 dx ~ a 2n+1
•j dx \r -
*J
W e obtain in this way t h e equation
(xAn + yB n + zC )-= nn ] </>-n-2 L .(24)

a 2n+l
where is given by equation (12), and <£_„_ is a spherical solid harmonic 2
of negative degree — (n + 2) which is given by t h e equation
•(25)
Hence we have
2n +
+ M n+i o» (» + 1) f n + 1 - M r* (n - 1) f
n
.(26)
L. E. 16
in which t h e expression under t h e sign of summation is homogeneous of
degree n+1 in x, y, z, a n d we find
2
M n+2 a (n + l) <f>-n-
dx 2n + 1 dx \a 2n+1
2 1
2r f 1 „ \d+ -i
n r " ' - 8 (a**-* ,
+ .(27)
where we have used an identity similar to ( 2 3 ) to transform x^ _

n v
Again we have
A = x M 2 n - l )
.(28)
A +
and therefore
Also we have
r
du
or
--u =^z (n-l)]A ~+a M , n
2
n
dx dx
. ...(30)
W e m a y now select t h e terms of degree n in t h e expression on t h e right-

hand side of equation ( 2 0 ) ; they are
2 g' / ^2w+3
( n - l ) ^ + 2 » l f ^ a « ^
2n + ldx W n + 1
2X
X + yC6
2X
(2^-l)(2n + l) +
2
<"- >if.
2n-l
1
M \r^l(^
n
dx \r ''2
X+ j
The coefficient of r^d^^jdx in this expression is — 2 ( n — 2)M , and n
t h a t of r - » J - ia M« + 2 ) - A » ( » - 8 ) H e n c e d e n o t i n
ftrVr—y™ (2» + l ) { X ( » - l ) . ( 3 » - 2 ) } - > S + /
this coefficient by — 2£ , we have t h e expression for t h e terms of degree

TO
n in rX j fi in t h e form
r
(» - l)A ^
n n + 2nM a* n+2 ^ - 2 (n - 2) ikf„.- ^
9 /r
2n+1
^ ) - ^ | ( ^ ) , . . . ( 3 1 )
2 n + 1 dx \a
1 X (n 4- 2 ) - ^ (n - 3 )
where (32)
2ra + 1 \ ( n - 1) + n (3n - 2)
From t h e sum of all t h e t e r m s in t h e expression for rX /fjb we select r
those which contain spherical surface harmonics of degree n. T h e value

of t h e sum of these terms a t t h e surface r = a m u s t be t h e same as t h e
value of r X la ~ iJL
n
n a t this surface. We have therefore t h e equation
n 1
(» - 1) A - - E r^
n n - \—. j . _ _ - = ^ , ...(3o)
which holds a t t h e surface r = a. Since both members of this equation are

spherical solid harmonics of degree n, t h e equation holds at all points.
There are two similar equations which are derived from t h e above by
replacing A successively by B and C , X successively by Y and Z , and
n n n n n n
djdoc successively by d/dy and d/dz.

To obtain t h e expressions for A , n ... in terms of X ,... we introduce two n
spherical solid harmonics M/^-i and by t h e equations
d fr n
\ d fr n
\ d frn
^ =
dx U Xn
J +
dy W Y
V +
dz W Z n
.(34)
+ 1 + +
^' ~n 2
~ dx V ^ n
) dy [r^ *) n
dz \— * n
Then we differentiate t h e right-hand and left-hand members of t h e equations

of type (33) with respect to x, y , z respectively, and add t h e results. We
obtain t h e equation
{(n -i) + n(2n+ 1) E } fa -, = - ^

n n (35)
6
A
Again we multiply t h e right-hand and left-hand members of t h e equa

tions (33) by x, y , z respectively and add t h e results. W e obtain t h e
equation
2^_ _ =^cD_ _ n 2 n 2 ( 3 6 )
By equations (35) and (36) fan-! and (j>- - are expressed as the products n 2
of and ^ _ _ and constant factors. On substituting in t h e equations

n 2
of type (33) we have A , B , O expressed in terms of X , Y , Z . n The n n n n n
problem is then solved.
176. Conditions restricting t h e prescribed surface tractions.

T h e prescribed surface t r a c t i o n s m u s t , of course, b e subject t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t are
necessary t o secure t h e e q u i l i b r i u m of a rigid body. These conditions show immediately
t h a t there can be n o c o n s t a n t t e r m s in t h e e x p a n s i o n s s u c h a s 2X . n T h e y s h o w also t h a t
t h e t e r m s s u c h as X u Yu Z x c a n n o t be t a k e n t o be arbitrary surface h a r m o n i c s of t h e
first degree. W e m u s t have, in fact, t h r e e s u c h e q u a t i o n s a s
(y2Z -z2Y )dS=0,

n n
where the integration is extended over the surface of the sphere. Writing this equation
in the form
T d8
Jj(**Z*>-*$ *) -°>
and transforming it by means of identities of the type (23), we find the equation
For any positive integral value of n, the subject of integration in the second of these
integrals is the product of a power of r (which is equal to a) and a spherical surface
harmonic, and the integral therefore vanishes, and the like statement holds concerning
the first integral except in the case n = l. In this case we must have three such equa
tions as
and these equations show that rX rY , rZ are the partial differential coefficients with
u x x
1
respect to x, y, z of a homogeneous quadratic function of these variables. Let XJ ), ...
be the stress-components that correspond with the surface tractions X .... Then we l9
have such equations as

rX^xX^+yX^ + zX^),
1
It thus appears that XJ* ), ... are constants, and the corresponding solution of the
equations of equilibrium represents the displacement in the sphere when the material is
in a state of uniform stress.
1 7 7 . Surface tractions directed normally to the boundary.

When the surface traction consists of tension or pressure at every point of the surface
we may take the normal traction to be expressed as a sum of surface harmonics in the
form Then we have at the surface
Now the first of these equations gives for rX at r — a the formula r
n +1
rX _l r 1 [~ d fr 2 \ 2n + 5 a / n + 2
r a yi
a + n +1 + + Mn+1
^ ~ fi 2n + 3\_ dx\a" i J a^ 3 x\r" * d JJ'
The right-hand member of this equation must therefore be the same as the left-hand
member of equation (33), or it must be the same as
By the processes already employed we deduce the two equations
[(» + 1 ) + ( ra + 2 )( » 2 + 5 ) ^ +2 ]^ =^ | g ^ )
+1 ^tl,
2 n / \2» + 3
r n + 1 AAn+lff
a n d ;
(a) *—«=ra(a) ir
J
and then we can easily find the î's, i?'s and (7 s. In the case where 2R reduces to a n
1
single term R n + U the only A 8, ... which occur have suffixes n and n + and we may show
that
a?
n
2fxn(2n + 3)
71+ 2
ii (2n + Z) [( +l) + (n + 2) (2n + 6)
n
;
^ ]L^V
+2
W+ 2
with like expressions for the B's and (7 s.
178. Solution i n spherical h a r m o n i c s of negative degrees.

When the space occupied by the body is bounded by two concentric spheres* solutions
can be obtained in the same way as in Article 172 by the introduction of spherical
harmonics of negative degrees in addition to those of positive degrees. To illustrate the
use of harmonics of negative degrees we take the case where there is a spherical cavity
in an indefinitely extended mass. Using, as before, U , V , W to denote spherical solid n n n
harmonics of positive integral degree n, we can write down a solution of the equations of
equilibrium in the form
where * [I ( + I ( ,I (J^\l
and k n
^ A + /z —
2(^-r2)X4-(3^-r-5)/x'
The function \js is a spherical solid harmonic of degree n + l, and the dilatation
n+1
calculated from the above expression for the displacement is given by the formula
2(2M + 3)/*, + n + 1
The solution expressed by a sum of particular solutions of the above type can be
adapted to satisfy conditions of displacement or traction at the surface of a cavity r — a.
An example of some interest is afforded by a body in which there is a distribution of
shearing strain f. At a great distance from the cavity we may take the displacement to
be given by the equation
(u, v, w) = (sy, 0, 0),
where s is constant. In this example we may show that, if the cavity is free from traction,
the displacement at any point is expressed by equations of the form
« - ^ s ( ? ) + < ( ? ) - H *
b
dz \ r J dz \r°
where A, B, C are constants, and we may find the following values for A, B, C:—
9X + 14/X ' 9A + 14/Z ' 9X + 14/Z

* Lord Kelvin's solution is worked out for the case of a shell bounded by concentric spheres,
and includes the solution of this Article as well as that of Articles 172, 173, 175.
f See Phil Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 33 (1892), p. 77.
c a n
T h e v a l u e of t h e shearing strain ^ + g~ b e calculated. I t will be found t h a t , a t
s
the point % = 0, y=0, r=a, i t is equal t o ^g^^f^ - T h e result s h o w s t h a t t h e shear i n
t h e neighbourhood of t h e c a v i t y can be n e a r l y equal t o t w i c e t h e shear a t a d i s t a n c e from
t h e cavity. T h e e x i s t e n c e of a flaw i n t h e form of a spherical c a v i t y m a y cause a serious
d i m i n u t i o n of strength in a b o d y subjected t o shearing forces*.
1 7 9 . Sphere subjected to forces acting through its volume. Par

ticular solution.
W h e n the sphere is subjected to body forces we seek in t h e first place a
particular solution of the equations of equilibrium of t h e type
and then, on combining this solution with t h a t given in (13), we obtain

expressions for the displacement which are sufficiently general to enable us
to satisfy conditions of displacement or traction at t h e surface of t h e sphere.
If the body force (X, Y, Z) is t h e gradient of a potential V which satisfies
Laplace's equation, the particular integral can be obtained in a simple form;
for, within t h e sphere, V can be expressed as a sum of spherical solid
harmonics of positive degrees. L e t V=XV , where V is such an harmonic n n
function, and consider the equations of t h e type
(X + /.)f£ + /.V** + p ^ = 0 (37)
Particular integrals of these equations can be obtained by p u t t i n g
dd> d4> dd>

dw dy dz
2
if ( X + 2 ^ ) V ^ + p F = 0; n
and we may therefore take for t h e particular integrals of t h e equations

of type (37) t h e following:—
1
(Uy V, W) = [ ^ 1 .(38)
[dw 5
dy' dz) I 2 (2n + 3) X + 2yu
With a view to satisfying special conditions at t h e surface of t h e sphere
we calculate the corresponding traction ( X , Y , Z ) by means of t h e formulae r r r
of type (20). W e find for t h e radial displacement £/r t h e formula

y = n+2 p 2y
Q V n >
~ 2 ( 2 7 1 + 3 } \ + 2fi
and for t h e dilatation A t h e formula
* Cf. Article 84, supra.

Hence we find for X r the formula
rX r _ p - v C n
+ 2
n
! 0
( 2 F \
n + + K n j
\ + 2 ^ [,u ( 2 ( 2 7 i + 3) 2(2>2 + 3)j to^"
and this can be reduced by means of the identity (23) to t h e form
rXr p \ +(n + 1) JUL ^ dVn X(2n4-S) + 2fi(n + l)

l
~-L
I (2n+l)fi doc - - v —
(2n +- -l /) ( 2• n- r +
- v • - /
8)/A
n+3 2 <L I Vn_ \
m+1
" - - - • - dx\r
.(39))
T h e formulae for F and Z can be written down by substituting d/dy and

r r
9/9# successively for d/dx in t h e right-hand m e m b e r of (39).
180. Sphere deformed by body force only.

W h e n t h e surface is free from traction t h e displacement is obtained
by adding t h e r i g h t - h a n d members of equations (13) and (38), in t h e former
of which t h e functions A , ... are to be determined in terms of V , ... by
n n
t h e conditions t h a t the sum of t h e expressions for rX /fi in t h e left-hand r
m e m b e r of (33) and t h e right-hand m e m b e r of (39) must vanish. W e take

the potential 2 F to consist of a single term V ,
7 l in which n ^ 1, and then n+1
we have three equations of the type

7l+2
r
m + 5 d_ (fn+ \ 1 1_
+ 2 m+ m+1
" dx \ r V 2n + \dx \a
\ + (w + 2)/* dV n+1 _ X (2w + 5 ) + 2 ^ (n + 2 )

m+s
X -+• 2/j, (2n + 3)/j, dx (2n + 3 ) (2M + 5 ) n dx\r .
(40)
which hold at t h e surface of t h e sphere, and therefore, in accordance with an
a r g u m e n t already employed, hold everywhere.
We notice that, if the material is incompressible so that the ratio JU/X vanishes, the
particular integrals expressed by (38) vanish, but the surface tractions depending upon the
particular integrals do not vanish. The right-hand member of (39) becomes, in fact,
~a? dV n + 1 _
2 ^ + 3 ji dx dx r*
In this case the equations by which A ... are to be determined are the same as those m
which were used in Article 177, provided that, in the latter, (rla) R is replaced by n + l
n + 1
pV . It follows that the displacement produced in an incompressible sphere by body

n + 1
force derived from a potential V is the same as that produced by purely normal
n+ 1
surface traction of amount pV a /r *. n+1

n + 1 n + 1
Returning to t h e general case, we find, as in Article 1 7 7 , t h a t -vj^+i and

(f)-n-2 are the only yjr and functions t h a t occur, and t h a t the only A's, ...
* Chree, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. 14 (1889).

which occur have suffixes n and n + 2. By t h e processes already employed
we obtain t h e equations
„X / ^\ /O K \ 7-r I , P A. (2ft 4- 5 ) 4- 2L&(^ + 2) w+ 2 F •
[ ( « + l ) + (n+2) (2rc + 5 ) E ,] n+ t»«= (2« + 3)V' ( ) »+»
s
2n /rV"+ P X + ( w + 2)/x
The value of f at r = a is
2 3
7*4-3 _p 2 l 7 , a /ry^+ ^
n + 1
" 2 (2ft + 5 ) X 4- 2 ^ a V n + 1 +
2™ + 5 ^ ~2n + l W
a n
and, since FAN+I d 4>-N-2 are multiples of t h e radial displacement
n+1
at t h e surface of t h e sphere is a multiple of V /r , and it is found, after a n+1
little reduction, to be equal to

n + 1
apVn+I (a\ n+l (2n 4 3 ) X 4- (2n 4- 2).fi
2 2
fju \r) 2n (2n + 8n + 9)\ + (2n + 6n + 6 ) / j L ^
I n like manner we may show t h a t t h e radial displacement at a distance r

from t h e centre is
rpVn+I n + 1 (2n + 3 ) X 4- (2n + 2 ) p

2 2
fju 2n (2n +8n+9)\ + (2n + 6n + 6) p
a 2 r 2
+ ~ (n + i ) (n + 3)\ + (n + 2)p ..(42)
2 2
(2n + Sn + 9) X + (2n 4 6n + 6) p_
Since t h e radial displacement is always proportional to V all t h e spherical n+li
surfaces concentric with t h e boundary are strained into harmonic spheroids

of t h e same type, b u t these spheroids are not similar to each other. I n t h e
case where n=l t h e ellipticities* of all t h e principal sections increase from
t h e outermost to t h e centre, t h e ratio of t h e extreme values being
5A + 4 ^ : 8\ + 6fjbf.
1 8 1 . Gravitating incompressible sphere.
T h e chief interest of problems of t h e kind considered in Article 1 7 9
arises from t h e possibility of applying t h e solutions to t h e discussion of
problems relating to t h e E a r t h . Among such problems are t h e question
of t h e dependence of t h e ellipticity of t h e figure of t h e E a r t h upon t h e
diurnal rotation, and t h e question of t h e effects produced by t h e disturbing
attractions of t h e S u n and Moon. All such applications are beset by t h e
difficulty which has been noted in Article 7 5 , viz.: t h a t , even when t h e
effects of rotation and disturbing forces are left out of account, t h e E a r t h
is in a condition of stress, and t h e internal stress is much too great to permit
of t h e direct application of the mathematical theory of superposable small
* The ellipticity of an ellipse is the ratio of the excess of the axis major above the axis minor
to the axis major.
t Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil., Part n . p. 433.
strains*. One way of evading this difficulty is to treat t h e material of
which the E a r t h is composed as homogeneous and incompressible.
When the homogeneous incompressible sphere is at rest under t h e
m u t u a l gravitation of its parts t h e state of stress existing in it may be
taken to be of t h e n a t u r e of hydrostatic pressure f; and, if p is t h e 0
a m o u n t of this pressure at a distance r from t h e centre, t h e condition of

equilibrium is
dp /dr = — gpr/a,
0 (43)
where g is the acceleration due to gravity at t h e bounding surface r = a.
Since p vanishes at this surface, we have
0
Po=kgp(a*-r*)/a (44)
W h e n t h e sphere is strained by the action of external forces we may
measure t h e strain from t h e initial state as " u n s t r a i n e d " state, and we
may suppose t h a t the strain at any point is accompanied by additional stress
superposed upon t h e initial stress p . W e may assume further t h a t t h e
0
components of t h e additional stress are connected with t h e strain by

equations of t h e ordinary form
X = X& + 2p>e , . . . ,
X Y =fie xx z yz>
in which we pass to a limit by t a k i n g X to be very great compared with

(jb and A to be very small compared with t h e greatest linear extension,
y
in such a way t h a t AA is of t h e same order of magnitude as fie , — xx
We may p u t
lim. \ A = — p,
and then p +p Q is t h e mean pressure at any point of t h e body in the
strained state.
L e t V be t h e potential of t h e disturbing forces. The equations of
equilibrium are of the form
3 / -rr x dX v dZ x x dV
T h e terms containing — p 0 and — gp cancel each other, and this equation

takes t h e form
_ § P + / T V » + P f £ - 0 .
dx dx
The equations of equilibrium of t h e homogeneous incompressible sphere,
deformed from the state of initial stress expressed by (44) by t h e action of
external forces, are of t h e same form as t h e ordinary equations of equilibrium
of a sphere subjected to disturbing forces, provided that, in t h e latter equa
tions, \ A is replaced by — p and puA is neglected. T h e existence of t h e
* The difficulty has been emphasized by Chree, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 32 (1891).
t Cf. J. Larmor * On the period of the Earth's free Eulerian precession,' Cambridge Phil. Soc.
Proc, vol. 9 (1898), especially § 13.
initial stress p has no influence on these equations, b u t it has an influence
0
on t h e special conditions which hold at t h e surface. These conditions are

t h a t t h e deformed surface is free from traction. Let t h e equation of t h e
deformed surface be r = a + eS, where e is a small constant and S is some
f
function of position on t h e sphere r = a. T h e ' inequality " eS must be such
t h a t the volume is unaltered. W e may calculate t h e traction (X , Y , Z ) v v v
across t h e surface r = a + eS. L e t l\ m', n' be t h e direction cosines of t h e

outward drawn normal v to this surface. T h e n
Xv = V (X - p ) + mXy
x 0 + n'X . z
I n t h e terms X X , X which are linear in t h e strain-components, we may

X} y Z)
replace V, m', n' by xja, yja, zja, for t h e t r u e values differ from these values
by quantities of the order €; b u t we m u s t calculate t h e value of the t e r m
— l'p at t h e surface r = a -f e$ correctly to t h e order e. This is easily done
Q
because p vanishes at r = a, and therefore at r = a + eS it may be taken

0
o r 2
to be eS ^|~) > — gpeS- Neglecting e , we may write
Hence t h e condition t h a t X v vanishes at t h e surface r = a + eS can b e

written
+ -gpeS=0 (X ),.^
r (45)
a
T h e conditions.that Y , Z vanish at this surface can be expressed in similar
v v
forms and t h e results may be interpreted in t h e s t a t e m e n t : Account can

be t a k e n of t h e initial stress by assuming t h a t t h e mean sphere, instead
of being free from traction, is subjected to pressure which is equal to
t h e weight per u n i t of area of t h e material heaped u p to form t h e
inequality*.
182. Deformation of gravitating incompressible sphere by ex
ternal forces.
L e t t h e external disturbing forces be derived from a potential satisfying
Laplace's e q u a t i o n ; and, within t h e sphere, let this potential be expressed as
a sum of spherical solid harmonics of positive degrees in t h e form %W . n
Let t h e surface of t h e sphere be deformed, and let t h e height of t h e

inequality be expressed as a sum of spherical surface harmonics in t h e
form %€ S , € being a small q u a n t i t y which is at most of t h e order of
n n n
magnitude of the inequality. T h e attraction of t h e inequality is a body

force acting on t h e m a t t e r within t h e sphere, and at points within the sphere
this force is derived from a potential of amount
1 n
4 7 r o a 2 (2n + l ) " e (r/a)
7/ S, n n
* This result is often assumed without proof. It appears to involve implicitly some such
argument as that given in the text.
where <y is the constant of gravitation. W h e n t h e potential of all t h e
disturbing forces is expressed, as in Article 179, in t h e form %V , we n
have
n
6g r ~ w
.(46) n
zn + l a
in which iirrypa has been replaced by t h e equivalent expression Sg.
The displacement within t h e sphere is expressed by formulas of the type
• 1
—P—P * 1 ( *V ) r
y n
2(2n + S)\+2fi dx >
+ 2 .(47)
where A , ... are unknown surface harmonics, and M and fan-! are expressed
n n
by means of equations (9) and (12). To complete the solution we m u s t

determine t h e harmonics A B , G S in terms of t h e known harmonics
n> n n> n
W, n I n the process we m a k e such simplifications as arise from t h e assump

tion t h a t the material is incompressible. T h e boundary conditions which
hold at the surface r = a are of two kinds. W e have, in t h e first place, t h e
kinematical condition t h a t t h e radial displacement at this surface is t h a t
which has been denoted by 2 e £ , and, in t h e second place, t h e condition
w w
t h a t the surface traction, calculated from the displacements of type (47), is

equivalent to a pressure equal to t h e weight of t h e inequality.
The kinematical condition is expressed by the equation
n +2 Sg
Wn +
2 (2^ + 3) X + 2ft
1
+ X
2^+1
W h e n we select from this equation t h e t e r m s t h a t contain surface harmonics
of order n + 1, and simplify the result by means of t h e condition of incom-
pressibility, we find t h e equation
1 -fan
rn 2n 2
.(48)
'+ 2n+5 ^ (2n + l)a +
The traction at the surface is expressed by equations of t h e type

rX
2n+1
ft fl 2ft+ 1 dx dx r
n+2 d (fan-!) 1 d (r ^ 2
+ 2 (n-l)A. ^ \\r'~2n-i I 2n +1 dx \a2n+1 9 n

~ ~'
a n
(n-l)(2n+l) dx
.(49)
which are obtained by simplifying the expressions in (33) and (39) in accord
ance with the condition of incompressibility. The conditions in addition to
(48) which hold at the surface are obtained by equating t h e expression on the
right-hand side of (49) to — 2 e $ . W e t h u s find the equation n n
9P
n
2n + 1 [dx \a dx \r n
2 n n n n+1
P< (2n + l) \dx\a J a dx\r ,
r
Px
[M ~* 2n + 1 dx dx m+1
\r J
(n-2)
i
O ^"an ( - . l ) ( 2 n + l)
n dx \ f ' 2
3 / 7
2n+1\ </>-n- .(50)
2n +ldx \a
which holds at the surface r = a. W h e n we select from this equation the
terms that contain surface harmonics of order n we find t h e equation
n+1 2
gpa* 2n 18 fr „a \\ cjp
9P_
2 (n - 2) ^ r ^- d_ (S^
(2n + 3) fi 2n + 3 71+1
dx \a n+1 71+1
J (2n-l)fi 2n - 1
n - 1
a ' dx V r
71 1 n
2
pa- 1 dWN+I q P
2n
pb 2n + 3 dx p, 2n — 1 dx \ r ~-
8_ (yfrn-i
2n
dx\r -\
2n+1 = 0, .(51)
2n+\dx \a
in which t h e left-hand member is a solid harmonic of order n. Since this
harmonic function vanishes at the surface r = a, it vanishes for all values of
x, y> z. There are two similar equations, which are obtained by considering
t h e tractions in t h e directions of y and z.
W e differentiate the left-hand members of the three equations of type (51)
with respect to x, y, z respectively and add t h e results. We t h u s obtain the
equation
gp 2(n-2)n(2n+l) r 1
Y pn(2n + l)
/7 (2n - I ) 2 6 n _ 1
pi zn — 1
n (n + 2)
+ ( ^ - l ) ^ n - i + = 0.
n—1
This equation holds for all values of n. W h e n we replace n by n .+• 2 it
becomes
n+1
gp 2n (n+ 2) (2n + 5) r p (?i + 2)(2?i + 5)
2
^ " (2w + 3) ^ + i * n + i - ~ 2 ^ 3
2
2 (rc + 2) + 1
yfr n 0. .(52)
w+ 1
Again we multiply t h e left-hand members of t h e three equations of
type (51) by x, y, z respectively and add the results. W e t h u s obtain
t h e equation
2 n+1 2n+d
gpa 2n(n + 1) r q pa? n + 1
_ w 2n r
a 6 n + 1 1 n + 1 W n + 1
~pT (2n + 3) a^ p, 2n + 3
~ ' 2n + 1
..(63) ;
The equations (48), (52), (53) determine S , fa +i, <j>-n-2 in terms n+1 n
of W . n+1 Hence all t h e functions denoted by S, fa, <fi with various suffixes
are determined, and t h e equations of type (51) determine t h e functions
A , .... W h e n the potential of the external forces reduces to t h e single
n
a n
term W , fa +i n+1d 4>-n-2 are the only functions of t h e types fa and </>
n
t h a t occur, and S is t h e only function of the type S.

n+1 The equations
of type (51) show that, of t h e functions A , those which occur have n
suffixes either n or n + 2. The result t h a t S is a multiple of W may be n+1 n+1
interpreted in the same way as t h e corresponding result noted in Article 180.
183. Gravitating b o d y of nearly spherical form.

The case of a nearly spherical body of gravitating incompressible material can be
included in the foregoing analysis. The surface conditions as regards traction are still
expressed by such equations as (50), but we have not now the kinematical condition
expressed by (48). If the equation of the surface is of the form r = a + e S the n+ 1 n +1
values of fa and $ _ _ are given by putting zero for W in equations (52) and (53),
+1 n 2 n+1
and the harmonic functions such as A and A are determined by equations of the type
n n + 2
;
of (51) from which the Tf s are omitted.
G. H. Darwin has applied analysis of this kind, without, however, restricting it to the
case of incompressible material, to the problem of determining the stresses induced in the
interior of the Earth by the weight of continents*. Apart from the difficulty concerning
the initial stress in a gravitating body of the size of the Earth—a difficulty which we
seem unable to avoid without treating the material as incompressible—there is another
difficulty in the application of such an analysis to problems concerning compressible
gravitating bodies. In the analysis we take account of the attraction of the inequality at
the surface, but we neglect the inequalities of the internal attraction wdiich arise from the
changes of density in the interior; yet these inequalities of attraction are of the same
order of magnitude as the attraction of the surface inequality. To illustrate this matter
it will be sufficient to consider the case where the density p in the initial state is uniform. 0
In the strained state the density is expressed by p (1 — A) correctly to the first order in 0
the strains. The body force, apart from the attraction of the surface inequalities and
other disturbing forces, has components per unit of mass equal to gx/a, gy/a, gzja. Hence
the expressions for pX, ... in the equations of equilibrium ought to contain such terms as
1
gpôca' (1 — A), and the terms of type-gp xA/a are of the same order as the attractions
0
of the surface inequalities t.
1 8 4 . Rotating sphere.
I n the case of t h e E a r t h t h e most interesting problems are those of t h e
ellipticity of figure due to t h e diurnal rotation and of the tidal deformation
* Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. 173 (1882). Darwin's results have been discussed critically
by Chree, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. 14 (1889), and Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 32 (1891).
f See a paper by J. H. Jeans, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 201 (1903).
produced by t h e attractions of the Sun and Moon. T h e effect of the rotation
2
can be represented as due to body force of m a g n i t u d e c o ( x , y, 0), where
co is t h e angular velocity, and the force at any point may be derived from a
2 2 2
potential of magnitude J co (x + y ). This potential may be arranged as the
sum of two terms
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Jo) (x + y 4- z ) - \<* (2z - x - y%
2 2 2
of which the former, equal to ±oo r , gives rise to a radial force §co r. This
term can be included in t h e term — gpr/a of equation (43) by writing
2
2 co a\
2
1 — - — J instead of g. Since, in t h e case of t h e E a r t h co a/g is a small
w e m a r
fraction, equal to about y > f ° t h e present purpose, disregard
2 2 2 2
this alteration of g. T h e t e r m — ^ c o (2z — x — y ) when expressed in polar
2 2 2 2
coordinates is — J c o r (§ cos # — -|), so t h a t it contains as factors r and a
spherical surface harmonic of degree 2. W e may determine t h e effect of the
rotation from the results of Article 182 by p u t t i n g n = 1 and using this
2
expression — 4-&rV(f eos # — •£•) for W . 2
W h e n n = 1 equations (52) and (53) become

2
2 r
2 ^ - 5 /*
2 T 2
a n d equation (48) becomes

5
1 1 r
€ —S
2 2 = a r 2 5
a 2
_7 3 a
Hence we find t h e height of the harmonic inequality in t h e form
2
a 5 Wa I/, 2 19 fi \ /K/1X
2 v y
2 #r / V 2 #pa/
I t follows t h a t t h e inequality is less for a solid incompressible sphere of
rigidity pu t h a n it would be for a sphere of incompressible fluid in the ratio
19 Lb
1 : 1 -f ~ET • If t h e sphere has the same size and mass as the Earth, this
2 gpa
ratio is approximately equal to ^ when the rigidity is the same as t h a t of steel,
and approximately equal to § when the rigidity is t h e same as t h a t of glass.
The ellipticity of t h e figure of t h e E a r t h is about The ellipticity*
of a nearly spherical spheroid of the same size and mass as t h e Earth, con
sisting of homogeneous incompressible fluid, and rotating uniformly at the
r a t e of one revolution in 24 hours, is about The ellipticity which would
be obtained by replacing t h e homogeneous incompressible fluid by homogeneous
* An equation of the form
2
r = a { l - f e ( f cos <9-i)},
represents, when e is small, a nearly spherical spheroid of ellipticity e.
incompressible solid material of the rigidity of glass, to say nothing of steel,
is too small; in t h e case of glass it would be nearly. The result t h a t a
solid of considerable rigidity takes, under t h e joint influence of rotation and
its own gravitation, an oblate spheroidal figure appropriate to t h e rate of
rotation, and having an ellipticity not incomparably less t h a n if it were fluid,
is important. I t is difficult, however, to base an estimate of the rigidity of t h e
E a r t h upon t h e above numerical results because t h e deformation of a sphere
by rotation is very greatly affected by heterogeneity of the material. I n
the case of the E a r t h t h e average density of surface rock is about half the
Earth's mean density. I t is not difficult to see that, in the case of an
incompressible solid stratified in nearly spherical layers of equal density,
deficiency of density in t h e layers nearest the surface may tend to increase
t h e ellipticity of figure due to rotation*. I n our equations we have taken
the density to be uniform, b u t we may t a k e account of variations of density,
in a roughly approximate fashion, by observing t h a t t h e weight of t h e
inequality, and t h e potential of it at internal points, m u s t be proportional
to t h e mean density of the surface layer. Let p denote this density. T h e
rough approximation referred to would be made by writing p for p in the first
two lines of equation (50). The result would be that, instead of the expression
19 Lb
1 4- — in the denominator of the right-hand member of (54) we should
*u CfpQj
p 19 Lb
have — + —- .
If p were the numbers which were i for steel and
p 2 gpa r 2 ^ 3
I for glass would become f for steel and f for glass, and t h e ellipticity of t h e
figure would, if this rough approximation could be trusted, be increased
accordingly.
185. Tidal deformation. Tidal effective rigidity of t h e Earth.

The tidal disturbing forces also are derived from a potential which is a
spherical solid harmonic of t h e second degree. T h e potential of the Moon
at any point within the E a r t h can be expanded in a series of spherical
solid harmonics of positive degrees. W i t h t h e terms of the first degree there
correspond the forces by which t h e relative orbital motion of t h e two bodies
is maintained, and with t h e terms of higher degrees there correspond forces
which produce relative displacements within the Earth. By analogy to t h e
tidal motion of the Sea relative to t h e Land these displacements may be
called " tides." The most important term in t h e disturbing potential is the
2 B 2
t e r m of t h e second degree, and it may be written (Myr /D ) (f cos # — J),
where M denotes t h e mass of t h e Moon, D t h e distance between t h e centres
* This result was noted by Chree, Phil. Blag. (Ser. 5), vol. 32 (1891), p. 249. In the case of
& fluid, deficiency of density in the outer layers may tend to diminish the ellipticity of figure due
to the rotation. In Laplace's " l a w of density in the interior of the E a r t h " the pressure and
density are assumed to be connected by a certain law, and the density of the heterogeneous fluid
is adjusted so as to make the ellipticity the same as that observed in the case of the Earth.
See Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil., Part 11. p. 403.
256 TIDAL EFFECTIVE RIGIDITY [CH. X I
of t h e E a r t h and Moon, 7 the constant of gravitation, and the axis from

which 6 is measured is t h e line of centres*. This is t h e " tide-generating
p o t e n t i a l " referred to t h e line of centres. W h e n it is referred to axes
fixed in the Earth, it becomes a sum of spherical harmonics of t h e
second degree, with coefficients which are periodic functions of t h e time.
Like statements hold with reference to the attraction of t h e Sun. W i t h
each term in the tide-generating potential there corresponds a deformation
of the mean surface of the Sea into an harmonic spheroid of the second
order, and each of these deformations is called a " tide." There are diurnal
and semi-diurnal tides depending on the rotation of the Earth, fortnightly and
monthly tides depending on t h e motion of the Moon in her orbit, annual and
semi-annual tides depending on t h e motion of the E a r t h in her orbit, and
a nineteen-yearly tide depending on periodic changes in the orbit of t h e
Moon which are characterized by t h e revolution of t h e nodes in the Ecliptic.
The inequality which would be produced at the surface of a homogeneous
incompressible fluid sphere, of t h e same size and mass as t h e E a r t h , or of an
ocean covering a perfectly rigid spherical nucleus, by t h e force t h a t corre
sponds with any term of the tide-generating potential, is called t h e " true
equilibrium h e i g h t " of the corresponding tide. From the results given in
Article 184 we learn t h a t the inequalities of the surface of a homogeneous
incompressible solid sphere, of t h e same size and mass as t h e E a r t h and as
rigid as steel, t h a t would be produced by the same forces, would be about
of t h e true equilibrium heights of t h e tides. They would be about § of
these heights if t h e rigidity were t h e same as t h a t of glass. I t follows t h a t
t h e height of t h e ocean tides, as measured by t h e rise and fall of t h e Sea
relative to the Land, would be reduced in consequence of t h e elastic yielding
of the solid nucleus to about § of t h e true equilibrium height, if the rigidity
were t h e same as t h a t of steel, and to about § of this height if t h e rigidity
were the same as t h a t of glass.
The name " t i d a l effective rigidity of t h e E a r t h " has been given by
Lord Kelvin + to t h e rigidity which must be attributed to a homogeneous
incompressible solid sphere, of the same size and mass as t h e Earth, in order
t h a t tides in a replica of the actual ocean resting upon it may be of the same
height as the observed oceanic tides. If the tides followed t h e equilibrium
law, the rigidity in question could be determined by observation of t h e actual
tides and calculation of t h e t r u e equilibrium height. Now t h e dynamical
theory of t h e oceanic tides on a rigid nucleus J shows t h a t , in the absence
of friction, no tide would follow the equilibrium law ; even in the case of very
•* See G. H. Darwin's Article * Tides ' in Ency. Brit., 9th edition.
t Sir W. Thomson, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, vol. 153 (1863), and Math, and Phys. Papers,
vol. 3, p. 317.
t G. H. Darwin, Proc. Roy. Soc, vol. 41 (1886), p. 337. Cf. Lamb, Hydrodynamics,
Chapter VIII.
185,186] OF THE EARTH 257
long periods the heights of the tides on oceans of such depths as actually
exist would be less t h a n half of t h e equilibrium heights. The friction of the
ocean bed would tend to m a k e a tide follow t h e equilibrium law more closely
t h e longer the period. We m u s t therefore confine our attention to tides of
long period. Of these the annual and semi-annual tides are entirely masked
by the fluctuations of ocean level t h a t are due to the melting of ice in t h e
polar regions. The nineteen-yearly tide is too m i n u t e to be detected with
certainty. From observations of t h e fortnightly tides which were carried out
in t h e Indian Ocean * it appeared t h a t t h e heights of these tides are little,
if anything, less t h a n two-thirds of t h e t r u e equilibrium heights. If the
fortnightly tide followed t h e equilibrium law we could infer that the tidal
effective rigidity of t h e Earth is about equal to the rigidity of steel. T h e
friction of the ocean bed is not likely, however, to be great enough to render
valid t h e application of the equilibrium theory to the fortnightly tides.
The fact t h a t there are observable tides at all, and the above cited
results in regard to the fortnightly tides in the Indian ocean, have been held
by Lord Kelvin to disprove the geological hypothesis t h a t the E a r t h has a
molten interior upon which there rests a relatively thin solid c r u s t ; and,
on this and other independent grounds, he has contended t h a t the E a r t h
is to be regarded as consisting mainly of solid material of a high degree
of rigidity. The evidence from tidal phenomena seems not to be absolutely
conclusive in favour of this viewf.
186. Plane strain i n a circular cylinder

Methods entirely similar to those of Articles 173 and 175 may be applied
to problems of plane strain in a circular cylinder. Taking r and 6 to be
polar coordinates in the plane (x, y) of the strain, we have, as plane harmonics
n
of integral degrees, expressions of the type r (a cos n9 + j3 sin n8), in which
n n
a and f3 are constants, and as analogues of surface harmonics we have the

n n
n
coefficients of r in such expressions. W e may show t h a t t h e analogue of t h e
solution (13) of Article 173 is
X + 1 d
(u v)-X(A - B Hi ^ S ^ " ^ ^ -^) (55)
in which A and B are functions of t h e type a cos n6 + /3 sin n6, and the
n n n n
functions yfr are plane harmonic functions expressed by equations of the form
A + B (56)
+~-U -S) %{ *£)
The equations (55) would give t h e displacement in a circular cylinder
* Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil., Part. I I . pp. 442—460 (contributed by G. H. Darwin),
t The question has been discussed from a different standpoint by J. Larmor, loc. cit. p. 249.
t Cf. Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil, Part n . pp. 298—300. The problem of plane stress in a
circular cylinder was solved by Clebsch, Elasticitdt, § 42.
L. E. 17
due to given displacements at t h e curved surface, when t h e tractions t h a t
maintain these displacements are adjusted so t h a t t h e r e is no longitudinal
displacement.
When t h e tractions applied to t h e surface are given, we may take %X , n
2 Y to be the components, parallel to the axes of x and y, of t h e tractions

n
exerted across the surface r = a, the functions X , Y being again of the form n n
a cos nd + /3 sin nd. W e write, by analogy to (25),

n n
*-.-4(îKK:) w
and we introduce functions MV-i and _ _i by t h e equations n
1 = Z n + F n ,
^ £( ^) ^( ^) 1 , x
y (58)
All these functions are plane harmonics of t h e degrees indicated by t h e

suffixes. The surface tractions can be calculated from equations (55). W e
find two equations of t h e type
(n — WA - - ( - 4- — — r- • , —
K 2 1
' " a " -2(n-l)U X + 3/J Mr
<t> n 1 = 1 Xn
.(59)
~2ndas \ ^ -~) f ^ '"
from which we get
Y 1
^ 2»(\ + / . ) . " - ' A
.(60)
and t h u s 5 W can be expressed in terms of X , n Y.n
As examples of this method we may take the following* :—

(i) X — a cos 26,
n Y = 0. In this case we find
n
(ii) X = a cos 26,

n Y =a sin 26.
n In this case we find
v
4 a [X + ^
M * l V J
) ' 2//a X + /z ^
(iii) X =acos4(9,
w F =0.w In this case we find
tt=
i^ 1 6 4
(* - *y+y )-(**-y*)+»»(**-y )}. i
f 2 2 2 3
^2 5-fe(- -y )+(- +/-« )}-
* The solutions in these special cases will be useful in a subsequent investigation (Chap. XVI).
187. Applications of curvilinear coordinates.
We give here some indications concerning various researches that have been made
by starting from the equations of equilibrium expressed in terms of curvilinear co
ordinates.
(a) Polar coordinates. Lame's original solution of the problem of the sphere and
spherical shell by means of series was obtained by using the equations expressed in terms
of polar coordinates*. The same equations were afterwards employed by C. W. Borchardt t,
who obtained a solution of the problem of the sphere in terms of definite integrals, and
by C. Chree J who also extended the method to problems relating to approximately
spherical boundaries §, obtaining solutions in the form of series. The solutions in series
can be built up by means of solid spherical harmonics (V ) expressed in terms of polarn
2
coordinates, and related functions (U) which satisfy equations of the form V U= V . n
(b) Cylindrical coordinates. Solutions in series have been obtained || by observing

Jcz+in6
that, if J is the symbol of Bessel's function of order n, e
n J (kr) is a solution of n
Laplace's equation. It is not difficult to deduce suitable forms for the displacements
u , u , U . The case in which u vanishes and u and u are independent of 6 will occupy
r Q Z Q r z
us presently (Article 188). In the case of plane strain, when u vanishes and u and u z r 0
are independent of z, use may be made of the stress-function (cf. Article 144 supra).
The general form of this function expressed as a series proceeding by sines and cosines of
multiples of 6 has been given by J. H . Michell IT.
(c) Plane strain in non-circular cylinders. When the boundaries are curves of the
family a = const., and a is the real part of a function of the complex variable x+vy, we
know from Article 144 that the dilatation A and the rotation m are such functions of x
and y that (A.+ 2/*) A + t2/xsr is a function of x+iy, and therefore also of a + t/3, where (3 is
the function conjugate to a. For example, let the elastic solid medium be bounded
internally by an elliptic cylinder. We take
x-\-ty — c cosh (a +1/3),
so that the curves a = const, are confocal ellipses, and 2c is the distance between the foci.
Then the appropriate forms of A and wr are given by the equation
n a
(X + 2fx) A + t2/nsr=2e " (A cos n/3 + B sin n$).
n n
If we denote by h the absolute value of the complex quantity d (a + i,fi)jd (x-\-iy), then
the displacements u anda are connected with A and or by the equations
2 +
A ~aaV/*; 8/3V^/' W da\h) d^\h)'
In the case of elliptic cylinders u jh and u^jh can be expressed as series in cos^/3 and
a
sin^/3 without much difficulty.
* J. de Math. (Liouville), t. 19 (1854). See also Legons sur les coordonnees curvilignes, Paris,
1859.
f Berlin Monatsberichte, 1873.
X Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trails., vol. 14 (1889).
§ Amer. J. of Math., vol. 16 (1894).
|| L. Pochhammer, J. f. Math. [Crelle), Bd. 81 (1876), p. 33, and C. Chree, Cambridge Phil.
Soc. Trans., vol. 14 (1889).
IT London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 31 (1900), p. 100.
As an example* we may take the case where an elliptic cylinder of semi-axes a and b is
turned about the line of centres of its normal sections through a small angle (£>. In this
case it can be shown that the displacement produced outside the cylinders is expressed by
the equations
?-"•+*+»>••£{--"•) fxrl SK-rr, - *

(d) Solids of revolution. If r, 6, z are cylindrical coordinates, and we can find a
and /3 as conjugate functions of z and r in such a way that an equation of the form
a — const, represents the meridian curve of the surface of a body, we transform Laplace's
2
equation V V= 0 to the form
+
da V 3« / 90 \ 3 j 3 J f d6* '
where J denotes the absolute value of d(z + ir)/d(a + i(S). If we can find solutions of this
equation in the cases where V is independent of 6, or is proportional to sin nd or cos nd,
we can obtain expressions for the dilatation and the components of rotation as series.
Wangerinf has shown how from these solutions expressions for the displacements can
be deduced. The appropriate solutions of the above equation for V are known in the case
of a number of solids of revolution, including ellipsoids, cones and tores.
1 8 8 . Symmetrical strain i n a solid, of revolution.
W h e n a solid of revolution is strained symmetrically, so t h a t the dis
placement is t h e same in all planes through t h e axis of revolution, we may
express all the quantities t h a t occur in terms of a single function, and reduce
the equations of equilibrium of t h e body strained by surface tractions only
to a single partial differential equation. Taking r, 0, z to be cylindrical
coordinates, we have t h e stress-equations of equilibrium in the forms
drr drz rr — 66 _ drz dzz rz . ^ . /ri

= 0 = = 0 6 1
ir- + ir- + > + + — ( )
7
dr dz r drdz r
Writing U, w for the displacements in the directions of r and z, and sup
posing t h a t there is no displacement at right angles to the axial plane, we
have the expressions for the strain-components
dU U _dw dU dw , p x
6 r r = 6 e e 6zz 6rz y erQ &ze

dr ' ~ ~r ' ~~dz' ~Jz dr ~~ '*^ ^
We begin by putting, by analogy with the corresponding theory of plane strain,
rz =
drdz'
Then the second of equations (61) gives us
2
dr r dr '
* The problem was proposed by R. R. Webb. For a different method of obtaining the solution
see D. Edwardes, Quart. J. of Math., vol. 26 (1893), p. 270.
t Archiv f. Math. (Grunert), vol. 55 (1873). The theory has been developed further by
P. Jaerisch, J.f. Math. (Grelle), Bd. 104 (1889). The solution for an ellipsoid of revolution with
given surface displacements has been expressed in terms of series of spheroidal harmonics by
0 . Tedone, Rome Ace. Lincei Rend. (Ser. 5), t. 14 (1905).
no arbitrary function of r need be added for any such function can be included in <£.
We observe that e,
e =^(re ),
rr ee and write down the equivalent equation in terms of stress-
components, viz.:
8
rr— a W-<rzz
66 — crzz=-^
= {(66 - orrr — azz) r} 3
and hence we obtain the equation

(l+o-)(rr-66) =r ^(66-o-rr-azz).
dr
We introduce a new function R by the equation
and then the first of equations (61) can be written
dr dr
and we may put
2
66 = o-v ob-R,
2 2 2 1 2 2
where v denotes d /dr + r~ d/dr + d /dz , the subjects of operation being independent of 6.
No arbitrary function of z need be added because any such function can be included
in <p. All the stress-components have now been expressed in terms of two functions and
R. The sum e of the principal stresses is expressed in terms of by the equation
2
0 =5T + 66 + ZZ = (1 + or) v 4>,
4
and, since 0 is an harmonic function, we must have v <£ = 0.
The functions cb and R are not independent of each other. To obtain the relations
between them we may proceed as follows:—The equation Ujr=e can be written ee
U=r(66-a-rr-a-'zz)l£J i
or U=-(l + o-)rRIE;
and then the equation rz—FIE RG can be written
2
dw = 2 ( 1 + 0-) d gb l + o - dR
+ r
dr ~ E drdz E dz '
Also the equation e =(zz — orrr — o- 66) jE can be written
ss
2 a
dz E \dr r dr ^ '
The equations giving dwjdr and dw/dz are compatible if
J 9 J d*6 dR 2
and, if we introduce a new function i2 by means of the equation

„ 3d) d a
we have
2
— = (l-o-)v 4>,
where, as before, no arbitrary function of z need be added.

The stress-components are now expressed in terms of the functions and 12 which are
connected by the equation last written. The equations giving dw/dr and dw/dz become,
when 12 is introduced,
dr ~ E dr [dz dz)' dz ~ E dz [dz dz

We may therefore express U and w in terms of 12 and <fi by the formulae
1 + 0-/90 d(j>\ _l+<r\~da dcf)~]
U W
-~~E~\dr + dr)> ~ E [dz dz J*
From these formulae we can show that 12 must be an harmonic function, for we have at
the same time
2
dU U div 1 + o-r 9A O „-9 Ol l + o- , r/ „ \ 9JL 9rt ,
1 -2a- ^ I-2a 2
and A — —^r-
~E~ 9 = — ^ - (l+«r) Vtf>.
2 2 2
It follows that, besides satisfying the equation 8 12/9^ = (1 -<r) v<£, the function 12 also
2
satisfies the equation V12 = 0.
Instead of using the two functions <j> and 12 we may express the stress-components in
terms of a single function. To this end we introduce a new function ^ by the equation
^=<£-f 12. Then we have
2 2 2 2 2
—_9 4> 190 1 312_ _9 ^_9 12_9 12_ _9 ^ 2 / 2 /
r r 2 + + V 2 2 2 V 2
~ 9s r dr r dr " * 9r 9* 9r ~ ° " ^ 9?< '
and we have also
^=„VV-^. S = (2-<r)v^-|J-
The first of equations (61) would enable us at once to express rz in terms of a function x
such that \j/=dx/dz. We therefore drop all the subsidiary functions and retain x only.
I n accordance with t h e above detailed work we assume
ZZ •• | { ( 2 - . ) V s x - ^ (63)
Then t h e first of equations (61) gives us
r r V d d
-™=- °i *X +r ^ +^-l f , r (64)
and t h e second is satisfied by this value of rz if

4
V % = 0 (65)
The stress-components are now expressed in terms of a single function %

which satisfies equation (65) '
* A method of expressing all the quantities in terms of a single function, which satisfies a
partial differential equation of the fourth order different from (65), has been given by J. H.
Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 31 (1900), pp. 144—146.
T h e corresponding displacements are easily found from t h e stress-strain
relations in t h e forms
d
17=- —
U w = ?^\(l-2o)V*y
l } X
+^ + l -Z\ 2
(66)
{p0)
E drdz' E | dr ^rdr)""
189. S y m m e t r i c a l strain i n a cylinder.

W h e n t h e body is a circular cylinder with plane ends at right angles to
its axis, the function % will have to satisfy conditions at a cylindrical surface
r — a, and at two plane surfaces z — const. I t m u s t also satisfy equation (65).
Solutions of this equation in t e r m s of r and z can be found by various
methods.
T h e equation is satisfied by any solid zonal harmonic, i.e. by any function

n
2
d 2 n+i 2 2
of t h e form (r -f z ) — (r + z )~%, and also by t h e product of such a
oz
2 2
function and ( r + z ). All these functions are rational integral functions of
r and z, which contain even powers of r only. Any sum of these functions
each multiplied by a constant is a possible form for ^.
T h e equation (65) is satisfied also by any harmonic function of tiie form
±kz
e J (kr),
0 where k is any constant, real or imaginary, and J (x) stands for Q
Bessel's function of zero order. I t is also satisfied by any function of t h e

±hz
form e r — J (kr),
0 for we have
W h e n k is imaginary we may write these solutions in t h e form
Jo(ifcr) (A cos KZ + Bsin KZ) + ir ^ J (ifcr) (GcosKZ-\-Dsin

0 KZ), ...(67)
in which K is real and A, B, C, D are real constants. Any sum of such

expressions, with different values for K, and different constants A, B, C, D,
is a possible form for
The formulas for t h e displacements U, w t h a t would be found by each of
these methods have been obtained otherwise by C. Chree*. They have been
applied to the problem of a cylinder pressed between two planes, which are in
contact with its plane ends, by L. N . G. Filonf. Of t h e solutions which are
rational and integral in r and z, he keeps those which could be obtained by
t h e above method by t a k i n g ^ to contain no terms of degree higher t h a n
t h e seventh, and to contain uneven powers of z only. Of the solutions t h a t
could be obtained by t a k i n g ^ to be a series of terms of type (67), he keeps
* Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. 14 (1889), p. 250.

t Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 198 (1902). Filon gives in the same paper the solutions
of other problems relating to symmetrical strain in a cylinder. .
264 CYLINDER U N D E R TERMINAL P R E S S U R E [CH. X I
those which result from p u t t i n g K^nrr/c, where n is an integer and 2c is

t h e length of t h e cylinder, and omits t h e cosines. H e finds t h a t these
solutions are sufficiently general to admit of t h e satisfaction of t h e following
conditions:
(i) t h e cylindrical boundary r — a is free from t r a c t i o n ;
(ii) t h e ends remain plane, or w = const, when z = + c;
(iii) t h e ends do not expand at t h e perimeter, or U = 0 when r = a

and z = ± c;
(iv) the ends are subjected to a given resultant pressure.
H e shows also how a correction may be made when, instead of condition

(iii), it is assumed t h a t t h e ends expand by a given amount. T h e results are
applied to t h e explanation of certain discrepancies in estimates of t h e strength
of short cylinders to resist crushing loads, t h e discrepancies arising from t h e
employment of different kinds of t e s t s ; and they are applied also to explain t h e
observation that, when cylinders (or spheres) are compressed between parallel
planes, pieces of an approximately conical shape are sometimes cut out at t h e
parts subjected to pressure.
CHAPTER XII.
VIBRATIONS OF SPHERES AND CYLINDERS.
1 9 0 . I N this Chapter we shall illustrate t h e method explained in

Article 126 for t h e solution of t h e problem of free vibrations of a solid
body. The free vibrations of an isotropic elastic sphere have been worked
out in detail by various writers*. I n discussing this problem we shall
use t h e method of L a m b and record some of his results.
W h e n t h e motion of every particle of a body is simple harmonic and of
period 2?r/p, t h e displacement is expressed by formulas of the t y p e
u = Av! cos (pt + e), v = Av cos (pt + e), w = Aw' cos (pt + e), .. .(1)
in which u\ v\ w' are functions of x, y, z, and A is an arbitrary small
constant expressing t h e amplitude of t h e vibratory motion. W h e n t h e
body is vibrating freely, the equations of motion and boundary conditions
can be satisfied only if p is one of t h e roots of t h e "frequency equation,"
and v!, v\ w' are " normal functions." I n general we shall suppress t h e
accents on u\ v\ w\ and treat these quantities as components of displace
ment. A t any stage we may restore the amplitude-factor A and t h e
time-factor cos (pt -f e ) so as to obtain complete expressions for t h e dis
placements.
T h e equations of small motion of t h e body are
2 2 2
^ v /SA dA 3A\ _ , 2 x (d u dv d w\ / o x
, A du dv dw / o x
w h e r e A
= ^ +
^ ^
W h e n u, v, w are proportional to cos(_p£ + e ) we obtain t h e equations
( X + / t ) + / V 2 ( M V w 2
(^' ^) * ' ' ) + ^ («. v, W ) = 0 (4)
•* Reference may be made to P. Jaerisch, J. f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 88 (1880); H. Lamb, London
Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 13 (1882); C. Chree, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. 14 (1889).
266 SOLUTION OF THE EQUATIONS OF VIBRATION [CH. XII
Differentiating t h e left-hand members of these equations with respect to

x, y. z respectively, and adding t h e results, we obtain an equation which
may be written
(V*+A»)A = 0 , (5)
where
2 2
h = p p/(\ + 2/jL). ... (6)
Again, if we write
«* = p*p/p, (7)
equations (4) t a k e t h e form
9A d dA
/rro o w x ft **\ / & \
< V + «•)(«, v. - ) = ( I - p ) ( ^ . T r T z )-
W e may suppose t h a t A is determined so as to satisfy equation (5), t h e n one
solution ( u v Wj) of t h e equations last written is
1 } l9
1 (dA
/dA dA dA\
and a more complete solution is obtained by adding to these values for

u v w
i > i> i > complementary solutions (u , v , w ) of t h e system of equations 2 2 2
2 2 2
(V + K) 2
u = 0,
2 (V + K) 2
v = 0, 2 (V + K) 2
w = 0,
2 (8)
du 2 dv 2 dw 2 / Q v
A N D + + = 0 ( 9 )
^ ^ 9 7
W h e n these functions are determined t h e displacement can be written in
t h e form
(u, v, w) = A (uj + u 2) v +vl 2i W! + w ) cos (pt
2 + e) (10)
191. S o l u t i o n b y m e a n s of spherical h a r m o n i c s .
2 2
A solution of t h e equation (V -f h ) A — 0 can be obtained by supposing
2 2 2 2
t h a t A is of t h e form f(r).S , where r = x + y + z , and S is a spherical
n n
surface harmonic of degree n. W e write R instead of f(r). Then rR is n n
a solution of Riccati's equation
of which t h e complete primitive is expressible in t h e form

d
r R n = = r n i (1 Y A
+ n sinhr + B n coshr
n >
\r dr) r
n
A and B being arbitrary constants. T h e function
n n r S is a spherical solid
n
harmonic of degree n. W h e n t h e region of space within which A is to be

determined contains t h e origin, so t h a t t h e function A has no singularities in
t h e neighbourhood of t h e origin, we t a k e for A t h e formula
A = tco y(r (hr), n n (11)

where co is a spherical solid harmonic of positive degree n, t h e summation
n
refers to different values of n, and yjr (x) is t h e function determined by n
t h e equation
1 2 )
5 ) " ( ^ ) <
The function y\r (x) is expressible as a power series, viz.:
n
n 2
(— ) f x x^ }
1 + 1 1 3 )
fn W = 1 3 5 2 ^ D { "2(2n
( + + S) 2 . 4 . (2^ + 3) (2w + 5)" "^
which is convergent for all finite values of x. It is an "integral function." It may be
expressed in terms of a Bessel's function by the formula
+. (*)-(- )" i V(*T) *~

( N + )
* J „ J (*) R
+ (14)
It satisfies the differential equation
2
(d , 2 (n + 1) d , \ , . N .
The functions ^ (#) for consecutive values of n are connected by the equations
n
x d ^ ( x ) = ^ { x ) = _ ^ { x ) _ ( 2 w _ !) (JB) ( 1 6 )
The function M> (a?) determined by the equation

n
*.<«>=G£)"(-).
which has a pole of order 2w +1 at the origin, and is expressible by means of a Bessel's
function of order — (T& + J), satisfies equations (15) and (16).
I n like manner solutions of equations ( 8 ) and (9) which are free from sin
gularities in t h e neighbourhood of t h e origin can be expressed in t h e forms
U = Un^n («r),
2 V = V fn
2 n (xr) t W = W ty2 n n (w), (17)
where TJ . V , W are spherical solid harmonics of degree n, provided t h a t
n n n
these harmonics are so related t h a t
g+ + (9 bis)
One way of satisfying this equation is to take U , V , W n n n to have t h e forms
<«)
where % is a spherical solid harmonic of degree n; for with these forms
?l
we have
d +d + d = 0 a n d
~Jx ^ ~W ®U + yV + n n zW =0. n
A second way of satisfying equation (9 bis) results from t h e observation t h a t

curl (u , v , w ) satisfies t h e same system of equations (8) and (9) as (u , v , w ).
2 2 2 2 2 2
If we t a k e u \ v w to be given by t h e equations
2 2y 2
z z x y 9
{u ,
2 v,
2 w )-fa {KV)\y
2 n d z d y > d x dz ' * dy dx)
we find such formulas as
where fan (^R) means DFA (FCR)/D(/CR).

N By means of t h e identity
D
J&_ 2 n + i < L ( X ^ \ \ (19)
2n + 1 [dx
and t h e relations between YJR functions with consecutive suffixes, t h e above
formula is reduced to t h e following:—
1 } Y n + 1 { T ) K T
dy dz " 2n + 1 ^ dx . 2n + 1 dx \r™+\
of which each term is of t h e form U fa (tcr). n n I n like manner t h e other
components of curl (u , v , w ) 2 2 2 can be formed.
Hence, taking and <J> to be any two solid harmonics of degrees N+1
indicated by their suffixes, we have solutions of t h e equations (8) and (9) in

such forms as
tn{«r)[y ^ z + d x )
dy
(20)
n+2 dx\r^)_
The corresponding forms of v and w are obtained from this by cyclical 2 2
interchange of t h e letters x, y, z.
192. Formation of the boundary conditions for a vibrating

sphere.
W e have now to apply this analysis to t h e problem of t h e free vibrations
of a solid sphere. F o r this purpose we must calculate t h e traction across
a spherical surface with its centre at t h e origin. The components X, r
T , Z of this traction are expressed, as in Article 175, by formulae of

r r
t h e type
rX X d , r du A ... x /rk
=- xA + ^ (ux +vy + wz) + r --u (21) y v 7
FJU fi ox ° dv
I n this formula A has t h e form given in (11), viz.: ^w fa (hr) n n y and u, v, w
have such forms as
•1^+2 \lr ( l ^ ( v d X n
Z d X n
1 D L T > N + 1
.(22)
dx \r
191, 192] VIBRATING SPHERE 269
W e find
r 9A
ux + vy -f- wz — ^— — + 2 (^ + 1) [ty (fcr) + n
2 2
K r y}r n+2 (xr)} ob ,n+1
or
1
ux + vy + wz ==X - \^n(hr)+hr^ \hr)}(o -(n+l)(2n
n n
(23)"
This formula gives us an expression for t h e radial displacement
(ux + vy + wz)/r.
d du
In forming t h e typical terms of xA, ^(ux + vy + wz), r^—u we m a k e
continual use of identities of t h e type (19) and of t h e equations satisfied by

t h e i/r functions. W e shall obtain in succession t h e contributions of t h e several
harmonic functions co , <j> , to each of t h e above expressions.
n n
T h e function co contributes to xA t h e terms

n
( 2 4 )
and the functions <fi , x% contribute nothing to xA.

n
The function co contributes to d (ux + vy + wz)/dx t h e t e r m s

n
-1 {(» + 1) A r * . ' (Ar) + A V ^ » " (Ar)} f~» | (gk
which reduce to
- K <**•>w +
n
j
* ^} 25
<>
The function $ n contributes to d (ux + vy + wz)/dx t h e terms
• n {(2n + 1) *„ («r) + (*r)} ^ + (*r)A ( - | ^ ) . ...(26)
T h e function % contributes nothing to this expression.

n
The function co contributes to u t h e terms

n
^ <*'> + ^ ' (Ar)} ^ - A r * / (Ar) r ~ * £
(27)
du
and it contributes to r = u t h e terms
or
dco n
f n (Ar) + ^ Ar*/ (A,) j ^ - ^ A r * / (Ar) <L
+ ( l ^ . ^ ' ( A r ) + A ^ ( A r ) } ^ | ;
which reduce to
_ 1
9#
The function <j) contributes to rdii/dr — a the terms

n
{(n - 2) fa -i
n («r) + tcrfa -i n
8#
.(29)
T h e function % contributes to the same expression t h e terms

n
1 30
K» - 1 ) (*»•)+(*»•)} {^S -^) <)
Complete expressions for t h e tractions X , Y , Z can now be written r r r
down in accordance with (21), and we may express t h e conditions t h a t these

tractions vanish at t h e surface of a sphere r = a in forms of which the type is
2 n + 1
J dx dx \ r
2n+1 •0, .(31)

dx dx \r J
where p , a , b , c , d are constants. T h e values of these constants can be
n n n n n
2 2
found from t h e above analysis. W h e n we write /c /h — 2 for X/fi, and use t h e
equations satisfied by t h e fa functions, we find t h e following expressions for
the constants
Pn = (n - 1) fan (KO) + KCtfan (KO), \
1 2 2
2 1
{fc a fa (ha) + 2 (n - 1) fa _, (ha)},
n n
(2n+l)h
2
, 1 (UV 2 ( n + 2)
2 2
c = /e a -v/^ (jca) + 2 (n - 1)
n (/ca), .
2
d — fc
n y{r n (m) + — - fan (/ca)
n+1 Ka
T h e r e are two additional equations of t h e type (31) which are to be obtained
from t h e one written down by cyclical interchange of t h e letters x y, z. }
These equations hold a t t h e surface r = a.
193. Incompressible material.

In the case of incompressible material we have to take A = 0 and to replace \A by - n ,
where n denotes a finite pressure. The equations of motion become three of the type
du 9 du 2
in which du/dx + dv/dy + dw/dz=0. Wefindat once that n must be an harmonic function,
and we may put
n= —fi2<o , n
in which co is a spherical solid harmonic of degree n. When u, v, w are simple harmonic

n
functions of t with period %7r/p, the equations of motion become three equations of the
type
2 2 1
(V + K )u- jL- dUldx=0, f
and the integrals can be found in such forms as

1 dco n
where u is given by (20). The formula for rX /p now becomes

2 r
rX r xU d , . , du
— = h ^ - (ux+vy + wz)+r =— u
fx /x dx x a
' dr '
and the terms contributed to the right-hand member by a> are n
2 2n +
r 2(n-I)\ dco nn r
r- 2
+ *
s
dd ( con \
2n + 1
2n + l dx 2n+ldx\r J'
a r e
while the terms contributed by <f> and Xn n the same as before. The result of assuming
2 an( n
incompressibility of the material is therefore to change a into ^n-\-\ ~ ^ ^ n ^ * ^
into — + \ > without altering the remaining coefficients in the left-hand member of (31).
194. Frequency e q u a t i o n s for vibrating sphere.

T h e left-hand members of t h e equations of type (31) are sums of
spherical solid harmonics of positive degrees, a n d they vanish a t t h e
surface r = a. I t follows t h a t they vanish everywhere. If we differentiate
t h e left-hand members of these equations with respect to x, y, z respectively
and add t h e results we obtain t h e equation
b a)n n + d (j) = 0 n n (33)
If we multiply t h e left-hand members of t h e equations of type (31) by

x, y, z respectively and add t h e results, we find, after simplification by means
of (33), t h e equation
a a>n+
n c <f) = 0n n (34)
T h e equations of type (31) t h e n show t h a t we m u s t have
»{'%-'%)-<>• *(•£-§?)-»•
I t follows t h a t t h e vibrations fall into two classes. I n t h e first class
co and <j> vanish and t h e frequency is given by t h e equation
n n
pn = 0, (35)
where p is given by t h e first of (32). I n t h e second class % vanishes
n n
and t h e frequency is given by t h e equation
ad n n - b c = 0,
n n .(36)
where a , b c , d are given by (32). I n t h e vibrations of this class co

n n> n n n
and cj) are connected with each other by t h e compatible equations (33)
n
and (34).
195. Vibrations of t h e first class*.
When the vibration is of the first class the displacement is of the form
(u, v, ^ A c o s i p t + t ) ^ ) ^ - ^ , ^~^f , z x ^ - y ^ j , ...(37)
where 2
K = P P/FJI; 2
and the possible values of P are determined by the equation
(n-L)\J/ (Ka)-\-KA\JRN
n (<a) = 0 (38)
The dilatation vanishes. The radial displacement also vanishes, so that the displacement
at any point is directed at right angles to the radius drawn from the centre of the sphere.
It is also directed at right angles to the normal to that surface of the family Xn=const,
which passes through the point. The spherical surfaces determined by the equation
Y^ ( r)7= 0 are "nodal," that is to say the displacement vanishes at these surfaces. The
n K
spherical surfaces determined by the equation
in which K is a root of (38), are " anti-nodal," that is to say there is no traction across
these surfaces. If K K , ... are the values of K in ascending order which satisfy (38), the
1 5 2
1
anti-nodal surfaces corresponding with the vibration of frequency (Qir)' Y/(fijp) K have S
radii equal to â/ie^, K a / / c , . . . K g ^ a / / ^ .

2 s
If n = L we have rotatory vibrations t. Taking the axis of z to be the axis of the

harmonic xi-> the displacement is
(u, v, w) = A cos (PT + E) YJFI (KT) (y, —at, 0),
so that every spherical surface concentric with the boundary turns round the axis of z
2 3
through a small angle proportional to ^ (<r), or to (Acr)~ cos K.r — (icr)"~ sin K.r. The
possible values of K are the roots of the equation fa' (KO) = 0, or
2 2
tan ICA = 3K&/(3 — K a ).
* The results stated in this Article and the following are due to H. Lamb, loc. cit. p. 265.
t Modes of vibration analogous to the rotatory vibrations of the sphere have been found
for any solid of revolution by P. Jaerisch, J.f. Math. {Crelle), Bd. 104 (1889).
194-196] OF A SPHERE 273
The lowest roots of this equation are
— = 1-8346, 2-8950, 3*9225, 4 ' 9 3 8 5 , 5*9489, 6 * 9 5 6 3 , . . . .

7T
The number 'rr/ica is the ratio of the period of oscillation to the time taken by a wave of
distortion* to travel over a distance equal to the diameter of the sphere. The nodal
surfaces are given by the equation tan KT — KV, of which the roots are
— = 1-4303, 2*4590, 3*4709, 4*4774, 5*4818, 6*4844,....

77
196. Vibrations of t h e s e c o n d class.

When the vibration is of the second class the components of displacement are expressed
by equations of the type
u-A cos [- l{* n M +J ^ *g + A ^ (Ar)} ( l j i y i {hr)r^l(^)

+ *.-<->t'-A^«^>"^ s ( r ^ ) ] - +,
- ( 3 9 )
.
The frequency equation (36) cannot be solved numerically until the ratio K/A is known.
We shall consider chiefly incompressible material, for which A/K = 0, and material ful
filling Poisson's condition (X = /x), for which KJh — j Z .
Radial vibrations.
When n—0 we have radial vibrations. The normal functions are of the form
«-7*o'(fc-), * = f f o ' ( ^ ) , w = Z
- ^ ( J i r ) , (40)
and the frequency equation is b = 0, or Q
4
ha ha a 0 4n
+o( ) + ^ i'o(k ) => (
which is
tan ha _ 1
There are, of course, no radial vibrations when the material is incompressible. When
K/ / i = 3 , the six lowest jroots of the frequency equation are given by
2 2
— = •8160, 1*9285, 2*9359, 3 * 9 6 5 8 , 4*9728, 5*9774.

77
The number irjha is the ratio of the period of oscillation to the time taken by a wave of
dilatation t to travel over a distance equal to the diameter of the sphere.
Spheroidal vibrations.
When n = 2 and G> and $ are zonal harmonics we have what may be called spheroidal
2 2
vibrations, in which the sphere is distorted into an ellipsoid of revolution becoming

alternately prolate and oblate according to the phase of the motion. Vibrations of this
type would tend to be forced by forces of appropriate period and of the same type as tidal
disturbing forces. Tt is found that the lowest root of the frequency equation for free
vibrations of this type is given by K « / 7 7 = *848 when the material is incompressible, and by
Kajir = *840 when the material fulfils Poisson's condition. For a sphere of the same size
and mass as the Earth, supposed to be incompressible and as rigid as steel, the period of
the gravest free vibration of the type here described is about 6 6 minutes.
* The velocity of waves of distortion is {^jpY- See Chapter XIII.
f The velocity of waves of dilatation is yj'{(\ + 2 u)//)}. / See Chapter XIII.
L. E. 18
197. Further investigations o n t h e vibrations of spheres.
The vibrations of a sphere that would be forced by surface tractions proportional to simple
harmonic functions of the time have been investigated by Chree*. Free vibrations of a
shell bounded by concentric spherical surfaces have been discussed by L a m b f , with special
reference to the case in which the shell is thin. The influence of gravity on the free
vibrations of an incompressible sphere has been considered by BromwichJ. He found, in
particular, that the period of the "spheroidal" vibrations of a sphere of the same size
and mass as the Earth and as rigid as steel would be diminished from 66 to 55 minutes by
the mutual gravitation of the parts of the sphere. A more general discussion of the
effects of gravitation in a sphere of which the material is not incompressible has been
given by J e a n s §.
198. Radial vibrations of a h o l l o w sphere||.

The radial vibrations of a sphere or a spherical shell may be investigated very simply
in terms of polar coordinates. In the notation of Article 98 we should find that the radial
displacement V satisfies the equation
z
or r or r*
and that the radial traction rr across a sphere of radius r is
(^ + 2 ^ ) ^ + 2 X ^ = 0 .
The primitive of the differential equation for U may be written

s n
TT— ^ * hr+B cos hr\
d{kr)\ hr ) '
and the condition that the traction rr vanishes at a spherical surface of radius r is
2 2
[(X 4- 2/x) {(2 - h r ) sin hr - 2hr cos hr} + 2A (hr cos hr - sin kr)] A
2 2
+ [(X 4- 2/x) {(2 - h r ) cos hr + 2hr sin hr} - 2X (hr sin hr + cos hr)]B=0.
When the sphere is complete up to the centre we must put B = 0, and the condition for the
vanishing of the traction at r=a is the frequency equation which we found before. In
the case of a spherical shell the frequency equation is found by eliminating the ratio
A : B from the conditions which express the vanishing of rr at r = a and at r = b. We
write
2 2
4h /* = v,
so that 2X/(X 4~ 2/x) — 2 —1>, and then the equation is

2 2 2 2
vha -f - ( h a - v) tan ha vhb -\- (h b — v) tan hb
2 2 2 2
(h a — v) — vha tan ha (h b — v) — vhb tan hb '
In the particular case of a very thin spherical shell this equation may be replaced by
2 2
d vha + (h a — v) t&n ha Q
2 2
da (h a — v) — vha t a n ha '
which is
2
2
ha 2
sec ha {h a - v (3 - v)} = 0,
2 2
* Loc. cit. p. 265. f London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 14 (1883).

X London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 30 (1899).
§ Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 201 (1903).
|| The problem of the radial vibrations of a solid sphere was one of those discussed by Poisson
i n his memoir of 1828. See Introduction, footnote 36.
a n d we h a v e therefore
ha = sI{v(Z-v)}.
I n t e r m s of Poisson's ratio o- t h e period is
\ / ( j l + <r)-
199. Vibrations of a circular cylinder.

W e shall investigate certain modes of vibration of an isotropic circular
cylinder, t h e curved surface of which is free from traction, on t h e assumption
that, if the axis of z coincides with t h e axis of the cylinder, the displace
m e n t is a simple harmonic function of z as well as of t*. Vibrations of these
types would result, in an unlimited cylinder, from t h e superposition of two
trains of waves travelling along t h e cylinder in opposite directions. When
the cylinder is of finite length t h e frequency of free vibration would be
determined by t h e conditions t h a t t h e plane ends are free from traction.
W e shall find that, in general, these conditions are not satisfied exactly by
modes of vibration of the kind described, b u t that, when the radius of the
cylinder is small compared with its length, they are satisfied approximately.
W e use t h e equations of vibration referred to cylindrical coordinates
r, 9, z. The equations are
2
du r
p_ (X + 2 ^ ) = = s r - - ^ - + 2 . ^ / r >
.(42)
dt 2
dz dr
2
du z /•v , <n \ 2ix d , x 2LL d^r
} 2
~dt
in which
^ 1 d(ru ) r 1 due du z
.(43)
r dr r dd dz
and
1 du du
z e
2<nr r =
r W "dz~
so t h a t i3r , r 'UTz satisfy t h e identical relation
1 3 (r^y ) r 1 d&TQ dtp-,
.(45)
dr r dU dz
The stress-components rr, rd, rz vanish at t h e surface of the cylinder

r — a. These stress-components are expressed by the formulae
^ ^ A ^ du 1 du r d /du r dux
rr = XA + 2a r
, r6 = i
rz = . ...(46)
dr r dO dr fju
\dz dr
* The theory is effectively due to L. Pochhammer, J. f. Math, (Grelle), Bd. 81 (1876), p. 324.
It has been discussed also, by C. Chree, loc. cit. p. 265.
276 TORSIONAL A N D LONGITUDINAL [CH. X I I
I n accordance with what has been said above we shall t a k e u , u , u to r e z
be of t h e forms
1 ( + l{ z+ i{ z+
^ = Ue ^ ^ , u = Ve y ^\
e u = We y M,
z (47)
in which JJ, V, W are functions of r, 6.
200. Torsional vibrations.

W e can obtain a solution in which U and W vanish and V is independent
of 6. T h e first and t h i r d of equations (42) are satisfied identically, and t h e
second of these equations becomes
2
dV ldV 1 _
/2
;rr + - - a V+ V=0 (48) 2 K )
2 2
or r or r
2 2 2 /
where K = p p/fi — y . Hence V is of t h e form BJ (/c r), where £ is a 1
constant, and J denotes Bessel's function of order unity. T h e conditions

x
at t h e surface r = a are satisfied if K is a root of t h e equation
da\ a ' j
One solution of t h e equation is 0, and t h e corresponding form of V given
by equation (48) is V— Br, where £ is a constant.
W e have therefore found a simple harmonic wave-motion of t h e type
^ = 0, u = Br&^*W\
B u =0,
z (49)
2 2
in which y — p p\jx. Such waves are waves of torsion, and they are propa
gated along t h e cylinder with velocity p)*.
The traction across a normal section z = const, vanishes if du /dz vanishes; e
and we can have, therefore, free torsional vibrations of a circular cylinder of

length I, in which t h e displacement is expressed by t h e formula
- = C 0 S j i i B 0 0 S ^ y ^ - + 6J, (OO)
P
n being any integer, and t h e origin being a t one end.
201. Longitudinal vibrations.

W e can obtain a solution in which V vanishes and U and W are
independent of 8. T h e second of equations (42) is then satisfied identically,
and from t h e first two of these equations we find
2
dr r dr ^ ^ ^'
(51)
2 2 6
dr r dr r '
2 2 2 2 2
yhere h! =p p/(\ + 2fi) -y , K = p*p/fi- y (52)
* Cf. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, Chapter VII.

We must therefore t a k e A and TZTQ, as functions of r, to be proportional
to J (h'r)
Q and J (tc'r). T h e n to satisfy the equations
1
v dr ' r
we have to take U and W to be of t h e forms
U:
.(53)
W = Aty J„(h'r) {rJ x ( 'r)},
K
where A and C are constants.

The traction across t h e cylindrical surface r- = a vanishes if A and G are
connected by t h e equations
A
..(54)
3 J„ (h'a) c P
<ZAy + o( lf-^ ) J (/e'o) = 0.
1
3a V '
On eliminating the ratio A : (7 we obtain t h e frequency equation.
W h e n t h e radius of t h e cylinder is small we may approximate to t h e
frequency by expanding t h e BesseFs functions in series. On p u t t i n g
2 2
J 0 (h'a) = 1 - \li a + Jih'W, 1
/
J (K a) = K a -
j- fc a.
t h e frequency equation becomes
2
2
-2y ) K'CL 1 - h' (l 3
•fa A' )'- 2
8 (Jb X + 2yC6
2 2 2 2
+ 2 V (1 - f a V ) a/i' (1 - i a h' )
7 = 0.
I t is easily seen t h a t no wave-motion of t h e type in question can be found by
2
p u t t i n g K — 0. O m i t t i n g t h e factor t e a and t h e terms of order a , we find a
first approximation to t h e value of p in t e r m s of 7 in the form
p = y^(E/p), (55)
where E, = fi ( 3 \ 4- 2p)j{\ + u), is Young's modulus. The waves thus found
are " longitudinal" and t h e velocity with which they are propagated along
t h e cylinder is \J(Ejp) approximately*.
2
W h e n we retain t e r m s in a' , we find a second approximation f to the
velocity in t h e form
.(56)
where cr, = \\/(X + pu), is Poisson's ratio.
* Cf. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, Chapter VII.
t The result is due to L. Pochhammer, loc. cit. p. 275. It was found independently by
C. Chree, Quart. J. of Math., vol. 21 (1886), and extended by him, Quart. J. of Math,,
vol. 24 (1890), to cases in which the normal section of the cylinder is not circular and the
2 2 2
material is not isotropic ; in these cases the term â y a of the above expression (56) is replaced
2 2 2
by ^(r' y K , where K is the radius of gyration of the cylinder about the line of centres of the
normal sections.
278 LONGITUDINAL A N D F L E X U R A L [CH. X I I
W h e n t h e cylinder is terminated by two plane sections z = 0 and z = l 3
and these sections are free from traction, zz and zr must vanish at z = 0 and
at z — I. W e find for the values of zz and zr at any section t h e expressions
zz = • A [p p
zr — fJLi 2 ^ ^ + 0(2 -^)/ 7 l ( «V)
Now we can have a solution of t h e form

nirz
An g r
}
+ -j- G J,(xr)
n sin -j- cos (p t n + e),
...(57)
N I R Z
/ J. , \
cos —^— cos(jp £ + e), w
L [or r
in which the ratio A : G is known from the conditions which hold at r = a,
n n
7 has been replaced by nirjl, and p is approximately equal to (nirjl) \J(Ejp) n
when a is small compared with I. This solution satisfies t h e condition

zz — 0 at # = 0 and at z = I, b u t it does not satisfy t h e condition zr = 0 at
these surfaces. Since, however, zr = 0 at t h e surface r = a for all values
of z, t h e traction is very small at all points on t h e terminal sections
z = 0 and # = I when <x is small compared with I.
If we t a k e u to contain cos (nirz/l), and ^ to contain — sin (nirz/I), t h e

r
other factors being t h e same as before, we have a solution of the problem of

longitudinal vibrations in a cylinder of which the centres of both ends are
fixed.
202. Transverse vibrations.

Another interesting solution of equations (42) can be obtained by taking
u and u to be proportional to cos 0, and u to be proportional to sin 0.
r z e
Modifying t h e notation of (47) in Article 199, we may write

l{ z+ z+ z %
u = Ucos0
r e y ^, u =Vsin
e 0e^ ^\ u = Wcos 0 ^ ^ \
z e (58)
where JJ, V, W are functions of r. Then we have
z+
A= cos0e^ ^ ( ^ + - +- + iyW
\or r r
< W
2<ur = - sin 0r e Ky*+P*> ( — + tyV
2<ur = e cos 0 &^yU-~y

2*72 = sin 0 e^+M ( + - + - .
V or r r I
From equations (42) we m a y form t h e equation
oÂ 1 3A _ A A , 2 A _ ( Q Q )
2
^^«2 /y dr r '
2
where h' is given b y t h e first of equations ( 5 2 ) ; a n d i t follows t h a t A
can be written in t h e form
A = - T-^- AJj Qir) cos 0 e^*w\ (61)

A, + IfJL
where A is a constant.
Again, we m a y form t h e equation
2
pp 1 3 / dvT \ z vr z 3 (1 3 / N 1 di*r 0
2
r 9r\ 3r 7 r 3# [r or r dv
which, in virtue of (45), is t h e same as
2 2
or r dr r
2
where tc' is given b y t h e second of equations (52). I t follows t h a t 2VT can Z
be written in t h e form
2<v = KÔJJ (KV) sin 0 e*(y«+^, z .(63)
where G is a constant.
We m a y form also t h e equation
2
Pp _ *T r 2 1_ _3 / d^j\ _ d_ cteTz
7 r 2
" 7 " ^ - " " ^ ~ ^ " r 3 r V d6) dr dz '
which, in virtue of (45), is t h e same as
11 \r I - £ + - t ^ r + \ *f~. = 0 (64)
I n this equation 2TH has t h e value given in (63), and i t follows t h a t 2ta can
Z r
be written in the form
2ot> , = | t 7 C W*) + l B t i ^ ) | s i n e (65)
where £ is a constant. T h e equations connecting t h e quantities TJ, V, W

with A, iff -sr
rf can t h e n b e satisfied b y p u t t i n g
z
,
u = = j^dJ^h'r) | B dJ^r) ^ {J J (ic r)
1
dr dr r
V = = AJI(h'r) B J^KV) c dJ (fc r)1
,
} (66)
5
r r dr
W = iA7 J Qir) ± - IBK' 2
J (*V).
X
W h e n these forms for U V, W are substituted in (58) we have a solution 9
of equations (42). Since u sm0+u co$0 vanishes when r = 0, t h e motion r 0

280 FLEXURAL VIBRATIONS OF A CYLINDER [CH. X I I
of points on t h e axis of t h e cylinder takes place in t h e plane containing t h e

unstrained position of t h a t axis and t h e line from which 8 is m e a s u r e d ; and,
since u vanishes when r = 0, t h e motion of these points is at right angles to
z
t h e axis of t h e cylinder. Hence the vibrations are of a " t r a n s v e r s e " or

" flexural" type.
We could form t h e conditions t h a t the cylindrical surface is free from
traction. These conditions are very complicated, b u t it may be shown by
expanding t h e Bessel's functions in series that, when the radius a of t h e
cylinder is very small, t h e quantities p and y are connected by the
approximate equation*
p^laY(Elp), (67)
where E is Young's modulus. This is the well-known equation for t h e

frequency p/2ir of flexural waves of length 27J-/7 travelling along a cylindrical
bar. The ratios of the constants A, B, G which correspond with any value of
7 are determined by t h e conditions at t h e cylindrical surface.
W h e n t h e cylinder is terminated by two normal sections z — 0 and z = l,
2 2
we write m/l for t h e real positive fourth root of 4^p p/a E. We can obtain
four forms of solution by substituting for iy in (52), (58), (66) t h e four
quantities ±mjl and + tmjl successively. W i t h t h e same value of p we
should have four sets of constants A, B, G, b u t the ratios A : B : G in each
set would be known. T h e conditions t h a t t h e stress-components zz, z8
vanish at t h e ends of t h e cylinder would yield sufficient equations to
enable us to eliminate the constants of the types A, B, G and obtain an
equation for p. The condition t h a t t h e stress-component zr vanishes at
the ends cannot be satisfied exactly; but, as in t h e problem of longitudinal
vibrations, it is satisfied approximately when t h e cylinder is thin.
* Cf. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, Chapter VIII.

CHAPTER XIII.
THE PROPAGATION OF WAVES IN ELASTIC SOLID MEDIA.
2 0 3 . T H E solution of t h e equations of free vibration of a body of given

form can be adapted to satisfy any given initial conditions, when t h e
frequency equation has been solved and t h e normal functions d e t e r m i n e d ;
b u t t h e account t h a t would in this way be given of t h e motion t h a t ensues
upon some local disturbance originated within a body, all points (or some
points) of t h e boundary being at considerable distances from t h e initially
disturbed portion, would be difficult to interpret. I n the beginning of t h e
motion t h e parts of the body t h a t are near to t h e boundary are not disturbed,
and t h e motion is t h e same as it would be if the body were of unlimited
extent. W e accordingly consider such states of small motion in an elastic
solid medium, extending indefinitely in all (or in some) directions, as are at
some time restricted to a limited portion of the medium, t h e remainder of
the medium being at rest in t h e unstressed state. W e begin with t h e case
of an isotropic medium.
204. W a v e s of dilatation a n d w a v e s of distortion.

T h e equations of motion of t h e medium may be written
If we differentiate t h e left-hand and right-hand members of these three

equations with respect to x, y, z respectively and add t h e results, we obtain
t h e equation
d
(X+2 ,)V*AH = p^ (2)
If we eliminate A from the equations (1) by performing t h e operation curl

upon t h e left-hand and right-hand members we obtain t h e equations
2
d
2
flV (tSTa-, tfTj,, *r ) =
z pKT2 (™X, VFyy'Bz) (3)
If A vanishes t h e equations of motion become
2
d
2
fiV (u,v,w) = p^(u,v,w) (4)
If ix , -sty,
x vanish, so t h a t {u, v, w) is t h e gradient of a potential (f>, we may
2
p u t V <£ for A, and then we have
9A 3A 3A\
Tx' dy> ^ ) = ^{u,v, ). W
In this case t h e equations of motion become

2
d
2
(\ + 2{M)V (u,v,w)==p^r (u,v w) 2 ) (5)
Equations (2), (3), (4), (5) are of t h e form
2
^ = c V ^ ; .....(6)
2 t
for A, c has the value (X + 2fjb)jp; for sr ... it has t h e value pulp. Xi The
equation (6) will be called the " characteristic equation."
If 0 is a f u n c t i o n of t a n d of one coordinate only, s a y of t h e e q u a t i o n (6) b e c o m e s
2 c
dt ~ w
w h i c h m a y be i n t e g r a t e d i n t h e form
<j>=f{x-ct)+F(x + ct),
f and F d e n o t i n g arbitrary functions, a n d t h e s o l u t i o n r e p r e s e n t s p l a n e w a v e s propagated
w i t h v e l o c i t y c. If 0 i s a f u n c t i o n of t and r only, r d e n o t i n g t h e radius vector from a
fixed point, t h e e q u a t i o n t a k e s t h e form
2 2 W
dt ~ r dr '
w h i c h can be i n t e g r a t e d in t h e form
. J i r - c t ) F(r + et)
r r
'
and again t h e s o l u t i o n r e p r e s e n t s w a v e s propagated w i t h v e l o c i t y c. A function of t h e
1
form r~ f(r — ct) represents spherical w a v e s diverging from a source a t t h e origin of r.
W e learn t h a t waves of dilatation involving no rotation travel through t h e

medium with velocity {(A, + 2pb)jp)^, and t h a t waves of distortion involving
rotation without dilatation travel with velocity {/V/o}i Waves of these two
types are sometimes described as " i r r o t a t i o n a l " and " e q u i v o l u m i n a l "
respectively *.
* Lord Kelvin, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 47 (1899). The result that in an isotropic solid there
are two types of waves propagated with different velocities is due to Poisson. The recognition of
the irrotational and equivoluminal characters of the two types of waves is due to Stokes. See
Introduction.
If plane waves of any type are propagated through t h e medium with any
velocity c we may take u, v, w to be functions of
Ix + my -\-nz + ct,
in which I, m, n are t h e direction cosines of t h e normal to the plane of t h e
waves. The equations of motion then give rise to three equations of
t h e type
2 2 2 2
pc u" =(\ + u)l (lu" + mv" + niv") + p, (I + m + n )u",
where the accents denote differentiation of the functions with respect to their
argument. On elimination of u", v'\ w" we obtain an equation for c, viz.:
2 2 2
(\ + 2p,-pc )(p,-pc ) = 0, (7)
showing t h a t all plane waves travel with one or other of t h e velocities found
above.
205. M o t i o n of a surface of discontinuity. Kinematical conditions.

If an arbitrary small disturbance is originated within a restricted portion
of an elastic solid medium, neighbouring portions will soon be set in motion
and thrown into states of strain. The portion of t h e medium which is dis
turbed at a subsequent instant will not be the same as t h a t which was disturbed
initially. W e may suppose t h a t the disturbed portion at any instant is
bounded by a surface S. If t h e medium is isotropic, and t h e propagated
disturbance involves dilatation without rotation, we may expect t h a t t h e
surface S will move normally to itself with velocity {(X + 2p,)/p}?; if it involves
rotation without dilatation, we may expect t h e velocity of t h e surface to be
{/j>/p}*. We assume t h a t t h e surface moves normally to itself with velocity c,
and seek the conditions t h a t must be satisfied at t h e moving surface.
On one side of t h e surface S a t time t t h e medium is disturbed so t h a t

there is displacement (u, v, w); on t h e other side there is no displacement.
W e take the velocity c to be directed from the first side towards t h e second,
so t h a t the disturbance spreads into parts of the medium which previously
were undisturbed. The displacement (u, v, w) is necessarily continuous in
crossing S, and it therefore vanishes at this moving surface. L e t the normal
to S in t h e direction in which c is estimated be denoted by v\ and let s
denote any direction in t h e t a n g e n t plane at a point of S, so t h a t s and v are
a t right angles to each other. Since u vanishes at every point of S, t h e
equation
du , du x v du , . A
— cos (x, s) + 7T- cos (y, s) + ^- cos (z, s) = 0
v y
dx dy ° dz
holds for all directions s which satisfy t h e equation
cos s) cos v) + cos (y, s) cos (y, v) + cos (z, s) cos (z, v) = 0.
I t follows that, at all points of S,
du/dx _ du/dy _ du/dz __ du
(8)
cos (x, v) cos (y, v) cos(z,v) dv'
Again u = 0 is an equation which holds at t h e moving surface 8, and this
equation must be satisfied to t h e first order in St when for x, y, z, t we
substitute
x + c cos (x, v) St, y + c cos (y, v) St, z + c cos (z, v) St, t + St.
I t follows t h a t at every point of S we must have
du
(9)
di
On combining the equations (8) and (9) we find t h a t the following

equations m u s t hold at all points of S:—
du/dx ' du/dy du/dz du _ 1 du
(10)
cos (x, v) cos (y, v) cos (z, v) dv c dt
Exactly similar equations hold with v and w in place of u. In these
equations t h e differential coefficients of u,... are, of course, to be calculated
from t h e expressions for u,... on t h a t side of S on which there is disturbance
at time t.
206. M o t i o n of a surface of discontinuity. D y n a m i c a l conditions.

The dynamical conditions which hold at t h e surface S are found by
considering t h e changes of momentum of a t h i n slice of the medium in t h e
immediate neighbourhood of 8. W e mark out a small area SS of S, and
consider the prismatic element of t h e medium which is bounded by S, by the
normals to S at the edge of Ss and by a surface parallel to S at a distance cSt
from it. In t h e short time St, this element passes from a state of rest wdthout
strain to a state of motion and strain corresponding with the displacement
(u, v, w). The change is effected by t h e resultant traction across the
boundaries of the element, t h a t is by the traction across SS, and t h e change
of momentum is equal to t h e time-integral of this traction. T h e traction in
question acts across the surface normal to v upon the m a t t e r on t h a t side of
t h e surface towards which v is drawn, so t h a t its components per unit of area
are — X , — Y , — Z .
v v The resultants are obtained by multiplying these by
v
SS, and their impulses by multiplying by St. The equation of momentum is

therefore
from which we have the equations

I n these equations dujdt,... and X ,... are to be calculated from the values v
of u,... on t h a t side of S on which there is disturbance; and the equations

hold at all points of S.
I n t h e case where t h e r e i s m o t i o n a n d strain on b o t h sides of t h e surface S, b u t t h e
d i s p l a c e m e n t s on t h e t w o s i d e s of S are expressed b y different formulse, w e m a y d e n o t e
t h e m b y (%, v u w) x a n d (u 2i v,
2 w ).
2 A t all p o i n t s of S t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t m u s t be t h e
s a m e w h e t h e r it is calculated from t h e e x p r e s s i o n s for u l9 ... or from t h o s e for u , 2 ....
W e m a y prove t h a t t h e v a l u e s a t $ of t h e differential coefficients of u u ... are connected
b y e q u a t i o n s of t h e t y p e
du x du du du du du
2 x 2 x 2
dx dx dy dy _ dz dz _du x du _ 2 1 ldu x du \ 2
cos (x, v) ~~ cos (y, v) cos (z, v) dv dv c\dt dt ) '

w i t h similar e q u a t i o n s i n w h i c h u is replaced b y v or b y w. I f w e d e n o t e t h e tractions
2
calculated from (u u vl9 w ) b y XJ»,
x ... a n d t h o s e calculated from (u , 2 v , w ) b y X ( ),
2 2 x ...
w e m a y s h o w t h a t t h e v a l u e s a t S of t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s and of dujdt, ... are connected b y
the equations
pG { V 1 / 5 V I V Z Z V )
\dt dt' dt dt' dt dt J ' " '
207. Velocity of w a v e s i n isotropic m e d i u m .

If we write I, m, n for the direction cosines of v, t h e equations (11) become
three equations of the type
du v 7 du /,du , du , du
f^ dv dv 7
dv\ , f^,dw
/ dw 7 dw
dw\)
of which the right-hand member may also be written in the form

u w
, o \ifi , to , d \ , \ dii , dv 7 dv
{ DU DW AJDW)
dz dx dz f
These equations hold at the surface S, at which also we have nine equations
of t h e type
du 1 ,du
1
d i - — * ' ^
so that, for example,
I to_ m dv_ Imdv
dy dx c dt'
On substituting for du/dx,... from (14) in (12), we obtain the equation
PC> I = {(X + M ) p+ g + (x „) + ( L M | + IN ; (15)

and, on eliminating du/dt, dv/dt, dw/dt from this and t h e two similar equations,
we obtain t h e equation (7) of Article 204. T h e form (13) and the equations
of type (14) show t h a t equation (12) may also be written
9^ n x 7 / ^ dv div\ (dv du\ , (du dw\ / i m
_ p C _ = ( X + 2 ^ ) ^ - + g - + ¥ j - M m ^ - ^ j ^ ^ - ^ j . (16) +
Hence it follows that, when t h e rotation vanishes, we have three equations of

t h e type
oû . \ d»'du dv , dw\ t 1 7
2
from which we should find t h a t pc = \ 4- 2//,; and, when t h e dilatation
vanishes, we have three equations of t h e type
+ n ) d l m l n
Îr ^{^ * £- wt- f t
2
from which we should find t h a t pc — /x.
These results show t h a t t h e surface of discontinuity advances with a
velocity which is either {(X + 2p>)/p}* or (fi/p)*, and that, if there is no
rotation, t h e velocity is necessarily {(A, + 2/^)/p}i, and, if there is no dilatation,
the velocity is necessarily (f^/p)^
208. Velocity of w a v e s i n seolotropic solid m e d i u m .

Equations of t h e types (10) and (11) hold whether t h e solid is isotropic or
not. T h e former give t h e six equations
=
jU v _ w
&xx —' ? &yy — m - , e — u — ,
c c c
zz
(17)
( w v\ ( u w\ 7 ( V
1 u
e = -{m-
yz + n-), e = - [n - + I-) , e =-\l-
zx xy + m-
in which the dots denote differentiation with respect to t, and I, m, n are

written for cos (%, v),.... _ T h e equations (11) can be written in such forms as
. ,dW dW dW ....
p c u = l + m + n ( 1 8 )
~ dT d T d T '
Wxx v^xy Wzx
where W denotes t h e strain-energy-function expressed in terms of t h e

components of strain.
Now let £, 7),. % stand for ujc, v/c, w/c. Equations (17) are a linear
substitution expressing e ,... in terms of £ , 7 7 , £ W h e n this substitution
xx
is carried out W becomes a homogeneous quadratic function of 97, £

Denote this function by IT. W e observe that, since e , e , e yy zz y
dependent of £, we have t h e equation

an 7dw dw dw
and we have similar equations for 911/977 and dH/d%. Hence t h e equations of
t y p e (18) can be written
" i - w < 1 9 )
Now suppose t h a t I I is given by t h e equation

2 2
n = | [X f + X n 22V + ^ + 2 X ^ 4 - 2 X f £ 4- 2 X ^ 1 3 1 (20)
2
t h e n the equations (19) show t h a t c satisfies t h e equation
2
X n — pc , X ,
1 2 X 1 3
^12) ^22 PC*) ^23 0 (21)
X , 13 X ,
2 3 ^33 PC 2
Since ??, f are connected with e ... by a real linear substitution, t h e XXy
homogeneous quadratic function I I is necessarily positive, and therefore

2
equation ( 2 1 ) yields three real positive values for c . The coefficients of
t h i s equation depend upon t h e direction (I, m, n). There are accordingly
t h r e e real wave-velocities answering to any direction of propagation of waves*.
The above investigation is effectively due to E. B. Christoffelt, who has given the
following method for the formation of the function N:—Let the six components of strain
00 a n e
e , e , ... e be denoted by x , x , ••• § > d l t c denote the form
xx yy xy x 2 x
X^ 4 C 2 X2 4 ••• 4 XQ J
2
in which c , c , ... have no quantitative meaning, but c is to be replaced by c , c c by c
x 2 x n x 2 12
and so on, c , c , ... being the coefficients in the strain-energy-function. Then we may
n 12
write
Again, let \ , X , X be defined by the symbolical equations

2 3
\ = c l +c^m-T-c^n, \ = CQl + c m-\-c^n,

1 l 2 2 X = c l 4 côn 4 c n,
3 5 3
then we have - Cx = \g+ \ rj+\ C,

2 3 W=QL g + \ I +1 2 1 \ (;)
3
2
I
and therefore the coefficients X , ... in the function N are to be obtained by squaring the N
form \g4X2^4X3^, or we have

2 2 2
\ =c J +c m +c n
1 1 m 5b + 2c ?nn+2c nl
m u + 2c Qlm, 1
c 2 2 2
^ i 2 = i 6 ^ + % m + c ^ 4 ( c 4 c ) mn + (c + c ) nl + (c + c ) bn, 4 5 4 6 2 5 u m 12 m
209. Wave-surfaces.
The envelope of the plane lx+my+ nz = c (22)
in which c is the velocity of propagation of waves in the direction (I, m, n) is the " wave-
surface" belonging to the medium. It is the surface bounding the disturbed portion of
the medium after the lapse of one unit of time, beginning at an instant when the dis
turbance is confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the origin. In the case of
isotropy, c is independent of I, m, n, and is given by the equation ( 7 ) ; in the case of
* For a general discussion of the three types of waves we may refer to Lord Kelvin, Baltimore
Lectures, London 1904.
t Ann. di Mat. (Ser. 2), t. 8 (1877).
seolotropy c is a function of I, m, n given by the equation (21). In the general case the
2
wave-surface is clearly a surface of three sheets, corresponding with the three values of c
which are roots of (21). In the case of isotropy two of the sheets are coincident, and
all the sheets are concentric spheres.
Green * observed that, in the general case of seolotropy, the three possible directions
of displacement, answering to the three velocities of propagation of plane waves with a
given wave-normal, are parallel to the principal axes of a certain ellipsoid, and are, therefore,
at right angles to each other. The ellipsoid would be expressed in our notation by the
2
equation (X , X , ... X )
n 22 y, z) = const. He showed that, when W has the form
12
2 2 2 2
\A (e + e + e ) +±L (e - 4e e )+\M
xx yy Z2 y yy zz (e - z 4e e )+\N(e Z2 xx xy - 4e e ),
xx yy (23)
the wave-surface is made up of a sphere, corresponding with the propagation of waves of
irrotational dilatation, and Fresnel's wave-surface, viz.: the envelope of the plane (22)
subject to the condition
2 2 2
I m n
2 + +
c -L/p W^Mfp 'cJ^Njp'
The two sheets of this surface correspond with the propagation of waves of equivoluminal
distortion. Green arrived at the above expression for W as the most general which would
allow of the propagation of purely transverse plane waves, i. e. of waves with displacement
parallel to the wave-fronts.
Green's formula (23) for W is included in the formula (15) of Article 110, viz.:
2 2 2
2W=(A, B, C, F, G, H)(e , e , e ) + Le + MeJ+Ne , xx yy zz y x
which characterizes elastic solid media having three orthogonal planes of symmetry.
To obtain Green's formula we have to put
A=B = C, F=A-2L, 0=A-2M H=A-2K y
It is noteworthy that these relations are not satisfied in cubic crystals.

Green's formula for the strain-energy-function contains the strain-components only;
the notion of a medium for which
2 2 2
W=2(Lm +M& +lV<u; ) x (25) y
was introduced by MaoCullaghf. The wave-surface is Fresnel's wave-surface.

Lord RayleighJ, following out a suggestion of Rankine's, has discussed the propagation
of waves in a medium in which the kinetic energy has the form
2+ 2+ 2 (26)
//ftWS) -(l) -©]^
while the strain-energy-function has the form appropriate to an isotropic elastic solid.
Such a medium is said to exhibit " seolotropy of inertia." When the medium is incom
pressible the wave-surface is the envelope of the plane (22) subject to the condition
2 2 2
I m n , ^ n v
2 2 v /
cp-X c p -p,
2
1c p -n
L 2 3
it is the first negative pedal of Fresnel's wave-surface with respect to its centre.
* 'On the propagation of light in crystallized media,' Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. 7
(1839), or Mathematical Papers, London 1871, p. 293.
t ' A n essay towards a dynamical theory of crystalline reflexion and refraction,' Dublin,
Trans. R. Irish Acad., vol. 21 (1839), or Collected Works of James MacCullagh, Dublin 1880,
p. 145.
1
t On Double Refraction,' Phil. Mag. (Ser. 4), vol. 41 (1871), or Scientific Papers, vol. 1,
Cambridge 1899.
The case where the energy-function of the medium is a function of the components of
rotation as well as of the strain-components, so that it is a homogeneous quadratic func
tion of the nine quantities g^, has been discussed by H. M. Macdonald*.
The most general form which is admissible if transverse waves are to be propagated
independently of waves of dilatation is shown to lead to Fresnel's wave-surface for the
transverse waves.
The still more general case in which there is seolotropy of inertia as well as of elastic
quality has been investigated by T. J. I'A. Bromwichf. It appears that, in this case, the
requirement that two of the waves shall be purely transverse does not lead to the same
result as the requirement that they shall be purely rotational, although the two require
ments do lead to the same result when the seolotropy does not affect the inertia. The
wave-surface for the rotational waves is derived from Fresnel's wave-surface by a homo
geneous strain.
210. M o t i o n determined by the characteristic equation.
I t appears that, even in the case of an isotropic solid, much complexity is

introduced into t h e question of the propagation of disturbances through t h e
solid by t h e possible co-existence of two types of waves propagated with
different velocities. I t will be well in t h e first instance to confine our
attention to waves of a single type—irrotational or equivoluminal. The
motion is then determined by the characteristic equation (6) of Article 204,
2 2 2 2
viz. 8 < £ / ^ = c V 0 .
This equation was solved by Poisson| in a form in which the value of $ at

any place and time is expressed in terms of the initial values of and d(f>/dt.
Poisson's result can be stated as follows: L e t denote the initial
0 0
values of cf> and d<j>/dt. W i t h any point (x, y, z) as centre describe a sphere of
radius ct, and let <j> and <£ denote the mean values of at t h e point (x, y, z) at t h e instant t is expressed by the

equation
* = | + (28)
If the initial disturbance is confined to the region of space within a closed

surface 2 then <j> and <j> have values different from zero at points within 2 ,
0J 0 0 0
and vanish outside 2 . T a k i n g any point within or on 2 as centre, we may

0 0
describe a sphere of radius ct; then the disturbance at time t is confined to

t h e aggregate of points which are on the surfaces of these spheres. This
aggregate is, in general, bounded by a surface of two sheets—an inner and
an outer. When the outer sheet reaches any point, t h e portion of t h e medium

t London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 34 (1902), p. 307.
X Paris, Mem. de VInstitut, t. 3 (1820). A simple proof was given by Liouville, J. de Math.
(Liouville), t. 1 (1856). A symbolical proof is given by Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound,
Chapter XIV.
L. E. 19
which is close to t h e point takes suddenly t h e small strain a n d velocity
implied by t h e values of and dfyfdt; a n d after t h e inner sheet passes t h e
point, t h e same portion of t h e medium r e t u r n s to rest without strain*.
The characteristic equation was solved in a more general manner by

Kirchhoff f. Instead of a sphere he took any surface 8, and instead of t h e
initial values of (f> and dcfr/di on S he took t h e values of <f> and its first
derivatives a t points on S a n d a t certain instants previous to t h e instant t.
If Q is any point on 8, and r is t h e distance of Q from t h e point (%, y, z), t h e
values of (f> and its first derivatives are estimated for t h e point Q at t h e instant
t — rjc. L e t [</>],... denote t h e values of cj>,... estimated as stated. Then t h e
value of a t t h e point (co, y, z) a t t h e instant t is expressed by t h e equation
"90"
dS, (29)
dv cr dv dt
where v denotes t h e direction of t h e normal to 8 drawn towards t h a t side on

which (x, y, z) is situated.
Kirchhoff's formula (29) may be obtained very simply J, by substituting t-rjc for t in
tjb (oo, y, z, t), where r now denotes the distance of (x, y, z) from the origin. Denoting the
function (%, y, z, t — rjc) by \j/ (oo, y, z, t), we may show that when (x, y, z, t) satisfies
the characteristic equation (6), \JA satisfies the equation
V + 2 + 2 + 2 .(30)
r ^ c \dx C dt) dy (f dt) dz C at)]""°*
If this equation holds throughout the region within a closed surface S which does not
contain the origin, we integrate the left-hand member of this equation through the
volume within S and transform the volume integral into a surface integral, thus obtaining
the equation
1
" "' dr- ldyfr 2 dr ftfA
^ " a ^ - ~ ^ - ^ 7 )dS=0.
T
dv r dv cr dv dt '
I f n o w [0],... d e n o t e t h e v a l u e s of <£, . . . a t t h e i n s t a n t t-r/c, t h i s e q u a t i o n is t h e
.same a s
.since, a s i s easily proved,

djr rd£\ _ 1 dr_ Fd£]
dv
When the origin is within the surface S we integrate the left-hand member of (30) through
the volume contained between S and a small sphere 2 with its centre at the origin, and
pass to a limit by contracting the radius of 2 indefinitely. We thus find for the value
of 0 at the origin the formula (29), and the same formula gives the value of cj> at any point
* Cf. Stokes, ' Dynamical theory of diffraction,' Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. 9 (1849),
or Math, and Phys. Papers, vol. 2, p. 243.
t Ann. Phys. Chem. {Wiedemann), Bd. 18 (1883). See also Kirchhoff, Vorlesungen uber math
Fhysik, Optik, Leipzig, 1891.
t Cf. Beltrami, Rome, Acc. Lincei Rend. (Ser. 5), t. 4 (1895).
210, 211] GIVEN INITIAL CONDITIONS 291
and instant. The formula holds for a region of space bounded internally or externally by
a closed surface S> provided that, at all instants which come into consideration, and its
first derivatives are continuous, and its second derivatives are finite and are connected by
equation (6), at all points of the region*. In case the region is outside S, <fi must tend to
x
zero at infinite distances in the order r~ at least. These conditions may be expressed by
saying that all the sources of disturbance are on the side of S remote from y, z).
Kirchhoff's formula (29) can be shown to include Poisson's f. The formula may also be
written in the form
(31)
where ~ - ( — ] is to be formed b y first s u b s t i t u t i n g t — r/c for t i n (j) a n d t h e n differentiat
i n g a s if r were t h e o n l y variable q u a n t i t y i n [<£]/r. T h e formula (31) is a n analogue of

Green's formula (7) of A r t i c l e 158. I t c a n be interpreted i n t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t the
v a l u e of <fi at a n y p o i n t outside a closed surface (which encloses all t h e sources of d i s
turbance) is t h e s a m e as t h a t due t o a certain distribution of fictitious sources and double
sources on t h e surface. I t i s e a s y t o prove, i n t h e m a n n e r of A r t i c l e 124, t h a t t h e m o t i o n
inside or outside t h a t is due t o g i v e n initial conditions, is u n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e
v a l u e s of either q> or d<fi/dv at S. T h e t h e o r e m expressed b y e q u a t i o n (31) can b e deduced
from t h e properties of superficial d i s t r i b u t i o n s of sources and double sources a n d t h e
t h e o r e m of u n i q u e n e s s of s o l u t i o n j .
211. Arbitrary initial conditions.
W h e n the initial conditions are not such t h a t t h e disturbance is entirely

irrotational or equivoluminal, t h e results are more complicated. Expressions
for the components of the displacement which arises, at any place and time,
from a given initial distribution of displacement and velocity, have been
obtain ed§, and t h e result may be stated in t h e following form :—
Let (u ,v w ) be the initial displacement, supposed to be given throughout

0 0> 0
a region of space T and to vanish on t h e boundary of T and outside T, and

let (u ,v w )
0 0} be the initial velocity supposed also to be given throughout T
0
and to vanish outside T. L e t a and b denote t h e velocities of irrotational

and equivoluminal waves. L e t Si denote a sphere of radius at having its
centre at t h e point (%, y, z), and S a sphere of radius bt having its centre at
2
the same point. Let V denote t h a t part of t h e volume contained between

these spheres which is within T. Let r denote t h e distance of any point
(x, y', z') within V, or on t h e parts of S and S t h a t are within T, from t h e
1 2
point (oc, y> z), and let q denote t h e initial displacement at (V, y', z'), and q
0 0
t h e initial velocity at t h e same point, each projected upon the radius vector
* For the case where there is a moving surface of discontinuity outside S, see a paper by the
Author, London Math. Soc. Proc. (Ser. 2), vol. 1 (1904), p. 37.
+ See my paper just cited.
X Cf. J. Larmor, London Math. Soc. Proc. (Ser. 2), vol. 1 (1904).
§ For references see Introduction, p. 18. Reference may also be made to a paper by the
Author in London Math. Soc. Proc. (Ser. 2), vol. 1 (1904), p. 291.
r, supposed drawn from (x, y, z). Then the displacement u at (x, y, z) at t h e
instant t can be written
-±fa + u,+ r*g)}dS,, (32)
and similar expressions for v and w can be written down. The surface-
integrations extend over t h e parts of S and S t h a t are within T.
x 2
The dilatation and the rotation can be calculated from these formulae,
and it can be shown t h a t the dilatation is entirely confined to a wave of
dilatation propagated with velocity a, and the rotation to a wave of rotation
propagated with velocity b. If r and r are t h e greatest and least distances
2 2
of any point 0 of t h e medium from t h e boundary of T, the motion at 0

begins at t h e instant t = r /a, t h e wave of dilatation ends at t h e instant
2
t = r /a, the wave of rotation begins at t h e instant t = r /b, and t h e motion

1 2
ceases at t h e instant t = rjb. If t h e wave of dilatation ends before t h e wave

of rotation begins, the motion between t h e two waves is of the character of
irrotational motion in an incompressible fluid*; at a distance from T which
is great compared with any linear dimension of T this motion is relatively
feeble.
The problem of the integration of the equations of small motion of an isotropic elastic
solid has been the subject of very numerous researches. Eeference may be made to the
5
following memoirs in addition to those already cited:—V. Cerruti, 'Sulle vibrazioni de
corpi elastici isotropi,' Rome, Acc. Lincei, Mem. fis. mat., 1880; V. Volterra, 'Sur les vibra
tions des corps elastiques isotropes,' Acta Math., t. 18 (1894); G. Lauricella, 'Sulle
equazioni del moto dei corpi elastici,' Torino Mem. (Ser. 2), t. 45 (1895); 0. Tedone, 'Sulle
vibrazioni dei corpi solidi omogenei ed isotropi,' Torino Mem. (Ser. 2), t. 47 (1897): J. Coulon,
' Sur integration des equations aux derivees partielles du second ordre par la methode des
caracteristiques,' Paris {These) 1902. Hadamard's treatise, Lecons sur la propagation des
ondes, Paris 1903, also may be consulted.
212. M o t i o n due to body forces.

Exactly as in Article 130 we express the body forces in the form
( X , Y, Z) = gradient of $ + curl (L, M, N),
and t h e displacement in t h e form
(u, v, w) — gradient of <fi + curl (F, G, H).
* Cf. Stokes, loc. cit.

211, 212] VARIABLE BODY FORCES 293
Then the equations of motion of the type
can be satisfied if </>, F, G, H satisfy t h e equations
and particular solutions can be expressed in t h e forms*
lift* K>'^'
.(33)
^ ^ l l l ^ i ^ i ) ^ ' ^
The values of <3>, L,... are given in terms of X, T, Z by t h e equations (7)

of Article 130, and t h e integrations expressed in (33) can be performed.
Taking the case of a single force of magnitude % (t), acting at t h e origin
in the direction of the axis of x, we have, as in Article 130,
*'H)=-^*H)^
*(«-9-^x(.- o^.*-(.-0-^ (.-9f!,._
I x
where R denotes the distance of (of, y', z) from t h e origin. W e may partition
space around the point (x, y, z) into t h i n sheets by means of spherical surfaces
having t h a t point as centre, and thus we may express t h e integrations in (33)
in such forms as
///->(«--3^-r-^*(«--3*//^«
where dS denotes an element of surface of a sphere'with centre at (x, y, z)
and radius equal to r. Now jj^R^jdx') dS is equal to zero when the origin
2
is inside S, and to Wr (dr^jdx) when t h e origin is outside S, r denoting t h e 0
distance of (x, y, z) from t h e origin. I n t h e former case r < r, and in t h e

0
latter r > r. We may therefore replace t h e upper limit of integration with

Q
respect to r by r , and find

0
H a v i n g found we have no further use for the r t h a t appears in t h e

process, and we may write r instead of r , so t h a t r now denotes t h e distance
0
of (x, y, z) from the origin. T h e n we have

1 r a
1 dr" C/
34
+ - - 47rp
* L dx
w l / x < t - w <>
* Cf. L. Lorenz, J.f. Math. (Crelle), Bd. 58 (1861), or (Euvres Scientifiques, t. 2 (Copenhagen,
1899), p. 1. See also Lord Rayleigh, Theorij of Sound, vol. 2, § 276.
I n like manner we should find
1 b
1 dr' M \
.(35)
1 fi -ir frjb
The displacement due to t h e force % (t) is given by t h e equations*

11 fl2
3 —1
r r
2 _ 1
fft l
r b
1 drV f 1 / r\ 1 (x r
' r/a
l
X l t - T U
(36)
I 2 -i
D r Mb 1 8r3rfl / r\ 1 / r\)
1 /•>•/* 1 3r3rfl /
213. Additional results relating to m o t i o n due to b o d y forces.

(i) The dilatation and rotation calculated from (36) are given by the equations
d a
2
4ira p dx \r * \ a dz \r
2OT =-
2 •(37)
(ii) The expressions (36) reduce to (11) of Article 130 when x(t) is replaced by a
constant.
(iii) The tractions over a spherical cavity required to maintain the displacement
expressed by (36) are statically equivalent to a single force parallel to the axis of x.
When the radius of the cavity is diminished indefinitely, the magnitude of the force
is (t).
x
(iv) As in Article 132, we may find the effects of various nuclei of strain t. In the
case of a "centre of compression" we have, omitting a constant factor,
^ V « ) - ( £ . | . ^ ) ^ x ( ^ ) } , (33)
representing irrotational waves of a well-known type. In the case of a "centre of rotation

n
about the axis of z we have, omitting a factor,
"S-°){F ('-5)}* x ( 3 9 )
representing equivoluminal waves of a well-known type.

(v) If we combine two centres of compression of opposite signs in the same
way as two forces are combined to make a "double force without moment" we obtain
irrotational waves of the type expressed by the equation
2
92 3
t--
* Formulas equivalent to (36) were obtained by Stokes, loc. cit.

t For a more detailed discussion, see my paper cited on p. 2 9 1 .
If we combine two pairs of centres of rotation about the axes of x and y and about
parallel axes, in the same way as two pairs of forces are combined to make a centre of
rotation, we obtain equivoluminal waves of the type
8 2 9 2 d 2 d 2 l
/ N ( \ i A r\\
v (41)
>"H^fc' ~^~wvv vijr x
•
in which the displacement is expressed by the same formulae as the electric force in the
field around Hertz's oscillator*. Lord Kelvin t has shown that by superposing solutions
of the types (40) and (41) we may obtain the effect of an oscillating rigid sphere close to
the origin.
s
(vi) When X (0 i a simple harmonic function of the time, say X(T) = A cos pt, we
find
( = c s cs sin nis
/J/! ' - ^ p {° ^ - 0 -°^ - 3 - IT ^ 0 - ^)+^^
and complete expressions for the effects of the forces can be written down by (36) J.
In this case we may regard the whole phenomenon as consisting in the propagation of two
trains of simple harmonic waves with velocities respectively equal to a and b; but the
formulae (36) show that, in more general cases, the effect produced at the instant t at a
point distant r from the point of application of the force does not depend on the
magnitude of the force at the two instants t — r/a and t—r/b only, but also on the magni
tude of the force at intermediate instants. It is as if certain effects were propagated
with velocities intermediate between a and b, as well as the definite effects (dilatation and
rotation) that are propagated with these velocities §.
(vii) Particular integrals of the equations of motion under body forces which are
Lpt
proportional to a simple harmonic function of the time (written e ) can be expressed in
the forms
ipt iVrla
e fff e~
F = = L D DYD
4^]j] —R~ * *'-
where j ' j ^ +
1
dr — dr ~ ^\ i
dy dz j
2 1 4 . W a v e s propagated over t h e surface of a n isotropic elastic

solid body ||.
Among periodic motions special importance attaches t o those plane waves
of simple harmonic type, propagated over t h e bounding surface of a solid
* Hertz, Electric Waves, English edition, p. 137. For the discussion in regard to the result
see W. Konig, Ann. Phys. Ghem. (Wiedemann), Bd. 37 (1889), and Lord Rayleigh, Phil. Mag.
(Ser. 6), vol. 6 (1903), p. 385.
t Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vols. 47 and 48 (1899).
X For the effects of forces which are simple harmonic functions of the time, see Lord Rayleigh,
Theory of Sound, vol. 2, pp. 418 et sea.
§ Cf. my paper cited on p. 291, and Stokes's result recorded on p. 292.
|| Cf. Lord Rayleigh, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 17 (1887), or Scientific Papers, vol. 2 >
p. 441.
296 WAVES PROPAGATED OVER THE [CH. X I I I
body, which involve a disturbance t h a t penetrates b u t a little distance into

the interior of t h e body. W e shall take t h e body to be bounded by t h e plane
z = 0, and shall suppose t h a t t h e positive sense of t h e axis of z is directed
towards t h e interior of t h e body. W e shall suppose t h a t t h e components of
displacement, besides being proportional t o e , are proportional to e W \ L p t l x + g y
2 2
so t h a t 2ir\sj(f + g ) is t h e wave-length. A s i n Article 190, we denote
2 2 2 2
p pl(X + 2p) by A and p pjp> by K . T h e dilatation A satisfies t h e equation
2 2
(V + h ) A = 0, and since i t is proportional to & ^f sy) e must have x+
W
rz+L
A = Pe- (f*+ffv+pt\ (42)
where P is a constant, and
2
r*=f*+g -h* (43)
A particular integral ( u l y v l f wj) of t h e equations of motion is t h e n
expressed b y t h e equations
rz+ x+ + t
Oi, v lf w ) = (- if - ig, r) hr^Pe- ^f ^ P >
± y i (44)
and a more general integral will b e found b y taking (u, v , w) t o b e of t h e

form (V^ + UQ, V -f v ,. w + w ), where u , v w are given by t h e equations
X 2 1 2 2 2 } 2
8 Z
(u , 2 v , w) 2 2 = {A, B, C) e ~ ^ W*+9v+Pt\ (45)
in which A,B,C are constants connected by t h e equation

ifA + igB-sC=0, (46)
and
2 2 2 2
s =f + g -/c (47)
The surface z = 0 being free from traction, we m u s t have t h e equations
2 p p 2 s C
{ i - ) - 4 - = ° >
t h e third of which can be written

2 2
[/c -j2(f + 2
Y)] P - 2h sG = 0.
We may solve these e o l a t i o n s so as t o express A> B G i n terms of P . }
Writing
K'> = **/(/» + g% h* = h?l(p + g% (48)
we find
/2 L 2 2 2 2
~2h s ' f~~g~ 2h' (1 - /c' ) (f + g) '
and, on substituting in (46), we obtain t h e equation
2 2 2
- 2) = 4 r s / ( / + g ), (49)
which becomes, on elimination of r and s by means of (43) and (47),
8 6 4 2 2 2
K' - 8K' + 24/e' - 16 (1 + A' ) K' + 16h' = 0 (50)
2 2 2
W h e n t h e material is incompressible, or h' //c' =0, t h e equation for K
6 4 2
becomes a cubic /c' — 8/e' + 24/e' — 16 = 0, which h a s a real positive root
214] SURFACE OF A BODY 297
2 2 2
•91275... and two complex roots (3'5436...) ± i(22301,..). Since K j(f + 9)
is finite and JI /K = 0, equation (43) shows t h a t r is real. Equation (49)
2 2
shows t h a t for t h e complex values of K

2 2
4 r s / ( / + g ) = - (2-7"431...) ± t (6'8846...) (51)
Since t h e real p a r t of s, as given by this equation, has the opposite sign to r,
there are no motions of t h e type under discussion which correspond with t h e
2
complex values of K \ B u t when we take t h e real root, viz. K = ' 9 1 2 7 5 . . . ,
we find
2 2 2
r*=f* + * s = (-08724...)(f + g ),
g 9 (52)
and we have a wave-motion of t h e required type. The velocity of propagation
of t h e waves is
58
PN(P + f) = ('9554...) V(WA ( >
which is a little less t h a n t h e velocity of equivoluminal waves propagated
through t h e solid.
W h e n t h e material satisfies Poisson s condition (X = //,), we have /2
tc /ti 2
= 3,
and then there is a wave-motion of t h e required type, in which
/2 2 2 2 2 2 2
/e = - 8 4 5 3 . . . , r =(>7l82...)(f + g ), s = ('1546...) ( / + # ), (54)
and t h e velocity of propagation is now
(•9194...) VW/>) (55)

Concerning t h e above type of waves Lord Rayleigh (loc. cit.) r e m a r k e d :
" I t is not improbable t h a t t h e surface waves here investigated play an
i m p o r t a n t part in earthquakes, and in t h e collision of elastic solids.
Diverging in two dimensions only, they must acquire at a great distance
from t h e source a CONTINUALLY increasing preponderance." T h e subject has
been investigated further by T. J. I'A. Bromwich* and H . L a m b f . T h e
former showed that, when gravity is t a k e n into account, t h e results obtained
by Lord Rayleigh are not essentially altered. T h e latter has discussed t h e
effect of a limited initial disturbance at or near t h e surface of a solid body.
H e showed t h a t , at a distance from t h e source, t h e disturbance begins after
an interval answering to t h e propagation of a wave of irrotational dilatation;
a second stage of t h e motion begins after an interval answering to t h e propa
gation of a wave of equivoluminal distortion, and a disturbance of much
greater amplitude begins to be received after an interval answering to t h e
propagation of waves of t h e t y p e investigated by Lord Rayleigh. T h e
importance of these waves in relation to t h e theory of earthquakes has
perhaps not yet been fully appreciated.
* London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 30 (1899).

t Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 203 (1904).
CHAPTER XIV.
TORSION.
215. Stress and strain i n a t w i s t e d prism.

I n Article 86 (d) we found a stress-system which could be maintained in
a cylinder, of circular section, by terminal couples about t h e axis of t h e
cylinder. The cylinder is twisted by t h e couples, so t h a t any cross-section
is turned, relatively to any other, through an angle proportional to the
distance between t h e planes of section. The traction on any cross-section
at any point is tangential to the section, and is at right angles to t h e plane
containing t h e axis of t h e cylinder and t h e p o i n t ; t h e magnitude of this
traction at any point is proportional to t h e distance of the point from t h e
axis.
W h e n the section of t h e cylinder or prism is not circular, the above
stress-system does not satisfy t h e condition t h a t the cylindrical boundary is.
free from traction. W e seek to modify it in such ai way t h a t all the conditions
may be satisfied. Since t h e tractions applied at (the ends of the prism are
statically equivalent to couples in t h e planes of j the ends, and the portion
of t h e prism contained between any cross-section and an end is kept in
equilibrium by t h e tractions across this section and t h e couple at t h e end,,
t h e tractions in question must be equivalent to a couple in the plane of t h e
cross-section, and t h e moment of this couple must be t h e same for all cross-
sections. A suitable distribution of tangential traction on t h e cross-sections,
must be t h e essential feature of the stress-system of which we are in search.
Accordingly, we seek t o satisfy all t h e conditions by means of a distribution
of shearing stress, made u p of suitably directed tangential tractions on t h e
elements of t h e cross-sections, combined, as they m u s t be, with equal
tangential tractions on elements of properly chosen longitudinal sections.
W e shall find t h a t a system of this kind is a d e q u a t e ; and we can foresee,
to some extent, t h e character of t h e strain and displacement within t h e
prism. For t h e strain corresponding with the shearing stress, which we
have described, is shearing strain which involves, in general, two simple
shears at each point. One of these simple shears consists of a relative sliding
in a transverse direction of elements of different cross-sections; this is t h e
type of strain which occurred in the circular cylinder. T h e other simple
shear consists of a relative sliding, parallel to t h e length of t h e prism, of t
different longitudinal linear elements. By this shear t h e cross-sections
become distorted into curved surfaces. T h e shape into which any cross-
section is distorted is determined by t h e displacement in t h e direction of
t h e length of t h e prism.
216. T h e torsion p r o b l e m * .
W e shall take t h e generators of t h e surface of t h e prism to be parallel t o
t h e axis of z and shall suppose t h a t t h e material is isotropic. The discussion
9
in the last Article leads us to assume for t h e displacement t h e formulae

U = — TyZ, V = TZX, W = T<j), (1)
where is a function of x and y , and r is the twist. W e work out t h e
consequences of this assumption.
The strain-components t h a t do not vanish are e zx and e , and these are
yz
e T e T + x (2
* ° = ^ - y ) > ^ ^ ) >
The stress-components t h a t do not vanish are X z and Y z> and they are given
by the equations
*->"<&-')• <»>
The equations of equilibrium, when there are no body forces, are satisfied if
t h e equation
holds a t all points of any cross-section. T h e condition t h a t t h e cylindrical

bounding surface of t h e prism is free from traction is satisfied if t h e equation
= y cos (x, v) — x cos (y, v) (5)
holds at all points of the bounding curve of any cross-section. The com
patibility of t h e boundary condition (5) with t h e differential equation (4) is
shown by integrating the left-hand and right-hand members of (5) round t h e
boundary, and transforming t h e line-integrals into surface-integrals t a k e n
over the area of t h e cross-section. The integral of the left-hand member of
(5) taken round t h e boundary is equivalent to t h e integral of t h e left-hand
m e m b e r of (4) taken over t h e area of the cross-section; it therefore vanishes.
T h e integral of the right-hand member of (5) t a k e n round t h e boundary also
vanishes.
* The theory is due to Saint-Venant. See Introduction, footnote 50 and p. 19.

The tractions on any cross-section are, of course, statically equivalent to
a single force (which may be zero) at t h e origin of (x, y) and a couple. W e
show t h a t they are equivalent to a couple only. T h e axis of t h e couple is
clearly parallel to t h e generators of t h e surface of t h e prism. W e have to
show t h a t
jjx dxdy z — 0, jJY dxdy=0.
z
Now jjX dxdy

z = /JUT ~~ y) dxdy,
and this may be replaced by
x y + + dxdy
^ i " )} h {" (fy *)}] '
by the help of t h e differential equation (4). T h e expression last written may
be transformed into ah integral taken round t h e bounding curve, viz.
fXT joc j j ^ — y cos (x, v) + x cos (y, z>) j ds,
where ds is t h e element of arc of t h e bounding curve. This integral vanishes

in consequence of t h e boundary condition (5). W e have t h u s proved t h a t
jjx dxdy
z — 0, and in a similar way we may prove t h a t j'JY dxdy z = 0. It
follows t h a t t h e tractions on a cross-section are statically equivalent to a

couple about t h e axis of z of moment
+ y2+x y dxdy (6)

^ IIif ty~ fa)
W e have now proved t h a t t h e prism can be held in t h e displaced position
given by equations (1) by means of couples applied at its ends, t h e axes of
t h e couples being parallel to t h e central-line of t h e prism. The moment of
t h e couple when t h e twist is T is a quantity Cr, where
C^^ff^ + f + x^-y^dxdy (7)

dy
T h e quantity C is t h e product of t h e rigidity of t h e material and a quantity

of t h e fourth degree in t h e linear dimensions of t h e cross-section. C is
sometimes called t h e " torsional r i g i d i t y " of t h e prism.
The complete solution of t h e problem of torsion, for a prism of any form

of section, is effected when <j> is determined so as to satisfy t h e equation (4)
and t h e boundary condition (5). T h e problem of determining ob for a given
boundary is sometimes called t h e " torsion problem " for t h a t boundary. T h e
function is sometimes called t h e " torsion-function " for t h e boundary.
In the above solution the twisting couple is applied by means of tractions X , Y which 9 Z)
are expressed by (3). The practical utility of the solution is not confined to the case where
the couple is applied in this way, When the length of the prism is great compared with
the linear dimensions of its cross-section, the solution will represent the state of the
prism everywhere except in comparatively small parts near the ends, whether the twisting
couple is applied in the specified way or not. [Cf. Article 89.]
The potential energy per unit of length of the twisted prism is
,+ +
*^//{®-') ® ' ) } ^
and this is equal to
cos v x c o s v
— J 4> {y ) ~~ )}
2
It follows that the potential energy per unit of length is JCV .
217. M e t h o d of solution of the torsion problem.
Since <F> is a plane harmonic function, there exists a conjugate function YJR
which is such t h a t CF> + ITY is a function of t h e complex variable X + IY; and,
if -YJR can be found, <F> can be written down by means of the equations
DEFY DYFR D<J> DTY
DX DY' DY DX'
Fig. 21.
The function ^ satisfies t h e equation + = 0 , at all points within the
bounding curve of t h e cross-section, and a certain condition at this boundary.

We proceed to find the boundary-condition for ty.
302 ANALOGY OF THE TORSION PROBLEM TO [CH. XIV
T a k i n g ds for t h e element of arc of t h e bounding curve, and observing

that, when t h e senses of s and v are those indicated by arrows in Fig. 2 1 ,
•cos (x, v) = dy/ds, cos (y, v) = — dxjds, t h e condition (5) may be written
d-yfr dy dty dx _ dy dx
y X
3y ds dx ds ds ds'
a n d it follows t h a t at t h e boundary,
2 2
^ - \ (x + y ) = const (8)
The problem is t h u s reduced to t h a t of finding a plane harmonic function
which satisfies this condition. Apart from additive constants the functions </>
a n d ^ are uniquely determinate*.
218. Analogies w i t h H y d r o d y n a m i c s .
(a) The functions </> and are mathematically identical with the
velocity-potential and stream-function of a certain irrotational motion of
incompressible frictionless fluid, contained in a vessel of t h e same shape as
t h e prismf. This motion is t h a t which would be set u p by rotating the
vessel about its axis with angular velocity equal to — 1.
2 2
(b) The function — \ ix + y ) is mathematically identical with the
velocity in a certain laminar motion of viscous fluid. The fluid flows under
pressure t h r o u g h a pipe, and the section of the pipe is t h e same as t h a t
of the prism j .
2 2
(c) T h e function ^ — \ (x + y ) is also mathematically identical with the
stream-function of a motion of incompressible frictionless fluid circulating
with uniform spin, equal to unity, in a fixed cylindrical vessel of t h e same
shape as t h e prism§. T h e moment of momentum of the liquid is equal to
t h e quotient of t h e torsional rigidity of t h e prism by the rigidity of the
material. The velocity of t h e fluid at any point is mathematically identical
with t h e shearing strain of t h e material of t h e prism at t h e point.
I n t h e a n a l o g y (a) t h e vessel r o t a t e s as s t a t e d relatively t o s o m e frame regarded as
fixed, and t h e a x e s of x and y rotate w i t h t h e vessel. T h e v e l o c i t y of a particle of t h e
fluid relative t o t h e fixed frame i s resolved i n t o c o m p o n e n t s parallel t o t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s
p o s i t i o n s of t h e a x e s of x a n d y. T h e s e c o m p o n e n t s are dqb/dx a n d dqb/dy. T h e v e l o c i t y of
t h e fluid relative t o t h e vessel is utilized i n t h e analogy (c).
W e m a y u s e t h e analogy i n t h e form (a) to d e t e r m i n e t h e effect of t w i s t i n g t h e p r i s m
a b o u t a n axis w h e n t h e effect of t w i s t i n g a b o u t a n y parallel axis i s k n o w n . L e t ob be t h e
0
torsion-function w h e n t h e a x i s m e e t s a cross-section a t t h e origin of y); and l e t 0' b e

t h e torsion-function w h e n t h e p r i s m is t w i s t e d a b o u t an axis parallel to t h e first, a n d
m e e t i n g t h e section at a p o i n t y'). R o t a t i o n of t h e v e s s e l a b o u t t h e second axis i s
e q u i v a l e n t at a n y i n s t a n t t o rotation a b o u t t h e first a x i s c o m b i n e d w i t h a certain m o t i o n of
* The functions are determined for a number of forms of boundary in Articles 221, 222 infra.
f Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil. Part n., pp. 242 et seq.
J J. Boussinesq, J. de math. (Liouville), (Ser. 2), t. 16 (1871).
§ A. G. Greenhill, Article * Hydromechanics,' Ency. Brit., 9th edition.
217-219] CERTAIN PROBLEMS IN HYDRODYNAMICS 303
t r a n s l a t i o n , w h i c h is t h e s a m e for all p o i n t s of t h e vessel. T h i s i n s t a n t a n e o u s m o t i o n

of t r a n s l a t i o n i s t h e m o t i o n of t h e first a x i s produced b y rotation a b o u t t h e s e c o n d ; a n d
t h e c o m p o n e n t v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e directions of t h e axes are — y' and x\ since t h e angular
f f
v e l o c i t y of t h e vessel i s - 1 . I t follows t h a t w e m u s t h a v e <j> = cl)0-xy'+yx . The
c o m p o n e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t s are therefore g i v e n b y t h e e q u a t i o n s
F
u= —T (y-y')z, V=T(%-%')z, w = T$ ;
a n d t h e stress is t h e s a m e as i n t h e case where t h e axis of rotation p a s s e s t h r o u g h
t h e origin. T h e torsional couple a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y also are t h e s a m e in the
t w o cases.
219. Distribution of shearing stress.

The stress at any point consists of two superposed stress-systems. I n one
system we have shearing stresses X and T of amounts — fjury and /JLTX
z z
respectively. I n this system t h e tangential traction per u n i t of area on t h e

plane z = const, is directed, at each point, along t h e tangent to a circle,
having its centre at t h e origin and passing t h r o u g h t h e point. There m u s t
b e equal tangential traction per unit of area on a cylindrical surface standing
on this circle, and this traction is directed parallel to the axis of z. I n the
second system we have shearing stresses X and Y of amounts ybrdfyjdx and z z
fjLTdfyjdy. The corresponding tangential traction per unit of area on t h e

plane z = const, is directed at each point along t h e normal to t h a t curve of
t h e family 0 = const, which passes through the point, and its amount is
proportional to t h e gradient of </>. There m u s t be equal tangential traction
per unit of area on a cylindrical surface standing on t h a t curve of the family
= const, which passes through t h e point, and t h e direction of this traction
is t h a t of t h e axis of z. These statements concerning t h e stress are inde
p e n d e n t of t h e choice of axes of x and y in t h e plane of the cross-section, so
long as t h e origin remains the same.
The resultant of the two stress-systems consists of shearing stress with

components X and Y , which are given by t h e equations (3). If we p u t
z z
3 2
f-i0 + 2/ ) = ^> (9)
t h e direction of the tangential traction (X Y ) across t h e normal section at
Zy z
any point is t h e tangent to t h a t curve of t h e family ^ = const, which passes

through t h e point, and t h e m a g n i t u d e of this traction is fjurd^jdv, where dv
is t h e element of t h e normal to t h e curve. The curves ^ = const, may be
called "lines of shearing stress."
The magnitude of t h e resultant tangential traction may also be expressed
by t h e formula
(10)
and this result is independent of t h e directions of t h e axes of x and y. If

we choose for the axis of x a line parallel to t h e direction of t h e tangential
traction at one point P , the shearing stress at P will be equal to t h e value
at P of t h e function fir (d<j>/dx — y), and t h e ^-component of the traction at
any other point Q will be, equal to t h e value of t h e same function at Q.
Now this function, being harmonic, cannot have a m a x i m u m or a minimum
value at P ; there is therefore some point, Q, in the neighbourhood of P , a t
which it has a greater value t h a n it has at P . Thus t h e ^-component of t h e
traction at some point Q near to P is greater t h a n t h e traction at P ; and
t h e traction at Q must therefore be greater than t h a t at P . I t follows t h a t
t h e shearing stress cannot be a m a x i m u m at any point within t h e p r i s m ;
and therefore t h e greatest value of t h e shearing stress is found on t h e
cylindrical boundary*.
220. Strength to resist torsion.

T h e resultant shearing strain is proportional to t h e resultant shearing
stress, and t h e extension and contraction along t h e principal axes of t h e
strain at any point are each equal to half the shearing strain at the p o i n t ;
and t h u s t h e strength of t h e prism to resist torsion depends on the maximum
shearing stress. Practical rules for t h e limit of safe loading m u s t express t h e
condition t h a t this m a x i m u m is not to exceed a certain value.
Some results of practical,importance can be deduced from t h e form of
hydrodynamical analogy [Article 218 (c)] in which use is made of a circu
lating motion with uniform spin. Suppose a shaft t r a n s m i t t i n g a couple to
contain a cylindrical flaw of circular section with its axis parallel to t h a t of
t h e shaft. If t h e diameter of t h e cavity is small compared with t h a t of
t h e shaft, and t h e cavity is at a distance from t h e surface great compared
with its diameter, t h e problem is very nearly t h e same as t h a t of liquid
streaming past a cylinder. Now we know t h a t t h e velocity of liquid streaming
past a circular cylinder has a m a x i m u m value equal to twice the velocity of
t h e stream, arid we may infer that, in t h e case of t h e shaft, t h e shear near
t h e cavity is twice as great as t h a t at a distance. If t h e cavity is a good deal
nearer to t h e surface t h a n to t h e axis, or if there is a semicircular groove on
t h e surface, t h e shear in t h e neighbourhood of t h e cavity (or t h e groove)
may be nearly twice t h e m a x i m u m shear t h a t would exist if t h e r e were no
cavity (or groove) f.
If the boundary has anywhere a sharp corner projecting outwards, t h e
velocity of t h e fluid at t h e corner vanishes, and therefore t h e shear in the
torsion-problem is zero at such a corner. If the boundary has a sharp corner
projecting inwards, the velocity is theoretically infinite, and the torsion of
a prism with such a section will be accompanied by set in the neighbourhood
of t h e corner.
* This theorem was first stated by J. Boussinesq, loc. cit. The proof in the text will be found
in a paper by L. N. G. Filon, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 193 (1900). Boussinesq
had supposed that the points of maximum shearing stress must be those points of the contour
which are nearest to the axis; but Filon showed that this is not necessarily the case.
f Cf. J. Larmor, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 33 (1892).
219-221] SPECIAL SOLUTIONS OF THE TORSION PROBLEM 305
Saint-Venant in his memoir of 1855 called attention to t h e inefficiency

of corners projecting outwards, and gave several numerical illustrations of
t h e diminution of torsional rigidity in prisms having such corners as compared
with circular cylinders of the same sectional area.
2 2 1 . Solution of t h e t o r s i o n p r o b l e m for certain boundaries.

W e shall now show how to find t h e function <f> from t h e equation (4) and
t h e condition (5) when t h e boundary of t h e section of t h e prism has one or
other of certain special forms. T h e arbitrary constant which m a y be added
to cf> will in general be adjusted so t h a t cf> shall vanish a t t h e origin.
(a) The circle.
If t h e cylinder of circular section is twisted about its axis of figure,
(f> vanishes, and we have t h e solution already given in Article 86 (d). If it
is twisted about any parallel axis <j> does not vanish, b u t can be determined
by t h e method explained in Article 218. I n t h e latter case t h e cross-sections
are not distorted, b u t are displaced so as to make an angle differing slightly
from a right angle with t h e axis.
(b) The ellipse.
T h e function ^ is a plane harmonic function which satisfies t h e condition
— \ (x -f y ) = const, a t t h e boundary x /a + y /b = 1. If we assume for \jr
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
a form A (x — y ), we find t h e equation
2 2
(±-A)a = (i + A)b .
I t follows t h a t we m u s t have
2 2
f la'-ft", 2 x
2 , a -b , .
= ( 1 2 )
* 2 ^ < * - t f > '
I t is clear t h a t this solution is applicable to t h e case of a boundary
consisting of two concentric similar and similarly situated ellipses. T h e
prism is t h e n a hollow elliptic tube.
'(c) The rectangle*.
T h e boundaries are given by t h e equations x = + a, y—±b. The function
2 2
^ differs by a constant from J (y + a ) when x — ±a and b >y > — b; it
2 2
differs by t h e same constant from \ (x -f b ) when y = ±b and a > x > — a.
W e introduce a new function by means of t h e equation
T h e n ^ is a plane harmonic function within t h e rectangle; and we may

t a k e yfr' to vanish on t h e sides y = ±b, and to be equal to y — b on t h e sides 2 2
x = ± a. Since t h e boundary conditions are not altered when we change x

into — x or y into — y, we seek to satisfy all t h e conditions by assuming for
t/r' a formula of t h e type XA cosh mx cos my.
m The conditions which hold at
* The corresponding hydrodynamical problem was solved by Stokes, Cambridge Phil. Soc.
Trans., vol. 8 (1843) = Math. and Phys. Papers, vol. 1, p. 16.
L. E. 20
t h e boundaries y = ± 6 require t h a t m should be £ (2n + 1) 77-/6, where n is an
2 2
integer. If we assume that, when b > y > — b, t h e function y — b can be
expanded in a series according to t h e form
TR- V = XA M+1 cosh < i ! l + * l ™ c o s ;
we may determine t h e coefficients by multiplying both m e m b e r s of this

equation by cos {(2n + 1) Try/2b], and i n t e g r a t i n g both members with respect
to y between t h e extreme values — b and b. W e should t h u s find
2 w 1 W t 2 3
A cosh ( + ) - (-)n i + 4 6 ,
This process suggests t h a t when b > y > — b t h e sum of t h e series
2 2
is y — b . W e cannot at once conclude t h a t this result is proved by Fourier's
theorem*, because a Fourier's series of cosines of multiples of Try/2b represents
a function in an interval given by t h e inequalities 26 > y > — 2b, and t h e
2 2
value y — b of t h e function to be expanded is given only in t h e interval
b > y > — b. If t h e Fourier's series of cosines contains uneven multiples of
Try/2b only, t h e sign of every t e r m of it is changed when for y we p u t 2b — y \
it follows that, if t h e series (13) is a Fourier's series of which t h e sum is
2 2 2 2
y — b when b > y > 0, t h e sum of t h e series when 26 > y > b is b — (26 — y ) .
Now we may show t h a t t h e Fourier's series for an even function of y , which
2 2 2 2
has t h e value y — b when 6 > y > 0, and t h e value 6 — (26 — y ) when
26 > y > 6, is in fact t h e series (13). W e may conclude t h a t t h e form
of y}r is
, (2n + 1) TTX
pfyO h _ -
16* + x (* - «.) - 46* ( X I - i = £ - 2 2 b

cos ( 2 n + 1
) ^
C 0 8 h
26
and hence t h a t
. . (2n -f-1) TTX
Aiof Y% 2
(-) smb. 26 • (2n+l)7ryt
2
$ = -xy
r
+ 4 sm^ ^-^'....(14)
1 N
7
* W w = 0 (2?i +1) ^ (2n + 1)TT(X 26
cosn 2 6

T h e torsion problem h a s been solved for m a n y forms of boundary. One m e t h o d is t o
a s s u m e a p l a n e h a r m o n i c function as t h e function and d e t e r m i n e possible boundaries
* Observe, for example, that the Fourier's series of cosines of multiples of iryfeb which has
2 2
the sum y - b throughout the interval 2b>y > — 26 is
2
TT 2
n==1 n 2b
t The expression for <p must be unaltered when x and y, a and &, are interchanged. For an
account of the identities which arise from this observation the reader is referred to a paper by
F . Purser, Messenger of Math., vol. 11 (1882).
2 2
from the equation yj/ -±(x +y ) = const. As an example of this method we may take \\r to
3 2
be A (x -3xy ); if we put A — -l/6a, the boundary can be the equilateral triangle* of
altitude 3a, of which the sides are given by the equation
(x - a) (x -y v/3 + 2a) (x +y ^ 3 + 2a) = 0.
Other examples of this method have been discussed by Saint-Venant.
Another method is to use conjugate functions rj such that £ + irj is a function of
x+iy. If these functions can be chosen so that the boundary is made up of curves along
which either £ or -q has a constant value, then \\t is the real part of a function of £ + in,
which has a given value at the boundary; and the problem is of the same kind as the
torsion problem for the rectangle. We give some examples of this method :—
(i) A sector of a circlet, boundaries given by r — 0, r — a, 8— ±3.—We find
% + 1
where ^ n + i=( - )
2
_(2w + l ) n - - 4 j 3 (2% + 1 ) T T (2^ + 1 ) T T + 4 / 3 .
If we write re^ — ax, then
cos 2(3 2/3 Jo I * 2

X Jo
'l + xP ""l+xP
-1 71
where | x | ^ 1 , and t a n ^ " ^ denotes that branch of the function which vanishes withX.
In case TT/2J3 is an integer greater than 2 the integrations can be performed, but
when 7r/2/3 = 2 the first two terms become infinite, and their sum has a finite limit, and we
find for a quadrantal cylinder
2 2 4
^- j)=
LC ~ \^-x l o g ^ - f t a n - i ^ + i {^ ~^j 2
log(l+^ )J-
For a semi-circular cylinder
2
^-^=j [i^- -(, i) i (^ > )io i±g. t + + e + 2 g
(ii) For a curvilinear rectangle bounded by two concentric circular arcs and two radii,
we use conjugate functions a and (3, which are given by the equation
a+tl3
x+Ly = ce ;
a a
we take the outer radius, a to be ce ° and the inner, b to be ce~ ° (so that c is the geome
trical mean of the radii), and we take the bounding radii to be given by the equations
j8=±0o- We find
> = - J abe^ 5£f£-
2
+ 2*a W S A *»,
COS ^0
. , ( 2 ^ + 1 ) TT a. , (2^ + 1 ) ^
sinn — cosh
where 3> — J cosh 2 a 0 —-~ H sinh 2a,
7rQ
cosh ' ~y ° sinh
i w 1) 7ra (
n ( 2 ^ + 1) TTjS
( - ) sin
and A n —-
"{(2^+l)7T-4/3 } ( 2 f l + l ) TT {(2^+1)77 + 4 ^
0
* See Figures 23 and 24 in Article 223.

f See A. G. Greenhill, Messenger of Math., vol. 8 (1877), p. 89, and vol. 10 (1880), p. 83.
(iii) When the twisted prism is a hollow shaft, the inner and outer boundaries being
circles which are not concentric, we may use the conjugate functions £, 77 determined
by the equation
x + iy — c tan ^(£+"7);
and, if rj = a represents the outer boundary, and 7 7 = / 3 the inner, we may prove * that
wa
/ 0 9 ^ /
2 N ^"^coth 8SINH^(?7-a) + 6 ~ c o t h a s i n h n ( 8 - 7 7 )
\k = 2c 2 ( - )
NM I
., r ——-cosÂ
J
(iv) When the boundaries are confocal ellipses and hyperbolas we may use the conju
gate functions £, rj determined by the equation
a+iy=c cosh +
In the case of a hollow tube, of which the section is bounded by two confocal ellipses.
£ and £ we may prove t that
0 13
,Binh2(g -g) + sinh2(g--g )

0 1
COS 2rj.
sinh 2 (£>-£)
223. Graphic expression of the results.

(a) Distortion of the cross-sections.
The curves <fi = const, are the contour lines of the surface into which any cross-
section of the prism is distorted. These curves were traced by Saint-Venant for a number
of forms of the boundary. Two of the results are shown in Fig. 22 and Fig. 23. In both
Fig. 22.
cases the cross-section is divided into a number of compartments, 4 in Fig. 22, 6 in
Fig. 23, and changes sign as we pass from any compartment to an adjacent com
partment, but the forms of the curves cj>=const, are unaltered. If we think of the axis
of the prism as vertical, then the curved surface into which any cross-section is strained
lies above its initial position in one compartment and below it in the adjacent compart
ments. Saint-Venant showed that the sections of a square prism are divided in this way
into 8 compartments by the diagonals and the lines drawn parallel to the sides through
the centroid. When the prism is a rectangle, of which one pair of opposite sides is much
longer than the other pair, there are only 4 compartments separated by the lines drawn
parallel to the sides through the centroid. The limiting case between rectangles which
are divided into 4 compartments and others which are divided into 8 compartments
* H. M. Macdonald, Cambridge Phil, Soc. Proc, vol. 8 (1893).
+ Cf. A. G. Greenhill, Quart. J. of Math., vol. 16 (1879). Other examples of elliptic and
hyperbolic boundaries are worked out by Filon, loc. cit. p. 304.
222, 223] OF A TWISTED PRISM 309
occurs when the ratio of adjacent sides is 1-4513. The study of the figures has promoted
comprehension of the result that the cross-sections of a twisted prism, of non-circular
section, do not remain plane.
y
Fig. 23.
(b) Lines of shearing stress.
The distribution of tangential traction on the cross-sections of a twisted prism can be
represented graphically by means of the lines of shearing stress. These lines are deter
mined by the equation
They have the property that the tangential traction on the cross-section is directed at any
point along the tangent to that curve of the family which passes through the point. If
the curves are traced for equidifferent values of c, the tangential traction at any point is
measured by the closeness of consecutive curves.
In the case of the prism of elliptic section
2 2 2 2 2 2
^ - J {x +f) = -(x b +fa )/(a + b ),
and the lines of shearing stress are therefore concentric similar and similarly situated
ellipses. In the case of the equilateral triangle
2 2 1 3 2 2 2
^ - J (x +y ) = - J a ~ 0 - Zxy + Sax +Zay \
and the lines of shearing stress are of the forms shown in Fig. 24.
Fig. 24.
310 CALCULATION OF THE TORSIONAL [CH. XIV
2 2 4 . Analogy to the form of a stretched m e m b r a n e loaded

uniformly*.
Let a homogeneous membrane be stretched with uniform tension T and fixed at its
edge. Let the edge be a given curve in the plane of x, y. When the membrane is
subjected to pressure, of amount p per unit of area, it will undergo a small displacement
z, and z is a function of x and y which vanishes at the edge. The equation of equilibrium
of the membrane is
2 2
\doo dy )
The function 2Tzjp is determined by the same conditions as the function ^ of Article 219,
provided that the edge of the membrane is the same as the bounding curve of the cross-
section of the twisted prism. It follows that the contour lines of the loaded membrane
are identical with the lines of shearing stress in the cross-section of the prism.
Further the torsional rigidity of the prism can be represented by the volume contained
between the surface of the loaded membrane and the plane of its edge. We have seen
already in Article 216 that the torsional rigidity is given by the equation
or, in terms of ^, w e have
= j jvdxdy,
2
d ^r 92\J>
2
since ^ vanishes at the edge and ^ + 3^2 + = 0 . It follows that the volume in question
is (pl4fiT)G.
225. T w i s t i n g couple.
T h e couple can be evaluated from (6) of Article 216 when t h e function (f>
is known. W e shall record t h e results in certain cases.
(a) The circle.
If a is the radius of t h e circle t h e twisting couple is
4
^ f i n r a (15)
(b) The ellipse.

From t h e value of in Article 221 (b) we find t h a t the twisting couple is
s s 2 2
fjLT7Ta b /(a + b) (16)
(c) The rectangle.

F r o m the result of Article 221 (c) we find for the twisting couple t h e
formula
2 2 2 2 2
fir§ab (a + b ) - firâb (a - b ) + V r & (^J jj^x ^ - y dxdy,
* The analogy here described was pointed out by L. Prandtl, Phys. Zeitschr., Bd. 4 (1903),
it affords a means of exhibiting to the eye the distribution of stress in a twisted prism.
224, 225] RIGIDITY OF A PRISM 311
where <& stands for t h e series

(2n+l)wx. . (2n + l ) Try
I (-)" 26 26 S i n
n% (2n + If (2w+l)7ra
c o g h
Taking one t e r m of t h e series, we have a term of t h e integral, viz.:

(_)» 2
2
/ / { . s i n h ^ ^ c o s ^ ^ ^
(2w + l ) cosh {(2n + 1 ) 7ra/26} 26
, (2^ + 1 ) ™ . (2n + l W y ] 7 7
— 2/ cosh ^~ sm —~—-> dxdy.

Now
. . (2n + l)irx 7 2b (2n + l)ira
i: j x sma t
26
0 a# = ^ — —
(2w +
r
l)7T
— 2a cosh
26
26 • . *(2n + l)ira
2 sinh
(2n,+ l ) 7 T ~ 26
. (2n + 1) Tra; , 26 - . , (2n+lWa
C 0 8 h = 2 S m h
, — S ^ (2^+lhr 26 '
d 2 / ! ( 1 }
5 26 -(2 W + l) r' 7 '
f „, c i n (2» + l)7ry _ 86-
y s m
J_ 6 26 d y
(2 +
W
2
1) TT^ I H
Hence t h e twisting couple is equal to

4
n==0
1
(2w + l) 4
- ^ ( V W) 1o ( 2 ^T+ ^l ) t
r
% =
5
a n h ^ 2
26
^ ^ .
- 4 4
Since 2 (2?i+ l ) is 7r /96, we may write down t h e value of the twisting
couple in t h e form
^ . ^ . ( ^ i ^ - L ^ e ^ ( M )
The series in (17) has been evaluated by Saint-Venant for numerous values of the
ratio a : b. When a > 3b it is very nearly constant, and the value of the twisting couple
3
is nearly equal to fxrab - ^ (3*361)J. For a square the couple is (4*4985) p,ra\
The twisting couple was also calculated by Saint-Venant for a number of other forms
of section. He found that the resistance of a prism to torsion is often very well expressed
by replacing the section of the prism by an ellipse of the same area and the same moment
of inertia*. The formula for the twisting couple in the case of an ellipse of area A and
2
moment of inertia / is /xr A^/ATT !.
* Saint-Venant, Paris, G. R. t. 88 (1879). t

812 TORSION OF A PRISM OF ÔLOTROPIC MATERIAL [CH. X I V
226. Torsion of seolotropic prism.

The theory which has been explained in Article 216 can be extended to a prism of
seolotropic material when the normal section is a plane of symmetry of structure. Taking
the axis of z to be parallel to the generators of the bounding surface, we have the strain-
energy-function expressed in the form belonging to crystalline materials that correspond
with the group C (Article 109). The displacement being expressed by the formulae (1),
2
the stress-components that do not vanish are X and Y , and these are given by the z z
equations
x =t c +c + Y T +c
* [ «(M-y) «(| *)]' -= [°«+*) «@- •
The equations of equilibrium are equivalent to the equation
2 2 2
d^ d (f> 8 <£
c 2+C 2+2c J
^dx ^dy ^dxTy'°
which must hold over the area of the cross-section ; and the condition that the bounding
surface may be free from traction is satisfied if the equation
C O S C x c o s
= c& V 4 4 (y» v) - c 45 {x cos (x, v)-y cos (y, i,)}
holds at all points of the bounding curve. Exactly in the same way as in the case
of isotropy, we may prove that the differential equation and the boundary condition
are compatible, and that the tractions across a normal section are equivalent to a
couple of moment
The analysis is simplified considerably in case c = 0. If we put L for c and M for 45 44
c 55y the differential equation may be written
and, if./(a?, y) = 0 is the equation of the bounding curve, the boundary condition may
be written
ox ox dy oy * ox dy
We change the variables by putting
/L+M , /L+M . L+M
Then d>' satisfies the equation

2 2
dx' dy'
The equation / (x, y)=0 becomes F(x', y')=*0, where
F ( x \ y ' ) ^ f ( x ' y ^ ) ,
8 0 t h a t 9
' dx'~dx V L+M dy'~dy V L+M'
226] A N D RECTANGULAR CROSS-SECTION 313
and the boundary condition is transformed into
X
dx' dx' dy' dy' ^ dx' dy''
which is ^-—y' cos {x\ v)-x' cos(y', v),
if dv is the element of the normal to the transformed boundary. Thus oj can be found for
any boundary if <fi' can be found for an orthographic projection of that boundary; and
the problem of finding ft is the simple torsion problem which we considered before.
As an example we may take a rectangular prism with boundaries given by x— ±a,
y—±b. We should find that the formula for <f> is
IMW oo (_)n 2b JM . (2n + l ) 7 r y

3 S m
9- sjL Tr* „=o(2»+l) ^ ( 2 ^ + 1) W Z 2b
C O S n
2bjM
and that the twisting couple is expressed by the formula
[3 aJL \irj n=0(2n+lf 2b J

This formula has been used by W. Voigt in his researches on the elastic constants of
crystals. [See Article 113.]
CHAPTER XV.
THE BENDING OF A BEAM BY TERMINAL TRANSVERSE LOAD.
227. Stress i n a bent beam.

I n Article 87 we described the state of stress in a cylinder or prism of
any form of section held b e n t by terminal couples. T h e stress a t a point
consisted of longitudinal tension, or pressure, expressed by t h e formula
tension = — Mxjl,
where M is t h e bending moment, the plane of (y, z) contains t h e central-line,

t h e axis of x is directed towards the centre of curvature, and / is t h e moment
of inertia of t h e cross-section about an axis through its centroid at r i g h t
angles to t h e plane of bending. I n Article 95 we showed how an extension
of this theory could be made to the problem of t h e bending of a rectangular
beam, of small breadth, by terminal transverse load. W e found t h a t t h e
requisite stress-system involved tangential traction on t h e cross-sections as
well as longitudinal tensions and pressures, b u t t h a t t h e requisite tension,
or pressure, was determined in terms of the bending moment by t h e same
formula as in t h e case of bending by terminal couples. This theory will now
be generalized for a beam of any form of section*. Tangential tractions on
t h e elements of t h e cross-sections imply equal tangential tractions, acting in
t h e direction of t h e central-line, on elements of properly chosen longitudinal
sections, t h e two tangential tractions at each point constituting a shearing
stress. I t is natural to expect t h a t t h e stress-system which we seek to
determine consists of longitudinal tensions, and pressures, determined as
above, together with shearing stress, involving suitably directed tangential
tractions on the elements of t h e cross-sections. W e shall verify this antici
pation, and shall show t h a t there is one, and only one, distribution of
shearing stress by means of which t h e problem can be solved.
* The theory is due to Saint-Venant. See Introduction, footnote 50, and p. 20.
227, 228] SHEARING STRESS IN A BENT BEAM 315
228. Statement of t h e problem.

To fix ideas we take t h e central-line of t h e beam to be horizontal, and
one end of it to be fixed, and we suppose t h a t forces are applied to t h e cross-
section through this end so as to keep the beam in a nearly horizontal
position, and t h a t forces are applied to the cross-section containing t h e other end
in such a way as to be statically equivalent to a vertical load TT acting in a line
through the centroid of t h e section. W e t a k e t h e origin at the fixed end,
and the axis of z along t h e central-line, and we draw the axis of x vertically
downwards. F u r t h e r we suppose t h a t t h e axes of x and y are parallel to t h e
principal axes of inertia of the cross-sections at their centroids. We denote
t h e length of t h e beam by I, and suppose t h e material to be isotropic. W e
consider t h e case in which there are no body forces and no tractions on t h e
cylindrical bounding surface.
Fig. 25.
The bending moment at t h e cross-section distant z from the fixed end is

W (I — z). We assume t h a t the tension on any element of this section is
given by the equation
Z = -W(l z - z)x/I, (1)
2
where / stands for t h e integral jjx dxdy t a k e n over t h e area of the cross-
section. W e assume t h a t t h e stress consists of this tension Z and shearing z
stress having components X z and Y , so t h a t the stress-components X

z Xi Y,
y
Xy vanish; and we seek to determine t h e components of shearing stress Xz
and Y.
z
Two of the equations of equilibrium become dX /dz = 0, dY \dz = 0, and it

z z
follows t h a t X and Y must be independent of z. T h e third of t h e equations

z z
of equilibrium becomes
•(2)
dx dy I
The condition t h a t the cylindrical bounding surface is free from traction is
X cos (x, v) + Y cos (y, v) = 0
z z (3)
The problem before us is to determine X and Y as functions of x and y
z z
in accordance with the following conditions:—

(i) The differential equation ( 2 ) is satisfied at all points of t h e cross-
section of the beam.
(ii) T h e condition (3) is satisfied at all points of t h e bounding curve of
this section.
(iii) The tractions on t h e elements of area of t h e terminal cross-section
(z = I) are statically equivalent to a force W, directed parallel to t h e axis of
x> and acting at t h e centroid of t h e section.
(iv) The stress-system in which X = Y = X = 0, Z is given by (1), and x y y z
X , Y satisfy t h e conditions already stated, is such t h a t t h e conditions of

z z
compatibility of strain-components (Article 17) are satisfied.
229. N e c e s s a r y t y p e of shearing stress.
The assumed stress-system satisfies t h e equations
X =Y
x y =X y = 0, Z = -W(l-z)x/I
z i ^ = ^ = 0,
and consequently t h e strain-components satisfy the equations

_ W(l-z)x _ de^^dey,
x y zz x y
~ EI ' ~~ ~ ' — d z ~~ dz
where E and a denote Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio for t h e material.
The equations of compatibility of the type
2 2
^ ^yy de zz
2
d 6y Z
2 2
dz dy dydz
are satisfied identically, as also is t h e equation
2 d z* 2g
= _9_ f<teyz + _ de xy
dxdy dz \ dx dy dz
T h e remaining equations of compatibility of this t y p e become
d_ (deyz _ de \ _ zx Q d_ (de yz _ de ^ _ zx 2aW
dx\dx dy) ' dy\dx dy J EI
From these equations we deduce t h e equation
de yz de zx = 0 2oW
y
dx dy EI >
where 2r is a constant of i n t e g r a t i o n ; and from this equation it follows t h a t
e and e can be expressed in t h e forms
yz zx
%*=™+^> ^ = - ^ + | + i rw
y. !
w
where <£ is a function of x and y.
0
On substituting from these equations in t h e formulae X = yue and z zx
Y = /ne , and using t h e relation p = %E/(1 + <r\ we see t h a t equation (2)

z yz
takes t h e form
frft, 2(l + <r)W
+ U
da? dif EI '
and condition ( 3 ) takes t h e form
2
= T {y cos (x, v)-x cos (y, v)} - y cos (x, v).
These relations are simplified by p u t t i n g

W
<t>0 = T(/> - m {% + ^ + ( 1 + \<T)xtf\ (5)
Then is the torsion function for t h e section (Article 2 1 6 ) , and % is a

function which satisfies t h e equation
<•>
at all points of a cross-section, and t h e condition
2
| £ = - { 1 ax + ( 1 - £ < r ) 2/} cos (a?, i/) - ( 2 + cr) ay cos (y, z/)
2
(7)
a t all points of the bounding curve. The compatibility of t h e differential

equation ( 6 ) and t h e boundary condition ( 7 ) is shown by observing that, since
t h e integral jjxdxdy taken over the cross-section vanishes, t h e integral of t h e
right-hand member of ( 7 ) t a k e n round t h e boundary vanishes. The problem

of determining t h e function ^ from equation ( 6 ) and condition ( 7 ) may be
called t h e " flexure problem " for t h e section.
W h e n t h e functions c/> and % are known the shearing stresses X z and Yz
are known in t h e forms
...(8)
The terms t h a t contain T * express a system of tractions on t h e elements

of area of t h e cross-section, which are statically equivalent to a couple about
t h e axis z of moment
2 2 d
^\\(x + y + x^-y £)dxdy-
dy
and the terms which contain W would give rise to a couple about t h e same
axis of moment
W^VI g - * | + (
a - ( 2 + i * ) *y] dxdy.
W e adjust T SO t h a t t h e sum of these couples vanishes.

The tractions on the elements of area of a cross-section are statically
equivalent to a certain force at t h e centroid of t h e section and a certain
* They are of the same form as the tractions in the torsion problem.
'couple. W e show t h a t the force is of magnitude W and is directed parallel
to the axis of x, and t h a t t h e couple is of moment W(l — z) and has its axis
parallel to the axis of y. These statements are equivalent to t h e equations
jx dxdy
z = W, jjY dxdy
z = Q, jjz dxdy z = 0 ) (9)
and
jjyZ dxdy
z = 0, jj-xZ dxdyz = W(l-z), jf(xY -yX )dxdy
z z = 0. ...(10)
Now by (2) and (3) we may write down the equations

d
jjX dxdy
z = jj{x z +x ( ^ + ^ + dxdy
= W + jx [X cos (x v) -f Y cos (y, v)} ds

z } z
= Tf.
I n like manner, observing t h a t jjxydxdy vanishes, we may prove the
second of equations (9). The third of these equations and the first two of
equations (10) follow at once from the formula (1) for Z and t h e constant r Z)
has already been adjusted so t h a t t h e third of equations (10) shall be

satisfied.
T h e functions and % are each determinate, except for an additive
constant which does not affect t h e stress. W e have therefore shown t h a t the
problem stated in Article 228 admits of one, and only one, solution.
230. Formulae for the displacement.

T h e displacement can be deduced from the strain without determining
t h e forms of <fi and ^. The details of the work are as follows:—
W e have the equation
div _ W(l-z)x
~dz~ ~EI '
from w h i c h w e deduce t h e e q u a t i o n
2
w = -^jXZ + --^XZ + (j), (11)
w h e r e <£' is a function of x and y. A g a i n , we h a v e t h e e q u a t i o n s
du _
a X
wi w
Q ZX
dx~ EI ~ ' EI >
y y
dz EI 2 El ÊI ^dx dx
of w h i c h t h e second is obtained from (11) and t h e second of (4). T h e s e t w o e q u a t i o n s are
c o m p a t i b l e if
Again, we have the equations
dv_
a
wi w
X
dy~ EI * EI™'
T
dz ~~ dy dy '
and these are compatible if
2
S (0o-0') _W
J —x(
= 0.
r(T u
y* ^ EI r
du di)
Further, by differentiating the left-hand member of the equation ^ + ^ = 0 with respect
to z, we obtain the equation
The three equations for c/> - <fi' show that we must have
0
W
3
(j)' = c/> + cr -gj- (J*? + \ x i f ) -fix + ay+y',
0
where a, ft y' are constants. When we substitute for c/) from (5) we find the following 0
expression for cb':—

W
The displacement w is now determined. When we substitute for c/>' in the equations for
du/dz and dv/dz, we obtain the equations
f = -ry+~{h-\z>-
z i<r (*» - f)} + ft
dv W
From the equations for dujdx and du/dz we obtain the following form for u:—
u = - ryz+~ H I ( 0 + <rx*)-iza(x*-y*) -^]+$z+F 1 (y),
where F (y) is an unknown function of y. In like manner we find the following form
1
for v\—
W
v = Tzxi-jgj o-(l-z)xy — az + F (#), 2
where F (x) is an unknown function of x.

2 Since du/dy + dv/dx=0, the functions F u F2
satisfy the equation
and we must have

W
F 2
i(y) =-2^-^jly -yy+a, F (x)= x+ft,
2 y
where a, ft, y are constants of integration.

W e have now found t h e displacement in the form
W 2 2 2 z
x
u = - ryz + £j [i (I - z) or (x - y ) + ^lz - ±z ] -yy-hfiz-r- a', >
W
qj = TZX + JTJ cr{l — z)xy + yx — az + /3\
W
2 2
w = r(j>--gj[x(lz-\z ) + x + ocy ] -/3x + ay + y',
320 SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF FLEXURE [CH. X Y
in which a, ft, 7, a, ft', j are constants of integration. These equations give

t h e most general possible form for t h e displacement (u, v, w) when t h e stress
is determined by t h e conditions stated in Article 2 2 8 .
The terms of ( 1 2 ) t h a t contain a, ft, 7, a', ft', y represent a displacement
which would be possible in a rigid body, and these constants are to be
determined by imposing some conditions of fixity a t t h e origin. (Cf.
Article 1 8 . )
W e have supposed t h a t t h e origin is fixed, and we must therefore have
a =0, ft' = 0. W e shall, in general, suppose t h a t t h e additive constants in
t h e expressions for $ and ^ are determined so t h a t these functions vanish a t
t h e origin. T h e n we m u s t also have y = 0.
Besides fixing a point, we may fix a line through t h e point. W e shall
suppose t h a t the linear element which, in t h e unstressed state, lies along t h e
axis of y retains its primitive direction. T h e n we must have a = 0, 7 = 0.
Besides fixing a point, and a linear element through t h e point, we may
fix a surface element through t h e line. T h e value of t h e constant ft depends
upon t h e choice of this element. If we choose t h e element of t h e cross-
section, we m u s t have dw/dx = 0 a t t h e origin. If we choose t h e element of
t h e neutral plane (i.e. t h e plane x = 0), we must have du/dz = 0 a t the origin.
I n t h e former case t h e central element of t h e cross-section a t t h e fixed end
remains vertical; in t h e latter case t h e element of t h e central-line at t h e
fixed end remains horizontal. There is no reason for assuming t h a t in all
practical cases either of these conditions holds; most probably different
values of ft fit t h e circumstances of different particular cases.
231. Solution of the problem of flexure for certain boundaries.

W e shall now show how to find t h e function ^ from t h e equation (6) and
t h e condition (7) when the boundary of t h e section of t h e beam has one or
other of certain special forms. The constant which may be added to % will
generally be chosen so t h a t % vanishes at t h e origin.
(a) The circle.
2 2 2
The equation of t h e bounding curve is x 4- y = a . I n terms of polar
coordinates (r, 0) t h e boundary condition at t h e curve r = a is
2 2 2 2
^ = - a cos 0 {i<7 cos 0 + ( 1 - £ t r ) sin 0) - a sin 6 {(2 + a) sin 6 cos 6],
2 2
or ^ = - (f + \a) a cos 6 + f a cos 30.
Since % is a plane harmonic function within t h e circle r = a, we must have

2 z
^ = — ( J + 1 cr) a r cos 6 + \r cos 30,
x 3 3 2 13
or x = - (I + °? + i <> - ^2/ ) ( >
(6) Concentric circles.
The b e a m h a s t h e form of a hollow tube. I f a is t h e radius of t h e outer circle, a n d a Q x
t h a t of t h e inner, w e m a y p r o v e t h a t ^ i s of t h e form
x = - ( | + i ) J (a + of) r + - ^ r 4
(r 0
2
COS 6+Jr 3
cos 3 0 + c o n s t (14)
I n t h i s case w e c a n n o t a d j u s t t h e a d d i t i v e c o n s t a n t so as t o m a k e ^ v a n i s h a t t h e origin,
but t h e origin is i n t h e c a v i t y of t h e tube.
(c) The ellipse.

2 2 2 2
The equation of the bounding curve is x /a + y /b — 1. W e introduce
conjugate functions £, r) by means of t h e relation
x + iy = (a — b f cosh (£ + ltj), 2 2
and denote by h. The value of h at a point on t h e boundary is

d(x+ iy)
p/ab, where p is t h e central perpendicular on t h e t a n g e n t at t h e point. The
boundary condition may be written
A = 2
| - f {i^ + (i-i-)2/ l-f 2
(2 + <0®y,
or
^ = — b cos 7] {| era cos rj + (1 — \ cr) b sin 77} — a sin 77 (2 -f- cr) ab sin ?? cos rj;
2 2 2 2
and this is t h e same as
0 2 6 6 S c o s 2 s
gf = - K i +1 ") « + (i - ] v + K f + i*) «& + (i - 6 ] cos 3 . V
Hence we m u s t have
+ m +4*) + (i - 4<r) 6 ] s
cos 3 , ,
where f denotes the value of £ at t h e boundary, so t h a t
0
2 2 2 2
(a - & )* cosh f o = a, (a - 6 )* sinh f = 6. 0
Now we have
2 2
(x + tyY = (a - b f \ {cosh 3 (f + ^77) + 3 cosh (f + wy)},
so t h a t 4 r-î - 3 y——j—T = cosh 3£ cos 3T?.

2 2 2
(a - b y (a — a )* * 2
3
Also we have sinh 3 | = 4 sinh £ + 3 sinh £ . 0 0 0
Hence we find
X — [(l + 8»)tf + (i-i»>'']*
+ 1 K t + j „ «• + ( 1 - 5 ,> n *j£^sMî),
r 1 1 5
° * = - - 3 a 2 + 6 , * + g - W • • - < >
L. E. 21
I n t h e above analysis we have proceeded as if a were greater t h a n b, b u t
it is easy to verify t h a t t h e final result holds also when b > a. I n case b = a
it reduces to t h e result already found for the circle.
id) Confocal ellipses.
B y a n analysis similar t o t h e above t h e p r o b l e m m i g h t b e solved for a s e c t i o n b o u n d e d

b y t w o confocal ellipses. T h e result could n o t be expressed rationally i n t e r m s of x a n d y.
Taking £ 0 a n d £ t o be t h e v a l u e s of £ w h i c h correspond w i t h t h e outer a n d i n n e r
t
2 2
boundaries, a n d w r i t i n g c for ( a - 6 ) ^ , w e m a y s h o w t h a t
3
x =c cos 7? [(i - | C R ) cosh £ - ( | +\cr) {cosh £ cosh & cosh ( F + Q cosh £
0 0
- s i n h £ s i n h ^ s i n h (£ +
0 0 s i n h £}]
Z{
+ C a cos a, [ f t cosh ^-{^)^^ i^;^^^-^\- (16)
(e) 2%e rectangle.

The equations of t h e boundaries are x = ± a, y = ±b. T h e boundary
condition a t a = + a is
g =_ { i ^ + (l-4 < 7 )^ ) (6>y>-6).
The boundary condition a t y = + 6 is
^ = + ( 2 -f cr)fee,( a > x > - a).
W e introduce a new function % by t h e equation

2
%' = % - i ( 2 + o - ) ( ^ - 3 ^ ) ( 1 7 )
Then is a plane harmonic function within t h e rectangle, dxjdy vanishes a t

y = + 6 and t h e condition at a? = + a becomes
5
| ^ _ ( l + < r)o» + o y .
2
Now when b > y > — b t h e function y can be expanded in a Fourier's series
as follows:—
2 2
b 46 »( - ) » niry 0
2
3 7T „ w 6 2
= 1
Hence % can be expressed in t h e form

. , nirx
% = ' {-(l + 0
2
-)a + icr6 }^ 2
+ cr^ i Lcos^p, ...(18)
cosh-^—
and, by means of this and ( 1 7 ) , % can be written down.

(/) Additional results.
T h e r e s u l t s for t h e circle a n d ellipse are included i n t h e formula

3 2
X — Ax + B(x — Sxy );
the solution for the ellipse was first found by adjusting the constants A and B of this
formula, and several other examples of the same method were discussed by Saint-Venant.
Among sections for which the problem is solved by this formula we may note the curve of
which the ordinate is given by the equation
2 2
y=±b\ (l-x /a )°' |, (a>x>-a).
m
The corresponding function x
2 2
X=-a *+i(l-i<r) (x*-Sxy ).
2 2 i i T n e
When o-=i the above equation becomes x /a +y /b = 1- curve is shown in Fig. 26
for the case where a = 2b.
Fig. 26. Fig. 27.
As another example we may observe that the formula*

2 3 2
x = - a x+1 (2 + cr) O - Sxy )
2
solves the problem for a section bounded by two arcs of the hyperbola x (l + o-)-3/V = c.
and two straight lines y=±a. The section is shown in Fig. 27, o- being taken to be
232. Analysis of t h e displacement.

(a) Curvature of the strained central-line.
The central-line of t h e beam is bent into a curve of which t h e curvatures
in t h e planes (x, z) and (y, z) are expressed with sufficient approximation b y
2 2 2 2
t h e values of d u/dz and d v/dz when x and y vanish. These quantities can
be calculated from t h e expressions for t h e components of strain by means of
t h e formulae
2 2
d u de& JbeM = d v de de = yz zz
2 2
dz ~ dz dx' dz dz dy '
or they may be calculated from equations (12). W e find
2
d U__ W(l-Z)
2 2
dz ~ EI ' dz " '
I t follows t h a t t h e plane of t h e curve into which t h e central-line is bent is
t h e plane of (x, z), and t h a t its radius of curvature B a t any point is equal
to EI/W(l — z). T h e denominator of this expression is t h e bending moment,
* Grashof, Elasticitdt und Festigkeit, p. 246.

324 ANALYSIS OF THE DISPLACEMENT [CH. X V
M s a y ; and therefore t h e curvature l/R of t h e central-line is connected with

t h e bending moment M by t h e equation
M = EI/R,.. (19)
and t h e curvature at any point is the same as it would be if t h e beam were
bent by terminal couples equal to t h e value of M at t h e point.
(b) Neutral plane.
The extension of any longitudinal filament is given by t h e equation
e = -x/R
zz (20)
I t follows t h a t filaments which lie in t h e plane x = 0 suffer no extension or
contraction ; in other words, this plane is a " n e u t r a l plane." T h e extension,
or contraction, of any longitudinal linear element is determined by its
distance from t h e neutral plane and t h e curvature of t h e central-line, by
exactly the same rule as holds in t h e case of bending by terminal couples.
(c) Obliquity of the strained cross-sections.
The strained central-line is not at right angles to t h e strained cross-
sections, b u t t h e cosine of t h e angle at which they cut is t h e value, at any
point of t h e central-line, of t h e strain-component e . We shall denote it zx
by s . T h e n we have
0
shearing stress at centroid .

0
rigidity of material '
and we may calculate s by t h e formula 0
8 o = -(WIEI)(dxldx\, (22)
where t h e suffix 0 indicates t h a t zero is to be substituted for x and y after
t h e differentiation has been performed.
T h e quantity s is a small constant, so t h a t all t h e strained cross-sections
0
cut the strained central-line at t h e same angle ^ 7 r — s . The relative situation 0
of t h e strained central-line and an initially vertical filament is illustrated by

Fig. 14 in Article 95.
If t h e element of t h e strained cross-section at t h e centroid of t h e fixed
end is vertical, t h e constant ft in t h e displacement, as given by (12), is
equal to s *. 0
2 2 2 2
W h e n t h e b o u n d i n g curve i s t h e ellipse % /a +y /b — l, w e find
2 2
_ 4:W 2 a ( l + o-) + 5
S 2 2
°~E7rab Za + b '
I f i n (21) t h e s h e a r i n g s t r e s s a t t h e centroid were replaced b y t h e average shearing stress
( W/nab), t h e e s t i m a t e d v a l u e of s 0 w o u l d b e t o o small, i n a ratio v a r y i n g from f, w h e n a is
large c o m p a r e d w i t h b, t o § w h e n b i s large compared w i t h a t .
* In Saint-Venant's memoir (3 is identified with s . 0
f In obtaining these numbers <r is put equal to \ .

When the boundary is a rectangle we find
3TP(l + cr) o- b f, , 4 «
2
1
~ i ~ 7 2 3 + - ^ 2 .(23)
4Eab ?r cosh —7
The expression in square brackets was tabulated by Saint-Venant, or being taken to be

with the following results:—
ajb •25 •5 •75 1 1-25 1-5 2 2-5 3
value of •676 •849 •907 •94 •962 •971 •983 •989 •993
expression
(d) Deflexion.
The deflexion of t h e beam is t h e displacement of a point on t h e central-
line in t h e direction of the load ; it is t h e value of u when x = y = 0. If we
denote it by £ we have
w
W
.(24)
The equation •*), ... .(25)
which expresses t h e proportionality of t h e bending m o m e n t to t h e curva

ture, would suffice to determine t h e deflexion if t h e direction of t h e strained
central-line a t t h e origin were known. Equation (24) is t h e primitive of (25)
when t h e condition t h a t £ vanishes with z is imposed. T h e term f$z in (24)
depends on t h e mode of fixing, as has been explained at t h e end of Article
2 3 0 ; t h e other t e r m depends on t h e bending moment.
(e) Twist.
T h e t e r m s of (11) which contain the constant r indicate t h a t t h e beam
twists under t h e load. T h e a m o u n t of
t h e twist cannot be determined until t h e
functions and ^ have been found. I n
each of t h e particular cases t h a t we have
solved T vanishes. This is due to t h e
symmetry of t h e sections. A n example
of an unsymmetrical form of section for
which t h e analysis could be worked out
is shown in Fig. 28, which represents t h e
cross-section of a hollow t u b e with a
cavity placed excentrically. (Cf. Article
222, Result iii.)
(/) Anticlastic curvature.

T h e t e r m s of u, v as given by (12),
}
which depend on x, y, b u t not on T ,

represent changes of shape of t h e
cross-sections in their own planes. These changes are of t h e same kind as
those described in Article 88. I t follows t h a t t h e neutral plane is deformed
into an anticlastic surface. The strained central-line is one of t h e lines of
curvature of this surface; t h e corresponding centres of curvature are below
t h e neutral plane, and t h e corresponding radii of curvature are expressed by
t h e formula EI/W(l — z). T h e other centre of curvature of t h e surface, at
any point of t h e central-line, is above t h e n e u t r a l p l a n e ; and t h e corre
sponding radii of curvature are expressed by t h e formula EljaW(I — z).
(g) Distortion of the cross-sections into curved surfaces.

T h e expression for w m a y be written
w w 2
...(26)
W = T(j)-~^jX(lz- 2
\z ) -/3x + EI
S X-^j. dx + xy
0
T h e t e r m T</> corresponds with the twisting of t h e beam by t h e load, and

we know t h a t it represents a distortion of t h e cross-sections into curved
2
surfaces. The terms — x {W(lz — \z )\EI + 0} represent a displacement by
which t h e cross-sections become at right angles to t h e strained central-line.
The term s x represents a displacement by which each cross-section is t u r n e d
0
back, towards t h e central-line, through an angle s , as explained in (c) above.

0
T h e remaining terms in W/EI represent a distortion of t h e cross-sections

into curved surfaces, independent of t h a t which depends upon TC/>. If we
construct t h e surface which is given by t h e equation
W_ (
X .(27)
EI\ '
and suppose it to be placed so t h a t its t a n g e n t plane a t the origin coincides

with t h e t a n g e n t plane of a strained cross-section at its centroid, t h e strained
cross-section will coincide with this surface.
In the case of a circular boundary the value of the right-hand member of (27) is
2 2
-{W\Eir^)x{x +y \
and the contour lines of the strained cross-section are found by equating this expression
to a constant. Some of these lines are traced in Fig. 29.
233. Distribution of shearing stress.

The importance of t h e transverse component Y of t h e tangential traction z
on t h e cross-sections m a y be seen in t h e case of t h e elliptic boundary. W h e n

a is large compared with b, t h e m a x i m u m value of Y is small compared with z
t h a t of X ; as t h e ratio of & to a increases, t h e ratio of t h e m a x i m u m of Y

z z
to t h a t of X increases; and, when b is large compared with a, t h e m a x i m u m

z
of Y is large compared with t h a t of X . T h u s t h e importance of Y increases

z z z
as t h e shape of t h e beam approaches to t h a t of a plank.

W e may illustrate graphically t h e distribution of tangential traction on
t h e cross-sections by tracing curves, which are such t h a t t h e t a n g e n t to any
one of t h e m a t any point is in t h e direction of t h e line of action of t h e
tangential traction a t t h e point. As in Article 219, these curves may be
called " lines of shearing stress/' T h e differential equation of t h e family of
curves is
dxlX = dyjY , z z (28)
or ^ + (2 + <r)^}^-|g + ^ + ( l - i - ) / j % = 0.
o 2
Since dX jdx + dY /dy is n o t equal to zero, t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h e shearing

z z
stress is not measured by t h e closeness of neighbouring curves of t h e

family.
As an example we may consider the case of the elliptic boundary. The differential
equation is
«*F*-ff£-"'-c~>]
and this may be expressed in the form
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2x ^ {(1 + a) a + crb } - ^ {2 (1 + a) a + b } + j {2 (1 + cr) a + b } - y (1 - 2cr) a =0.
2 2
2(l+o-)a + &
This equation has an integrating factor y (i+â^+ab , 2
and the complete primitive may be
expressed in the form
2 2 2q+g)q»+6«
where C is an arbitrary constant. Since <r<J all the curves of the family touch the
elliptic boundary at the highest and lowest points (±e&, 0). The case of a circular
boundary is included, and the lines of shearing stress are in this case given by the
equation 3+2cr
Some of these curves are traced in Fig. 30, o- being taken to be
2 3 4 . Generalizations of the preceding theory.

(a) Asymmetric loading.
When the load, W say, is directed parallel to the axis of y instead of the axis of the
requisite stress-components are, as before, X , Y„ Z given by the equations
2 ei
f
v (d<$> \ W (d x
+ (2 +
2(1+0-)/' \dx
W
> - l " \ t y > - J 2 (l + cr)
Wil-z)
2 g
where / ' denotes the integral j jy dxdy taken over the area of the cross-section, and x i
a plane harmonic function which satisfies the boundary condition
.(29)
= - ( 2 + o-)tfycos(ff, i/)-{^ +(l-io-)a; }cos(y, v).
2 2
The constant r is adjusted, as before, so that the tractions on a cross-section may not yield
any couple about the axis of z. Apart from a displacement which would be possible in a
rigid body, the displacement is given by the equations
W \
u=- yz
r + -gj, a(l-z) xy,
+ W, w {Hi-z)<r(y -* )+¥z -i2 },
2 2 2 3
.(30)
w
When the direction of the load is not that of one of the principal axes of the cross-
sections at their centroids, we may resolve the load, P say, into components W and W
parallel to the axes of x and y. The solution is to be obtained by combining the solutions
given in Articles 229, 230 with that given here. Omitting displacements which would
be possible in a rigid body we deduce from the expressions (12) and (30) the equations of
the strained central-line in the form
and this line is therefore a plane curve in the plane

Wat/I'** Wy/I.
The neutral plane is determined by the equation e =0, and, since
zz
W W
this is the plane Wx/I+ W'yjFÔ.

The neutral plane is therefore at right angles to the plane of bending. The load plane is
given by the equation y/x= W'j W. Since I and / ' are respectively the moments of inertia
of the cross-section about the axes of y and x, the result may be expressed in the form:—
The traces of the load plane and the neutral plane on the cross-section are conjugate
diameters of the ellipse of inertia of the cross-section at its centroid*.
(b) Combined strain.
We may write down the solution of the problem of a beam held bent by terminal
couple about any axis in the plane of its cross-section, by means of the results given in
Article 87; we have merely to combine the results for two component couples about the
principal axes of the cross-section at its centroid. By combining the solution of the
problems of extension by terminal tractive load [Articles 69 and 70 (h)~], of torsion
(Chapter xiv.), of bending by couples, and of bending by terminal transverse load, we
may obtain the state of stress or strain in a beam deformed by forces applied at its ends
alone in such a way as to be statically equivalent to any given resultant and resultant
moment. In all these solutions the stress-components denoted by X , Y , X vanish.
x y y
As regards the strength of a beam to resist bending we may remark that, when the
linear dimensions of the cross-section are small compared with the length, the most
important of the stress-components is the longitudinal tension, and the most important
of the strain-components is the longitudinal extension, and the greatest values are found
in each case in the sections at which the bending moment.is greatest, and at the points
of these sections which are furthest from the neutral plane. The condition of safety for
a bent beam can be expressed in the form:—The maximum bending moment must not
exceed a certain limiting value.
The condition of safety of a twisted prism was considered in Article 220. The quantity
which must not, in this case, exceed a certain limiting value is the shear; and this is
generally greatest at those points of the boundary which are nearest to the central-line.
When the beam is at the same time bent and twisted, the components of stress which are
different from zero are the longitudinal tension Z due to bending and the shearing stresses
z
X and Y . If the length of the beam is great compared with the linear dimensions of the
z z
cross-section the values of Z near the section z = 0 and the terms of X and Y that
z 3 z
depend upon twisting can be comparable with each other, and they are large compared
* The result was given by Saint-Venant in the memoir on torsion of 1855.

with the terms of X and Y that are due to bending. For the purpose of an estimate of
z z
strength we might omit the shearing stresses and shearing strains that are due to bending,
and take account of those only which are due to twisting.
In any case in which the stress-components X , Y , Z are different from zero and 2 2 z
X , Y , X vanish, the principal stress-components can be found by observing that the

x y y
stress-quadric is of the form

z {%X x + 2 Y y+Z z) = const.,
z z z
and therefore one principal plane of stress at any point is the plane drawn parallel to the
central-line to contain the direction of the resultant, at the point, of the tangential tractions
on the cross-section. The normal traction on this plane vanishes, and the values of the
two principal stresses which do not vanish are
KZ.±\\Z*+4.{X*+Y*$ (31)
In any such case the strain-quadric is of the form

2
^[-o-Z (x*+f s + z ) + (1 + cr)z (2X x + 2Y y + Z z)] = const.,
z z z
and the principal extensions are equal to

~*W' ^ ^ ^ t - ^ ^ + W + r / ) ] * , (32)
the first of these being the extension of a line at right angles to that principal plane of
stress on which the normal traction vanishes.
(c) JEJolotropic material.
The complexity of the problem of Article 228 is not essentially increased if the material
of the beam is taken to be seolotropic, provided that the planes through any point, which
are parallel to the principal planes, are planes of symmetry of structure. We suppose the
axes of x, y, z to be chosen in the same way as in Article 228, and assume that the strain-
energy-function has the form
i(A, B, C, F, G, H)(e„, e , e y+%{Le * + MeJ + Ne *). yv zz v x
We denote the Young's modulus of the material for tension in the direction of the axis
of z by E, and we denote the Poisson's ratios which correspond respectively with con
tractions parallel to the axes of x and y and tension in the direction of the axis of z, by
and o- . We assume a stress-system restricted by the equations
2
X =Yx y = Xy = 0, Z =-~(l-z)x 3 (33)
Then we may show that X and Y necessarily have the forms:

z z
.(34)
ar
where <fi and x © solutions of the same partial differential equation
M 2 + L 2
dx dy ) °' x
which respectively satisfy the following boundary conditions :—
cos v)M*Q + cos (y, v)L^= c o s v ) M y — cos (y, v) Lx,
d 2 E M 2L 2
cos (x, v) M £ + cos (y, v) L ^ = - cos (x, v) M ^ x +~ °^~ °y
— cos (y, v) (E—Mar-j) xy.
Further we may show that the displacement corresponding with the stress-system expressed
by (33) and (34) necessarily has the form:
W
U = - T y g + — [ 1 (I - ) ( - # 2 _ ^ 2 ) 1 ^ 2 _ 1^3] _
z 0 1 + + fa + a^
W
v — rzx +jgj(l — z) v^xy + yx — az-\-(3\ y (35)
As in Article 230, we may take a =j8'=y =0 and a = y = 0. The constant of integration r

can be adjusted so that the traction at the loaded end may be statically equivalent to a
single force, W, acting at the centroid of the terminal section in the direction of the axis
of x. The results may be interpreted in the same way as in Article 232.
235. Criticisms of certain methods.

(a) In many treatises on Applied Mechanics* the shearing stress is calculated from
the"stress-equations of equilibrium, without reference to the conditions of compatibility of
strain-components, by the aid of certain assumptions as to the distribution of tangential
traction on the cross-section. In particular, when the section is a rectangle, and the load
is a force W parallel to the axis of x, it is assumed (i) that Y is zero, (ii) that X is z z
independent of y. Conditions (i) and (ii) of Article 228, combined with these assumptions,
lead to the following stress-system:—
x =r =x =r =o,
x y y z ^ = J ( s ^ 2
) , z.= -^(i-z)x, (36)
in which <o is the area of the cross-section, and / is the moment of inertia previously so
denoted. The resultant traction j jX dxdy z is equal to W.
If this stress-system could be correct, there would exist functions u, v, w which would
be such that
dv __o-W . du divW / I A dw dv_dv du_
+
{C
ty-~m ~ > Z)X
dz dx:~^J\ ^~ P dy^dz~dx^d~y-^ 3 X
Now we have the identical equation

% 2 2 2
^ d v _ d (dw dv\ d (du dw\ d (dv du\ ^
2
dxdydz ~~ dxdy \dy* dz J dy \dz dx J dydz\dx dy) '
but this equation is not consistent with the above values for dv/dy,... ; for, when these
values are substituted, the left-hand member is equal to — 2o- W/EI, and the right-hand
member is equal to zero. It follows that the stress-system expressed by (36) is not possible
in an isotropic solid body.
We know already from Article 95 that the stress-system (36) gives correctly the average
stress across the breadth of the section, and therefore gives a good approximation to the
actual stress when the breadth is small compared with the depth. The extent to which it
is inadequate may be estimated by means of the table in Article 232 (c); for it would give
for s the factor outside the square bracket in the right-hand member of (23). It fails also
0
to give correctly the direction of the tangential traction on the cross-sections, for it makes
this traction everywhere vertical, whereas near the top and bottom bounding lines it is
nearly horizontal.
* See for example the treatises of Rankine and Grashof quoted in the Introduction footnotes
94 and 95, and those of Ewing, Bach and Foppl quoted in the footnote on p. 110.
(6) In the extension of this method to sections which are not rectangular it is
recognized* that the component Y of shearing stress must exist as well as X . The case
z z
selected for discussion is that in which the cross-section is symmetrical with respect to a
vertical axis. The following assumptions are made:—
(i) X is independent of y, (ii) the resultants of X
z s
and Y at all points P' which have a given x meet in

e
a point on the axis of x. To satisfy the boundary

condition (3) this point must be that marked T in
Fig. 31, viz. the point where the tangent at P to the
bounding curve of the section meets this axis.
To express the assumption (ii) analytically, let -q be
r
the ordinate (NP) of P and y that of P , then
z s .(37)
rj dx '
Equation (2) then becomes
3Z 18, Wx
and the solution which makes X vanish at the highest

z
point (x— — a) is
7]X =
Z Y J Xrjdx,
and it is easy to see that this solution also makes X z
vanish at the lowest point.

The stress-system obtained by these assumptions is expressed by the equations
x
W f Vl [ w dr x
x
j 7_ Wx(l-z)
X ^Yy=Xy=0,
x X =-—jrJ
z xrjdx, Y = • 'jV dx'J _
2 a ^ A - - —-j— ;
(38)
it satisfies the equations of equilibrium and the boundary condition, and it gives the right
value W for the resultant of the tangential tractions on the section. But, in general, it is
not a possible stress-system, for the same reason as in the case of the rectangle, viz. the
conditions of compatibility of strain-components cannot be satisfied.
(c) These conditions may be shown easily to lead to the following equation :—
d (1 d-q
2
dx \rj dx
which determines 7 7 as a function of x, and therewith determines those forms of section for
which the stress-system (38) is a possible one. To integrate (39) we put
xrj dx — . .(40)
and then £ satisfies the equation
dx P £7 1 + 0-'
2 2
where £" mean dg/dx, d ^dx . The complete primitive can be shown to be
2a'
a+a
2a
a+a
1+cr
-x) '(x + a) '\
* See, in particular, the treatise of Grashof already cited.
where (7, a and d are arbitrary constants. On eliminating £ by means of the relation (40)
we see that the equation of the bounding curve must have the form
2 a 2 a
n /I r ~ii+<r
a x ) a + a { x + a ) a + a ( 4 1 )
îc\} '- ' \
The constants a and a' express the height of the highest point of the curve, and the depth
of its lowest point, measured from the centroid.
Unless the bounding curve of the section has one of the forms included in equation (41)
the stress is not correctly given by (38). It may be observed that, if the section is
symmetrical with respect to the axis of y, so that a' —a, the equation (41) is of the
1,(r 2 2
form (r}/b) +% la = l. We saw in Article 231 (/) that the problem of flexure could be
solved for this section, and the curve was traced in Fig. 26 for the case where o~ = J and
a = 2b.
id) We may observe that in the case of the elliptic (or circular) boundary this
method would make the lines of shearing stress ellipses, having their axes in the same
direction as those of the bounding curve and touching this curve at the highest and lowest
points. Fig. 30 shows that the correct curves are flatter than these ellipses in the
neighbourhood of these points. In regard to the obliquity of the strained cross-sections,
the method would give for s the value &W (l-\-o)lZEirab, which is nearly correct when the
0
breadth is small, or b is small compared with a, but is too small by about 5 per cent, in
the case of the circle, and by nearly 20 per cent, when b is large compared with a.
(e) The existence of a term of the form /3z in the expression for the deflexion
[Article 232 (d)] has been recognized by writers of technical treatises. The term was
named by Rankine (loc. cit.) "the additional deflexion due to shearing." In view of the
discussion at the end of Article 230 concerning the meaning of the constant /3, the name
seems not to be a good one.
(/) The theorem of Article 120 is sometimes used to determine the additional
deflexion*. The theorem yields the equation
% J J (X u+Y v
z z + Z w) da;dy-%
z z==l j j (X u + z Y v+Z w) dxdy
s e z==0
2 2 2 2 2
=*/// [{X +Y +Z --2a(Y Z +...)}/E+(X +Y
x y y z + X^ ...(42)
When the tractions over the ends are assigned in a special manner in accordance with
the formulae (1) and (8), so that the displacement is given by (12), the first term of the
2 s
left-hand member of (42) becomes ^W l /EI+^ Wfil, and the second term becomes
-iW&-i f j P # + W - . - ( ^ / / ) W - W ( + x,f)IEI}}dxdy, x
where the expression under the sign of integration is independent of /3. The right-hand
member of (42) becomes i WHVEI ^ fj Tfi dxdy, which also is independent

+¥ W +
of /3. Thus, in this case, equation (42) fails to determine the additional deflexion. When
the tractions over the ends are not distributed exactly in accordance with (1) and (8), the
displacement is practically of the form given by (12) in the greater part of the beam, but
must be subject to local irregularity near the ends. The left-hand member of (42) is
approximately equal to J Wd, where B is the deflexion at the loaded end, and the right-
2 3
hand member is approximately equal to W l /EI; but, for a closer approximation we
should require a knowledge not only of X and Y in the greater part of the beam, but also
z z
of the terminal irregularity.
* See e.g. W. J. M. Rankine, loc. cit., or J. Perry, Applied Mechanics (London, 1899), p. 461.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE BENDING OF A BEAM LOADED UNIFORMLY ALONG ITS LENGTH.
2 3 6 . I N this Chapter we shall discuss some problems of the equilibrium

of an isotropic body of cylindrical form, by imposing particular restrictions on
t h e character of the stress. Measuring t h e coordinate z along t h e length
of t h e cylinder, we shall in t h e first place suppose t h a t t h e stress is in
dependent of z, then t h a t it is expressed by linear functions of z\ and finally
t h a t it is expressed by quadratic functions of z. W e shall find t h a t t h e
first two restrictions lead to solutions which have been obtained in previous
Chapters*, b u t t h a t t h e assumption of quadratic functions of z enables us to
solve t h e problem of the bending of a beam by a load distributed uniformly
along its length.
237. Stress uniform along the b e a m .

W e take t h e axis of z to be t h e central-line of t h e beam, and t h e axes of
x and y to be parallel to t h e principal axes of t h e cross-sections at their
centroids. W e suppose t h a t there are no body forces, and t h a t t h e cylindrical
bounding surface is free from traction. W e investigate those states of stress
in which t h e stress-components are independent of z.
The equations of equilibrium take the form
dX. dXy d7s = 0> dX z + dY_z=
dx dy dx dy dx ay
and the conditions which hold at t h e cylindrical boundary are
cos O , v) Xx + cos (y, v) X y = 0, cos (x, v) X y + cos (y, v)Y y = 0,
cos (x, v) X + cos (y, v) Y — 0. .. .(2)
z z
T h e conditions of compatibility of strain-components take the forms

2 2
d @zz r\ d"ezz ~ de zz
8
s( l?-tH l@r-t)-° (1>
* Cf. W. Voigt, Gottingen Abhandlungen, Bd. 34 (1887).

T h e equations (3) show t h a t e is a linear function of x and y, say zz
e = € — fcx — /cy
zz (6)
where e, K, K are constants. Whenever this is t h e case equations (1) and
conditions (2) lead to t h e conclusion t h a t X , Y , X vanish. To prove this x y y
we observe that, if u\ v' are any functions of x a n d . y , these equations and

conditions require t h a t
t h e integration being taken over t h e cross-section; for the left-hand member

is at once transformable into
J[{Xx cos (x, v) + X y cos (y, v)} u + {X y cos (x, v) + Y cos (y, v)) v'] ds y
where ds is an element of arc of t h e bounding curve of t h e cross-section.

Now in equation (7) p u t
(i) u' — x v' — 0, we find Jj X dxdy

y x = 0,
2
(ii) n = x , v' — 0, we find jj xX dxdy x = 0,
2
(iii) v! = xy, v' = — ^x , we find J j yX dxdy x = 0;
and in like m a n n e r we may prove t h a t
jj Y dxdy
y = 0, jj xY dxdy y = 0, Jj yYydxdy = 0.
I t follows from these results and (6) t h a t
jj X e dxdy
x zz = 0, J j Y e dxdy y zz = 0.
Again, in equation (7) let u, v' be t h e components parallel to the axes of

x and y of t h e displacement which corresponds with t h e stress X , then x
this equation becomes
Jj(X e x xx + Ye y yy + Xe ) y xy dxdy = 0 (8)
B u t we have
2 2
Xe
x xx + Y eyy = -*(X +
y x Y) e + y zz (1 + a) {(1 - a) (X x + Y) -
y 2*X Y }.
x y
The integral of the term — a {X + Y ) e vanishes, and t h e quadratic form x y zz
2 2
(1 — a) {X -\- Y ) — 2<rX Y is definite and positive, since o - < J ; also we
x y x y
have X e = fju^Xy .
y xy Hence t h e expression X e 2
+ Ye + Xe is x xx y yy y xy
necessarily positive, a n d equation (8) cannot be satisfied unless X , x Y,y Xy
vanish identically.
I t follows t h a t we m u s t have
= = 7 = 2
&xx ~ &yy °"&zz> @xy ~ ^ (^)
where e is given by ( 6 ) ; and t h e n equation (5) is satisfied identically.

zz
The remaining equations and conditions are t h e third of t h e equations (1),

t h e third of t h e conditions (2), equations (4), and t h e relations X = fjce , z zx
Y = fjbe . F r o m these we find, as in Article 229, t h a t t h e most general

z yz
forms for e , e a r e
zx yz
= = T y e = T + x ( 1 0 )
*» (l£- )' »* ^ )' •
where r is a constant of integration, a n d c£ is t h e torsion function for t h e
cross-section (Article 216).
T h e strain is expressed by equations (6), (9), (10), and i t follows t h a t t h e
most general state of strain which is consistent with t h e conditions (i) t h a t
t h e stress is uniform along t h e beam, (ii) t h a t no forces are applied to t h e
beam except a t t h e ends, consists of t h e strain associated with simple
longitudinal tension (cf. Article 69), two simple flexures involving curvatures
K a n d K in t h e planes of (x, z) and (y, z) [cf. Article 87], and torsion r as in
Chapter x i v .
T h e t h e o r e m proved i n t h i s A r t i c l e for isotropic solids, viz., t h a t , if e zz i s linear i n
x a n d y, a n d if there are n o b o d y forces a n d n o surface t r a c t i o n s o n t h e cylindrical
boundary, t h e stress-components X , x Y, y X y m u s t v a n i s h , i s true also for seolotropic
materials, provided t h a t t h e p l a n e of (x, y) i s a p l a n e of s y m m e t r y * .
238. Stress varying uniformly along t h e beam.

W e t a k e t h e axes of x, y, z in t h e same way as before, a n d retain t h e
suppositions t h a t t h e r e are no body forces and t h a t t h e cylindrical bounding
surface of t h e beam is free from t r a c t i o n ; a n d we investigate those states
of stress in which t h e stress-components, and strain-components, are linear
functions of z. W e write t h e stress-components and strain-components in
such forms as
X = X ®z + X / > , e = ej*z + e ®.
x x (11)
xx xx
The equations of equilibrium t a k e such forms as
1 2 )
<
and t h e conditions a t t h e cylindrical boundary t a k e such forms as
z {cos {x, v) X ® x + cos (y, v) X„«} + cos (x, v) X ® + cos (y, v) X / > =
x 0 . . . .(13)
* J. Boussinesq, J. de Math. (Liouville), (Ser. 2), t. 16 (1871).

The conditions of compatibility of strain-components are
TVp (1) 7\2p (0) fip (1) fi2 p (1) fi2 p (0) fip (1) x
u g V Z
o &zz . v &zz Wzx Q ^ Ji££_ _j_ as 2 ^V _ Q
a^ 2
dx 2
dx J dy 2 ,,/2 dy ,/ ?
3?/ ^ ^' l ...(14)
fi2p (1) fi2p (0) So (1) 2,, (1)
Z;g z 0,
2^ 3#3y1-^-2 dxdy — 3#
v _ ^
3y
with
w\ 3 _j_ 2 x x ut!
%y
0,
dx V 3# dy dy dx
...(15?
7)P (i) 7)o (i)
= 0,
3y V 3# 3y /V 3# dy dx
and
/2V (1) ^2z? (1) 7)2 p p>2p (0) 7)2p (0) 7)2 p (0)
V dx 2
3^/ 2
3#% / 3^ 2
3?/ 2
3#% V )
I n all these equations the terms containing z and the t e r m s independent of z

must vanish separately. T h e relations between components of stress and
components of strain take such forms as
in which the terms t h a t contain z, and those which are independent of z, on

t h e two sides of the equations must be equated severally.
Selecting first the terms in z, we observe t h a t all the letters with

index (1) satisfy the same equations as are satisfied by the same letters
in Article 237, and it follows t h a t we may p u t
Vzz — fc-^x — /Cj y',

p (1)
e*/> = 0,
e
y y ^ =
Wzz^ > ^xy (17)
a)
in which e K l9 1 } A : / , TJ are constants, and </> is the torsion function for t h e

cross-section.
Again, selecting t h e t e r m s independent of z, we find from t h e first two

of equations (12)
(dXJ® dX ®\ v (dX ® v 3 F (°)\) 7 7
PF W 2 ~yX u}dxdy- z
{cos (x v) X ® 4- cos (y, v)X ®}

} x y - x {cos (x, v) X / > + cos (y, v) F / > } ds.
which vanishes by the first two of equations (13). Also we have by (17)
{1) {1) 2
?Y Z - yX ] z dxdy = fiTjjj\x 2
+y +x —y ^ | dxdy,
L. E. 22
where t h e integral on the right is the coefficient of fi in t h e expression for t h e
torsional rigidity of t h e beam. I t follows t h a t r must vanish*, and hence x
t h a t X ® and Y ^ vanish.
9 z
By selecting the terms independent of z in the third of equations (12) and

conditions (13) we find t h e differential equation
r)X (o) ay (o)
+ £ , « = <>
dx dy
and the boundary condition
X / > cos (x, v) + F / > cos (y, v) = 0,
which are inconsistent unless
Z^dxdy = 0.
f
Since Z ^ = E(e z 1 y), this equation requires € to vanish. 1
W e may now rewrite equations (17) in t h e form

{1)
e zz = = - o-e ^\ z e u = ^to =
yz = 0. .. .(18)
{1) (1)
Since X and F vanish, we find, by selecting the terms independent
z 2
{0} {0) {0)

of z in t h e first two of equations (12) and conditions (13), t h a t X , Y , X x y y
{0)
vanish and t h a t e is a linear function of x and y. W e may therefore p u t
zz
e zz
{0)
= € - K X - «o'y,
0 Q ^ ( o ) = e^w = - <rej>\ e^
xy = 0, (19)
where e , /c , /c ' are constants.

0 0 0 Equation (16) is satisfied identically.
F u r t h e r , by selecting the t e r m s independent of z in the third of equations

(12), and t h e third of conditions (13), and in equations (15), we find, as in
{0) {0)
Articles 229 and 234 (a), t h a t e and e must have the forms zx yz
(20)
V » 0
= T . + *) + * {|j + (2 + o-) « y | + j|£ + W + (1 - *<r) a?
where ^ and %' are the flexure functions for t h e cross-section, corresponding
with bending in the planes of (x, z) and (y, z), and T is a constant. 0
W e h a v e s h o w n t h a t , i n t h e body w i t h a cylindrical boundary, t h e m o s t general s t a t e

of s t r e s s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e conditions t h a t n o forces are applied except a t t h e ends, a n d
t h a t t h e s t r e s s - c o m p o n e n t s are linear f u n c t i o n s of z, h a s t h e properties (i) t h a t X z and Y 3
are i n d e p e n d e n t of z, (ii) t h a t X , x Y, y Xy vanish. Thus the only stress-component that
* This conclusion is otherwise evident; for if r did not vanish we should have twist of ±
variable amount r z maintained by tractions at the ends. The torsional couples at different
x
sections could not then balance.

d e p e n d s u p o n % is Z z w h i c h i s a linear f u n c t i o n of z. Conversely, if t h e r e are n o b o d y
forces a n d X , x Y,
y Xy all v a n i s h , t h e e q u a t i o n s of equilibrium b e c o m e
dx 2
U U
dx,
+
dr.
+
dz.
U
dz ~ ' dz ~ ' dx dy dz ~ '
a n d i t follows from t h e s e t h a t X z and Y z are i n d e p e n d e n t of z and t h a t Z z i s a linear func
t i o n of z. T h u s t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e stress varies u n i f o r m l y along t h e b e a m is t h e s a m e
a s t h e conditions t h a t X , x Y,
y X y vanish*.
T h e most general state of strain which is consistent with t h e conditions

(i) t h a t t h e stress varies uniformly along t h e beam, (ii) t h a t no forces are
applied to the beam except at t h e ends, consists of extension due to terminal
tractive load, bending by transverse forces, and by couples, applied a t the
terminal sections, and torsion produced by couples applied to t h e same
sections about axes coinciding with t h e central-line. T h e resultant force
a t any section has components parallel to t h e axes of x, y, z which are
equal to
- E I K , -ETK^ Ee 0)
2
where J=jjx^dxdy and I ' = jj y dxdy; and t h e resultant couple at any
section has components about axes parallel to t h e axes of x, y which are

equal to
— EI' (/CQ + fCi'z), EI(K + Q K^Z\
and a component about t h e axis of z which is equal to

2 d d
fir jj {^ + y +
0 x ^y ^dxdy
d 2
+ îff{^~y ^ + ^ + ^)x y-(l-â)yj dxdy
d d
+ w'jj^x ^-y ^-(2+±a)xy* + (l-±a) f\ dxdy.
The solutions of t h e problems thus presented have been discussed in previous

Chapters.
2 3 9 . Uniformly loaded beam. R e d u c t i o n of the problem to o n e

of plane strainf.
Taking the axes in t h e same way as before, we shall now suppose t h a t all
t h e components of stress and strain are expressed by quadratic functions of z
so t h a t for example
X =
x X ®*x +X x M z + X®
x t e x x = e x x ® z * + e x x ^ z + e x x ® (21)
* For the importance of these results in connexion with the historical development of the
theory, see Introduction, p. 21.
f The theory is due to J. H. Michell, Quart. J. of Math., vol. 32 (1901).
W e shall suppose also t h a t there is body force, specified by components X, Y
parallel to t h e axes of x, y, and surface traction on t h e cylindrical boundary,
specified similarly by X Y , these quantities being independent of z. T h e n
vy v
in t h e equations of equilibrium, t h e boundary conditions, t h e equations of

compatibility of strain-components, and t h e stress-strain relations, the t e r m s
of t h e second, first and zero degrees in z may be taken separately.
2
Selecting first the terms t h a t contain z , we find, exactly as in Article 238,
t h a t we may p u t
{2)
e z = e - /c x-fc 'y, Z | 2 2 2
w w
@XiC•«'--* w
V
WU = - «~ ~ZZ
* ,
7 ~'JOU e ®=0,
xy \ (22)
( 2 )
'd
e x Z =T,(^-y , } v y z
T A
> dy + ^>
where e , 2 tc2y tc r 2 2 are constants, and cj> is t h e torsion function for t h e section.
Again, selecting t h e terms t h a t contain z, we may show t h a t t 2 and e 2
must vanish, and t h a t we m a y p u t

{1)
ez
Z = e -K ae—
1 1 fc^y,
• uvzz
(TP W> vP x y
W—= v,0
=^ (id
-y)+2*. i^ +a - 2
f \ + w r)xy
dx (dx \%+(2+
= Tl + +
(fy X
) 2
* {dy 2 + ( 2 + a ) Wy
) + 2
*"' ^ +
^ + ( 1
~ i < T )
*
.(23)
where e /e 1? r are constants, and % and ^ ' are t h e two flexure functions
ly a
for t h e section.
{0)
For t h e determination of X , x ... we have t h e equations of equilibrium
(0) 0)
dX dX <
r)X (°) 3 F <°)

.(24)
3X<°) 3r,«»
1
dx dy
and t h e boundary conditions
X / ) cos (a?, i,) + X ® cos (y, x/) - X = 0 / y v
X / > cos (x, v) + F / > cos (y, j/) - F„ = 0, I (25)

X ® cos (a?, z/) + F / > cos (y, j/)
e = 0. ,
The third of equations (24) and of conditions (25) are incompatible unless
the constant e of (23) vanishes. 1
{0) {0)
F u r t h e r we have e , ... and X , ... connected by t h e ordinary stress-
xx x
strain relations, and we have t h e equations of compatibility of strain-

components in the forms
2
dp (°> ' dp W \
2
dp <°) dp &
.(26)
dxdy dx dy
with
d fde ® yz
(0)\
dx \ dx dy
J + 2 ™ / = 0, .(27)
A (deyj® de ®
zx
dy\ dx dy
2o-Kl = 0,
and 2 2
.(28)
dy dx dxdy
{0)
Equations (26) give us the form of e , zz viz.:
(0) 2
ez
Z = e - W
0 - K^y + 2* ( 2 % + xy ) + 2 * / (%' + aty) + ; . . .(29)
and, by a similar process to t h a t in Article 238, we find
(30)
3%
5Y AY
wherein e , /e , K ', T are constants, and <£, %,
0 0 0 0 are t h e functions previously
named.
{0) (0)
I t remains to determine X ^\ Y , X from t h e first two of (24), t h e
x y y
first two of (25), the appropriate stress-strain relations and t h e equation (28).
This determination requires in effect t h e solution of a problem of plane
strain. If we p u t
0 ) 0 )
X*® = W + X\ x Y® = W y + Y ',
y (31)
t h e n the equations of t h e problem of plane strain are
PX + X / ' + X = 0,
dx dy dx
.(32)
PY+Y m z + \ = 0,
dx dy dy _
t o g e t h e r with equation (28), t h e equations
XJ = Xe '°» + (X + 2fi) ej®,
ro Y ' = Xe <°> + (X + 2») e ^,
y ra vy X° =
y pe ®,
xy
and t h e boundary conditions
X ' cos (x, v) + X ® cos (y, v) = [X
x y v - Xe ® cos (x, p)],)
zz
r (34)
X ® cos (x, v) + Yy cos (y, v) = [ Y - \e ®
y v zz cos (y, v)\ )
T h e expressions in square brackets in (32) and (34) may be regarded as
known.
T h e t h e o r y here e x p l a i n e d a d m i t s of e x t e n s i o n t o a n y case i n w h i c h t h e forces applied t o
t h e b e a m a l o n g i t s l e n g t h h a v e l o n g i t u d i n a l c o m p o n e n t s a s well a s transverse c o m p o n e n t s ,
provided t h a t all t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s are i n d e p e n d e n t of z*. T h i s restriction m a y be
removed, a n d t h e t h e o r y e x t e n d e d further t o a n y case i n w h i c h all t h e forces applied t o t h e
b e a m along i t s l e n g t h are represented b y rational integral f u n c t i o n s of zf.
240. T h e c o n s t a n t s of t h e solution.
L e t W, W denote t h e components parallel to t h e axes of x and y of t h e
uniform load, so t h a t we have
W = fj Xdxdy P + J X dSv
with a similar formula for W. F r o m equations (32) and (34) we find
W = - JJ X ^dxdy, z = Yydxdy (35)
Now we may write down t h e equations
jjXJ.dy-JIfei.X.) + | | (.7.) - „ ( g - + f)}d, y

d
(2)
= Jx [X cos (x, v) + Y cos (y, v)} ds + JJx {Z ® + 2zZ }
z z z z dxdy
= -EI(/e 1 + 2z/e ), 2
with similar equations for JJ Y dxdy. z Hence we find
/
2EIK 2 = TT, 2EFK2 =W (36)
T h u s t h e constants K , ic are determined in terms of the load per u n i t of

2 2
length.
If t h e body forces and t h e surface tractions on t h e cylindrical bounding
surface give rise to a couple about t h e axis of z, t h e moment of t h i s
couple is
JJ p (xY—yX) dxdy + j (xY v — yX ) v ds,
and from equations (32) and (34) we find t h a t this expression is equal to
-JJ{xY U-yX w}dxdy.

z z
* J. H. Michell, loc. cit. p. 339.

f E . Almansi, Rome, Acc. Lincei Rend. (Ser. 6), t. 10 (1901).
On substituting fxe^ for X ® and fie ^ for Y ®> and using t h e expressions
z yz z
{1) (1
given in (23) for e and e \ we have an equation to determine Tj. W h e n
zx yz
no twisting couple is applied along t h e length of t h e beam, and t h e section is

symmetrical with respect to t h e axes of x and y, r vanishes. 2
The constants K , K T depend, therefore, on the.force- and couple-

2 2 I x
resultants of the load per u n i t of length. T h e terms of t h e solution which

contain t h e remaining constants e , /c , K \ /c K i , r are the same as the terms 0 0 0 l9 0
of t h e complete solution of t h e problem of Article 238. These constants

depend therefore on the force- and couple-resultants of t h e tractions applied
to t h e terminal sections of t h e beam. Since t h e terms containing /c K \ T 2> 2 2
alone would involve the existence of tractions on t h e normal sections, t h e

force- and couple-resultants on a terminal section must be expressed by
adding the contributions due to t h e terms in K K , T J to the contributions 2> 2
evaluated at t h e end of Article 238. The remaining constants e , ... are then 0
expressed in terms of t h e load per unit of length and the terminal forces and
couples.
W h e n t h e functions <£, %, are known and the problem of plane strain is
solved, we know t h e state of stress and strain in the beam b e n t by uniform
load, distributed in any assigned way, and by terminal forces and couples.
As in Chapters xiv. and xv., t h e terminal forces and couples may be of any
assigned amounts, b u t t h e tractions of which they are t h e statical equivalents
m u s t be distributed in certain definite ways.
241. Strain and stress i n the elements of the b e a m .

Three of t h e components of strain are determined without solving t h e
problem of plane strain. These are & & %t &vz* Wê have ZZi z
e«« = e„ - («,, + *a z + K z ) # — («„' + KiZ + K 'Z )

2
2
2
2
P + 2K (X 2
2
+ xy ) \
2
+ 2« ' ( x ' + oo y) +
a
2
e« = ( T O + nz) - y^j + («, + 2K Z) 2 + \<rx + (1 - J«r) f
+ (K ' + 2K 'Z) j|j

1 2 + (2 + o) xyl, )• • • .(37)
ez =
V (TO + T , * ) & +1 a ) + (*, + 1 1
2K,Z) | * + (2 + a ) xy
\dy "7 > {dy
2
+ ( « / + 2« V> 2 + (1 - *<r) x + ^f\. }
T h e constant e is the extension of t h e central-line. We shall see presently

0
t h a t , in general, it is not proportional to the resultant longitudinal tension.

T h e constants T and T are interpreted by the observation t h a t TQ + T ^ is t h e
0 x
twist of t h e beam.
To interpret t h e constants denoted by K 0 > we observe t h a t the
2 2
curvature of t h e central-line in t h e plane of (x, z) is t h e value of d u/dz when
co = y — 0. Now we have
(Pu _ de&_ _ de^

2
dz dz dx
— (K 0 4- KiZ 4- K Z ) 2
2
— TYy 2
2
4- K a (x — y ) 4- ^Kârxy, 2
(38)
and therefore t h e curvature in question is K + KIZ + K Z . I n like manner we 0 2

2
should find t h a t t h e curvature of t h e central-line in t h e plane of (y> z),

2 2 2
estimated as t h e value of d v/dz when x = y = 0, is K ' + KjZ 4- K^Z . 0
The presence of t h e terms

e„ + 2« ( + xy') + 2K,' ( ' + x*y) +
2 X X
in the expression for e shows t h a t t h e simple relation of t h e extension of t h e

zz
longitudinal filaments to t h e curvature of t h e central-line, which we noticed

in t h e case of bending by terminal forces [Article 232 (&)], does not hold
in t h e present problem.
Of t h e stress-components two only, X and Y are determined without z Z)
solving t h e problem of plane strain. T h e resultants of these for a cross-section

are respectively — EI + 2K Z) and — EI' (/c/ + 2/c V). The distribution
2 2
over t h e cross-section of t h e tangential tractions X and Y which are z z
statically equivalent to these resultants is t h e same as in Saint-Venant's

solutions (Chapter xv.). W h e n there is twist r + r-^z, t h e tractions X and Y 0 z z
which accompany t h e twist are distributed over t h e cross-sections in t h e

same way as in t h e torsion problem (Chapter X I V . ) .
The stress-component Z is not equal to Ee z because t h e stress- zz
components X , Y are not zero, b u t t h e force- and couple-resultants

x y
of t h e tractions Z on t h e elements of a cross-section can be expressed in

z
terms of t h e constants of t h e solution without solving t h e problem of plane

strain. T h e resultant of t h e tractions Z is t h e resultant longitudinal tension. z
The moments of t h e tractions Z about axes drawn through t h e centroid of az
cross-section parallel to t h e axes of y and x are t h e components about these

axes of t h e bending moments a t t h e section.
To express t h e resultant longitudinal tension we observe t h a t
Now we may write down t h e equations

•dX ^ X dXy^
f fx ®dxdy
x = jj\~ W>) +l W>) y - x ( ;
dxdy
dx dy
{1)
x {X ® cos (x, v) 4- X ® cos (y> v)}ds+
x y x (Xz + pX) dxdy.
T h e integral Jj Y ® dxdy may be transformed in t h e same way, and hence
y
we find the formula
JJ Z dxdy
z = JJ [Ee ®+<rx(X u+pX)
zz z +cry (Y ^+ Y)]
z P dxdy
+ <rj (xX v + yY )ds

v (39)
Since t h e resultant longitudinal tension is t h e same a t all sections, a n d is

equal to t h e prescribed terminal tension, this equation determines t h e
constant e .0
To express t h e bending moments, let M be t h e bending moment in t h e

plane of (x, z). Then
M=- JJ xZ dxdy,
z (40)
and therefore we have
d
M = -JJx(Z w
z + 2zZ ®)dxdy z = EI (K, + 2ZK ).
2
This equation shows t h a t M is expressible in t h e form

2
M = EI(/c 0 + K Z + K Z ) + const
X 2 ....(41)
I n like manner we may show t h a t t h e bending moment in t h e plane of (y z) }
is expressible in t h e form
2
ET (KQ -f K-[Z + K Z ) 2 + const.
We shall show immediately how t h e constants may be determined.
242. Relation b e t w e e n t h e curvature a n d t h e bending m o m e n t .

W e shall consider t h e case in which one end z — 0 is held fixed, t h e other
end z — I is free from traction, and t h e load is statically equivalent to a
force W per unit of length acting a t t h e centroid of t h e cross-section in t h e
direction of t h e axis of x*. T h e bending moment M is given by t h e
equation
M = \W(l-z)\ (42)
and t h e comparison of this equation with (41) gives t h e equations
K^-WI/EI, K = 1 W/EL
2 ! (43)
W e observe that, if t h e constant added to t h e right-hand member of (41)
were zero, t h e relation between t h e bending moment and t h e curvature
would be t h e same as in uniform bending by terminal couples and in bending
* The important case of a beam supported at the ends, and carrying a.load W per unit of
length, can be treated by compounding the solution for a beam with one end free, bent by the
uniform load, with that for a beam bent by a terminal transverse load equal to ~\Wl.
by terminal load. T h e constant in question does not in general vanish.
To determine it we observe t h a t t h e value of M at z = 0 is
^ ^ * \EeJ* + o-(Z.t» + F / > ) ] dxdy,

and therefore
' M-EI(K 0 + K2 + 1 IC^)= jj-x[E(e ^ zz + K x)+<r{X ^+Y ^)]dxdy.
(s x y
(44)
Now we m a y write down t h e equations
x(X ®x +Y w)dxdy
y
d
^ {i (of - f) X ® + xyX ®} x y + ~ - f) X / > + xyY ®\y
( x + + X + L
dxdy
• - ^ { ^ ^ ) y { - d a r ^ y -
2 2 2
= / [i - 2/ ) X + « * r , ] < * » + / / [ * (* ~2/ ) 0 > * + W + «y ( p F + F , W ) ] d a % .
Hence we have t h e result
i 2
= - j j Ex {e /> + « «) dxdy - <r [\_\{x - j/ ) X + xyY }
z 0 v v ds
- ° fj\h(x>-f)(pX + X w) + xy(pY+
z Y W)]dxdy
z (45)
Since M is given by (42) this equation determines t h e constant K . T h e 0
right-hand member of (45) is t h e value of t h e added constant in t h e right-

hand member of (41).
T h e result t h a t t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t i s n o t proportional t o t h e c u r v a t u r e * , w h e n
load i s applied along t h e b e a m , m a y be illustrated b y reference t o cases i n w h i c h curvature
i s produced w i t h o u t a n y b e n d i n g m o m e n t . O n e s u c h case i s afforded b y t h e r e s u l t s of
A r t i c l e 87, if w e s i m p l y i n t e r c h a n g e t h e a x e s of y a n d z. I t t h e n appears t h a t a s t r e s s -
s y s t e m i n w h i c h all t h e s t r e s s - c o m p o n e n t s e x c e p t Y vanish, w h i l e Y h a s t h e form Eax,
y y
c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d b y surface t r a c t i o n s of a m o u n t Eax cos (y, v) parallel t o t h e a x i s of y.

T h e s e t r a c t i o n s are self-equilibrating o n every section, a n d there i s n o b e n d i n g m o m e n t .
T h e corresponding d i s p l a c e m e n t i s g i v e n b y t h e e q u a t i o n s
2 2 2
u——\a (arx + y — (rz ), v = axy, w — — aaxz,
so t h a t t h e central-line ( # = 0 , # = 0 ) i s b e n t t o curvature era.
A n o t h e r case i s afforded b y t h e s t a t e of stress expressed b y t h e e q u a t i o n s
X =Eax,
x Y =Eax,
v X =-Eay,
y X =.Y =Z =O,
Z 2 0
w h i c h c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d b y surface tractions of a m o u n t s
Ea {x cos (x, v) — y cos (y, v)}, Ea {x cos (y, v) — y cos v)}
parallel t o t h e a x e s of x a n d y. T h e s e t r a c t i o n s are self-equilibrating o n every section,
* The result was obtained first by K. Pearson. See Introduction, footnote 92. The formula
(45) is due to J. H. Michell, loc. cit. p. 339. The amount of the extra curvature in some special
cases is calculated in Article 244.
and there is no bending moment. The corresponding displacement is given by the
equations
u= a (1 -<r)x - J (3 + o-) + 0-2 }, v = a(l — cr) xy,
2
w—-Za<jXZ, 2
and the curvature of the central-line is 2o-a.

If we consider a slice of the beam between two normal sections as made up of filaments
having a direction transverse to that of the beam, and regard these filaments as bent by
forces applied at their ends, it is clear that the central line of the beam must receive a
curvature, arising from the contractions and extensions of the longitudinal filaments, in
exactly the same way as transverse filaments of a beam bent by terminal load receive a
curvature. The tendency to anticlastic curvature which we remarked in the case of a
beam bent by terminal loads affords an explanation of the production, by distributed
loads, of some curvature over and above that which is related in the ordinary way to the
bending moment. This explanation suggests that the effect here discussed is likely to be
most important in such structures as suspension bridges, where a load carried along the
middle of the roadway is supported by tensions in rods attached at the sides.
2 4 3 . E x t e n s i o n of t h e central-line.
The fact that the central-line of a beam bent by transverse load is, in general, extended
or contracted was noted long ago as a result of experiment*, and it is not difficult to see
beforehand that such a result must be true. Consider, for example, the case of a beam of
rectangular section loaded along the top. There must be pressure on any horizontal
section increasing from zero at the lower surface to a finite value at the top. With this
pressure there must be associated a contraction of the vertical filaments and an extension
of the horizontal filaments. The value of the extension of the horizontal central-line is
determined by means of the formula (39). Since, the stress is not expressed completely by
the vertical pressure, this extension is not expressed so simply as the above argument
might lead us to infer.
The result that e =£0 may be otherwise expressed by saying that the neutral plane, if
0
there is one, does not contain the central-line. In general the locus of the points at which
e vanishes, or there is no longitudinal extension, might be called the " neutral-surface."
zz
If it is plane it is the neutral plane.

2 4 4 . Illustrations of t h e theory.
(a) Form of the solution of the problem of plane strain. When the body force is
the weight of the beam, and there are no surface tractions, we may make some progress
1
with the solution of the problem of plane strain (Article 239) without finding x- I* this
case, putting X=g, T=0, we see that the solution of the stress-equations (32) can be
expressed in the form
X X ( 0 ) X 2 3 2
*=df~ ^ ~ 9P - W be + i<rx + (l -ia) xy ],
2
dn
.(46)
Yy'= - W W°> - 2* u [ + (1 + i<r) X f ] ,
2/ X
y
dxdy' j
where a must be adjusted so that the equation of compatibility (28) is satisfied. We may
show that this equation leads to the following equation for O : —
V a = 2/AK (2 + a) x x
4
2 (47)
If we take the particular solution
Q = ^ H ( ^ ) x { x t + f ) s ( 4 g )
* Fabre, Paris G. R., t. 46 (1858).

w e find for X \ x . . . a s e t of v a l u e s i n v o l v i n g surface t r a c t i o n , a n d a n a d d i t i o n a l stress-
s y s t e m m u s t b e superposed s o a s t o a n n u l t h i s surface t r a c t i o n w i t h o u t i n v o l v i n g a n y b o d y
4
force ; i n other words a c o m p l e m e n t a r y s o l u t i o n of V i 2 = 0 m u s t b e added t o t h e v a l u e of 1
Q, g i v e n i n (48), a n d t h i s s o l u t i o n m u s t b e a d j u s t e d s o t h a t t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s are
satisfied.
(b) Solution of the problem of plane strain for a beam of circular section bent by its
2 2 2
own weight. W h e n t h e b o u n d a r y i s a circle x +y — a , w e h a v e
3
X=-(l + i ^ ) ^ + ¥ ( ^ - ^ ) ; (49)
and t h e surface v a l u e s of t h e s t r e s s - c o m p o n e n t s g i v e n b y (46), w h e n Q, i s g i v e n b y (48), c a n

2
b e simplified b y o b s e r v i n g t h a t , i n accordance w i t h (36), gp = fx< a (1 +CR). 2 I t will be found
t h a t t h e s e v a l u e s are g i v e n b y t h e e q u a t i o n s
X '=fXK
x 2 (x + 3xy ) - \ej°) - JJUCTK (X
3 2
2
3
- 3^ ), 2
Y
v =P*2 ^ + 3^) _ xejfi) +^ (I + |o-) a x
2
+ £PRK (x* - 3xy ), \ 2
2
(50)
24
2-
~24
K c a n e a n n u e (
T h e surface t r a c t i o n s arising from t h e t e r m s i n M 2 ^4°" ^ ^ l ^y superposing
the stress-system*
XT- 1 2-\-cr „ T r , 2 + 0" o v n 2 + cr „ / K 1 *
2
T h e surface t r a c t i o n s arising from t h e t e r m i n jjLK a x c a n be a n n u l l e d b y s u p e r p o s i n g t h e2
stress-system
X ' = 0,
x r '=-/XK (l+fo> #,
Y 2
2
X »=0 y (52)
3 2
T h e surface tractions arising from t h e t e r m s in fxo-K 2 (x -3xy ) c a n be a n n u l l e d b y super
posing t h e stress-system
2
X = fia-K x (Ix - F y + 2%a ),
x
f
2
2 2 2
Y = fxo-K x(-
y 2 fax 2
+ %y + F A ), 2
2 2 %
V = .onc y{-T^ + A ( y - « ) } .
/ a (63)
The stress-components X , x Y,
y X (°) are therefore d e t e r m i n e d , a n d t h u s t h e p r o b l e m of
y
p l a n e s t r a i n i s solved for a circular boundary.
(c) Correction of the curvature in this case. I n t h e case of a b e a m of circular

s e c t i o n bent b y i t s o w n w e i g h t w e m a y s h o w t h a t e = 0, or t h e central-line i s u n e x t e n d e d , 0
and that
If t h e curvature were calculated from t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t b y t h e ordinary rule t h e s e c o n d

t e r m i n t h e bracket w o u l d b e absent. T h u s t h e correction t o t h e curvature arising from
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e load i s s m a l l of t h e order
2
Tlinear d i m e n s i o n of cross-section"!
|_ l e n g t h of b e a m J
A consideration of t h e form of (45) w o u l d s h o w t h a t t h i s result holds i n general for a b e a m

bent b y its own weight t.
* Some of the solutions of the problem of plane strain in a circular cylinder which are
required here were given i n Article 186.
f Solutions of the problem of the bending of a circular or elliptic cylinder by loads dis
tributed i n certain special ways have been given by Pearson, Quart. J. of Math., vol. 24 (1889),
and by Pearson and Filon, Quart. J. of Math., vol. 31 (1899).
{d) Narrow rectangular beam loaded along the top.
The theory may be illustrated further by the case of a beam of rectangular section
and small breadth loaded uniformly along its upper surface. We shall treat the problem
as one of generalized plane stress*, and we shall neglect the weight of the beam. Let 2a
be the depth of the beam, 26 the breadth, and I the length. Take the axis of z along the
horizontal central-line, and the axis of x vertically downwards at the fixed end, 0=0. Let
If denote the load per unit of length. The average stress-components X , Z , X can be x z z
expressed in the forms

X— • x w+JEK (a x 2
2
- ^x ), 3
'46 .(55)
• EAx + %EK^ -B(K Z + K Z ) x, 1 2
2
•i 0(a»-*»)(« + 2K,*), J 1
where, in order to satisfy equation (42), we must have

2
ZWl ZWl
2 3 A= 1 3 3
P .(56)
~$Ea b> 4Ea b> SEa b ^5
The curvature of the central-line can be shown to be
J . - ( 2 + o-) K a + z + K z% 2
2
Kl 2
which is equal to
Qw
8
8 - M [(«-^-(f^)« ].
2
The term containing (f + cr) a gives the correction of the curvature that would be calculated
by the ordinary rule.
The extension of the central-line can be shown to be cr W/4bE; it is just half as great
as the extension of the beam when free at the ends, supported along the base, and
carrying the same load along the top. The neutral surface is given by the equation
; 3 ( 3 2
[ -^+ (t+°-)-( +^5]=^«-
At a considerable distance from the free end the depth of this surface below the central-
3 2
line is nearly equal to laa /(l — z) . The result that the neutral surface is on the side of
the central-line towards the centres of curvature has been verified experimentally+.
(e) Doubly supported beam. If we superpose on the stress-system found in (55)
that due to a load — \Wl at the end s = £, we shall obtain the solution for a narrow rect
angular beam bent by uniform load W per unit of length and supported at both ends.
The additional stress-system is given, in accordance with the results of Article 95, by
the equations
3 Wl„ , = 3 Wl.
X = % ^SaFb - Z X =-~ (a -x \
{l 3
2 2
16 a b
x 2
and the average stress in the beam is expressed by the formulae

1W
X— - x — (a-x) (2a 2
+ x),
3W .(57)
X- z
-lass
* The problem h a s been discussed by J. H. Michell, Quart. J. of Math., vol. 31 (1900), and
also by L. N. G. Filon, Phil. Trans. Boy. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 201 (1903), and Proc. Roy. Soc,
vol. 72 (1904).
t See a paper by E . G. Coker, Edinburgh Roy. Soc. Trans., vol. 41 (1904), p. 229.
OHAPTEK XVII.
THE THEORY OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS.
245. E x t e n s i o n of the theory of the bending of beams.

I n previous Chapters we have discussed certain exact solutions of the
problem of the bending of beams by loads which are applied in special
ways. I n t h e problem of t h e beam bent by a load concentrated at one
end (Chapter xv.) we found t h a t t h e " Bernoulli-Eulerian" theorem of t h e
proportionality of t h e curvature to t h e bending moment is verified. I n t h e
problem of t h e beam b e n t by a load distributed uniformly along its length
(Chapter XVI.) we found t h a t this theorem is not verified, b u t that, over and
above t h e curvature t h a t would present itself if this theorem were true, there
is an additional constant curvature, t h e amount of which depends upon t h e
distribution over t h e cross-section of t h e forces constituting the load. We
appear to be justified in concluding from these results that, in a beam
slightly bent by any forces, t h e law of proportionality of the bending moment
to t h e curvature is sufficiently exact at sections which are at a considerable
distance from any place of loading or of support, b u t that, in t h e neighbour
hood of such a place, there may be an additional local curvature. W e
endeavoured to trace the circumstances in which t h e additional curvature
can become very important, and we solved some problems in which we found
it to be unimportant. From the results t h a t we obtained we appear to
be justified in concluding that, in most practical problems relating to long
beams, t h e additional curvature is not of very much importance.
The state of stress and strain t h a t is produced in the interior of a beam,
slightly bent by any forces, may be taken to be given with sufficient
approximation by Saint-Venant's solution (Chapter XV.) at all points which
are a t a considerable distance from any place of loading or of s u p p o r t * ; and
again, at a place near the middle of a considerable length over which t h e
load is distributed uniformly or nearly uniformly, they may be taken to be
•* This view is confirmed by L. Pochhammer's investigation of the strain in a circular cylinder

deformed by given forces. See his Untersuchungen iiber das Gleichgeivicht des elastischen Stabes,
Kiel, 1879.
given with sufficient approximation by MichelPs solution (Chapter X V I . ) .
B u t we have not so detailed information in regard to t h e state of stress or
strain near to a place of concentrated load or to a place of support. N e a r to
such a place the actual distribution of the forces applied to t h e beam must
be very influential. A t t e m p t s have been made to study t h e state of strain
a t such places experimentally. I n t h e research of Carus Wilson* a beam of
glass of rectangular section, supported symmetrically on two rollers B, C, was
bent by means of a third roller A above its middle, and t h e state of strain in
t h e line AD (Fig. 32) was examined by means of polarized light transmitted
0A
c B
D
u O
V
Fig. 32.
horizontally through t h e beam. T h e results of the research were explained

by Stokes f by t h e aid of certain empirical assumptions. Stokes pointed out
that, if the problem is taken to be a two-dimensional one, t h e pressure W
at A could be balanced by applying to the side BC of the beam pressures
distributed according to t h e law of a simple radial distribution of pressure
(Article 149) directed towards A. I n like manner t h e pressures ^ I T a t B
and C, together with radial tension directed from A, and applied along t h e
side BC according to t h e same law as before, would be a system of forces in
statical equilibrium. By superposing these two systems of forces we obtain
a system in which t h e only forces are those actually applied to the beam.
The state of stress produced by the forces of t h e first system is t h a t which we
found in Article 150. The state of stress produced by t h e forces of the
second system cannot be determined theoretically, but, at any point of AD,
it must consist of a certain vertical pressure and a certain horizontal tension.
Stokes assumed t h a t each of these stress-components varies uniformly along
t h e length of AD. The vertical pressure calculated from t h e two systems
vanishes at D, and t h a t calculated from the second system vanishes at A ;
these conditions together with t h e knowledge of t h e resultant, and resultant
moment about A, of t h e horizontal tensions, are sufficient, when the above
assumption is made, to determine t h e stress at any point of AD. Taking A
as origin, and AD as axis of y, we find by this method the following values
for t h e stress-components at any point of AD :
* PHI. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 32 (1891).

f Stokes's work is published in Carus Wilson's paper; it is reprinted in Stokes's Math, and
Phys. Papers, vol. 5, p. 238.
352 EFFECT OF SURFACE LOADING OF BEAMS [CH. X V I I
_ F / 4 __3a 6W/a 1
horizontal tension, X r
~ b W
b + • b* \b
vertical pressure, — Y^, =
where b is t h e depth of t h e beam, and 2a is t h e span BG. T h e stress is

equivalent to mean tension unaccompanied by shearing stress at those
points at which X = Y .
x y I n order t h a t these points may be real we must
have 6a/6 > 4 0 / 7 T , or (span/depth) > 4*25 nearly. W h e n this condition is
satisfied there are two such points. The positions of these points can be
determined experimentally, since they are characterized by t h e absence of
any doubly refractive property of t h e glass, and t h e actual and calculated
positions were found to agree very closely.
A general theory of two-dimensional problems of this character has been
given by Filon*. Among t h e problems solved by him is included t h a t of a
beam of infinite length to one side of which pressure is applied at one point.
The components of displacement and of stress were expressed by means of
definite integrals, and the results are r a t h e r difficult to interpret. I t is clear
t h a t , if t h e solution of this special problem could be obtained in a manage
able form, the solution of such questions as t h a t discussed by Stokes could be
obtained by synthesis. Filon concluded from his work t h a t Stokes's value for
t h e horizontal tension requires correction, more especially in the lower half
of the beam, b u t t h a t his value for the vertical pressure is a good approxi
mation. As regards the question of t h e relation between t h e curvature and
t h e bending moment, Filon concluded t h a t t h e Bernoulli-Eulerian theorem is
approximately verified, b u t that, in applying it to determine t h e deflexion
due to a concentrated load, account ought to be t a k e n of a term of the same
kind as t h e so-called " additional deflexion due to shearing " [Article 235 (e)].
Consider for example a beam BG supported at both ends and carrying a
concentrated load W at the middle point A (Fig. 33). Either part, AG or
A4W JWA
>
w
Fig. 33.
* Phil. Trans. Boy. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 201 (1903). Reference may also be made to a thesis
by C. Ribiere, Sur divers cas de la flexion des prismes rectangles, Bordeaux, 1888.
245, 246] CONTINUOUS BEAMS 353
AB, of t h e beam might be treated as a cantilever, fixed a t . A and bent by

t e r m i n a l load J Wacting upwards at t h e other end; b u t Saint-Venant's solution
would not be strictly applicable to t h e parts AB or AG, for the cross-sections
a r e distorted into curved surfaces which would not fit together at A. In
Saint-Venant's solution of t h e cantilever problem t h e central part of t h e cross-
section at A is vertical, and the t a n g e n t to t h e central-line at A makes with
t h e horizontal a certain small angle s . [Article 232(c).] Filon concluded
0
from his solution t h a t t h e deflexion of t h e centrally loaded beam may be

determined approximately by t h e double cantilever method, provided t h a t t h e
central-line at t h e point of loading A is t a k e n to be bent through a small
angle, so t h a t AB and AG are inclined upwards at t h e same small angle to
t h e horizontal. H e estimated this small angle as about f s . 0
The correction of the central deflexion which would be obtained in this way would be
.equivalent, in the case of a narrow rectangular beam, to increasing it by the fraction
2
45d /16l of itself, where I is the length of the span, and d is the depth of the beam. The
2
correction is therefore not very important in a long beam.

It must be understood that the theory here cited does not state that the central-line is
hent through a small angle at the point immediately under the concentrated load. The
-exact expression for the displacement shows in fact that the direction is continuous at this
point. What the theory states is that we may make a good approximation to the deflexion
by assuming the Bernoulli-Eulerian curvature-theorem—which is not exactly true—and
at the same time assuming a discontinuity of direction of the central-line—which does not
really occur.
246. The problem of c o n t i n u o u s beams*.

I n what follows we shall develope t h e consequences of assuming t h e
Bernoulli-Eulerian curvature-theorem to hold in t h e case of a long beam, of
small depth and breadth, resting on two or more supports at t h e same level, and
bent by transverse loads distributed in various ways. W e shall take the beam
to be slightly bent in a principal plane. W e take an origin anywhere in the line
of the supports, and draw t h e axis of x horizontally to t h e right through t h e
supports, and the axis of y vertically downwards. T h e curvature is expressed
2 2
with sufficient approximation by d y/dx . The tractions exerted across a
normal section of t h e beam, by t h e parts for which x is greater than it is at
t h e section upon t h e parts for which x is less, are statically equivalent to
a shearing force N, directed parallel to the axis of y, and a couple G in the
plane of (x, y). The conditions of rigid-body equilibrium of a short length
Ax of the beam between two normal sections yield t h e equation
w
* The theory was initiated by Navier. See Introduction, p. 22. Special cases have been
discussed by many writers, among whom we may mention Weyrauch, Aufgaben zur Theorie
elastischer Korper, Leipzig 1885.
L. E. 23
354 CONTINUOUS BEAMS [CH. XVII
T h e couple G is taken to be expressed by t h e equation
G = B 2 •(2)
dx '
where B is the product of Young's modulus for the material and t h e moment
of inertia of a normal section about an axis t h r o u g h its centroid at r i g h t
angles to t h e plane of (x, y ) * . The senses of the force and couple, estimated
as above, are indicated in Fig. 34. Except in estimating B no account is
taken of the breadth or d e p t h of t h e beam.
I n t h e problems t h a t we shall consider the points of support will be

taken to be at the same level. A t these points the condition y = 0 m u s t be
satisfied. A t a free end of t h e beam t h e conditions N=0, G = 0 m u s t be
satisfied. A t an end which rests freely on a support (or a " supported " end)
the conditions are y = 0, G = 0. A t an end which is " built-in " (encastre)
the direction of the central-line may be taken to be prescribedf. I n t h e
problems t h a t we shall solve it will be taken to be horizontal. The displace
ment y is to be determined by equating the flexural couple G at any section,
of which t h e centroid is P , to t h e sum of t h e moments about P of all t h e
forces which act upon any portion of t h e beam, terminated towards the left
at t h e section^. This method yields a differential equation for y, and t h e
constants of integration are to be determined by t h e above special conditions.
The expressions for y as a function of x are not t h e same in the two portions
of t h e beam separated by a point at which there is a concentrated load, or by
a point of support, b u t these expressions must have the same value at t h e
p o i n t ; in other words, t h e displacement y is continuous in passing through
t h e point. W e shall assume also t h a t t h e direction of the central-line, or
dyjdx, is continuous in passing through such a point. Equations (1) and (2)
2 2
show t h a t the curvature, estimated as d yjdx , is continuous in passing
through the point. The difference of the shearing forces N calculated from
t h e displacements on t h e two sides of t h e point must balance the concen
trated load, or t h e pressure of t h e support; and thus the shearing force,
8 3
and therefore also d y/dx , is discontinuous at such a point.
* B is often called the " flexural rigidity."

t Such an end is often described as "clamped."
$ This is, of course, the same as the sum of the moments, with reversed signs, of all the
forces which act upon any portion of the beam terminated towards the right at the section.
247. Single span.
W e consider first a n u m b e r of cases in which there are two points of
support situated at t h e ends of t h e beam. In all these cases we denote the
length of the span between the supports by I.
(a) Terminal forces and couples.
Ay
M,
Fig. 35.
L e t the beam be subjected to forces Y and couples M and M at t h e ends 0 1
A and B. The forces Y must be equal and opposite, and, when the senses
are those indicated in Fig. 35, they must be expressible in terms of M 1
and M by the equation

Q
IY=M -M . 0 1
T h e bending moment at any section x is (l — x) Y+M lf or
The equation of equilibrium is accordingly

•D
2
dy M l •x X
+ M
r > v
I n t e g r a t i n g this equation, and determining the constants of integration

so t h a t y may vanish at x = 0 and at x = I, we find t h a t the deflexion is given
by t h e following equation :
1
By = -±l- x(l-x){M (2l-x) 0 + M (l+x)}
1 (3)
The deflexion given by this equation may be described as " due to t h e
couples at t h e ends of t h e span."
(b) Uniform load. Supported ends.
A | wl
Fig. 36.
Taking w to be the weight per unit of length of t h e beam, we observe

t h a t t h e pressures on t h e supports are each of t h e m equal to \wl. The
23—2
moment about any point P of the weight of t h e part BP of the beam is
\w(l — xf, and therefore t h e bending moment at P, estimated in the sense
already explained, is the sum of this moment and —^wl(l— x), or it is
— ^wx(l — x).
The equation of equilibrium is accordingly
2
\wx(l — x).
' dx
I n t e g r a t i n g this equation, and determining t h e constants of integration

so t h a t y may vanish at x = 0 and at x = I, we find t h e equation
2
By = ^ w w (I _ as) [l + x)} (4)
If we refer to t h e middle point of t h e span as origin, by p u t t i n g x — \l-\-x,

we find
2 2
By = WF-*' )(K-tf' )-
¥
(c) Uniform load. Built-in ends.
The solution is to be obtained by adding to the solution in case (b) a solution of case (a)
adjusted so that dyjdx may vanish at x — 0 and x=l. It is clear from symmetry that
M^MQ and F = 0 . We have therefore
2 2
"Hy—^wx (l — x)(l + lx — x ) — \Mx {I — x\
where M is written for M or M .
0 x The terminal conditions give
2
M^^wl ,
and the equation for the deflexion becomes
2 2
By=i- wx (l-x) ,
i
or, referred to the middle point of the span as origin of x\ it becomes
{d) Concentrated load. Supported ends.
Fig. 37.
L e t a load W be concentrated at a point Q in AB, at which x~^. We

shall write % for I — £, so t h a t AQ=^ and BQ = ^. The pressures on t h e
supports A and B are equal to Wg/l and W^/l respectively. The bending
moment at any point in AQ, where £ > x > 0, is — Wg'x/l; and the bending
moment at any point in BQ, where I >x> tj, is — Wf*(l — x)/l.
T h e equations of equilibrium are accordingly
Ff
mAQ B G ,
I
Fg
in BQ B (l-x).
dec* I
We integrate these in t h e forms

B (y — x tan a) =
B{y-(l-x) tan 0}
where t a n a and t a n / 3 are t h e downward slopes of t h e central-line a t t h e
points A and B. T h e conditions of continuity of y a n d dy/dx a t Q a r e
3
B f tan a - £ TFg'f == B f tan /3 - £ Tf££' ,
B tan a - 1 Z " 1
F f f = - B tan $ + ^ W&"\
These equations give
B tan a = £ ^ F £ f (f + 2?0. B t a n /3 = £ f (2£ + £')•
Hence in where £ > * > 0, we have
B y - i ^ F f {£(£ + 2 f > - ^ } , . (5)
and in BQ, where I > x > g, we have
3
By = i W% { ? (2£ + f ) ( * - * ) - ( * - *) } (0)
We observe that the deflexion at any point P when the load is at Q is equal to the
deflexion at Q when the same load is at P.
The central deflexion due to the weight of the beam, as determined by the solution
of case (b), is the same as that due to f of the weight concentrated at the middle of
the span.
(e) Concentrated load. Built-in ends.
AY 0 AY,
Fig. 38.
To the values of By given in (5) and (6) we have to add the value of B y given
in (3), and determine the constants M and M by the conditions that dy/dx vanishes
0 x
at x = 0 and at x—l. We find

^ ( ^ + 2f)-(2if if )^ 0 + 1 = = 0 ,
^ ( 2 £ + n-W + 2 i / i ) P = 0,
from which M =W&'*/P

Q 9 M^W&g'/P.
Hence in AQ, where £>#>0, we have
By = W£*afi {3£ (I - x) -
and in BQ, where l>x>£, we have
By = 1 1 ~ W£? (I - xf {d£'x
3
x)}.
We notice that the deflexion at P when the load is at Q is the same as the deflexion
at Q when the same load is at P.
2 2
The points of inflexion are given by d yjdx =Q, and we find that there is an inflexion
at P in A Q where
x
APÂQ.AB/iZAQ + BQ).
In like manner there is an inflexion at P in BQ where 2
BP = BQ. ABIiZBQ + A Q).

2
The point where the central-line is horizontal is given by dy/dx = 0. If such a point
is in AQ it must be at a distance from A equal to twice AP , and for this to happen 1
AQ must be >BQ. Conversely, if AQ<BQ, the point is in BQ at a distance from B equal

to twice BP . 2
The forces Y and Y at the supports are given by the equations

0 1
Y= 0 F { * (3£ + f P i = W e (« + 3|0/P.
248. The t h e o r e m of three m o m e n t s * .
A, Bi
M- B IVM B Mr
Fig. 39.
L e t - 4 , 5 , G be three consecutive supports of a continuous beam resting

on any number of supports at the same level, and let M M M denote t h e AT BI C
bending moments a t A , B, C. Denote t h e shearing forces on t h e two sides

of t h e support B by B and B with a similar notation for t h e others. The
0 LY
pressure on t h e support B is BQ + B^ NOW B is determined by t a k i n g 0
moments about A for t h e equilibrium of t h e span AB, and B is determined 1
by t a k i n g moments about C for t h e equilibrium of t h e span BG. Hence t h e

pressure B + B can be expressed in terms of t h e bending moments at A , B, G
Q 1
when the manner of loading of t h e spans is known. Again, t h e deflexion in t h e

span AB may be obtained by adding t h e deflexion due to t h e load on this
span when its ends are supported to t h a t due to t h e bending moments at the
ends. [Article 2 4 7 (a).] The deflexion in t h e span BG may be determined
* The theorem is due to Clapeyron. See Introduction, p. 22. Generalizations have been
given by various writers among whom may be mentioned M. Ldvy, Statique graphique, t. 2,
Paris 1886, who treats the case where the supports are not all in the same level; R. R. Webb,
Cambridge Phil. Soc. Proc, vol. 6 (1886), who treats the case of variable flexural rigidity;
K. Pearson, Messenger of Math., vol. 19 (1890), who treats the case in which the supports
are slightly compressible.
by t h e same method. T h e condition of continuity of direction of the central-
line at B becomes t h e n a relation connecting t h e bending moments at A, B, C.
A similar relation holds for any three consecutive supports. This relation
is t h e theorem of three moments. By means of this relation, combined with
t h e special conditions which hold at t h e first and last supports, t h e bending
moments at all t h e supports can be calculated.
To express this theory analytically, we t a k e an origin anywhere in t h e
line of the supports, and draw t h e axis of x horizontally to t h e right, and t h e
axis of y vertically downwards. W e take t h e points of support to be at
x=a, b, c,... The lengths of the spans, b — a, c — b,... will be denoted by
l , l c>'-
AB B We investigate a series of cases.
(a) Uniform load.
Let w be the load per unit of length. T h e deflexion in AB is given,
in accordance with the results of Article 247 (a) and (6), by the equation
W X A X A
% = 2¥ ( - ) (P - ) [Q> - Y + (a? - a) ( 6 — x)}
-%(x-a){b-x) {M (b + x - 2a) + M
B A (26 - x - a)}/(b - a).
A similar equation may be written down for t h e deflexion in BC. The
condition t h a t t h e two values of dy/dx at x = b are equal is
~^w(b-af + ±(2M B + M ) (b-a) A = i w(c-by-i(2M
J B + M )(c-b),
c
and the equation of three moments is therefore

LB (M A + 2M ) + l (2M
B BG B + M ) = iw (l * + l ?)
c AB B( (7)
To determine the pressure on the support B we form the equations of moments for AB
about A , and for BC about C. We have
2
IAB - i wl A -M + M =0,
B A
2
B l - \wl
x BC B - M + M = 0.
B C
These equations give B and B and the pressure on the support B is B +B .

0 19 0 1 In this
way the pressures on all the supports may be calculated.
(6) Equal spans.
When the spans are equal, equation (7) may be written as a linear difference equation
of the second order in the form
M_ N 1 + 4M +M N N + 1 =^wl%
and the solution is of the form
2 n ri
M = fa wl +
N Aa +B(3 ,
2
where A and B are constants, and a and (3 are the roots of the quadratic x -f 4# + 1 = 0,
or we have
a = - 2 + /3, /3= - 2 - V 3 . x
The constants A and B are to be determined from the values of M at the first and last
supports.
(c) Uniform load on each span.
Let w denote the load per unit of length on the span AB, and w that on BC. Then
AB BC
we find, in the same way as in case {a), the equation of three moments in the form
LB {MA + 2M ) + l B BC (2M +M ) B C =Iw AB l *+i w
AB BC l *.
B
(d) Concentrated load on one span.
Let a load W be concentrated at a point Q in BG given by x — £. T h e
deflexion in AB is given, in accordance with t h e results of Article 247 (a)>
by t h e equation
By = -±(x-a)(b-x) {M (2b-x-a)
A + M (& + a ? - 2 a ) } / ( & - a ) ,
B
and t h a t in BQ is given by
3
By = i W [(£ - 6) (c - £) (2c - 6 - £) (* - 6) - (c - f) (0 - 6) ]/(c - 6)
-£{x-b)(c-x) [M (2c-x-b)
B + M (c + 0 x-2b)}/(c-b).
The condition of continuity of dy/dx at x = b is
i ( J f „ + 2 J Q (6 -a) = i TF (£ - 6) (c - £)(2c - 6 - f )/(c - b)-^M +M ){c-b)
B c t
and t h e equation of three moments for A, B, C is therefore

+ 2 ^ ) 4 - ^ ( 2 ^ + ^ ) - Wl l (l+l ll ), BQ QC QC BC (8)
where l and l
BQ are t h e distances of Q from 5 and G. I n like manner,,
QC
if D is t h e next support beyond C, t h e equation of three moments for

B, G D is
}
M J F * + 2 J f ) + l > (2M + M ) = Wl l
c CJ C D BQ QC (1 + l jl ) BQ BG (9)
249. Graphic m e t h o d of solution of the problem of c o n t i n u o u s

beams*.
2
dy
The equation of equilibrium (2), viz. B = G, is of t h e same form as t h e
equation determining t h e curve assumed by a loaded string or chain, when
t h e load per unit length of t h e horizontal projection is proportional to — G.
For, if T denotes the tension of the string, m t h e load per unit length of t h e
horizontal projection, and ds t h e element of arc of t h e catenary curve, t h e
equations of equilibrium, referred to axes drawn in t h e same way as in
Article 246, are
dx m
T ^ = const. = r say,
d f dy\
+m
dx _
=0, (T^j
m
(A/O Ll/O \ Lbo J \JJO
and these lead, by elimination of T, to the equation

2
dy
2
ax
I t follows t h a t the form of t h e curve assumed by t h e central-line of t h e
beam in any span is t h e same as t h a t of a catenary or funicular curve
determined by forces proportional to GSx on any length Sx of t h e span,
provided t h a t the funicular is made to pass through t h e ends of the span.
The forces CrSx are to be directed upwards or downwards according as G is
positive or negative.
* The method is due to Mohr. SEE Introduction, footnote 99.
The tangents of such a funicular at t h e ends of a span can be determined
without finding the funicular, for they depend only on t h e statical resultant
and moment of t h e fictitious forces GSx. To see this we take t h e ends of t h e
span to be x = 0 and x — l, and integrate t h e equation (2) in t h e forms
Ay G 7 / 7 .dy 1
G
w
x — ax, (I — x) ^ + y — • (I — x) — dx,
dx ^ ~ J 0 ~ B
and hence we obtain t h e equation

l
' G
I x — dx- (I — x) —• cfo?,
dx o B
from which it follows t h a t
(Z - x) G
- f—
cfe/o /B ^ \dxJi z J oJo^ IB
B
These values depend only on t h e resultant and resultant moment of t h e
forces G&e, and therefore t h e direction of t h e central-line of t h e beam at t h e
ends of t h e span would be determined by drawing t h e funicular, not for t h e
forces GBx, b u t for a statically equivalent system of forces.
The flexural couple G a t any point of a span AB m a y be found by adding
t h e couple calculated from t h e bending m o m e n t s at t h e ends, when there is
no load on t h e span, to t h e couple calculated from t h e load on t h e span,
when t h e ends are "supported." T h e bending moment due to t h e couples
at t h e ends of t h e span is represented graphically by t h e ordinates of t h e
line A'B' in Fig. 40, where A A' and BB' represent on any suitable
scale t h e bending moments a t A* and B. T h e bending moment due to
Fig. 40. Fig. 4 1 .
uniform load on t h e span is equal to —\wx{l — x), as in Article 247 (6), and
it may be represented by t h e ordinates of a parabola as in Fig. 4 1 . T h e
bending moment due to a concentrated load is equal to — Wx (I — when
£ > x > 0, and to — W (I — x) when I > x > as in Article 247 (d); and it
may be represented by t h e ordinate of a broken line as in Fig. 42. T h e
bending moment due to the load on the span may be represented in a
general way by t h e ordinate of t h e thick line in Fig. 43.
Fig. 42. Fig. 43.
The fictitious forces GBx are statically equivalent to the following :—

(i) a force <j> represented by the area of t h e triangle AA'B, acting upwards
through t h a t point of trisection g of AB which is nearer to A, (ii) a force
represented by the area of t h e triangle A'BB', acting upwards through t h e
other point of trisection g' of AB, (iii) a force F, represented by t h e area
contained between AB and t h e thick line in Fig. 43, acting downwards through
the centroid of this area. W e t a k e t h e line of action of F to meet AB in t h e
point G. W h e n t h e load on the span is uniform, F = ^wP, and G is at t h e
middle point of AB. W h e n there is an isolated load, F = \W % (I — f), and
G is at a distance from A equal to ^ (I + £).
The forces F and t h e points G are known for each span, and the points
g, g' are known also. T h e forces (/>' are unknown, since they are propor
tional to t h e bending moments at t h e supports, b u t these forces are connected
by certain relations. L e t A ,A ...0 lydenote the supports in order, let <j> </>/,F ly x
denote t h e equivalent system of forces for the first span A A and so on.
0 ly
L e t M , M M ,... denote t h e bending moments at t h e supports. Then we

Q l9 2
observe, for example, t h a t : ^ = M .A A

2 1 : M .A A ,
0 1 and therefore the
1 1 2
ratio </>/ : <£ is known. Similarly t h e ratio <£ ' * </>3 is known, and so on.
2 2
If t h e forces (/>, (/>', as well as F, were known for any span, we could
construct a funicular polygon for t h e m of which t h e extreme sides could be
made to pass through the ends of the span Since the direction of t h e
central-line of t h e beam is continuous at the points of support, t h e extreme
sides of t h e funiculars which pass through t h e common extremity of two
consecutive spans are in t h e same straight line. T h e various funicular
polygons belonging to t h e different spans form therefore a single funicular
polygon for t h e system of forces consisting of all the forces <f>, F.
250. D e v e l o p m e n t of the graphic m e t h o d .

T h e above results enable us to construct the funicular j u s t described, and
to d e t e r m i n e t h e forces cf), or the bending moments at t h e supports, when t h e
b e n d i n g moments at the first and last supports are given. W e consider t h e
ease where these two bending moments are zero*, or t h e ends of the beam
are "supported." We denote t h e sides of the funicular by 1, 2, 3 , . . . so t h a t
t h e sides 1, 3, 6 , . . . pass t h r o u g h t h e supports A , A A ... . 0 ly 2i
Fig. 44.
W e consider the triangle formed by the sides 2, 3, 4. Two of its vertices

lie on fixed lines, viz.: the verticals t h r o u g h g( and g . The third vertex V 2 x
also lies on a fixed line. For t h e side 3 could be kept in equilibrium by t h e

forces and <£ and the tensions in the sides 2, 4, and therefore V is on t h e
2 x
line of action of the resultant of </>/ and </>; b u t this line is the vertical2
f
t h r o u g h the point a where a g = A g and a g = A g , for cf> : <p = A^g :
ly x 2 x x x x Ag. x 2 x 2 x x 2
Again, the point G where t h e side 2 meets t h e vertical through A is

2 0
determined by the condition t h a t t h e triangle formed by t h e sides 1 and 2

and t h e line A C is a triangle of forces for t h e point of intersection of the
0 2
sides 1 and 2, and A C represents t h e known force F on t h e scale on which

0 2 x
we represent forces by lines. Since t h e vertices of t h e triangle formed by

t h e sides 2, 3, 4 lie on three fixed parallel lines, and t h e sides 2 and 3 pass
t h r o u g h t h e fixed points C and A , t h e side 4 passes through a fixed
2 x
point 0 , which can be constructed by drawing any two triangles to satisfy

4
t h e stated conditions.
I n t h e above the point G may be taken arbitrarily, but, when it is chosen,

2
A G represents t h e constant horizontal component of the tension in t h e

0 1
sides of the funicular on t h e same scale as t h a t on which A C represents 0 2
t h e force F .x
W e may show in t h e same way t h a t t h e vertices of t h e triangle formed

Iby the sides 5, 6, 7 lie on t h r e e fixed vertical lines, and t h a t its sides pass
t h r o u g h three fixed points. T h e vertical on which t h e intersection V of 2
* The sketch of the graphic method given in the text is not intended to be complete. For
further details the reader is referred to M. Levy, loc. cit. p. 358. A paper by Perry and Ayrton
i n Proc. Roy. Soc, vol. 29 (1879), may also be consulted. The memoir by Canevazzi cited in the
Introduction, footnote 99, contains a very luminous account of the theory.
t h e lines 5 and 7 lies passes t h r o u g h t h e point a , where a g = A g and 2 2 3 2 2
ag — Ag.
2 2 The fixed point G , t h r o u g h which t h e side 5 passes, is on t h e
2 3 B
vertical through C , and at such a distance from G t h a t this vertical and t h e

4 4
sides 4 and 5 make u p a triangle of forces for t h e point of intersection of t h e

sides 4 and 5. The line CJJ t h e n represents t h e force F on a certain scale,
5 2
which is not t h e same as t h e scale on which A O represents F for t h e 0 2 u
horizontal projection of G C represents t h e constant horizontal component

2 4
tension in t h e funicular on t h e scale on which C C represents F . Since C . 4 5 2 4
is known, t h e ratio of scales in question is determined, and G is therefore 5
determined. The side 6 passes t h r o u g h t h e fixed point A , and t h e fixed 2
point G t h r o u g h which t h e side 7 passes can be constructed in t h e same

7
way as C was constructed. 4
I n this way we construct two series of points 0 , C ... C - ... and 2 B} sk 1}
G G , ... Gsk . . . . W e construct also t h e series of points a a ,... a ,... >

4i 7 +li 1} 2 k
where a g = A g and a g — Ag.

k k By aid of these series of points
k k+1 k k+1 k k
we may construct t h e required funicular.
Consider t h e case of n spans, t h e end A , as well as i , being simply n 0
supported. The line joining G^n^ to A is t h e last side (Sn — 1) of t h e n
funicular, since t h e force <j) ', like <j> is zero. T h e side (Sn — 2) meets t h e
n 1}
side (Sn — 1) on t h e line of action of F and passes t h r o u g h the point 0 _ . 2} 3 n 2
L e t this side (Sn — 2) meet t h e vertical through a _ in V^. T h e n the line n 2
1^-1^371-4 is t h e side (Sn — 4). The side (Sn — 3) is determined by joining

t h e point where t h e side (Sn — 2) meets t h e vertical through g to t h e point n
where t h e side (Sn — 4) meets the vertical t h r o u g h g - . This side (Sn — 3} n Y
necessarily passes t h r o u g h A ^ in consequence of t h e mode of construction

n
of the points G. Proceeding in this way we can construct the funicular.

W h e n t h e funicular is constructed we may determine the bending
moments at t h e supports by measurement upon the figure. For example,
let t h e side 4 meet t h e vertical through A in S . Then A& and the sides 3 1 1
and 4 m a k e u p a triangle of forces for t h e point of intersection of 3 and 4.

T h e horizontal projection of either of t h e sides of this triangle which are not
vertical is Â-Â . Hence represents t h e force <p on the same scale as
2 2
ÂjA represents t h e horizontal tension in t h e sides of the funicular.

2 Thus
A 8 /A A
1 represents t h e force <£ on a constant scale. B u t <£ represents t h e
1 1 2 2 2
2
product of M and AÂ also on a constant scale. Hence A S /A A
1 2 repre 1 1 l 2
sents t h e bending m o m e n t a t A on a constant scale. I n like manner, if t h e x
side Sk + 1 meets t h e vertical t h r o u g h A in t h e point S , t h e n A S JA A ^ k k k k k k
represents t h e bending moment at A . k

CHAPTER XVIII.
GENERAL THEORY OF THE BENDING AND TWISTING OF THIN RODS.
2 5 1 . B E S I D E S the problem of continuous beams there are many physical

and technical problems which can be treated as problems concerning long
thin rods, and, on this understanding, are capable of approximate solution. I n
this Chapter we shall consider t h e general theory of t h e behaviour of such
bodies, reserving the applications of t h e theory for subsequent Chapters. The
special circumstance of which t h e theory m u s t take account is the possibility
t h a t t h e relative displacements of the parts of a long t h i n rod may be by no
means small, and yet t h e strains which occur in any part of t h e rod may be
small enough to satisfy t h e requirements of the mathematical theory. This
possibility renders necessary some special kinematical investigations, subsidiary
to the general analysis of strain considered in Chapter I.
252. Kinematics of t h i n rods*.

I n the unstressed state t h e rod is taken to be cylindrical or prismatic, so
t h a t homologous lines in different cross-sections are parallel to each other.
If t h e rod is simply twisted, without being bent, linear elements of different
cross-sections which are parallel in t h e unstressed state become inclined to
each other. W e select one set of linear elements, which in the unstressed
state are parallel to each other and lie along principal axes of the cross-
sections at their centroids. Let Sfbe the angle in the strained state between
the directions of two such elements which lie in cross-sections at a distance
8s apart. Then lim Sf/Ss measures t h e twist
Ss = 0
W h e n the rod is bent, t h e twist cannot be estimated quite so simply.

r
W e shall suppose t h a t t h e central-line becomes a tortuous curve of curvature
1/p and measure of tortuosity 1/2. W e take a system of fixed axes of x, y, z
of which the axis of z is parallel to t h e central-line in t h e unstressed state,
and the axes of x, y are parallel in t h e same state to principal axes of the
* Cf. Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil., Part I, pp. 94 et seq., and Kirchhoff, J.f. Math. (Crelle),
Bd. 56 (1859), or Ges. Abhandlungen (Leipzig 1882), p. 285, or Vorlesungen uber math. Physik,
Mechanik, Vorlesung 28.
366 EXTENSION CURVATUBE AND TWIST [CH. XVIII
cross-sections at their centroids. Let P be any point of the central-line, and,

in the unstressed state, let three linear elements of the rod issue from P in
the directions of the axes of x, y, z. When the rod is deformed these linear
elements do not in general continue to be at right angles to each other, but
by means of them we can construct a system of orthogonal axes of x, y , z.
The origin of this system is the displaced position P of P , the axis of z is the
x
tangent at P to the strained central-line, and the plane

l z) contains the
linear element which, in the unstressed state, issues from P in the direction
of the axis of x. The plane of (x, z) is a " principal plane " of the rod. The
sense of the axis of x is chosen arbitrarily. The sense of the axis of z is
chosen to be that in which the arc $ of the central-line, measured from some
assigned point of it, increases; and then the sense of the axis of y is deter
mined by the condition that the axes of x, y z in this order are a right-handed
y
system. The system of axes constructed as above for any point on the strained
central-line will be called the " principal torsion-flexure axes " of the rod at
the point.
Let P' be a point of the central-line near to P , and let P / be the displaced
position of P', The length hs of the arc P P( of the strained central-line
x X
may differ slightly from the length ds of P P ' , If e is the extension of the
central-line at P we have
l
lim ( S V o V l - a + e) (1)
The extension e may be zero. For any application of the mathematical
theory of Elasticity to be possible, it must be a small quantity of the order of
the strains contemplated in the theory.
Suppose the origin of a frame of three orthogonal axes of x, y , z to move
along the strained central-line of the rod with unit velocity, and the three
axes to be directed always along the principal torsion-flexure axes of the rod
at the origin of the frame. We may resolve the angular velocity with which
the frame rotates into components directed along the instantaneous positions
of the axes. We shall denote these components by K, K, r. Then K and tc'
are the components of curvature of the strained central-line at P and r is the
lt
twist of the rod at P.

x
These statements may be regarded as definitions of the twist and com

ponents of curvature. I t is clear that the new definition of the twist coincides
with that which was given above in the case of a rod which is not bent, and
that K, K are the curvatures, as defined geometrically, of the projections of
the strained central-line on the planes of (y, z) and (x, z), and therefore the
resultant of K and K' is a vector directed along the binormal of the strained
central-line and equal to the curvature \jp of this curve.
253. Kinematical formulae.
We investigate in the first place the relation between the twist of the rod
252, 253] OF A T H I N ROD 367
and the measure of tortuosity of its strained central-line. Let I, m, n denote

the direction cosines of t h e binormal of this curve at P referred to the prin x
cipal torsion-flexure axes at P and let V, m', ri denote t h e direction cosines

lf
of the binormal at P / referred to t h e principal torsion-flexure axes at P / .

Then the limits such as lim {V — l)jBs are denoted by dl/ds .... Again let
1 lt
I + SI,... denote the direction cosines of t h e binormal at P / referred to the

principal torsion-flexure axes at P . We have the formulas*
x
lim Bl/Bs = dl/ds — mr +

1 1
lim Bm/Bsi — dmjds-^ — n/c + IT,

s =oSl
lim Bn/Bsj = dn/ds 1 — IK + m/c.

5s = 0 l
The measure of tortuosity 1/2 of the strained central-line is given by the

formula
2 2 2
l / 2 = lim [(Blf + (Brnf + ( S n ) ] ^ ^ ) ,
and the sign of 2 is determined by choosing the senses in which t h e principal

normal, binormal and tangent of the curve are drawn. W e suppose the prin-
Fig. 45.
cipal normal (marked n in Fig. 45) to be drawn towards t h e centre of

curvature, and the tangent to be drawn in t h e sense in which s increases, x
and we choose t h e sense in which t h e binormal (marked b in the figure) is

drawn in such a way t h a t the principal normal, t h e binormal and t h e tangent,
taken in this order, are parallel to t h e axes of a right-handed system. Now
we may put
I = p = — cos / ,
K m = fc'p = sin / , n = 0,
where p is the radius of c u r v a t u r e ; and t h e n \ i r —fis the angle between t h e
* Cf. E . J. Routh, Dynamics of a system of rigid bodies (London 1884), Part II, Chapter I.
principal plane (x, z) of t h e rod and the principal normal of t h e strained
2
central-line. On substituting in the expression for 1/S , and making use of
t h e above convention, we find t h e equation
__df 1
T + •(2)
~~ds 1 2 ' '
i n which tan f — — (K/K) (3)
The necessity of introducing such an angle as / into the theory was noted
by Saint-Venant*. The case in w h i c h / v a n i s h e s or is constant was t h e only
one considered by t h e earlier writers on t h e subject. The linear elements of
the deformed rod which issue from t h e strained central-line in t h e direction
of the principal normals of this curve are, in t h e unstressed state, very
nearly coincident with a family of lines at right angles to the central-line.
If / vanishes or is constant these lines are parallel in the unstressed state.
W e may describe a state of the bent and twisted rod in which f vanishes
or is constant as such t h a t t h e rod, if simply unbent, would be prismatic.
W h e n f is variable t h e rod, if simply unbent, would be a twisted prism,
and t h e twist would be df/ds . 1
W i t h a view to t h e calculation of /c, K, T we take the axes of x, y z at P } }
to be connected with any system of fixed axes of x, y, z by the orthogonal

scheme
X
J z
X H m x N
I
•(4)
y H m 2 n 2
z H m 3
in which, for example, l m n are the direction cosines of the axis of x at P

1} 1? x 1
referred to t h e fixed axes. W e have t h e nine equations
dlif ds± — 1 T — I K,
2 Z dl /dsi 2 = 1 K — liT,
3 dl / ds = 1 K — 1 K,
B 1 1 2 ]
dmi/ds 1 = m r— m K,
2 Z dm /ds 2 ± — mîc—m r, Y dm^/ds =m K 1 L — m ic\...(5)
2
d?i /ds
1 1 = n T— n /c',
2 s dn /ds 2 1 = n fc — n-^r,
s dn /ds
s 1 = n K — n /c,
1 2 )
which express t h e conditions t h a t t h e axes of x, y, z are fixed, while those of

x, y, z are moving with t h e angular velocity (K, K, r ) f . From these we
obtain such equations as
dl dm* dn* 2
k 1 + m z : J r n
d s d i " ds *
too j U/OI LI A I
T h e differentiations with respect to s may, since e is small, be replaced x
by differentiations with respect to s, provided t h a t the left-hand members of

* Paris C. R., t. 17 (1843).
f Cf. E . J. Routh, loc. cit. p. 367.
t h e equations are multiplied by 1 + e. If K , r are themselves small, and
quantities of t h e order etc are neglected, the factor 1 -f e may be replaced by
unity. If K, K, T are not regarded as small quantities, a first approximation
to t h e i r values can be obtained by replacing 1 + e by unity. For t h e esti
mation of /c, K, r we may therefore ignore t h e distinction between ds and ds x
and write our formulas

dm 2 dn2
ds ds ~ds'
, , dL dm* dn s
.(6)
7 dL dm, dm
UJO LCo Lvo
The direction cosines l . . . can be expressed in terms of three angles

lt
0, (f) as is usual in t h e theory of t h e motion of a rigid body. L e t 6 be

}
t h e angle which the axis of z at P makes with the fixed axis of z, y\r the
1
angle which a plane parallel to these axes makes with t h e fixed plane of (x, z),
t h e angle which t h e principal plane (x, z) of t h e rod at P makes with t h e 2
plane z P ^ . T h e n t h e direction cosines in question are expressed by t h e

equations
l — — sin s i n ob + cos yjs cos $ cos

x m — cos \fr sin
1 + sin \js cos <fi cos 0, n =-x sin6 cos cj) \
y
l = - s i n yfs cos 0 — cos ^ sin cj> cos 6, m = cos \^ cos $

2 2 - s i n ^ sin cp cos 7i 2 = sin 6 sin I
l=
3 sin 0 cos \j/y m = s i n 6 sin -v^,
3 w =
3 cos#. J
(7)
Fig. 46.
L. E. 24
T h e relations connecting dO/ds, dyfr/ds, d^/ds with K, K , T are obtained at
once from Fig. 46 by observing t h a t tc, K, T are t h e projections on t h e
principal torsion-flexure axes at P of a vector which is equivalent to vectors
1
dd/ds, dyfr/ds, dfyjds localized in certain lines. T h e line P g in which dd/ds 1
is localized is at right angles to t h e plane z P ^ , and d^rjds and dcf>/ds are

localized in the lines P z and P z. 2 W e have therefore t h e equations
Y
d6 . , dylr . , A
K
, dd c o s
, d\lr . ~ . ,
s m s i n
K = , sin 9 — sm u cos 9, ~~r 9 + " 9>
as as as as
T = ^ + * ± C O S 0 ( 8 )
w
as ds
254. E q u a t i o n s of equilibrium.
W h e n the rod is deformed the action of t h e part of it t h a t is on one side
of a cross-section upon the part on t h e other side is expressed, in t h e usual
way, by means of tractions estimated per unit of area of the section. These
tractions are statically equivalent to a force acting at t h e centroid of t h e
section and a couple. The axis of z being directed along t h e t a n g e n t to t h e
central-line at this centroid, t h e tractions on the section are denoted by
X, Y, Z.
z z T h e components parallel to the axes of x, y, z of the force- and
z
couple-resultants of these tractions are N, X', T and G, G', H, where
7/
N =fjx dxdy, z A = jJY dxdy, z T= jjZ dxdy,
z
K9)
= r
& jjyZzdxdy, G =jj — xZ dxdy,
z H=jj(xY z — yX ) z dxdy,
f
t h e integrations being t a k e n over t h e area of the section. The forces N, N
are "shearing-forces/' the force T is t h e " t e n s i o n / ' the couples G, G' are
"flexural couples," the couple H is t h e "torsional couple/' The forces
N, N', T will be called t h e stress-residtants, and the couples G, G', H t h e
stress-couples.
T h e forces applied to t h e rod are estimated by means of their force- and
couple-resultants per unit of length of the central-line, and, in t h u s estimating
them, we may disregard t h e extension of this line. Let t h e forces applied to
t h e portion of t h e rod between t h e cross-sections drawn through P and P / 1
be reduced statically to a force at P and a couple; and let the components

1
of this force and couple, referred to the principal torsion-flexure axes a t P , 1
be denoted by [X], [Y], [Z\ and [K], [K'\ [©]. W h e n P / is brought to

coincidence with P all these quantities vanish, b u t t h e quotients such as
l
[X]/Ss can have finite limits. Let us write

lim [X]/Ss = X,..., lim [K]/Ss = K,...;
8s=Q Ss = 0
t h e n X, Y Z are t h e components of t h e force-resultant a t P
f x per unit of
253-254] OF A T H I N ROD 371
l e n g t h of t h e central-line, and K, K',® are t h e components of t h e couple-

resultant.
Now t h e forces applied to t h e portion of t h e rod contained between two
cross-sections balance t h e resultant and resultant moment of t h e tractions
across these sections. L e t 8 denote t h e excess of t h e value of any quantity
belonging to t h e section t h r o u g h P / above t h e value t h a t belongs to t h e
section through P let x, y, z denote t h e coordinates of P referred to fixed
l 5 x
axes, x', y', z' those of any point on t h e central-line between P and P / . x
U s i n g t h e scheme (4), we can at once write down t h e equations of equi

librium of t h e portion in such forms as
rs+8s
+ l,N' + l T)+ s (kX + kY + kZ) ds = 0,
J S
r
and 8(kG + l G' + l H) + 8y {faN + n N' + n T) + 8 (^N + n N + n T)}
2 3 2 3 2 3
/
-8z {(m JSr + m N + m T) + 8 (m.N +m N' + m T)}
1 2 s 2 3
+J { ( / - y) ( i n x
+ n* T + n Z) - (z' - z) ( m X + m Y+ m Z)}
3 2 2 3 ds
+ (l K+l K'
1 2 + l ®)ds 3 = Q.
J s
W e divide t h e left-hand members of these equations by 8s, and pass to a

limit by diminishing 8s indefinitely. This operation requires t h e performance
of certain differentiations. T h e results of differentiating l ... are expressed 1}
by equations (5), since t h e extension of t h e central-line may be disregarded.

W e choose t h e fixed axes of x, y, z to coincide with t h e principal torsion-
flexure axes of t h e rod at P . Then, after t h e differentiations are performed,
x
we may p u t ^ = 1, m = 0, and so on. T h e limits of Soc/8s, 8y/8s, 8z/8s are

1
v0, 0, 1. The limits of such quantities as

(8s)-'j (l,X + l T+ 2 l Z) ds, (8s)-' j
3 (kK + kK' +l @) ds
3
a r e X , Y, Z and K, K', ©. T h e limits of such quantities as

fs+Ss
(8s)- J 1
(y' - y) (n X x + n Y+n Z)
2 3 ds
are zero. W e have, therefore, t h e following forms for t h e equations of
equilibrium*:
dW \
ds
dN'
^ - - T K + NT+YÔ, y oo)
ds
r/T
a
±-N '+N' +Z=0,
/c K .
ds I
* The equations werejgiven by Clebsch, Elasticitdt, § 50, but they were effectively contained in
the work of Kirchhoff, loc. cit. p. 365.
and
.(11)
as
+ +0 = 0.
as
I n addition to these equations t h e r e will in general be certain special
conditions which hold at t h e ends of t h e rod. These may be conditions of
fixity, or t h e forces and couples applied at t h e ends may be given. I n t h e
latter case t h e terminal values of t h e stress-resultants and stress-couples are
prescribed. These special conditions may be used to determine t h e constants
t h a t are introduced in t h e process of integrating t h e equations of equilibrium.
255. The ordinary approximate theory.

The equations of equilibrium contain nine unknown q u a n t i t i e s : N, N', T,
F
G, G , H, K, K, T . I t is clear t h a t , if three additional equations connecting
these quantities could be found, there would be sufficient equations to deter
mine t h e curvature and twist of t h e rod and the stress-resultants and
stress-couples. The ordinary approximate theory—a generalization of t h e
" B e m o u l l i - E u l e r i a n " theory—consists in assuming t h a t the stress-couples
are connected with t h e curvature and twist of t h e rod by equations of
t h e form
G = A/e, G'^BK, H=GT, (12)
where A, B, 0 are constants depending on t h e elastic quality of the material

and the shape of t h e cross-section. The n a t u r e of this dependence is known
from the results obtained in comparatively simple cases. For isotropic material
we should have
2 2
A = Ecok , B = Ecok' ,
where E is Young's modulus for t h e material, co is the area of t h e cross-
section, and k and k' are the radii of gyration of t h e cross-section about t h e
axes of x and y, which are principal axes at its centroid. I n t h e same case G
would be t h e torsional rigidity considered in Chapter x i v . If t h e cross-
section of t h e rod has kinetic symmetry, so t h a t A = B, t h e flexural couples
G, G', as expressed in t h e formulae (12), are equivalent to a single couple, of
which the axis is t h e binomial of t h e strained central-line, and the m a g n i t u d e
is B/p, where p is the radius of curvature of this curve.
The theory is obviously incomplete until it is shown t h a t the formulae (12)
are, at least approximately, correct. An investigation of this question, based
partly on t h e work of Kirchhoff and Olebscli*, will now be given.
* See Introduction, pp. 23 and 24.

254-256] STRAIN IMPLIED I N B E N D I N G A N D TWISTING 373
256. Nature of t h e strain i n a bent and t w i s t e d rod.

I n Kirchhoff's theory of thin rods much importance attaches to certain
kinematical equations. These equations are not free from difficulty, and the
following investigation, which is direct if a little tedious, is offered as a sub
s t i t u t e for the kinematical part of KirchhofFs theory. W e suppose t h a t a t h i n
rod is actually bent, so t h a t the central-line has a certain curvature, and
twisted, so t h a t the " t w i s t " has a certain value, and we seek to ascertain the
restrictions, if any, which are thereby imposed upon t h e strain in t h e rod.
For t h e sake of greater generality we shall suppose also t h a t t h e central-line
undergoes a certain small extension.
Now we can certainly imagine a state of t h e rod in which the cross-
sections remain plane, and at right angles to the central-line, and suffer no
strain in their p l a n e s ; and we may suppose t h a t each such section is so
oriented in t h e normal plane of the strained central-line t h a t t h e twist, as
already denned, has t h e prescribed value. To express this s t a t e of t h e rod
we denote by x, y the coordinates of any point Q, lying in t h e cross-section of
which t h e centroid is P , referred to t h e principal axes at P of this cross-
section. When the section is displaced bodily, as explained above, t h e point
P moves to P and t h e coordinates of P referred to any fixed axes, may be
1} l s
taken to be x, y, z. T h e principal axes at P of the cross-section through P

are moved into t h e positions of t h e axes of as, y a t P defined in Article 252.
Y
The state of t h e rod described above is therefore such t h a t t h e coordinates,

referred to t h e fixed axes, of t h e point Q to which Q is displaced, are
1}
J
y rm m 1 + m^y i z + nôc + n y,
2
where l ...
1} are t h e direction cosines defined by the scheme (4).
A n y state of the rod, which involves t h e right extension and curvature
of t h e central-line and t h e r i g h t twist, may be derived from t h e state j u s t
described by a displacement which, in t h e case of a t h i n rod, must be small,
for one point in each cross-section and one plane element drawn through each
t a n g e n t of t h e central-line are not displaced. Let f, r), % be t h e components
of this additional displacement for t h e point Q, referred to the axes of x, y, z
a t t h e point P . x The coordinates, referred to the fixed axes, of t h e final
position of Q are
x + £i(#+f) + Z (y-^)-M £2 3 y + m^x + ^ + mziy + ri + m^,
z + »i (* + ?) + (y + *7) +flaf (13)
To estimate the strain in the rod we take a point Q' near to Q. I n t h e

unstrained state Q' will, in general, be in a normal section different from t h a t
drawn through P . W e take it to be in t h e normal section drawn through P ' ,
so t h a t t h e arc PP' — $s. We take t h e coordinates of Q' referred to t h e
principal axes at P' of t h e cross-section drawn through P ' to be cc 4- &», y 4- By,
T h e n Bx, By, Bs are t h e projections on t h e fixed axes of t h e linear element QQ\
W e take r to be t h e length of this element, and write
Bx — IT, By = mr, Bs = nr,
so t h a t I, m, n are the direction cosines, referred to t h e fixed axes, of t h e line
QQ'. We can write down expressions like those in (13) for t h e coordinates of
t h e final position of Q', and we can therefore express the length r of the line x
joining the final positions of QQ' in terms of r and I, m, n. Since t h e direction

I, m, n is arbitrary, t h e result gives us t h e six components of strain.
I n obtaining t h e length r we m u s t express all t h e quantities which
x
involve r correctly to the first order, b u t powers of r above the first may be
neglected. To obtain the expressions for t h e coordinates of t h e final position
of Q' we note t h e changes t h a t must be made in the several terms of (13).
The quantities x, j , z, l ... are functions of s only, b u t the quantities £, n, £
1}
are functions of x, y, s. W e must therefore in (13) replace
x by x + ^ nr, y by y + ~ nr, z by z + - nr,
k by k + |r nr, ...
x by x + IT, y by y + mr,
m T UT}
* ^ * dx cty os ""
F u r t h e r t h e quantities 9x/9s,... are given by t h e equations
-=(l+eH, ^ = (l + e)m , - = (1 + ) w, 3 € 8
and the quantities dkjds,... are given by the equations
dk
ds = (1 + e) (1 T — 2 l fc'),...
z
where t h e coefficients of (1 -j- e) are the right-hand members of equations (5).
I t follows t h a t t h e difference of the x-coordinates of t h e final positions of

Q and Q' is
,
( 1 + e ) ^ + ^ 1 +j|) Z + g | m + ? | w | + (l + 6)(i T-^ )w(^ + f) a
z+ m +(1+e)( U)wi:
+ ^{i | +i4 ^"" •
256] B E N T A N D TWISTED ROD 375
For t h e differences of t h e y- and z-coordinates we have similar expressions

with m m , m and n n , n respectively in place of l l , l . Since t h e
1} 2 3 ly 2 z l3 2 3
scheme (4) is orthogonal, t h e result of squaring and adding these* ex

pressions is
dx, ds
2
drj
+ r « + (l + g ) m + g n + (l + 6 ) n { T ( * + £ ) - * £ }
dy,
d
-f- r 2
I + ~ m•+ ^ + (1 + e) w {1 + * + rj) - + £)} , -..(14)
2
and this is r^. W e have therefore expressed r in t h e form of a homogeneous 2
quadratic function of I, m, n.
Now, t h e strains being small, r is nearly equal to r, and we can write 2
2 2
n = r (1 + 2e),
where 6 is t h e extension in t h e direction I, m, n. F u r t h e r we shall have
2 2 2
e = e l + e m -f e^w •+ ^ m w + fe^Z + ^ Z m ,
xx yy
where t h e quantities e ,... are t h e six components of strain. T h e coefficient

xx
of I in t h e first line of t h e expression (14) m u s t be nearly equal to unity,

and t h e coefficients of m and n in this line must be nearly zero. Similar
statements mutatis mutandis hold with regard to t h e coefficients of I, m, n in
the remaining lines. W e therefore obtain t h e following expressions for t h e
components of s t r a i n :
_9£ drj d% , drj
x eyy e x y
.(15)
~dx> -dy> " d y ^ d x '
and
: | + | + ( l + e) WS-T(f, + v)},
.(16)
e „ = e + ^+(l + e){ie(y+v)-K'(x + g)}.
I n obtaining t h e formulas (15) and (16) we have not introduced any

approximations except such as arise from t h e consideration t h a t t h e strains
are " small," and, in particular, t h a t e, being t h e extension of t h e central-line,
m u s t be small. B u t we can see, without introducing any other considerations,
t h a t t h e terms of (16), as they stand, are not all of t h e same order of magni
tude. I n t h e first place it is clear t h a t t h e terms — ry, TX, icy, — / e V m u s t be
s m a l l ; in other words, t h e linear dimensions of t h e cross-section m u s t be
small compared with t h e radius of curvature of t h e central-line, or with t h e
reciprocal of t h e twist. Such t e r m s as rrj,... are small also. W e m a y
therefore omit the products of e and these small quantities, and rewrite
equations (16) in t h e forms
.(17)
e = e — tc'x-\-tcy + ^ —
zz + ten.
Now the position of the origin of x, y, and t h a t of t h e principal plane of

(x, z), are unaffected by t h e displacement (£, v, £), and therefore this displace
m e n t is subject to t h e restrictions :
(i) Z> V> £ vanish with x and y for all values of s,
(ii) dv/dx vanishes with x and y for all values of 5 .
W e conclude that, provided t h a t the strain in t h e rod is everywhere
small, t h e necessary forms of t h e strain-components are given by equations
(15) and (17), where t h e functions £, v, f are subject to t h e restrictions
(i) and (ii).
257. Approximate formulae for the strain.

W e have now to introduce t h e simplifications which arise from t h e
consideration t h a t t h e rod is " t h i n . " The quantities £, 77, f may be expanded
as power series in x and y, t h e coefficients in t h e expansions being functions
of s; and t h e expansions must be valid for sufficiently small values of x and
y, t h a t is to say in a portion of t h e rod near to t h e central-line*. There are
no constant terms in these expansions because 77, £ vanish with x and y.
F u r t h e r d%/dx and d%/dy must be small quantities of t h e order of admissible
strains, and therefore the coefficients of those terms of £ which are linear in
x and y must be small of this order. I t follows t h a t £ itself must be small of
a higher order, viz., t h a t of the product of t h e small quantity d%/dx and t h e
small coordinate x. Similar considerations apply to rj and £. As a first step
in t h e simplification of (17) we may therefore omit such terms as — rv, K'£.
W h e n this is done we have t h e formulas "J*
and these with (15) are approximate expressions for t h e strain-components.

* The expansions may not be valid over the whole of a cross-section. The failure of Cauchy's
theory of the torsion of a prism of rectangular cross-section (Introduction, footnote 85) sufficiently
illustrates this point. But the argument in the text as to the relative order of magnitude of
such terms as ry and such terms as rn could hardly be affected by the restricted range of validity
of the expansions.
f It may be observed that Saint-Venant's formulae for the torsion of a prism are included
Again we may observe t h a t similar considerations to those j u s t adduced
in t h e case of £ apply also in t h e case of d£/ds; this q u a n t i t y m u s t be of t h e
2
order of the product of t h e small q u a n t i t y d %/dxds and t h e small coordinate
x, which is the same as t h e order of t h e product of the small quantity dlj/dx
and the small fraction x/l, where I is a length comparable with (or equal to)
t h e length of t h e rod. Thus, in general, d£/ds is small compared with d%/dx.
Similar considerations apply to dy/ds and 9£/9s*. As a second step in t h e
simplification of (17) we may omit d£/ds, dw/ds, d£/ds and obtain t h e formulasf
9£ 9£
eyz==
e z x =
dx~~ r y
' dy + TX
> e = €-fc'x
zz + Ky (19)
Again we may observe t h a t in Saint-Venant's solutions already cited e

vanishes, and in some solutions obtained in Chapter XVI. e is small compared
with KX. I n many important problems e is small compared with such quan
tities as rx or KX. Whenever this is t h e case we may m a k e a third step in
t h e simplification of t h e formulas (17) by omitting e. They would then read
9^* z==
9(^
%z = ^ , ~ VI> y dy e + TX
> e = - K'X-\- Ky
zz (20)
T
W ith these we m u s t associate t h e formulas (15), and in t h e set of formulas we
may suppose, as has been explained, t h a t £, 77, f are approximately independent
of s.
I t appears therefore t h a t the most i m p o r t a n t strains in a bent and twisted
rod are (i) extension of t h e longitudinal filaments related to t h e curvature of
t h e central-line in t h e manner noted in Article 232 (6), (ii) shearing strains
of t h e same kind as those which occur in the torsion problem discussed in
Chapter XIV., (iii) relative displacement of elements of any cross-section
parallel to t h e plane of t h e section. T h e last of these strains is approxi
mately t h e same for different cross-sections provided t h a t they are near
together.
2 5 8 . D i s c u s s i o n of the ordinary a p p r o x i m a t e theory.
To determine t h e stress-resultants and stress-couples we require the
values of the stress-components X , Y , Z . Since z z z
E
Z
* ^ ( i + g-) (1 - 2<r) ^ ^ ^ ~~ ^ * * } ' 6 x x + & y y ) + e
in the formulae (15) and (18) by putting | = T? = 0 ; and his formulae for bending by terminal
load are included by putting
2 2 2 2
£ = - <jKxy + i<TK (x -y ), y — GK'xy + | O T C
F
(x -y ).
In each case ^rnust be determined appropriately.
* The result, so far as dg/ds and drj/ds are concerned, is exemplified by Saint-Venant's formulae
just cited. In Saint-Venant's solutions £ is
where % and %' are the flexure functions, and cf> is the torsion function, for the cross-section.
a r e 2
The functions % and x' small of the order a x, where a is an appropriate linear dimension
of the cross-section. In this case £ is actually independent of s.
t These are Kirchhoff's formulae.
where E is Young's modulus and a is Poisson's ratio for t h e material, t h e
expression for this stress-component cannot be obtained without finding t h e
lateral extensions e e given by t h e formulae (15), as well as t h e longi
xx> yyy
tudinal extension e given by t h e third of (17), (18), (19) or (20). To express

zz
t h e stress-components completely we require values for £, rj, £, and these

cannot be found except by solving t h e equations of equilibrium subject to
conditions which hold at t h e cylindrical or prismatic bounding surface of any
small portion of t h e rod. If t h e rod is vibrating, t h e equations of small
motion ought to be solved. W e may, however, approximate to t h e stress-
resultants and stress-couples by retracing t h e steps of t h e argument in t h e
last Article.
W h e n t h e r e are no body forces or kinetic reactions, and t h e initially
cylindrical bounding surface of t h e rod is free from traction, t h e portion
between any two neighbouring cross-sections is held in equilibrium by t h e
tractions on its ends. According to our final approximation, expressed by
equations (15) and (20), rj, £ are independent of s, and, in t h e portion of t h e
rod considered, K, K\ T also may be regarded as independent of ,9. This portion
of t h e rod may therefore be regarded as a prism held strained by tractions on
its ends in such a way t h a t the strain, and therefore also t h e stress, are t h e
same at corresponding points in t h e intermediate cross-sections. The theorem
of Article 237 shows that, in such a prism, t h e stress-components X Y, X Xt y u
m u s t vanish, and, since e is given by t h e third of (20), we must have

zz
d? dr) , , x dl* dr) .

k x
1 = ^ ^ - ^ 4 +
z * = 0
( 2 1 )
F u r t h e r t h e stress-components X , z Y , Z must be given by Saint-Venant's

z z
formulae
Z =/tT =/ T +
' (l£-y)' **(J^ 7
4 Z = z -EWx- y),...{22)
K
where cp is t h e torsion function for the section (Article 216). T h e stress-

couples are t h e n given by t h e formulae (12) of Article 255. To this order of
approximation t h e stress-resultants vanish.
W h e n we retain e, as in t h e formulae (19), no modification is made in t h e
formulae for t h e stress-couples, and t h e shearing forces still vanish. To t h e
expression <r(jcx — icy) in t h e right-hand member of (21) we m u s t add
t h e term — ae, and t h e tension is given by t h e formula
T = Eco€, (23)
where co is the area of t h e cross-section.
When we abandon the supposition t h a t £, r), £ are independent of s, we

may obtain a closer approximation by assuming t h a t t h e strains, instead of
being uniform along t h e length of a small portion of t h e rod, vary uniformly
along this length. W h e n t h e r e are no body forces, and t h e initially
cylindrical boundary is free from traction, t h e theorem of Article 238 shows
t h a t t h e only possible solutions are Saint-Venant's. T h e stress-couples and
t h e tension are given by the same formulae as before, b u t t h e shearing forces
do not vanish.
I n t h e general case, in which forces are applied to parts of t h e rod other

t h a n t h e ends, we ought to retain the formulae (17) for t h e strains, and t h e
formulae (21) do not hold. W e know from t h e investigations of Chapter XVI.
t h a t the formulae (12) and (23) are not exact, although they may be approxi
mately correct. T h e corrections t h a t ought to be made in t h e m depend upon
t h e distribution of t h e applied forces over t h e cross-sections.
From this discussion we may conclude t h a t t h e formulae (12) and (23)
yield good approximations to the values of t h e stress-couples and t h e tension
in parts of the rod which are at a distance from any place of loading or
support, b u t that, in t h e neighbourhood of such places, t h e y are of doubtful
validity.
Since the equations (10) and (11) combined with the formulae (12) determine all the
stress-resultants as well as the curvature and twist, the formula (23) determines the
extension e.
In ordinary circumstances e is small in comparison with such quantities as KX, which
represent the extensions produced in non-central longitudinal filaments by bending. This
may be seen as follows :—the order of magnitude of T is, in general, the same as that
of iV, or i V , and this order is, by equations (11), that of dG/ds. Hence the order of e is
that of (Eco)' (dG/ds). Now K is of the order G/Ea>a , where a is an appropriate linear
1 2
dimension of the cross-sections, and the order of KX is therefore that of (Eco)' (G/a). 1
Thus KX is, in general, a very much larger quantity than e.

In any problem in which bending, or twisting, is an important feature we may, for a
first approximation, regard the central-line as unextended.
The potential energy per unit of length of the rod is easily found from equations (21)
and (22) in the form
±(AK* + BK'Z + CT*) (24)
If there is no curvature or twist the potential energy is
259. Rods naturally curved*.

The rod in t h e unstressed state may possess both curvature and twist, t h e
central-line being a tortuous curve, and t h e principal axes of t h e cross-sections
a t their centroids making with the principal normals of this curve angles which
vary from point to point of the curve. The principal axes of a cross-section
a t its centroid and the t a n g e n t of t h e central-line at this point form a triad of
orthogonal axes of % , y , £ , t h e axis of z being directed along t h e tangent.
0 0 0 Q
W e suppose the origin of this triad of axes to move along t h e curve with u n i t
* The theory is substantially due to Clebsch, Elasticitat, § 55. It had been indicated in
outline by Kirchhoff, loc. cit. p. 365.
velocity. T h e components of the angular velocity of t h e moving triad of axes,
referred to the instantaneous positions of t h e axes, will be denoted by
tfn, fc \ Tn. Then KQ , KQ are t h e components of t h e initial curvature, and r is
n 0
t h e initial twist. If 1/S is t h e measure of tortuosity of t h e central-line at

0
any point, and îr — f is t h e angle which t h e principal plane of (x z ) a t t h e

0 Qf 0
point makes with t h e principal normal of t h e central-line, we have t h e

formulas
t a n / = - K 'I/C
0 0 Q9 T = l / 2 + df /ds,
0 0 0 (25)
which are analogous to (2) and (3) in Article 253.
W h e n the rod is further bent and twisted, we may construct at each point
on t h e strained central-line a system of " principal torsion-flexure axes/' in t h e
same way as in Article 252, so t h a t t h e axis of z is t h e t a n g e n t of t h e strained
central-line a t t h e point, and t h e plane of (x, z) contains t h e linear element
which, in t h e unstressed state, issues from t h e point and lies along t h e axis
of x . 0 By means of this system of axes we determine, in t h e same way as
before, the components of curvature of the strained central-line and t h e twist
of t h e rod. W e shall denote t h e components of curvature by ic K \ and t h e ly X
twist by 7V
T h e equations of equilibrium can be written down, by the method of

Article 254, in t h e forms
dJST
- N'T, + TKI + X = 0,
ds
— TK L + NT X + F=0, .(26)
dT
ds
and
, r,
^ - G t ,
T 1 + JET/B -JV + Z ' = 0 , *
1
- H Kl + G TL + N + K = 0, \ .(27)
ds
dH
- GK{ + G' + KL © = 0.
ds
The rod could be held straight and prismatic by suitable forces, and,
according to the ordinary approximation (Article 255), the stress-couples at
any cross-section would be — A/c , —B/c ', — Cr . T h e straight prismatic rod
0 0 0
could be bent and twisted to t h e state expressed by K tc \ r and then, 1} L x
according to t h e same approximation, there would be additional couples

A/c B / C i , GTJ. T h e stress-couples in t h e rod when bent and twisted from
l9
t h e state expressed b y K K ', T to t h a t expressed by K KI , TJ would then be
QJ Q 0 1}
given by t h e formulae *
GÂfa-Ko), G^Bfa'-Ko'), H=*C( -T ) Tl 0 (28)
It is clear from the discussion in Article 258 that these formulae can be used with
greater certainty if the rod is subjected to terminal forces and couples only than if forces
are applied to it along its length.
It may be noted that, even when the cross-section of the rod has kinetic symmetry
so that A — B, the flexural couples are not equivalent to a single couple about thebinormal
K /= K K
of the strained central-line unless Ki7 o i/ o- When this condition is satisfied the
flexural couple is of amount B (l/p -llp ), where p and p are the radii of curvature of
1 0 x 0
the central-line in the unstressed and stressed states.

The above method of calculating the stress-couples requires the ratios of the thickness
of the rod to the radius of curvature and to the reciprocal of the twist to be small of the
order of small strains contemplated in the mathematical theory of Elasticity. Unless this
condition is satisfied the rod cannot be held straight and untwisted without producing in
it strains which exceed this order. It is, however, not necessary to assume that this
condition is satisfied in order to obtain the formulas (28) as approximately correct formulae
for the stress-couples. We may apply to the question the method of Article 256, and take
account of the initial curvature and twist by means of the equations
lr = bcc — yr ds, 0 mr = by + xr 8s, nr = bs(l- K 'X + K y),

0 0 0
r X
or bx—r[l-{-n~^—), by—r [m — n ° ' ô — J^L
'l+W "1+yJ'
where y stands for K y - K '%. We should then find instead of (14)

0 0
d
V ,A ,^ \
7 , n ffy , ( &i dr)\) , (l + c)n , f , , , fl7
r a t ^ -3f /•, \ n fic ( K 9fM Ai+*)n , {
In deducing approximate expressions for the strain-components we denote by [y] any

quantity of the order of the ratio (thickness)/(radius of curvature) or (thickness)/(reciprocal
of twist), whether initial or final, and by [e] any quantity of the order of the strain. Thus,
r y and riy are of the order [ y ] ; d£/d% and (K — K )y are of the order [e]. If, in the above
0 1 0
2
expression for r , we reject all terms of the order of the product [y] [e] as well as all terms
x
2
of the order [e] , we find instead of (19) the formulas
Prom these we could deduce the formulae (28) in the same way as (12) are deduced
from (19), and they would be subject to the same limitations.
* These formulas, due to Clebsch, were obtained also, by a totally different process, by
A. B . Basset, Amer. J. of Math., vol. 17 (1895).
CHAPTER XIX.
PROBLEMS CONCERNING THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THIN RODS.
260. Kirchhoff's kinetic analogue.

W e shall begin our study of the applications of the theory of t h e last
C h a p t e r with a proof of Kirchhoff's theorem*, according to which t h e
equations of equilibrium of a t h i n rod, straight and prismatic when un
stressed, and held bent and twisted by forces and couples applied at its ends
alone, can be identified with t h e equations of motion of a heavy rigid body
t u r n i n g about a fixed point.
N o forces or couples being applied to the rod except at t h e ends, t h e
quantities X, Y, Z and K, K\ © in equations (10) and (11) of Article 254
vanish. Equations (10) of t h a t Article become
^ - j y ' + 2 V = 0,
T 7^ + ^ = 0 , ^ - i W + i T * = 0, ...(1)
v
as ds ds
which express t h e constancy, as regards magnitude and direction, of the
resultant of N N\ Y T \ and, in fact, this resultant has the same magnitude,
direction and sense as t h e force applied to t h a t end of t h e rod towards which
s is measured. We denote this force by R .
Equations (11) of Article 254 become, on substitution from (12) of
Article 255, and omission of K, K\ ©,
D
A ^-(B-C) 'T
K = N\ B ^-(C-A)r c
l = -N, C^-(A - B) KK'= 0.
.-(2)
T h e terms on the right-hand side are equal to t h e moments about the axes
•of x, y, z of a force equal and opposite to R applied at the point (0, 0,1). W e
m a y therefore interpret equations (2) as the equations of motion of a top,
t h a t is to say of a heavy rigid body turning about a fixed point. I n this
analogy t h e line of action of the force R (applied a t t h a t end of the rod
towards which s is measured) represents the vertical drawn upwards, s repre
sents t h e time, t h e magnitude of R represents t h e weight of the body, A,B, G
represent t h e moments of inertia of the body about principal axes at t h e fixed
point, (K, K\ T ) represents t h e angular velocity of t h e body referred to t h e
* G. Kirchhoff, loc. cit. p. 365.
260, 261] THEOREM OF THE KINETIC ANALOGUE 383
instantaneous position of this triad of axes. T h e centre of gravity of t h e

body is on t h e (7-axis a t u n i t distance from t h e fixed p o i n t ; and this axis,
drawn from t h e fixed point to t h e centre of gravity at t h e instant s, is
identical, in direction and sense, with t h e t a n g e n t of t h e central-line of t h e
rod, drawn in t h e sense in which s increases, at t h a t point P of this line x
which is a t an arc-distance s from one end. T h e body moves so t h a t its

principal axes at t h e fixed point are parallel a t t h e instant s to t h e principal
torsion-flexure axes of t h e rod a t P . x
On eliminating N and N' from t h e third of equations (1) by t h e aid of

equations (2), we find t h e equation
^ + A KJ + BK' ^ + {A - B) TICK' = 0,
or, by t h e third of (2),
2 2 2
J {T+±(AK
S + BK' +CT )} = 0,
giving t h e equation
2 2 2
T+\ (AK + BK' + GT ) = const (3)
This equation is equivalent to t h e energy-integral of t h e equations of
motion of t h e kinetic analogue.
2 6 1 . E x t e n s i o n of t h e t h e o r e m of t h e kinetic analogue to rods

naturally curved*.
The theorem may be extended to rods which in the unstressed state have curvature and
twist, provided that the components of initial curvature K , K ' and the initial twist r , 0 0 0
defined as in Article 259, are constants. This is the case if, in the unstressed state, the
rod is straight but not prismatic, in such a way that homologous transverse lines in
different cross-sections lie on a right helicoid ; or if the central-line is an arc of a circle,
and the rod free from twist; or if the central-line is a portion of a helix, and the rod has
such an initial twist that, if simply unbent, it would be prismatic.
When the rod is bent and twisted by forces and couples applied at its ends only, so that
the components of curvature and the twist, as defined in Article 259, become * K / , r the L5 l5
stress-resultants N\ T satisfy the equations

r
rIN rlN rIT
^-iVV 1 + ?V=0, ™ - 2 ^ + ^ = 0, ^--^ K l ' + if' K l =0 (4)
7
These equations express the result that iV, N\ T are the components, parallel to the
principal torsion-flexure axes at any section, of a force which is constant in magnitude and
direction. We denote this force, as before, by R . Since the stress-couples at any section
are A (K — K ) , B ( K / — K ' ) , G (r — r ) we have the equations
± 0 0 2 0
A -£-B D
( / - ')
K Ko T l + C(r - r ) K{ = N\
x 0 ^
} (5)
dr
C
~ d i ~ A
K
( i~ o)K
KI' + -B(KI'-KO')»£I=0.
* J. Larmor, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 15 fl884h

T h e k i n e t i c an a l o g u e is a rigid b o d y t u r n i n g a b o u t a fixed point and carrying a flywheel
or g y r o s t a t r o t a t i n g about a n a x i s fixed in t h e body. T h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y of t h e flywheel
is a t t h e fixed point. T h e direction c o s i n e s I, m, n of t h e a x i s of t h e flywheel, referred t o
t h e principal axes of t h e b o d y a t t h e p o i n t , a n d t h e m o m e n t of m o m e n t u m h of t h e fly
w h e e l a b o u t t h i s axis, are g i v e n b y t h e equations
— AK = M,
0 —BKQ- -km, - CT0 — hn. .(6)
T h e angular v e l o c i t y of t h e rigid b o d y referred t o principal a x e s a t t h e fixed p o i n t is
K / , r ) a n d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e r e m a i n i n g s y m b o l s i s t h e s a m e as before.
x
262. T h e p r o b l e m of the elastiea*.

As a first application of t h e theorem of Article 260 we t a k e t h e problem
of determining t h e forms in which a thin rod, straight and prismatic in t h e
unstressed state, can be held by forces and couples applied at its ends only,
when t h e rod is bent in a principal plane, so t h a t t h e central-line becomes a
plane curve, and there is no twist. T h e kinetic analogue is t h e n a rigid
pendulum of weight R, t u r n i n g about a fixed horizontal axis. T h e motion
of t h e pendulum is determined completely by t h e energy-equation and t h e
initial conditions. I n like manner t h e figure of t h e central-line of t h e rod is
determined completely by t h e appropriate form of equation (3) and t h e
terminal conditions.
W e take t h e plane of bending to be t h a t for which t h e flexural rigidity is
B. T h e n K and T vanish, and t h e stress-couple is a
flexural couple G', = Btc, in t h e plane of bending.
T h e stress-resultants are a tension T and a shearing
force N, t h e latter directed towards the centre of
curvature. L e t 8 be t h e angle which t h e t a n g e n t
of t h e central-line at any point, drawn in t h e sense
in which s increases, makes with t h e line of action
of t h e force R applied at t h e end from which s is
measured (see Fig. 47). T h e n we have T= — RcosO,
and K — — dOjds, and t h e equation (3) becomes
-Rcos0 + ^B (d6jdsf = const (7)
I n t h e kinetic analogue B is t h e moment of
inertia of t h e pendulum about t h e axis of sus
pension, and t h e centre of gravity is a t u n i t
distance from this axis. T h e line drawn from
t h e centre of suspension to t h e centre of gravity
at t h e instant s makes an angle 6 with t h e vertical drawn downwards.
* The problem of the elastica was first solved by Euler. See Introduction, p. 3. The
systematic application of the theorem of the kinetic analogue to the problem was worked out by
W. Hess, Math. Ann., Bd. 25 (1885). Numerous special cases were discussed by L. Saalschutz,
Der belastete Stab, Leipzig, 1880.
Equation (7) can be obtained very simply by means of t h e equations of
equilibrium. These equations can be expressed in t h e forms
T=-Rcos0, N=-Rwi0, ^ + # = 0 ,
as
from which, by p u t t i n g Q' = — B (dd/ds), we obtain t h e equation
2
B(d 0/ds*) + Rsm0 = O, (8)
and equation (7) is t h e first integral of this equation.
The shape of t h e curve, called t h e elastica, into which t h e central-line is
bent, is to be determined by means of equation (7). T h e results take different
forms according as there are, or are not, inflexions. A t an inflexion d0/ds
vanishes, and the flexural couple vanishes, so t h a t the rod can be held in t h e
form of an inflexional elastica by terminal force alone, without couple. The
end points are t h e n inflexions, and it is clear t h a t all t h e inflexions lie on t h e
line of action of the terminal force R—the line of thrust. The kinetic analogue
of an inflexional elastica is an oscillating pendulum. Since t h e interval of
t i m e between two instants when t h e pendulum is momentarily at rest is a
constant, equal to half t h e period of oscillation, t h e inflexions are spaced
equally along t h e central-line of t h e rod. To hold t h e rod with its central-
line in t h e form of a non-inflexional elastica terminal couples are required as
well as terminal forces. The kinetic analogue is a revolving pendulum. In
t h e particular case where there are no terminal forces t h e rod is b e n t into an
arc of a circle. The kinetic analogue in this case is a rigid body revolving
about a horizontal axis which passes through its centre of gravity.
If the central-line of the rod, in the unstressed state, is a circle, and there is no initial
twist, the kinetic analogue (Article 261) is a pendulum on the axis of which a flywheel is
symmetrically mounted. The motion of the pendulum is independent of that of the fly
wheel, and in like manner the possible figures of the central-line of the rod when further
bent by terminal forces and couples are the same as for a naturally straight rod. The
magnitude of the terminal couple alone is altered owing to the initial curvature.
263. Classification of t h e forms of the elastica.

(a) Inflexional elastica.
Let s be measured from an inflexion, and let a be the value of 6 at the inflexion 5 = 0.
We write equation (7) in the form
iB (~J + R (cos a - cos 6) = 0 (9)

To integrate it we introduce Jacobian elliptic functions of an argument u with a modulus
h which are given by the equations
u = s /(R/B\
s k = sm±a (10)
Then we have
^ = 2Jccn{u + K\ sm±0 = ksn(u + K\ (11)
where K is the real quarter period of the elliptic functions. To determine the shape of the
L. E. 25
curve, let x, y be the coordinates of a point referred to fixed axes, of which the axis of x
coincides with the line of thrust. Then we have the equations
dx/ds — cos 6, dj/ds = sin 6,
and these equations give
I (12)
y=-2* /Qcn(tH-tf),
v J
where E&mu denotes the elliptic integral of the second kind expressed by the formula
fu
2
E&mu= j dn udu,
Jo
and the constants of integration have been determined so that x and y may vanish with s.
2
The inflexions are given by cos 8 = cos a, or sn (u+K) — l, and therefore the arc between
two consecutive inflexions is 2*J(B/R). K, and the inflexions are spaced equally along the
axis of x at intervals
2^{B\R) ( 2 ^ 1 - 1 ) .
The points at which the tangents are parallel to the line of thrust are given by sin 0 = 0,
or sn (u + K) dn (u+K) = 0 so that u is an uneven multiple of K. It follows that the curve
9
forms a series of bays, separated by points of inflexion and divided into equal half-bays by
the points at which the tangents are parallel to the line of thrust.
The change of the form of the curve as the angle a increases is shown by Figs. 48—55.
When a> ^TT, X is negative for small values of u, and has its numerically greatest negative
2 r
value when u has the smallest positive value which satisfies the equation dn (^-f-A )=J.
Let u denote this value. The value of u for which x vanishes is given by the equation
x
u = 2 {i?am (u+K) — Earn. K). When u exceeds this value, x is positive, and x has a maximum
value when u = 2K—u . Figs. 50—52 illustrate cases in which x^ is respectively greater than,
x
equal to, and less than | x |. Fig. 53 shows the case in which x # = 0 or 2EomK=K.
Ml
This happens when a—130° approximately. In this case all the double points and inflexions
coincide at the origin, and the curve may consist of several exactly equal and similar
pieces lying one over another. Fig. 54 shows a case in which 2i?amif <AT, or x # < 0 ; the
curve proceeds in the negative direction of the axis of x. The limiting case of this, when
a = TT, is shown in Fig. 55, in which the rod (of infinite length) forms a single loop, and the
pendulum of the kinetic analogue starts close to the position of unstable equilibrium and
just makes one complete revolution.
(6) Non-inflexional elastica.

When there are no inflexions we write equation (7) in the form
=£cos0 + i ^ l + 2 - ^ ) , (13)
where h is less than unity, and we introduce Jacobian elliptic functions of modulus h and
argument u, where
1
u = k- sJ(R/B) (14)
We measure s from a point at which 6 vanishes. Then we have
dB
Fig. 55.
a n d t h e coordinates x and y are expressed i n t e r m s of u b y t h e e q u a t i o n s
Fig. 56.
'in w h i c h t h e c o n s t a n t s of i n t e g r a t i o n are c h o s e n so t h a t x v a n i s h e s w i t h 5, and t h e a x i s of

x is parallel t o t h e line of a c t i o n of R, a n d at s u c h a d i s t a n c e from i t t h a t t h e force R and
t h e couple — B (dd/ds) w h i c h m u s t b e applied a t t h e e n d s of t h e rod are statically e q u i v a l e n t
t o a force R a c t i n g a l o n g t h e a x i s of x. T h e curve c o n s i s t s of a series of loops l y i n g
a l t o g e t h e r on one side of t h i s axis. T h e form of t h e curve is s h o w n i n Fig. 56.
264. B u c k l i n g of long t h i n strut under thrust*.

T h e limiting form of t h e elastica when a is very small is obtained by
writing 6 for sin 6 in equation (8). W e have then, as first approximations,
x
0 = acos{*VCB/-B)}, = s> y = a</(B/R)sm{x*J(R/B)}, ...(17)
so t h a t t h e curve is approximately a curve of sines of small amplitude. T h e
distance between two consecutive inflexions is nrsJ(BjR). I t appears therefore
t h a t a long straight rod can be bent by forces applied at its ends in a direction
parallel to t h a t of t h e rod when unstressed, provided t h a t t h e length I and t h e
force R are connected by t h e inequality
2 2
l R > 7T B (18)
If the direction of t h e rod at one end is constrained to be the same as t h a t
of the force, t h e length is half t h a t between consecutive inflexions, and t h e
inequality (18) becomes
2
PR>{TT B (19)
a b c
Fig. 57.
* The theory was initiated by Euler. See Introduction, p. 3,

263-265] U N D E R THRUST 389
If the ends of t h e rod are constrained to remain in the same straight line,
t h e length is twice t h a t between consecutive inflexions, and t h e inequality (18)
becomes
(20)
These three cases are illustrated in Fig. 57,
Any of these results can be obtained very easily without having recourse to the general
theory of the elastica. We take the second case, and suppose that a long thin rod is set up
vertically and loaded at the top with a weight R, while the lower end is constrained to
remain vertical*. Let the axes of x and y be the vertical line drawn upwards through the
lowest point and a horizontal line drawn through the same point in the plane of bending,
as shown in Fig. 57 b. If the rod is very slightly bent, the equation of equilibrium of the
portion between any section and the loaded end is, with sufficient approximation,
- 5 ^ + S ( y - y ) = 0,
J J 1
where y is the displacement of the loaded end. The solution of this equation which
x
satisfies the conditions that y vanishes with x, and that y = V j when x=l isy
and this solution makes dy/dx vanish with x if cos {I s/(R/B)}=0. Hence the least value
of I by which the conditions can be satisfied is \TT ^(B/R).
From the above we conclude that, in t h e case represented by Fig. 57 6, if
t h e length is slightly greater t h a n ^7r\/(B/R), or the load is slightly greater
2 2
t h a n \-n B\l , t h e rod bends under t h e load, so t h a t t h e central-line assumes
t h e form of one half-bay of a curve of sines of small amplitude. If t h e length
of t h e rod is less t h a n t h e critical length it simply contracts under t h e load.
If t h e length is greater t h a n t h e critical length, and t h e load is truly central
while the rod is truly cylindrical, t h e rod may simply contract; b u t t h e equi
librium of t h e rod t h u s contracted is unstable. To verify this it is merely
necessary to show t h a t t h e potential energy of t h e system in t h e bent state is
less t h a n t h a t in t h e contracted state.
265. Computation of the strain-energy of t h e strut.

Let the length I be slightly greater than \ir *J(B/R). Let <o denote the area of the
cross-section of the rod, and E the Young's modulus of the material. If the rod simply
contracts, the amount of the contraction is R/ECD, the loaded end descends through a
2
distance Rl/Eco, and the loss of potential energy on this account is R l/E<o. The potential
2
energy of contraction is \R l\Ea>. The potential energy lost in the passage from the
2
unstressed state to the contracted state is, therefore, \R l\Ea.
If the rod bends into the form of one half-bay of an elastica of small angle a, the
potential energy lost through the descent of the load is R(l— I cos Bds\ where the integra
2
tion extends over the length of the rod. The potential energy of bending is \B (de/ds) ds,
* We neglect the weight of the rod. The problem of the bending of a vertical rod under its
own weight will be considered in Article 276.
or R j (cos 6 - cos a) ds. The tension T at any section is JEW, where e is the extension of
the central-line, and it is also — R cos 6, and therefore the potential energy of contraction
2 2 2
is \E<* j (R cos 6/EM) ds or J (R /Eco) {I - J sin 6 ds}. Hence the loss of potential energy
in the passage from the unstressed state to the bent state is
2 2
R{l(l + cos a ) - 2 J cos 0ds}-±(R /Ea>) {I- j sin 0ds}.
The excess of the potential energy in the contracted state above that in the bent state
is therefore
2 2 2
R{l(l+cosa)-2 j cos 6 ds} + i(R /Ea>) j sin 6 ds - lR /Eco (21)
Now we have
C 1
cos e ds=sJ(B/R) (2Eam K-K) = l (2/f- âm K-1),
s i n c e l = KsJ(BjR). Also we have
and therefore
2
ZKÊ&mK-l^-Jc -^-....
Hence the above expression (21) is

2
Rl - R/Eco} +i (R /Ev) 2
j sin 6 ds (22)
If we denote the length \ TT S]{B\R) by l 0i we have
2
? ( 1 + P + . ..)=»*,
0
2
and therefore Jc = 4(l/l — 1) nearly, so that
0
4 2
P - R/Eco = 4 (l/l - 1 ) 0 - R/Eco,
and this is positive if
*>Ui+4VW^>»,
or l>l +i7r^(B/Ew).
0
The quantity i5 is the product of Eco and the square of the radius of gyration of the
cross-section about an axis drawn through its centroid at right angles to the plane of
bending. Denoting this radius of gyration by c, we find that the potential energy in the
contracted state is certainly greater than that in the bent state if
l>l 0 + i7rc (23)
The term %TTC constitutes a correction of the formula for the critical length as ordinarily
calculated; it is, of course, immaterial in any case to which the theory of thin rods could
be applicable. Another correction of the same order of importance would result from
taking account of the special state of the parts of the rod that are near the ends. If the
forces applied to hold the lower end are so distributed that the theory of thin rods gives
an adequate account of the strain near this end, then the terminal section is not fixed as a
whole, and some work is done by the tractions at this end [cf. Article 235 (/)]. If, on the
other hand, it is kept fixed, then there are " local perturbations" near the end, and the
additional energy that depends upon them has not been taken into account. There will
be similar local perturbations near the loaded end.
266. Resistance to buckling.
T h e strains developed in the rod, whether it is short and simply contracts
or is long and bends, are supposed to be elastic strains, t h a t is to say such as
265, 266] UNDER THRUST 391
disappear on the removal of the load. For Euler's theory of the buckling of
a long thin strut, explained in Article 264, to have any practical bearing, it is
of course necessary t h a t t h e load required, in accordance with inequalities
such as (19), to produce bending should be less than t h a t which would
produce set by crushing. This condition is not satisfied unless t h e length
of the strut is great compared with t h e linear dimensions of t h e cross-section.
I n view of t h e lack of precise information as to t h e conditions of safety in
general (Chapter I V . ) and of failure by crushing (Article 189), a precise
estimate of the smallest ratio of length to diameter for which this condition
would be satisfied is not to be expected.
The practical question of t h e conditions of failure by buckling of a rod or

strut under t h r u s t involves some other considerations. W h e n t h e thrust is
not truly central, or its direction not precisely t h a t of the rod, the longitudinal
t h r u s t is accompanied by a bending couple or a transverse load. The con
traction produced by t h e t h r u s t R is R/Eco. W h e n the t h r u s t is not truly
central, t h e bending moment is of t h e order Rc, where c is some linear
dimension of the cross-section, and the extension of a longitudinal filament
2
due to t h e bending moment is of the order Rc /B, which may easily be two or
three times as great, numerically, as the contraction R/Eco. The bending
moment may, therefore, produce failure by buckling under a load less t h a n
t h e crushing load. Again, when t h e line of t h r u s t makes a small angle /3
with the central-line, t h e transverse load R sin /3 yields, at a distance compar
able with the length I of t h e rod, a bending moment comparable with Zi?sin/3;
and the extension of a longitudinal filament due to this bending moment is
comparable with IRc sin /3/B. Thus even a slight deviation of t h e direction
of t h e load from the central-line may produce failure by buckling in a fairly
long strut. Such causes of failure as are here considered can best be discussed
by means of Saint-Venant's theory of bending (Chapter x v . ) ; but, for a
reason already mentioned, a precise account of t h e conditions of failure owing
to such causes is hardly to be expected.
I t is clear t h a t such considerations as are here advanced will be applicable

to other cases of buckling besides t h a t of t h e buckling of a rod under thrust.
The necessity for t h e m was emphasized by E. Lamarle*. His work has
been discussed critically and appreciatively by K. Pearson i*. I n recent
years t h e conditions of buckling have been the subject of considerable
discussion j .
* ' Mem. sur la flexion du bois,' Ann. des travaux publics de Belgique, t. 4 (1846).
t Todhunter and Pearson's History, vol. 1, pp. 678 et sea.
% Reference may be made to the writings of J. Kiibler, C. J. Kriemler, L. Prandtl in Zeitschr.
d. Deutschen Ingenieure, Bd. 44 (1900), of Kiibler and Kriemler in Zeitschr. f. Math. u. Phys.
Bde. 45-47 (1900-1902), and the dissertation by Kriemler, ' Labile u. stabile Gleichgewichts-
figuren...auf Biegung beanspruchter Stabe... ' (Karlsruhe, 1902).
267. Elastic stability.
The possibility of a straight form and a bent form with t h e same terminal
load is not in conflict with the theorem of Article 118, because t h e t h i n rod
can, without undergoing strains greater than are contemplated in t h e m a t h e
matical theory of Elasticity, be deformed in such a way t h a t t h e relative
displacements of its parts are not small*.
The theory of the stability of elastic systems, exemplified in t h e discussion
in Articles 264, 265, may be brought into connexion with Poincares theory of
" equilibrium of bifurcation f." The form of the rod is determined by t h e
extension e at t h e loaded end and t h e total curvature a; and these quantities
depend upon the load R, the length I and flexural rigidity B being regarded
as constants. W e might represent the state of the rod by a point, determined
by t h e coordinates e and a, and, as R varies, the point would describe a curve.
W h e n R is smaller t h a n the critical load, a vanishes, and the equilibrium
state, defined by e as a function of R, is stable. W h e n R exceeds the critical
value, a possible state of equilibrium would still be given by a = 0 ; b u t there
is another possible state of equilibrium in which a does not vanish, and in
this state a and e are determinate functions of R, so t h a t the equilibrium
states for varying values of R are represented by points of a certain curve.
This curve issues from t h a t point of t h e line a = 0 which represents t h e
extension, or rather contraction, under the critical load. Poincare describes
such a point as a " point of bifurcation/' and he shows that, in general, there
is an " exchange of stabilities " at such a point, t h a t is to say, in the present
example, the states represented by points on t h e line a = 0, at which e numeri
cally exceeds the extension under the critical load, are unstable, and the sta
bility is transferred to states represented by points on the curve in which a ^ 0.
268. Stability of inflexional elastica.

When the lower end of the loaded rod is constrained to remain vertical, and the length
I slightly exceeds %7riJ(B/K), a possible form of the central-line is a curve of sines of small
amplitude having two inflexions, as in Fig. 58 (b). Another possible form is an elastica
illustrated in Fig. 58 (c). In general, if n is an integer such that
i (2n +1) TT > W(R/B) > £ (2n - 1 ) TT, ,(24)
n forms besides t h e u n s t a b l e straight form are possible, a n d t h e y consist r e s p e c t i v e l y of

1, 3 , . . . 2n - 1 half-bays of different c u r v e s of t h e elastica family. T h e forms of t h e s e c u r v e s
are g i v e n respectively by t h e e q u a t i o n s
K=lJ{RIB)x[l,l,..., 1/(271-1)]. •(25)
We shall show that all these forms except that with the greatest K, that is the smallest
number of inflexions, are unstable J.
* Cf. G. H. Bryan, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Proc, vol. 6 (1888).
• f Acta Mathematica, t. 7 (1885).
% The result is opposed to that of L. Saalschiitz, Der belastete Stab (Leipzig 1880), but I do
not think that his argument is quite convincing. The result stated in the text agrees with that
obtained by a different method by J. Larmor, loc. cit. p. 383.
267, 268] STABILITY OF INFLEXIONAL ELASTICA 393
Omitting the practically unimportant potential energy due to extension or contraction

of the central-line, we may estimate the loss of potential energy in passing from the
unstressed state to the bent state in which there are r +1 inflexions, in the same way as in
Article 265, as
i2[Z(l + cosa)-2 / cosdds], (26)
J o
and this is
(2r +1) >J(BR) (4K - 4E - 2K k*), ..
r r r (27)
Fig. 58.
where E is written for E&mK , and the suffix r indicates the number (r+1) of inflexions.
r r
We compare the potential energies of the forms with r + 1 and s + 1 inflexions, s being
greater than r. Since
(2r+l)K r = (2s + l)K , s (28)
the potential energy in the form with s + 1 inflexions is the greater if
2 2
(2s+ 1) (2E + K k ) > (2r +1) (2E + K h ).
a 3 8 r r
Since âm/f=(l-F) (k+7C^)

dkj>
this condition is
( 1 ( 2 9 )
v-w > "^ w)-
2
2k(l-k ) (dK
But, since
K \dk
it follows that (1 - , 1 + ^ ^ - ^ diminishes as h increases. Now when s>r, K <K ,

s r
and h < h ; and therefore the inequality (29) is satisfied.

s r
In the case illustrated in Fig. 58 the three possible forms are (a) the unstable straight
form, (b) the slightly bent form with two inflexions, (c) the bent form with one inflexion.
The angle a for the form (c) is given by K=%TT, and it lies between 175° and 176°.
It may be observed that the conclusion that the stable form is that with a single
inflexion is not in conflict with Poincare's theory of the exchange of stabilities at a point
of bifurcation, because the loci in the domain of e and a which represent forms with two or
more inflexions do not issue from the locus which represents forms with one inflexion but
from the locus a = 0 which represents straight forms.
The instability of forms of the elastica with more than the smallest possible number of
inflexions between the ends is well known as an experimental fact. Any particular case
can be investigated in the same way as the special case discussed above, in which the
tangent at one end is, owing to constraint, parallel to the line of thrust. An investigation
of this kind cannot, however, decide the question wdiether any particular form is stable or
unstable for displacements in which the central-line is moved out of its plane. This
question has not been solved completely. One special case of it will be considered in
Article 272 (e).
269. R o d bent and t w i s t e d by terminal forces and couples.

W e resume now t h e general problem of Article 260, and express t h e
directions of the principal torsion-flexure axes at any point P on t h e strained
1
central-line by means of t h e angles 0, yfr, </> denned in Article 253. W e

choose as t h e fixed direction P z in Fig. 46 of t h a t Article t h e direction of
x
the force applied to t h e rod at t h e end towards which s is measured. T h e

stress-resultants N", N', T are equivalent to a force R in this direction, and
therefore
(N, N', T) = R ( - sin 0 cos 0, sin 0 sin 0, cos 0) (30)
Equation (3) of Article 260 becomes
2
\\AK* + BK* + Or ) + Rcos 0 = const (31)
Since t h e forces applied at t h e ends of t h e rod have no moment about t h e
line P z , t h e sum of t h e components of t h e stress-couples about a line drawn
2
through t h e centroid of any section parallel to this line is equal to t h e corre

sponding sum for t h a t terminal section towards which s is measured. W e
have therefore t h e equation
— Ate sin 6 cos + BK sin 0 sin <f> + Gr cos 0 = const (32)
T h e analogue of this equation in the problem of the top expresses t h e
constancy of t h e moment of momentum of t h e top about a vertical axis
drawn t h r o u g h t h e fixed point.
The equations (31) and (32) are two integrals of t h e equations (2) of
Article 260, and, if a third integral could be obtained, dd/ds, dty/ds, dqbjds
would be expressible in terms of 0, <f>, and t h e possible forms in which t h e
rod could be held might be found. I n t h e general case no third integral is
k n o w n ; but, when t h e two flexural rigidities A and B are equal, t h e third of
these equations yields at once t h e integral
T = const (33)
T h e quantities K, K\ T are expressed in terms of 0, i/r, d0/ds,... by
equations (8) of Article 253, and the equations (31), (32), (33) can be
268-270] I N ALL PLANES DRAWN THROUGH ITS CENTRAL-LINE 395
i n t e g r a t e d * so as to express 6, i/r, as functions of s, and t h e n t h e form

of t h e central-line is to be determined by means of t h e equations
dx . n , dy . a . , dz Q
= sm 6 cos Y, -~ = sm 6 sm yjr, ^ = cos 6,
where x, y, z are coordinates referred to fixed axes.

W e shall not proceed with this general theory, b u t shall consider some
important special cases.
270. R o d bent to helical formf.

The steady motion of a symmetrical top, with its axis of figure inclined a t
a constant angle \TT — a to the vertical drawn upwards, is t h e analogue of a
certain configuration of a bent and twisted rod for which A = B. Putting
0 = j7r — a, dO/ds = 0, we have, by (8) of Article 253,
dty , , dylr . , deb d^lr
K— f~ cos a cos (f>,
T
K — -~- cos a sm d>, T
r = —~- + sm a-f-,
ds ds ds as
and, by (31), (32), (33) of Article 269,
2 2
T = const., K + K — const., dtyjds = const.
The curvature of t h e central-line is constant and equal to cos a (dyjr/ds), and
t h e binormal of this curve lies in t h e plane of (%, y) and makes an angle cf>
with t h e axis of x reversed. I t follows t h a t cfr is identical with t h e angle
denoted by f in Article 253, and t h a t the measure of tortuosity of t h e curve
is sin a (dy]r/ds). Since t h e central-line is a curve of constant curvature and
tortuosity, it is a helix traced on a right circidar cylinder. T h e axis of t h e
helix is parallel to t h e line of action of R, and a is t h e angle which t h e
t a n g e n t a t any point of t h e helix m a k e s with a plane a t r i g h t angles t o
this axis.
L e t r be t h e radius of the cylinder on which t h e helix lies. T h e n t h e
curvature 1/p and t h e measure of tortuosity 1/2 are given by t h e equations
2
l / p = cos a/r, 1/2 = sin a cos a/r, (34)
and we may write
2 2
K =i — cos (f> cos a/r, K— sin <f> cos a/r, dyfr/ds = cos a/r, dep/ds = T — sin a cos a/r.
(35)
From equations (2) of Article 260 we find
2 3 2
(N, N') = (— cos </>, sin <f>) [CT COS a/r — B sin a cos a/r ],
and t h e n from equations (30) we find
2 2
R = Cr cos a/r — B sin a cos a/r (36)
* See F . Klein u. A. Sommerfeld, Theorie des Kreisels, Heft 2, Leipzig 1898, or E . T.
Whittaker, Analytical Dynamics, Cambridge 1904.
t Cf. Kirehhoff, loc. cit. p. 365.
T h e terminal force is of the n a t u r e of tension or pressure according as
t h e right-hand member of (36) is positive or negative. (See
.R Fig. 59.) For t h e force to be of t h e n a t u r e of tension, r
K
-—^ m u s t exceed B sin a cos ajGr.
^— -Ty The axis of t h e terminal couple lies in t h e t a n g e n t plane of
) t h e cylinder at the end of t h e central-line, and the components
) of this couple about t h e binormal and t a n g e n t of t h e helix at
2
\ this point are B cos a/r and Gr. The components of t h e same
couple about the t a n g e n t of t h e circular section and the
>^ generator of t h e cylinder a t t h e same point are, therefore,
>< Rr and K, where K is given by the equation
3
K J » K = Gr sin a + B cos a/r (37)
! R I t follows t h a t t h e rod can be held so t h a t it has a given
Fig 59 twist, and its central-line forms a given helix, by a wrench of
which t h e force R and the couple K are given by equations (36)
and (37), and t h e axis of the wrench is t h e axis of t h e helix. The force and
couple of t h e wrench are applied to rigid pieces to which the ends of t h e rod
are attached.
The helical form can be maintained by terminal force alone, without any couple; and
2 2
then the force is of magnitude B cos a/r sin a, and acts as thrust along the axis of the helix.
3
In this case there must be twist of amount - B cos a/Cr sin a. The form can be maintained
also by terminal couple alone, without any force; and then the couple is of magnitude
B cos a/r, and its axis is parallel to the axis of the helix. In this case there must be twist
of amount B sin a cos a/Cr.
When the state of the rod is such that, if simply unbent, it would be prismatic, dqjjds
vanishes, and the twist of the rod is equal to the measure of tortuosity of the central-line
(cf. Article 253). To hold the rod so that it has this twist, and the central-line is a given
helix, a wrench about the axis of the helix is required; and the force R and couple K of the
wrench are given by the equations
2 2 2 2
R — —{B — G) sin a cos a/r , K= (B cos a + G sin a) cos a/r.
271. Theory of spiral springs*.

W h e n the sections of the rod have kinetic symmetry, so t h a t A = B, and
the unstressed rod is helical with such initial twist that, if simply unbent, it
would be prismatic, we may express the initial state by t h e formulas
K = 0,
0 KQ = cos a/r, 2
T = sin a cos a/r
0 (38)
By suitable terminal forces and couples t h e rod can be held in t h e state

expressed by t h e formulae
2
# i = 0, Ki = cos ajr^ T = sin a cos
x x (39)
* Cf. Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil. Part n. pp. 139 et seq.
where r a are t h e radius and angle of a new helix.
1} x The stress-couples a t
any section are then given by t h e equations
C s 2 A I C s 2 a> S n a i C 0 S ttl S n a C 0 S a
Q. _ o G' — B ( ° ° l H — G ^* * '
and the stress-resultants are given by t h e equations

r,
JV = 0, T = JV tana , 1
2
^ cos aj /sin oti cos a 2 siu a cos a\ ^ sin a cos a /cos aa a
2
x cos a' 2
All the equations of Article 259 are satisfied. The new configuration can
be maintained by a wrench of which t h e axis is the axis of t h e helix, and t h e
force R and couple K are given by t h e equations
\ r '
x r J n V î r
2 2
(40)
~r-w- „ . /sinaiCosai sin a cos a\ ^ -/cos a,. cos of
K^GsmccA + B cos aJ
V r*! r J \ r x r
The theory of spiral springs is founded on this result. We take the spring-
in t h e unstressed state to be determined by t h e equations (38), so t h a t t h e
central-line is a helix of angle a traced on a cylinder of radius r, and t h e
principal normals and binormals in the various cross-sections are homologous
lines of these sections. W e t a k e I to be t h e length of t h e spring, and h to be
t h e length of its projection on t h e axis of t h e helix, then the cylindrical
coordinates r, 6, z of one end being r, 0, 0, those of t h e other end are r, h,
where
% = (lcosa)/r, /i = £ s i n a (41)
W e suppose the spring to be deformed by a wrench about t h e axis of t h e
helix, and t a k e t h e force R and couple K of the wrench to be given. W e
shall suppose t h a t t h e central-line of the strained spring becomes a helix of
angle a on a cylinder of radius i\, and t h a t the principal normals and
x
binormals continue to be homologous lines in t h e cross-sections. Then R

and K are expressed in terms of a and i\ by t h e equations (40). W h e n t h e
x
deformation is small we may write r + Br and a + Ba for r a and suppose 1} 1}
t h a t small changes S% and Bh are made in ^ and h. W e have

2
Bh = (I cos a) Ba, 6% = — [(I sin a)/r] Ba — [(I cos a)/r ] Br,
from which
2 2
Ba = (Bh)/(l cos a), (Br)jr = — (sin a.Bh + r cos a . Bx)jlr cos a.
. sin a cos a . Br cos 2a .
Hence o— = — sm a cos a — -i oa
Bh . By
= cos a y - + sm a ,
Ir I
2
^ cos a _ hr . $a n
and o 2
= — cos a — — 2 sm a cos a —
cos a . sm a 0 7
• Sx - ~r— oh.
I Ir
I t follows t h a t t h e force R and t h e couple K are expressed in terms of

I, r, a, 8h, S% by t h e equations
2 2
R = l- [ ( 0 cos a + B sin a)
2 + (C - J5) sin a cos a. r8 l x '
,..(42)
2 2
= r [((7 - 5 ) sin a cos a. Sh + (Csin a + 5 cos a) rS%].
tr
I f t h e spring i s deformed b y axial force a l o n e * , w i t h o u t couple, t h e axial d i s p l a c e m e n t

dh a n d t h e angular d i s p l a c e m e n t dx are g i v e n b y t h e e q u a t i o n s
M = W ( ^
B
+ ™#5)R,
G
a x= ^sinacosa^-iV.
If the cross-section of the spring is a circle of radius a, 1/G—l/B is 4 O - / J E W , where a- 4
is Poisson's ratio and E is Young's modulus for the material. Hence both 8h and 6^ are
positive. In the same case dr is negative, so that the spring is coiled more closely as it
stretches.

(a) Bod subjected to terminal couples.
W h e n a rod w h i c h is s t r a i g h t a n d p r i s m a t i c i n t h e u n s t r e s s e d s t a t e i s held b e n t and
t w i s t e d b y t e r m i n a l couples, t h e k i n e t i c analogue i s a rigid b o d y m o v i n g under n o forces.
T h e analogue h a s b e e n w o r k e d o u t in detail b y W . H e s s t . W h e n t h e cross-section h a s
k i n e t i c s y m m e t r y so t h a t A = B, t h e e q u a t i o n s of e q u i l i b r i u m s h o w t h a t t h e t w i s t r a n d
2 2
t h e curvature (K +K Y are c o n s t a n t s , a n d t h a t , if w e p u t as i n A r t i c l e 2 5 3
t a n / = - K'/K,
then B(df/ds) = (B-G)r.

I t follows t h a t t h e m e a s u r e of t o r t u o s i t y of t h e central-line is Gr/B, and, therefore, t h a t
t h i s line is a h e l i x traced on a circular cylinder. I f w e u s e Euler's angles 6, y\r, qj as i n
A r t i c l e 253, a n d t a k e t h e axis of t h e h e l i x t o b e parallel t o t h e axis of z in Fig. 46 of t h a t
A r t i c l e , 6 is c o n s t a n t , a n d ^n — 6 i s t h e a n g l e a of t h e helix. T h e axis of t h e t e r m i n a l
couple is t h e axis' of t h e helix, a n d t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h e couple is B cos a/r, as w e found
before, r b e i n g t h e radius of t h e cylinder on w h i c h t h e h e l i x lies.
* The results for this ease were found by Saint-Venant, Paris G. R., t. 17 (1843). A
number of special cases are worked out by Kelvin and Tait, loc. cit., and also by J. Perry,
Applied Mechanics (London, 1899). The theory has been verified experimentally by J. W. Miller,
Phys. Rev. vol. 14 (1902). The vibrations of a spiral spring supporting a weight so great that
the inertia of the spring may be neglected have been worked out in accordance with the above
theory by L. R. Wilberforce, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 38 (1894).
t Math. Ann. Bd. 23 (1884).
271, 272] THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THIN RODS 399
(b) Straight rod ivith initial twist.

When the rod in the unstressed state has twist r and no curvature, and the cross-
0
section has kinetic symmetry so that A = B, the rod can be held bent so that its central-line
has the form of a helix (a, r\ and twisted so that the twist is r by a wrench about the axis
15
of the helix; and the force R and couple K of the wrench are found by writing r — r for rx 0
in equations (36) and (37) of Article 270.

(c) Rod bent into circular hoop and twisted uniformly.
When the rod in the unstressed state is straight and prismatic, and the cross-section
has kinetic symmetry, one of the forms in which it can be held by terminal forces and
couples is that in which the central-line is a circle, and the twist is uniform along the
length. The tension vanishes, and the shearing force at any section is directed towards
the centre of the circle, and its amount is Cr/r, where r is the radius of the circle.
(d) Stability of rod subjected to twisting couple and thrust.
When the rod, supposed to be straight and prismatic in the unstressed state, is held
twisted, but without curvature, by terminal couples, these couples may be of such an
amount as could hold the rod bent and twisted. If A=B the central-line, if it is bent,
must be a helix. When the couple K is just great enough to hold the rod bent without dis
placement of the ends, the central-line just forms one complete turn of the helix, the radius
r of the helix is very small, and the angle a of the helix is very nearly equal to ^ ir. We
have the equations
1
K=Gr = Br~ cos a, £cosa = 2 7 r r ,
where r is the twist, and I the length of the rod. Hence this configuration can be
maintained if 2ir/l=K/B. We infer that, under a twisting
couple which exceeds 27rB/l, the straight twisted rod is
unstable.
This question of stability may be investigated in a more
general manner by supposing that the rod is held by terminal
thrust R and twisting couple K in a form in which the
central-line is very nearly straight. The kinetic analogue is
a symmetrical top which moves so that its axis remains
nearly upright. The problem admits of a simple solution by
the use of fixed axes of x, y, z, the axis of z coinciding with
the axes of the applied couples and with the line of thrust.
The central-line is near to this axis, and meets it at the
ends. The twist r is constant, and the torsional couple Gr
can be equated to K with sufficient approximation. The
flexural couple is of amount B/p, where p is the radius of
curvature of the central-line, and its axis is the binormal
of this curve. The direction cosines of this binormal can be
expressed in such forms as
2
"y
/dydz dz d y\2
p 2
\dsd?~'ds ds ) '
and therefore the components of the flexural couple at any
section about axes parallel to the axes of x and y can be
expressed with sufficient approximation in the forms Fig. 60.
2 2
-nd y Ttdx
For the equilibrium of the part of the rod contained between this section and one end
we take moments about axes drawn through the centroid of the section parallel to the axes
of x and y, and we thus obtain the equations
.(43)
ds* as
The complete primitives are
x = Z sin (q s + e )+ L sin (q s -f e ),
1 1 1 2 2 2
y = Z cos (q s + e ) + L cos (q s + «r),

1 ± x 2 2 2
where L ,L ,
X 2 e e are arbitrary constants, and q , q are the roots of the equation
l5 2 x 2
2
Bq +Kq-R*=0.
The terminal conditions are (i) that the coordinates x and y vanish at the ends s = 0 and
s = l, (ii) that the axis of the terminal couple coincides with the axis of z. The equations
(43) show that the second set of conditions are satisfied if the first set are satisfied. We
have therefore the equations
L sin e + L sin e = 0,
x ± 2 2 L cos e + L cos e = 0,
± x 2 2
and
L sin (q l + e ) + L sin (q l + c )= 0,
x 1 1 2 2 2 L cos (q l + e ) + L cos (q l + e ) = 0.
x l 1 2 2 2
On substituting for L cos e and L sin e from the first pair in the second pair, we find the
2 2 2 2
equations
L {sin (q l + ej- sin (q 1 + € )} = 0, L {cos (q I + e ) - cos (q 1 + ej} = 0,
x x 2 1 x t x 2
from which it follows that q l and q l differ by a multiple of 27r.

x 2 The least length I by
which the conditions can be satisfied is given by the equation
2 rll=\q -q \,
7 1 2
2
or TT _ Z 2
R
2 2 +
J ~4B B'
The rod subjected to thrust R and twisting couple K is therefore unstable if
2
TT 2
_Z ^
2 { }
Z 2
4B B
This condition* includes that obtained above for the case where there is no thrust, and
also that obtained in (18) of Article 264 for the case where there is no couple. If the rod
is subjected to tension instead of thrust, R is negative, and thus a sufficient tension will
render the straight form stable in spite of a large twisting couple.
(e) Stability of flat blade bent in its planed.
Let the section of the rod be such that the flexural rigidity B, for bending in one
principal plane, is large compared with either the flexural rigidity A, for bending in the
perpendicular plane, or with the torsional rigidity G. This would be the case if, for
example, the cross-section were a rectangle of which one pair of sides is much longer than
the other pair. Let the rod, built in at one end so as to be horizontal, be bent by a vertical
transverse load R applied at the other end in the plane of greatest flexural rigidity. We
* The result is due to A. G. Greenhill, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engineers, 1883.
+ Cf. A. G. M. Michell, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 48 (1899), a n d L . Prandtl, ' Kipperscheinungen'
(Diss.), Niirnberg 1899.
shall use the notation of Article 253, and suppose, as in Article 270, that the line of action
of the load R has the direction and sense of the line P z, and we shall take the plane of x
(z, x) to be parallel to the vertical plane containing the central-line in the unstressed state.
If the length I, or the load R, is not too great, while the flexural rigidity B is large, the rod
will be slightly bent in this plane, in the manner discussed in Chapter xv. But, when the
length, or load, exceed certain limits, the rod can be held by the terminal force, directed as
above stated, in a form in which the central-line is bent out of the plane (x, z), and then
the rod will also be twisted. It will appear that the defect of torsional rigidity is quite as
influential as that of flexural rigidity in rendering possible this kind of buckling.
z
Fig. 61.
Let s be measured from the fixed end of the central-line, and let x y be the l5 l5
coordinates of the loaded end of this line. Let x, y, z be the coordinates of any point P x
on the strained central-line. For the equilibrium of the part of the rod contained between
the section drawn through P, and the loaded end we take moments about axes drawn
through P parallel to the fixed axes. Using the direction cosines defined by the scheme (4)
x
of Article 253, we have the equations
,
-(AKm + BK m -\-Crm )-(x -x)R=0,
1 2 3 1 I (45)
AKn + BK.'n + Crn
1 2 3 —0. J
When we substitute for K, K', r from equations (8) of Article 253, and for l ... from 19
equations (7) of the same Article, we have

AKI-L + BK'II+CTIZ
dd deb
2 2
— [-(A sin $ + B cos <fi) sin + (A - B) sin <fi cos cj> cos ^ cos 6] ^ + 0 cos ^ sin 6
2 2
-f- [ - (A cos qb + Bsin qb) cos \js sin 6cos 6 + (A - B) sin qb cos qb sin^sin 6 + Ccos ^sin 6 cos 6] ^ >
f
A Km +Bn m + Crm
x 2 5
2 2
= [(A sin qb + B cos qb) cos yjs + (A-B) sin qb cos qb sin yjs cos 6] ~ + C sin 6 sin ^ ^
2 2
— [(A cos qb + B sin qb) sin \j/ sin 6 cos 6 + (A — B) sin qb cosqb cos \^sin 6 — Csin -v/^sin 6 cos 6] >
ds
AKU-L+BIC'^ -f- Cm 3
2 2 2 2 2
= -(A-B) sin qb cos qb sin 6 ^ -f G cos 6 ^ + (A sin 6 cos qb + B sin 6 sin qb + 0 cos 0) ..
L. E. 26
In equations (45) we now approximate by taking A and C to be small compared with
B, and 6 to be nearly equal to \ir, while <j> and ^ are small, and also by taking x to be x
equal to I and x to be equal to s. We reject all the obviously unimportant terms in the
expressions for (AKI + ...),.... We thus find the equations
X
* % - * « - ) , < ^ f = o .
Since dy/ds = m =sin # sin ^ = \/r nearly, we deduce from the first and second equations of
3
this set the equation
and from the second and third equations of the same set we deduce the equation
A^± = R{l~s)<l>;
and, on eliminating d\j//ds between the two equations last written, we find the equation
+ J (*-«)'* = 0 (46)
This equation can be transformed into Bessel's equation by the substitutions

^(l-sfRIJ(AC), (*-«)» (47)
It becomes
d\ 1 dr, ( 1 \
and the primitive is of the form

<P = [ ^ i « ) ] (*-»)*, (48)
where A' and B' are constants.
Now when s = l d\jr/ds vanishes, and the twisting couple Cr vanishes; hence d<fi/ds
9
vanishes. This condition requires that A' should vanish. Further, <fi vanishes when s = 0,
2
and thus the critical length is given by the equation J~_ (£) = 0 at £=il R/\/(AC), or
1
K } n n
2.6 AC 2.4...(2TI).6.14...(8^-2) A C ^"'
2
The lowest root of this equation for R l^jAC is 16 nearly, and we infer that the rod bent
by terminal transverse load in the plane of greatest flexural rigidity is unstable if
l>y (ACft/R^, where y is a number very nearly equal to 2.
The result has been verified experimentally by A. G. M. Michell and L. Prandtl. It
should be observed that the rod, if of such a length as that found, will be bent a good deal
by the load R, unless B is large compared with A and (7, and thus the above method is not
applicable to the general problem of the stability of the elastica for displacements out of
its plane.
273. R o d bent by forces applied along its length.

W h e n forces and couples are applied to t h e rod at other points, as well as
a t the ends, and t h e stress-couples are assumed to be given by the ordinary
approximations (Article 255), forms are possible in which t h e rod could not
be held by terminal forces and couples only. W h e n there are no couples
except at t h e ends, t h e third of equations (11) of Article 254 becomes
rJrr
272-274] A P P L I E D ALONG ITS LENGTH 403
and this equation shows t h a t to hold t h e rod bent to a given curvature

without applying couples along its length, a certain r a t e of variation of
t h e twist along t h e length is requisite. I n other words a certain twisty
indeterminate to a constant pres, is requisite.
W h e n there are no applied couples except at t h e ends, and t h e curvature
is given, while t h e twist has t h e required r a t e of variation, JV and W are
given by t h e first two of equations (2) of Article 260. T h e requisite forces
X , Y, Z of Article 254 and t h e tension T are t h e n connected by t h e t h r e e
equations (10) of t h a t Article. W e may therefore impose one additional con
dition upon these quantities. For example, we may take Z to be zero, and
then we learn t h a t a given rod can be held with its central-line in t h e form of
a given curve by forces which at each point are directed along a normal to t h e
curve, provided t h a t t h e rod has a suitable twist.
Similar statements are applicable to t h e case in which t h e rod, in t h e
unstressed state, has a given curvature and twist.
As an example* of the application of these remarks we may take the case of a rod
which in the unstressed state forms a circular hoop of radius r , with one principal axis of 0
each cross-section inclined to the plane of the hoop at an angle f , the same for all cross- 0
sections. We denote by B the flexural rigidity corresponding with this axis. The initial
state is expressed by the equations
lsin
K 0 K '=V" /o> TO=0.
= - ^ O ~ 1 C O S
/ O > 0
Let the rod be bent into a circular hoop of radius r with one principal axis of each ly
oross-section inclined to the plane of the hoop at an angle/ the same for all cross-sections. 15
The state of the rod is then expressed by the equations

"i= -rrôs/i, jc/r^-isin/i, = 0. 7i
To hold the rod in this state forces must be applied to each section so as to be equivalent
to a couple about the central-line; the amount of this couple per unit of length is
1
- - (A sin/! cos/ - B cos/ s i n / ) - ~ (A-B)
r r
0 x 0
r
sin/j. cos^.
oi i
274. R o d bent in one plane by uniform normal pressure.

W e consider next t h e problem of a rod held b e n t in a principal plane
by normal pressure which is uniform along its length. The quantity X
of Article 254 expresses t h e m a g n i t u d e of this pressure per u n i t of length.
Let F denote t h e resultant of t h e shearing force N" and t h e tension T at
any cross-section, F , F its components parallel to fixed axes of x and y
x y
i n t h e plane of t h e bent central-line. W e may obtain two equations of

equilibrium by resolving all t h e forces which act upon any portion of t h e rod
parallel to t h e fixed axes. These equations are
* Cf. Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil, Part I I . , pp. 166 et seq.
I t follows t h a t t h e origin 0 can be chosen so t h a t we have
F = -yX, x F = xX; y
and therefore the m a g n i t u d e of F at any point P of t h e strained central-line

is rX, where r is t h e distance OP, and t h e direction of F is a t right angles to
OP. This result can be expressed in t h e following form:—Let P and P be 1 2
any two points of t h e strained central-line, and let F and F be the result 1 2
ants of the shearing force and tension on t h e cross-sections through P and 2
P , the senses of F and F being such t h a t these forces arise from t h e action
2 1 2
of the rest of t h e rod on t h e portion between P and P . From P P x 2 1 ? 2
draw lines P 0 , P 0 at r i g h t angles to the directions of F F .

2 2 We may 1} 2
regard t h e arc P P as t h e limit of a polygon of a large number of sides, and

X 2
this polygon as in equilibrium under t h e flexural couples at its ends, t h e

forces F F , and a force XBs directed at right angles to any side of t h e
lt 2
polygon of which t h e length is 8s. The forces are at right angles to t h e

sides of t h e figure formed by 0P 0P and this polygon, and are propor
lt 2
tional to t h e m ; and the lengths of 0P and 0P are FJX and F jX.

X 2The 2
senses in which the lines m u s t be drawn are indicated in Fig. 62 *.
Fig. 62.
L e t r denote t h e distance OP. Then

v- dr
• rX ~r.
as as
The stress-couple G' satisfies t h e equation
as as
2
Hence we have G' = J X r + const.
I n the particular case where t h e central-line in the unstressed state is a
straight line or a circle, t h e curvature 1/p of the curve into which it is bent is
given by t h e equation
2
B/p = \Xr + const (49)
The possible forms of the central-line can be determined from this
equation f.
* In the right-hand figure OP P is shown .as a force-polygon. The theory is due to M. Levy,.
1 2
J. de Math. (Liouville), (Ser. 3), t. 10 (1884).

f The complete integration of equation (49) by means of elliptic functions was effected by
G. H. Halphen, Paris, C. R., t. 98 (1884). See also his Tr'aite des fonctions elliptiques, Partie 2,
Ch. 5 (Paris, 1888). The subject has been investigated further by A. G. Greenhill, Math. Ann.,.
Bd. 52 (1899).
2 7 5 . Stability of circular ring under normal pressure.
When the central-line in the unstressed state is a circle of radius a, and the rod is very
slightly bent, equation (49) can be written in the approximate form
2
du _ X
where 1/u and S are the polar coordinates of a point on the central-line referred to 0 as
origin, and c is a constant. The value of u differs very little from I/a, and we may there
fore put u=l/a + £, where £ is small, and obtain the approximate equation
Hence £ is of the form £ cos (^9-f-y), where £ and y are constants, and % is given by
0 0
the equation
2
™ = 1 + Xa*/B.
Now the function £ must be periodic in 6 with period 2TT, for, otherwise, the rod would
not continue to form a complete ring. Hence n must be an integer. If n were 1, the circle
would be displaced without deformation. The least value of the pressure X by which any
deformation of the circular form can be produced is obtained by putting n — 2. We infer
s
that, if X<3B/a , the ring simply contracts under the pressure, but the ring tends to
collapse if
X>3B/a* (50)*
2 7 6 . Height consistent w i t h stabilityf.
As a further example of the equilibrium of a rod under forces applied
along its length, we consider t h e problem of a vertical column,
of uniform material and cross-section, bent by its own weight.
L e t a long thin rod be set u p in a vertical plane so t h a t t h e
lower end is constrained to remain vertical, and suppose the
length to be so great t h a t the rod bends. Take t h e origin of
fixed axes of x and y at t h e lower end, draw t h e axis of x
vertically upwards and the axis of y horizontally in the plane
of bending. (See Fig. 63.) For the equilibrium of t h e portion
of t h e rod contained between any section and the free end, we
resolve along the normal to the central-line, and then, since Fig. 63.
t h e central-line is nearly coincident with t h e axis of x, we
find t h e equation
where W is the weight of the rod. The equation of equilibrium dG/ds + N= 0

can, therefore, be replaced by t h e approximate equation
.(51)
i
where p is written for dyjdx. The terminal conditions are t h a t dp/dx vanishes
at x = I, and y and p vanish at x = 0.
* The result is due to M. Levy, loc. cit.
t The theory is due to A. G. Greenhill, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Proc, vol. 4 (1881). It has
been discussed critically by C. Chree, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Proc, vol. 7 (1892).
E q u a t i o n (51) can be transformed into Bessel's equation by t h e sub
stitutions
= ( - X ) L
£ I\/(5) * ' P^vil-x)* (52)
I t becomes
2
d 7j 1 dv 1 \ A
and t h e primitive is of t h e form

p = [A'J K (£) + B'J-i (£)] (I - x)i, (53)
/
where A' a n d B are constants.
To make dp/dx vanish a t x = I we must have A' = 0, and to make p
vanish a t x = 0 we m u s t have J L j ( f ) = 0 a t I* = %l (W/B)k Hence t h e
critical length is given by t h e equation
2
1 lW ' 1 fm-ppn
3.2 B ^ ' " ^ > 3 . 6 . ..(3w). 2 . 5 . . . ( 3 w - l ) £^
2
The lowest root of this equation for l W/B is (7 . 9 1 . . . ) , a n d we infer t h a t t h e
rod will be b e n t by its own weight if t h e length exceeds ( 2 . 83 ...)*J{BjW).
Greenhill (loc. cit. p. 405) has worked out a number of cases in which t h e
rod is of varying section, and has applied his results to t h e explanation of t h e
forms and growth of trees.
CHAPTER XX.
VIBRATIONS OF RODS. PROBLEMS OF DYNAMICAL RESISTANCE.
2 7 7 . T H E vibrations of thin rods or bars, straight and prismatic when

unstressed, fall naturally into three classes: longitudinal, torsional, lateral.
T h e " longitudinal" vibrations are characterized by t h e periodic extension
and contraction of elements of t h e central-line, and, for this reason, they will
sometimes be described as " extensional." The " l a t e r a l " vibrations are
characterized by t h e periodic bending and straightening of portions of t h e
central-line, as points of this line move to and fro at right angles to its
unstrained direction; for this reason they will sometimes be described as
"flexural." I n Chapter X I I . we investigated certain modes of vibration
of a circular cylinder. Of these modes one class are of strictly torsional type,
and other classes are effectively of extensional and flexural types when t h e
length of t h e cylinder is large compared with t h e radius of its cross-section.
W e have now to explain how the theory of such vibrations for a thin rod of
any form of cross-section can be deduced from t h e theory of Chapter XVIII.
I n order to apply this theory it is necessary to assume t h a t t h e ordinary
approximations described in Articles 255 and 258 hold when t h e rod is
vibrating. This assumption may be partially justified by t h e observation
t h a t the equations of motion are t h e same as equations of equilibrium under
certain body forces—the reversed kinetic reactions. I t then amounts to
assuming t h a t t h e mode of distribution of these forces is not such as to
invalidate seriously t h e approximate equations (21), (22), (23) of Article
258. The assumption may be p u t in another form in t h e statement t h a t ,
when t h e rod vibrates, t h e internal strain in the portion between two
neighbouring cross-sections is t h e same as it would be if t h a t portion were
in equilibrium under tractions on its ends, which produce in it the instan
taneous extension, twist and curvature. N o complete justification of this
assumption has been given, b u t it is supported by t h e results, already cited,
which are obtained in t h e case of a circular cylinder. I t seems to be
legitimate to state t h a t t h e assumption gives a b e t t e r approximation in t h e
case of the graver modes of vibration, which are t h e most important, t h a n in
t h e case of t h e modes of greater frequency, and t h a t , for t h e former,
t h e approximation is quite sufficient.
The various modes of vibration have been investigated so fully by Lord
E a y l e i g h * t h a t it will be unnecessary here to do more t h a n obtain t h e
equations of vibration. After forming these equations we shall apply t h e m
to t h e discussion of some problems of dynamical resistance.
278. E x t e n s i o n a l vibrations.
Let w be t h e displacement, parallel to t h e central-line, of t h e centroid of
t h a t cross-section which, in t h e equilibrium state, is at a distance s from
some chosen point of t h e line. T h e n t h e extension is div/ds, and t h e tension
is Eco (dw/ds), where E is Young's modulus, and co t h e area of a cross-
section. T h e kinetic reaction, estimated per unit of length of t h e rod, is
2
poo (dhv/dt ), where p is t h e density of t h e material. T h e equation of motion,
formed in t h e same way as t h e equations of equilibrium in Article 254, is
2 2
dw -r,d w / n x
The condition to be satisfied at a free end is dw/ds = 0 ; at a fixed end w

vanishes.
If we form the equation of motion by the energy-method (Article 115) we may take
account of the inertia of the lateral motion t by which the cross-sections are extended
or contracted in their own planes. If x and y are the coordinates of any point in a cross-
section, referred to axes drawn through its centroid, the lateral displacements are
-- orx (dw/ds), — cry (dw/ds),
where o~ is Poisson's ratio. Hence the kinetic energy per unit of length is
w h e r e K i s t h e radius of gyration of a cross-section a b o u t t h e central-line. The potential

e n e r g y per u n i t of l e n g t h i s
and, therefore, t h e variational e q u a t i o n of m o t i o n is

2
(dw\ ~
+ ,
•MM(*)' '' (£)V**(S Kds,
where t h e integration w i t h respect t o s i s t a k e n along t h e rod. I n forming t h e v a r i a t i o n s
we use the identities
dwdbw , dhv _ d (dw . \ dwdhw dhv _ d (dw_ \
+ bw
di w w =dt {dt )' bw
ds--ar w +
di \Ts ) >
d w = bw
2 2 2
fd w d 8w 8% \ < ^ * N 3 (d w ddw 3 % '
2 2 2 + 2
\dsdtdsdt ds dt J" ds\dsdt dt dsdt •) dt\dsdt ds ds dt
* Theory of Sound, Chapters v n . and v m .
f The lateral strain is already taken into account when the tension is expressed as the product
of E and w {div/ds). If the longitudinal strain alone were considered the constant that enters into
the expression for the tension would not be E but X + 2/i.
and, on integrating by parts, and equating to zero the coefficient of dw under the sign of
double integration, we obtain the equation
2
w-^Sk^w
2 2
• v
By retaining the term po-K dHv/ds dt we should obtain the correction of the velocity
of wave-propagation which was found by Pochhammer and Chree (Article 201), or the
correction of the frequency of free vibration which was calculated by Lord Rayleigh*
279. Torsional vibrations.

Let yjr denote the relative angular displacement of two cross-sections, so
t h a t d^rjds is the twist of the rod. The centroids of t h e sections are not
displaced, b u t the component displacements of a point in a cross-section
parallel to axes of x and y, chosen as before, are — tyy and yjrx. The torsional
couple is 0 (dtyj'ds), where C is the torsional rigidity. T h e moment of t h e
kinetic reactions about t h e central-line, estimated per unit of length of t h e
2
rod, is pcoK (d yjr/dt ).
2 2
The equation of motion, formed in t h e same way as
t h e third of the equations of equilibrium (11) of Article 254, is
•• <»
T h e condition to be satisfied at a free end is d^rjds — 0 ; at a fixed end
vanishes.
When we apply the energy-method, we may take account of the inertia of the motion
by which the cross-sections are deformed into curved surfaces. Let be the torsion
function for the section (Article 216). Then the longitudinal displacement is <p (3^/8s),
and the kinetic energy of the rod per unit of length is
2
The potential energy is (dyjr/ds) , and the equation of vibration, formed as before, is
Vit-'(/**)a-°3-
By inserting in this equation the values of G and ffidco that belong to the section, we
could obtain an equation of motion of the same form as (2) and could work out a
correction for the velocity of wave-propagation and the frequency of any mode of vibration.
In the case of a circular cylinder there is no correction and the velocity of propagation is
that found in Article 200.
280. Flexural vibrations.

L e t t h e rod vibrate in a principal plane, which we take to be t h a t of
(x, z) as defined in Article 252. Let u denote t h e displacement of t h e
centroid of any section at r i g h t angles to t h e unstrained central-line. W e
may take t h e angle between this line and t h e t a n g e n t of t h e strained central-
2 2
line to be du/ds, and t h e curvature to be d u/ds . T h e flexural couple G' is
2 2 2
Bd u/ds , where B = E(DJC' , h' being t h e radius of gyration of t h e cross-section
* Theory of Sound, § 157.

about an axis through its centroid at right angles to t h e plane of bending.
The magnitude of t h e kinetic reaction, estimated per unit of length, is, for a
2 2
first approximation, pay (d u/dt ), and its direction is t h a t of t h e displacement u.
T h e longitudinal displacement of any point is — x(dujds)\ and therefore
t h e moment of the kinetic reactions, estimated per unit of length, about an
2 s 2
axis perpendicular to t h e plane of bending is pcoh' (d u/dsdt ). The equations
of vibration formed in t h e same way as t h e second equation of each of t h e
sets of equations of equilibrium (10) and (11) of Article 254 are
a r - P - ^ , ^ ^ + ^ = p ^ 2 _ , ( 4 )
r
and, on eliminating JV, w e have t h e equation of vibration
If " r o t a t o r y inertia " is neglected we have t h e approximate equation
2 3
and t h e shearing force N at any section is — Ewk' dht/ds . A t a free end
2 2 3 s
d u/ds and d u/ds vanish, at a clamped end u and du/ds vanish, at a
2 2
" s u p p o r t e d " end u and d u/ds vanish.
By retaining the term representing the effect of rotatory inertia we could obtain
a correction of the velocity of wave-propagation, or of the frequency of vibration, of the
same kind as those previously mentioned*. Another correction, which may be of the
same degree of importance as this when the section of the rod does not possess kinetic
symmetry, may be obtained by the energy-method, by taking account of the inertia of the
motion by which the cross-sections are distorted in their own planes f. The components
of displacement parallel to axes of x and y in the plane of the cross-section, the axis
of x being in the plane of bending, are
and the kinetic energy per unit of length is expressed correctly to terms of the fourth
order in the linear dimensions of the cross-section by the formula
where k is the radius of gyration of the cross-section about an axis through its centroid
2 2
drawn in the plane of bending. The term in o- ik' - k ) depends on the inertia of the
2
motion by which the cross-sections are distorted in their planes, and the term in k'
depends on the rotatory inertia. The potential energy is expressed by the formula
* Cf. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, § 186.

t The cross-sections are distorted into curved surfaces and inclined obliquely to the strained
central-line, but the inertia of these motions would give a much smaller correction.
The variational equation of motion is
In forming the variations we use the identities

2 2 2
d u d hu 3% , 8 (d u dhu dH
2
ddu 3% du <Hu 3% _ d_ f. 3j% du d bu\ 3_ / _3% _ dbudhi
2 +
2 +
dt ds dt dt ds dt 2 +
• dWw ~ ~dt V 3s3*
dt ds ) ds \ dsdt ds dt 2 + 2 2
as well as identities of the types used in Article 278. The resulting equation of motion is
P [5
- & (i -.)+*M gS-j=-îJ (7)
Corrections of the energy such as that considered here will, of course, affect the
terminal conditions at a free, or supported end, as well as the differential equation of
vibration. Since they rest on the assumption that the internal strain in any small
portion of the vibrating rod contained between neighbouring cross-sections is the same as
in a prism in which the right extension, or twist, or curvature is produced by forces
applied at the ends and holding the prism in equilibrium, they cannot be regarded as very
rigorously established. Lord Rayleigh (loc. cit.) calls attention to the increase of im
portance of such corrections with the frequency of the vibration. We have already
remarked that the validity of the fundamental assumption diminishes as the frequency
rises.
2 8 1 . Rod fixed at one end and struck longitudinally at the other*.
W e shall illustrate t h e application of t h e theory of vibrations to problems
of dynamical resistance by solving some problems in which a long thin rod is
thrown into extensional vibration by shocks or moving loads.
W e take first t h e problem of a rod fixed at one end and struck at t h e
other by a massive body moving in t h e direction of t h e length of t h e rod.
W e measure t from t h e instant of impact and s from t h e fixed end, and
we denote by I t h e length of t h e rod, by m t h e ratio of t h e mass of t h e
striking body to t h a t of t h e rod, by V the velocity of the body at t h e instant
of impact, by w t h e longitudinal displacement, and by a t h e velocity of
propagation of extensional waves in t h e rod.
The differential equation of extensional vibration is
2 2
dw 9 dw / f t v
= a ( 8 )
w ' ^
The terminal condition at s = 0 is w = 0. The terminal condition at

s = I is the equation of motion of t h e striking body, or it is
< 9
>
* Cf. J. Boussinesq, Applications des potentiels..., pp. 508 et seq., or Saint-Venant in the
6
Annotated Clebsch,' Note finale du § 60 and Changements. et additions.
since t h e pressure at the end is, in t h e notation of Article 278, — EGO (dw/ds),
2
and Eco/a is equal to t h e mass of t h e rod per u n i t of length. The initial
condition is that, when t — 0, w = 0 for all values of s between 0 and I,
b u t at s = I
lim (dw/dt) = - F , (10)
since t h e velocity of t h e struck end becomes, at t h e instant of impact,

t h e same as t h a t of t h e striking body.
We have to determine w for positive values of t, and for all values of
s between 0 and I, by means of these equations and conditions. The first
step is to express the solution of t h e differential equation (8) in the form
w = f(at - s) + F(at + s), (11)
where / and F denote arbitrary functions.
T h e second step is to use the terminal condition at s = 0 to eliminate one
of t h e arbitrary functions. This condition gives in fact
f(at) + F(at) = 0,
and we may, therefore, write the solution of equation (8) in the form
w = f(at - s) -f(at + s) (12)
The third step is to use t h e initial conditions to determine t h e function /
in a certain interval. We t h i n k of / as a function of an a r g u m e n t f, which
may be p u t equal to at — s or at + s when required. Since dw/ds and dw/dt
vanish with t for all values of s between 0 and I we have,
when l>t;>0, -/'(-£)-/'(0 = 0, / ' ( - £ ) - / ' ( £ ) = ().'

Hence it follows that, when l>%> — I, f (£) vanishes and / ( £ ) is a
constant which can be t a k e n to be zero; or we have the result
when 1>£>-1, /(f) = 0 ..(13)
T h e fourth step is to use t h e terminal condition (9) at s = I to form an
equation by means of which the value of / ( f ) as a function of f can be
determined outside t h e interval I > f > — 1. The required equation, called
t h e " continuing equation*," is
ml [/" (at - I) -/" (at + I)] =f (at -?)+/' (at + I),
or, as it may be written,
/ " (0 + ( 1 / m O / ' (0 =/" (? - 20 - ( 1 / m Z ) / ' (? - 21) (14)
W e regard this equation in t h e first instance as an equation to determine
/ ' ( £ ) . T h e right-hand member is known, it has in fact been shown to be
zero, in t h e interval SI > f > I. We may therefore determine t h e form of
/ ' ( f ) in this interval by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e equation (14). The constant of
integration is to be determined by means of t h e condition (10). T h e function
* Equation promotrice of Saint-Venant.

281] ROD STRUCK AT ONE E N D 413
/ ' ( ? ) will t h e n be known in t h e interval SI > ?> I, and therefore t h e r i g h t -

hand member of (14) is known in t h e interval 51 > ? > 31. We determine
t h e form of / ' ( ? ) in this interval by integrating t h e equation (14), and we
determine t h e constant of integration by t h e condition t h a t there is no dis
continuity in t h e velocity at s — I after t h e initial instant. The function
f (?) will t h e n be known in t h e interval 51 > ? > SI. By proceeding in t h i s
way we can determine / ' (?) for all values of ? which exceed — I.
The integral of (14) is always of t h e form
1
/'(?) = Or*** + e-^fe^ .{/"(?- 21) - - ^ / ' ( f - 2Z)} d& ...(15)
where C is a constant of integration. W h e n SI > ? > I t h e expression under

ml
t h e sign of* integration vanishes, and / ' (?) is of t h e form Ge~^ . Now t h e
condition (10) gives
« [ / ' ( - J + 0 ) - / ' ( Z + 0)] = - 7 , o r / ' ( J + 0 ) = F / a .
1/m
Hence (7e~ = F / a , and we have t h e result
when SI > ? > Z, / ' ( ? ) = ^ G R ( M M (16)
W e observe t h a t / ' ( ? ) is discontinuous at ? = Z.

W h e n 51 > ? > 3Z we have
/ " ( £ _ 2Z) - ( l / m Z ) / ' ( £ - 2 0 = - 2 (F/mZa)
and equation (15) can be written
ml
/'(?)= Cer*"*- 2(V/mla)(Z-Sl)e~î .
T h e condition of continuity of velocity at s = I at t h e instant £ = 2Z/<z gives
/' _ 0) - / ' (SI - 0) = / ' (Z + 0) - / ' (8Z + 0 ) ,
F F
2/m 3/m
or e" = Ce~ ,
a a
1/m m
giving (7 = (Vja) ( e + & ).
Hence, when 51 > ? > SI,
f (0 = I -<^).« + Ijl - A _ so} <r

e (? (17)
W h e n 7Z > ? > 5Z we have
3l)lml { l)iml
y " ( £ _ 2 0 - - i . / ' ( ? - 2 0 = ~ ~^- [e-^~ a + 2e- ^ ]
2 2 v
mla
and equation (15) can be written
9V 2F 5 2 m
/' (?) = Oe-Q"* - ^ ( ? ~ 5 0 [e-£-«J>*N + 2 e - ^ - ^ ] + ( ? - 5Z) erW h
T h e condition of continuity of velocity a t s — I at t h e instant t = 4tl/a gives
f (3Z - 0) - / ' ( 5 Z - 0) = / ' (SI + 0) - / ' (hi + 0),
V V 47 F
2/m 4/m 2/m 2/m 2lm 5/m
or — 6T - — (e~ + e- ) H e~ = — (e~ + 1) - Ce~ ,
a <x ma a
5/m
giving G = ~ | e 1 / m
+ ^1 - ^ e 3 / m
+ e j. Hence, when 7Z > f > 51,
.(18)
The function / ( f ) can be determined by integrating / ' ( f ) , a n d t h e

constant of integration is to be determined by t h e condition t h a t there is
no sudden change in t h e displacement a t s — I. This condition gives, b y
p u t t i n g £ = 0, 2l/a, ... such equations as
0 = / ( - J + 0 ) - / ( l + 0),
f(l - 0) -f(Sl - 0) =f(l + 0) - /(3Z + 0),
from which, s i n c e / ( — I + 0) and f(l—0) vanish, we find
/(Z+0) = 0 =/(*-<)), /(3J + 0 ) = / ( 3 J - 0 ) , ....
Hence there is no discontinuity in / ( f ) , as is otherwise evident, since
/ ' ( f ) possesses only finite discontinuities separated by intervals in which it
is continuous. W e have therefore merely to integrate / ' ( f ) in each of t h e
intervals SI > f > I, hi > f > SI, ... a n d determine t h e constants of integration
so t h a t f(l) = 0 a n d / ( f ) is continuous. W e find t h e following results :
when SI > f > I,
lml
/ ( f ) = (mlV/a){l - e-^ }
when hi > f > SI,
2
/ ( 0 - _ ^ ^ + ^ aT {i l £ml. + / ( ? - ê 8
\ ...(19)
when 7l>t >hl,)
m=^{i - + ^ { i + ^ <r - so}
The solution expresses t h e result that, a t t h e instant of impact, a wave

of compression sets out from t h e struck end, a n d travels towards t h e fixed
end, where it is reflected. T h e motion of t h e striking body generates
a continuous series of such waves, which advance towards t h e fixed end,
and are reflected there.
In the above solution we have proceeded as if the striking body became attached to the
rod, so that the condition (9) holds for all positive values of t; but, if the bodies remain
detached, the solution continues to hold so long only as there is positive pressure between
the rod and the striking body. When, in the above solution, the pressure at s—l becomes
negative, the impact ceases. This happens when f'(at — l)+f (at + l) becomes negative.
So long as 21 > at > 0 this expression is equal to (V/a) E ~ which is positive. When
A T L M L
' 4l> at> 21, it is

2
L -atlml
e i e ^(l-^^Jj,
+2
m
which vanishes when 2at/ml=4/m+2 + e'~^ , and this equation can have a root in the
2lm 2 m
interval 41 > at > 21 if 2 + e~ <4/m. Now the equation 2 + e~ l =4/m has a root
lying between m=l and m— 2, viz.: m = 1*73.... Hence, if m < 1*73, the impact ceases at
an instant in the interval 4l/a>t>2lja, and this instant is given by the equation
m
t = L {2 + m + \vne-^ ).
If m>l*73 we may in like manner determine whether or no the impact ceases at

an instant in the interval 6l/a>t>4l/a, and so on. It may be shown also that the
greatest compression of the rod occurs at the fixed end, and that, if m < 5, its value
is 2 ( l + 6 ~ / ) V/a, but, if m > 5 , its value is approximately equal to (l+ /m)V/a.
2 m
If the s
problem were treated as a statical problem by neglecting the inertia of the rod, the
greatest compression would be Jm (V/a). For further details in regard to this problem
reference may be made to the authorities cited on p. 411.
282. R o d free at o n e e n d a n d struck longitudinally at t h e other*.

When the end 5 = 0 is free, dw/ds vanishes at this end for all values of t, or we have
-/' (at)+F' (at) = 0. Hence we may put F(£)=/(£) and write instead of (12),
w =f(at - s) +f(at + s),
and, as before, we find that f(£) vanishes in the interval l>(> — I.
The continuing equation is now
/"(f) + ( l M ) / ' ( f ) = - / " ( f - 2 Z ) + (l/mO/'(f-20
;
and the discontinuity of/ (f)at (=1 is determined by the equation
a[f'(-l + 0) + f'(l + 0)]=-V, or / ' ( J + 0 ) = - V/a.
Hence we find the results :
Z
when ZI>(>1, f (f) = --^-(<HV™ ,
when 5 Z > f > 3 £ ,
/ e-«-^+~\l - (f - 3Z)} e~(»\

Now the extension at s = l is / ' (at + l)-f (at-1), and, until t = 2l/a, this is
at ml
-(V/a)e- / ,
which is negative, so that the pressure remains positive until the instant t—2l/a ; but,
2 m
immediately after this instant, the extension becomes (V/a) ( 2 - e~ l ), which is positive, so
* Cf. J. Boussinesq, loc. cit. p. 411.

that the pressure vanishes, and the impact ceases at the instant t = 21/a, that is to say
after the time taken by a wave of extension to travel over twice the length of the rod.
The wave generated at the struck end at the instant of impact is a wave of compression ;
it is reflected at the free end as a wave of extension. The impact ceases when this
reflected wave reaches the end in contact with the striking body. The state of the rod
and the velocity of the striking body at this instant are determined by the above formulae.
2 m
The body moves with velocity Ve~ l in the same direction as before the impact; and the
2 m
rod moves in the same direction, the velocity of its centre of mass being mV(l— e~ l ).
l m
The velocity at any point of the rod is 2 Ve~ I cosh (s/ml), and the extension at any point
_i
m
of it is 2 (V/a) e sinh (sjml), so that the rod rebounds vibrating.
283. R o d loaded suddenly.

L e t a massive body be suddenly attached without velocity to t h e lower
end of a rod, which is hanging vertically with its u p p e r end fixed. W i t h a
notation similar to t h a t in Article 281, we can write down the equation of
vibration in t h e form
2 2
7) w 7) w
2 0
< >
2
and t h e value of w in t h e equilibrium state is ^gs (21 — s)/a . Hence we
write
2
w = ^gs(2l-s)/a + w', (21)
and then w' must be of t h e form
w' = (f>(at-s)-(f> (at + s), (22)
and, as before, we find t h a t , in t h e interval I > f > — I, <£(f) vanishes.
The equation of motion of the attached mass is
which gives the continuing equation
and t h e constants of integration are to be determined so t h a t there is no

discontinuity of velocity or of displacement. W e find the following results :—
when 3 Z > f > Z , \
^(f) = - l ? { l _ - ( ^ ) / ^ }
m e ;
a .(25)
M L
= - m*P fc-* - 1 + e ~ W
x ml
F u r t h e r the equations by which <£'(£) are determined in this problem
can be identified with those by which f(£) was determined in Article 281 by
writing — gja for V. T h e solution is not restricted to t h e range of values of
t within which t h e tension at the lower end remains one-signed.
282, 2 8 3 ] ROD LOADED S U D D E N L Y 417
The expression for the extension at any point is

2
g(l-s)ld -<p' (at-s)-^' (at+s),
and, at the fixed end, this is equal to
2 2
lg/a -2$ (at), or lg/a -\-2 (gfaV)f(at),
where / is the function so denoted in Article 281. The maximum value occurs when
Taking m~\, so that the attached mass is equal to the mass of the rod, we find from
(16) that/'(a£) does not vanish before t — Sl/a, but from (17) that it vanishes between
t=3l/a and t = bl/a if the equation
2
l+e {l-2(f-3Z)/Z}=0
2
has a root in the interval 5l>£>3l. The root is £= Z{3+J (1 -f-l/e )}, or f=2 (3*568),
which is in this interval. The greatest extension at the fixed end is
2 668
& {1 +2e- ' [ - 1 +e {l +2 (0*568)}]},
2
2 0,568 2
or (Igla ) (1 +4e~ ), or (3*27) lg/a . The statical strain at the fixed end, when the rod
2
supports the attached mass in equilibrium, is 2lg\a , and the ratio of the maximum
dynamical strain to this is 1*63 : 1. This strain occurs at the instant £=(3*568) l/a.
Taking m—2, so that the attached mass is twice the mass of the rod, we find from (16)
that / ' (at) does not vanish before t = 3lja, but from (1.7) that it vanishes between t—M/a
and t—bl/a if the equation
1 +e {1-(<T-30/0 = 0
has a root in the interval 5l>£>3l. The root is £=l (4+1/e), or (=1 (4*368), which is
in this interval. The greatest extension at the fixed end is
| {1 +46-1(3*368) [ - 1 + (1 + 1-368) e]},
2 m 2 2
or lg/a (I+8e~°' ) or (5*04)lg/a . The statical strain in this case is Slg/a , and.the
ratio of the maximum dynamical strain to the statical strain is 1*68:1. This strain
occurs at the instant £=(4*368) l\a.
Taking m — 4, so that the attached mass is four times the mass of the rod, we find
that f (at) does not vanish before t — hl/a, but from (18) that it vanishes between t — hl/a
and t = llja if the equation
1 - H(C - 5 W «*+[1 - (f - + UC- 5 W ] e = 0
has a root in the interval 71>£>51. The smaller root is £=£(6*183), which is in this
interval. The greatest extension at the fixed end is
where £ is given by the above equation. The extension in question is therefore
^ [9 + 8e-£(i-i83) {2e"* - (1*183)}],

2
2 2
which is found to be (9*18) (lg/a ). The statical strain in this case is 5 (lg/a ), and the
ratio of the maximum dynamical strain to the statical strain is 1*84 nearly. This strain
occurs at the instant £==(6*183) l/a.
The noteworthy result is that, even when the attached mass is not a large multiple of
the mass of the rod, the greatest strain due to sudden loading does not fall far short
of the theoretical limit, viz. twice the statical strain. (Cf. Article 84.)
L. E. 27
284. Longitudinal impact of rods.
The problem of t h e longitudinal impact of two rods or bars has been
solved by means of analysis of t h e same kind as t h a t in Article 281 *. I t is
slightly more complicated, because different undetermined functions are
required to express t h e states of t h e two b a r s ; b u t it is simpler because
these functions are themselves simple. T h e problem can be solved also by
considering the propagation of waves along t h e two rods+. The extension e
and velocity v at t h e front of an extensional wave travelling along a rod are
connected by t h e equation e = — v/a. (Cf. Article 205.) The same relation
holds at any point of a wave of compression travelling entirely in one
direction, as is obvious from t h e formula w=f(at — s) which characterizes
such a wave. W h e n a wave of compression travelling along the rod reaches
a free end, it is reflected ; and t h e n a t u r e of t h e motion and strain in t h e
reflected wave is most simply investigated by regarding the rod as produced
indefinitely, and supposing a wave to travel in t h e opposite direction along
the continuation of t h e rod in such a way that, when t h e two waves are
superposed, there is no compression at the end section. I t is clear t h a t t h e
velocity propagated with t h e " image " wave in t h e continuation of t h e rod
must be t h e same as t h a t propagated with the original wave, and t h a t t h e
extension propagated with t h e " image " wave must be equal numerically to
t h e compression in t h e original wavej.
Now let I, V be t h e lengths of t h e rods, supposed to be of the same
material and cross-section§, and let V, V be their velocities, supposed to be
i n t h e same sense. W e shall take I > V. W h e n t h e rods come into contact
t h e ends at t h e junction t a k e a common velocity, which is determined by the
condition t h a t t h e system consisting of two very small contiguous portions of
t h e rods, which have their motions changed in t h e same very short time, does
not, in t h a t time, lose or gain momentum. The common velocity m u s t
therefore be %(V + V). Waves set out from the junction and travel along
both rods, and the velocity of each element of either rod, relative to t h e rod
as a whole, when t h e wave reaches it, is \ (V«* V), so t h a t t h e waves are
waves of compression, and the compression is ^ (V~ V')/a.
To trace t h e subsequent state of t h e shorter rod V, we think of this rod as
continued indefinitely beyond the free end, and we reduce it to rest by
impressing on t h e whole system a velocity equal and opposite to V. At the
instant of impact a positive wave|| starts from t h e junction and travels
along t h e rod ; the velocity and compression in this wave are -J- ( V~ V) and
* Saint-Venant, J. de math. {Liouville), (Ser. 2), t. 12 (1867).
t Cf. Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil., Part I, pp. 280, 281.
t Cf. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, vol. 2, § 257.
§ Saint-Venant, loc. cit., discusses the case of different materials or sections as well.
|| An extensional wave is " p o s i t i v e " or " n e g a t i v e " according as the velocity of the material
is in the same sense as the velocity of propagation or in the opposite sense.
284] LONGITUDINAL IMPACT OF RODS 419
i (V~V')/a. A t t h e same instant a negative " image " wave starts from t h e
section distant 2V from t h e junction in t h e fictitious continuation of t h e r o d ;
t h e velocity and extension in this " image " wave are \ (V~ V) and ^(V~V')ja.
After a time V/a from the instant of impact both these waves reach t h e free
end, and they are t h e n superposed. Any part of t h e actual rod in which
they are superposed becomes unstrained and takes the velocity V~ V.
W h e n the reflected wave reaches the junction, t h a t is to say after a time
21'ja from the instant of impact, t h e whole of t h e rod V is moving with t h e
velocity V~ V, and is unstrained. Hence, superposing t h e original velocity
V, we have the result that, after t h e t i m e t a k e n by an extensional wave to
travel over twice t h e length of t h e shorter rod, this rod is unstrained and is
moving with t h e velocity V originally possessed by t h e longer rod.
To trace the state of the longer rod I from t h e beginning of t h e impact,

we think of this rod as continued indefinitely beyond its free end, and we
reduce it to rest by impressing on the whole system a velocity equal and
opposite to V. A t the instant of impact a positive wave starts from the
junction and travels along t h e rod; the velocity and compression in this wave
/
a r e | - ( F ^ F ) and \(V~V')/a. A t the same instant a negative " i m a g e "
wave starts from t h e section distant 21 from the junction in t h e fictitious
continuation of the rod; t h e velocity and extension in this " image " w a v e
r /
a r e J ( F ~ V ) and \(V~V)/a. After a time 2V/a from t h e instant of
impact the junction end becomes free from pressure, and a rear surface of t h e
actual wave is formed. Hence, the rod being regarded as continued in
definitely, t h e wave of compression and t h e " i m a g e " wave of extension are
both of length 2V. Immediately after t h e instant 2V/a the junction end
becomes unstrained and takes zero velocity. Hence, superposing the original
velocity V, we see t h a t this end takes actually the velocity V, so t h a t t h e
junction ends of the two rods remain in contact b u t without pressure.
The state of t h e longer rod I between t h e instants 2Vja and 21 ja is

determined by superposing the waves of length 2V, which started out at the
instant of impact from the junction end and t h e section distant 21 from it in
t h e fictitious continuation of t h e rod. After a time greater t h a n l/a these
waves are superposed over a finite length of the rod, terminated at t h e free
f
end, and this part becomes unstrained and takes a velocity V~V , the
velocity — V being supposed, as before, to be impressed on t h e system. The
state of the rod at the instant 2l/a in t h e case where I > 2V is different from
r
t h e state at t h e same instant in t h e case where I < 2V. If I > 2l t h e wave
of compression has passed out of t h e rod, and the wave of extension occupies
a length 21' terminated at the junction. The strain in this portion is
extension equal to \ (V^V^ja and the velocity in the portion is ^(V^V),
t h e velocity — V being impressed as before. The remainder of the rod is
unstrained and has t h e velocity zero. Hence, superposing t h e original
velocity V, we see t h a t a length I — 2V terminated at t h e free end has at this
instant t h e velocity V and no strain, and the remainder has t h e velocity
V) and extension \ (V~V')/a. The wave in t h e rod is now reflected
at the junction, so t h a t it becomes a wave of compression travelling away
;
from t h e junction, the compression is ^(V^V )/a and the velocity of t h e
junction end becomes V. The ends t h a t came into contact have now
exchanged velocities, and t h e rods separate.
f
If I < 2l t h e waves of compression and extension are, at t h e instant 21/a,
superposed over a length equal to 2V — I terminated at the free end, and the
rest of t h e rod is occupied by t h e wave of extension. The velocity — V being
impressed as before, the portion of length 2V — I terminated at t h e free end
is unstrained and has t h e velocity V~V, and t h e remaining portion has
f
extension ^(V^V )ja and velocity ^(V~V). Hence, superposing t h e
original velocity V, we see t h a t a length 21' — I terminated at t h e free end
has at the instant t h e velocity V and no strain, and t h e remainder has t h e
velocity \{V + V) and t h e extension i ( F » v F ) / a . The wave is reflected at
t h e junction, as in the other case, and the junction end takes the velocity V.
I n both cases t h e rods separate after an interval equal to t h e time taken
by a wave of extension to travel over twice t h e length of t h e longer rod.
The shorter rod takes t h e original velocity of t h e longer, and rebounds
without s t r a i n ; while t h e longer rebounds in a state of vibration. The
centres of mass of the two rods move after impact in the same way as if
there were a " coefficient of restitution " equal to the ratio V : I.
2 8 5 . Problems of dynamical resistance i n v o l v i n g transverse

vibration.
The results obtained in Articles 281—284 illustrate the general character of dynamical
resistances. Similar methods to those used in these Articles cannot be employed in
problems that involve transverse vibration for lack of a general functional solution of the
equation (6) of Article 280*. In such problems the best procedure seems to be to
express the displacement as the sum of a series of normal functions, and to adjust the
constant coefficients of the terms of the series so as to satisfy the initial conditions. For
examples of the application of this method reference may be made to Lord Rayleight
and Saint-Venant %.
A simplified method of obtaining an approximate solution can sometimes be employed.
For example, suppose that the problem is that of a rod " supported" at both ends and
struck by a massive body moving with a given velocity. After the impact let the striking
body become attached to the rod. At any instant after the instant of impact we may,
for an approximation, regard the rod as at rest and bent by a certain transverse load
applied at the point of impact. It will have, at the point, a certain deflexion, which is
determined in terms of the load by the result of Article 247 (d). The load is equal to the
pressure between the rod and the striking body, and the deflexion of the rod at the point
* Fourier's solution by means of definite integrals, given in the Bulletin des Sciences a la
Societephilomatique, 1818, (cf. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, vol. 1, § 192), is applied to
problems of dynamical resistance by J. Boussinesq, Applications des Potentiels, pp. 456 et seq.
f Theory of Sound, vol. 1, § 168. % See the 'Annotated Clebsch,' Note du § 61.
of i m p a c t is equal to t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e s t r i k i n g b o d y from i t s p o s i t i o n a t t h e i n s t a n t
of impact. T h e e q u a t i o n of m o t i o n of t h e s t r i k i n g b o d y , s u p p o s e d subjected t o a force
equal and opposite to t h i s t r a n s v e r s e load, c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t , a t t h e
i n s t a n t of i m p a c t , t h e b o d y h a s t h e prescribed velocity, a n d i s i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y at t h e
p o i n t of impact, are sufficient c o n d i t i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e striking
b o d y and t h e pressure b e t w e e n i t a n d t h e rod a t a n y s u b s e q u e n t i n s t a n t . In this method,
s o m e t i m e s described as Cox's m e t h o d * , t h e deflexion of t h e rod b y t h e striking b o d y is
regarded as a statical effect, a n d t h u s t h i s m e t h o d is i n a s e n s e an a n t i c i p a t i o n of Hertz's
t h e o r y of i m p a c t (Article 139). I t h a s already b e e n p o i n t e d out t h a t a similar m e t h o d
w a s used also b y W i l l i s and S t o k e s i n their t r e a t m e n t of t h e problem of t h e travelling
loadt.
A s o m e w h a t similar m e t h o d h a s b e e n e m p l o y e d b y Lord R a y l e i g h f for a n a p p r o x i m a t e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e frequency of t h e gravest m o d e of transverse vibration of a rod. He
set out from a general t h e o r e m t o t h e effect t h a t t h e frequency of a n y d y n a m i c a l s y s t e m ,
t h a t would be found b y a s s u m i n g t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t to be of a specified t y p e , cannot be l e s s
t h a n t h e frequency of t h e gravest m o d e of vibration of t h e s y s t e m . For a rod c l a m p e d a t
o n e end and free a t t h e other, h e s h o w e d t h a t a good a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e frequency m a y
b e m a d e by a s s u m i n g t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e rod t o b e of t h e s a m e t y p e as if i t were
deflected statically b y a transverse load, concentrated at a d i s t a n c e from t h e free e n d
equal to one quarter of t h e l e n g t h . T h i s m e t h o d h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n t h e subject of s o m e
d i s c u s s i o n §. I t h a s b e e n s h o w n t o b e applicable t o t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e frequency of
t h e gravest m o d e of transverse vibration of a rod of variable cross-section H. I t h a s b e e n
s h o w n also t h a t a m e t h o d of s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e various n o r m a l functions for
s u c h a rod, and their frequencies, can be founded u p o n s u c h solutions a s Lord Rayleigh's
w h e n t h e s e s o l u t i o n s are regarded as first a p p r o x i m a t i o n s IT.
286. The whirling of shafts**.

A long shaft rotating between bearings remains straight at low speeds,
b u t when the speed is high enough t h e shaft can rotate steadily in a form in
which the central-line is bent. The shaft is then said to " whirl." L e t u be
t h e transverse displacement of a point on t h e central-line, O t h e angular
velocity with which t h e shaft rotates. The equation of motion, formed in
t h e same way as equation (6) in Article 280, is
pg-pQHi- (26)
and t h e solution of this equation m u s t be adjusted to satisfy appropriate
* H. Cox, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. 9 (1850). Cf. Todhunter and Pearson's History,
vol. 1, Article 1435.
t See Introduction, p. 26. J Theory of Sound, vol. 1, § 182.
§ C. A. B. Garrett, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 6), vol. 8 (1904), and C. Chree, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 6), vol. 9
(1905).
|| J. Morrow, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 6), vol. 10 (1905). Some special cases of the vibrations of a
rod of variable section, in which the exact forms of the normal functions can be determined
in terms of Bessel's functions, were discussed by Kirchhofx, Berlin Monatsberichte, 1879, or Ges.
Abhandlungen, p. 339.
IT A. Davidoglou, ' Sur l'equation des vibrations transversales des verges elastiques,' Paris
{These), 1900.
** Cf. A. G. Greenhill, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engineers, 1883.
conditions at t h e ends of the shaft. We shall consider the case in which t h e
2 2
ends s = 0 and s = I are " supported." If the rod rotates steadily d u/dt
vanishes, and t h e equation is the same as t h a t for a rod executing simple
harmonic vibrations of period 2 7 r / H . I n order t h a t the equation
E k ' t ^ p & u (27)
2 2
may have a solution which makes u and d u/ds vanish at s = 0 and at 8 = 1,
the speed of rotation 12 must be such t h a t I2/27T is equal to the frequency of
a normal mode of flexural vibration of the doubly-supported shaft. T h u s the
lowest speed at which whirling takes place is such t h a t X2/27T is equal to the
frequency of t h e gravest mode of flexural vibration of such a shaft. If we
write
2 4
pWjEk' = m ,
t h e possible values of m are given by the equation sin ml = 0, and the
smallest value of £1 for which whirling can t a k e place is
The whirling of unloaded shafts rotating under various terminal conditions has been
dealt with by A. G. Greenhill (loc. cit.). The important technical problem of a shaft
carrying loads, pulleys for example, has been discussed theoretically and experimentally by
S. Dunkerley*. He found that the direct application of the method of normal functions,
illustrated above, led to very complicated results, and proposed to fall back on an
empirical assumption. The subject has been discussed further by 0. Chree t, by the aid
of Lord Rayleigh's statical method of determining frequencies (Article 285).
•* Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 185 (1894).

f Phil. Mag. (Ser. 6), vol. 7 (1904).
CHAPTER XXI.
SMALL DEFORMATION OF NATURALLY CURVED RODS.
2 8 7 . I N t h e investigations of Chapters XVIII. and x i x . we have given

prominence to t h e consideration of modes of deformation of a thin rod which
involve large displacements of t h e central-line and twist t h a t is not small,
and we have regarded cases in which the displacement of t h e central-line and
the twist are small as limiting cases. This was t h e method followed, for
example, in t h e theory of spiral springs (Article 271). I n such cases t h e
formulas for t h e components of curvature and twist may be calculated, as has
been explained, by treating the central-line as unextended. W e can give
a systematic account of such modes of deformation as involve small displace
ments only by introducing quantities to denote the components of the dis
placement of points on the central-line, and subjecting these quantities to
a condition which expresses t h a t t h e central-line is not extended*.
288. Specification of the displacement.

The small deformation of naturally straight rods has been sufficiently
investigated already, and we shall therefore suppose that, in the unstressed
state, the rod has curvature and twist. As in Article 259, we shall use
a system of axes of % , y z , the origin of which moves along t h e unstrained
0 0y Q
central-line with unit velocity, the axis of z being always directed along t h e
0
tangent to this line, and t h e axes of x and y being directed along the
0 0
principal axes of the cross-sections at their centroids. We have denoted by

•| 7r — f the angle which t h e axis of x at any point makes with t h e principal
0 0
normal of the unstrained central-line at the point, and by K , K \ T the comQ 0 0
ponents of initial curvature and the initial twist. W e have the formula
Ko//<:0 = - tan/ . 0
* The theory was partially worked out by Saint-Venant in a series of papers in Paris C. R.,
t. 17 (1843), and more fully by J. H. Michell, Messenger of Math., vol. 19 (1890). The latter has
also obtained some exact solutions of the equations of equilibrium of an elastic solid body bounded
by an incomplete tore, and these solutions are confirmatory of the theory when the tore is thin.
See London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 31 (1900), p. 130.
424 KINEMATICS OF SMALL DEFORMATION [CH. X X I
T h e curvature l/p 0 and t h e tortuosity l / 2 0 of t h e central-line are given by

t h e formulas
(I/p f 0 + l/2o = T -df /dS
0 0 }
in which s denotes the arc of the central-line measured from some chosen
point of it.
When t h e rod is slightly deformed, any particle of t h e central-line under
goes a small displacement, t h e components of which, referred to the axes of
#o> 1/Q J #o> with origin at t h e unstrained position P of t h e particle, will be
denoted by u, v, w. The rod will receive a new curvature and twist, denned,
as in Articles 252 and 259, by means of a moving system of "principal
torsion-flexure axes." We recall t h e conventions t h a t t h e axis of z in this
system is directed along the t a n g e n t of t h e strained central-line at t h e point
P to which P is displaced, and t h a t t h e plane of (x, z) is t h e tangent plane
1
at P of t h e surface made up of t h e aggregate of particles which, in t h e

x
unstressed state, lie in t h e plane of (x , z ) at P. W e have denoted t h e Q 0
components of curvature and t h e twist of the strained central-line at P by x
K
i > Ki > W h e n t h e displacement (u, v, w) of any point of the central-line is
known, t h e t a n g e n t of t h e strained central-line at any point is known, and it
is clear t h a t one additional q u a n t i t y will suffice to determine the orientation
of t h e axes of (x, y, z) at P relative to t h e axes of (x , y , z ) at P. W e shall
x 0 0 0
t a k e this quantity to be t h e small angle (B which t h e plane of (x, z) makes

with t h e plane of (x , z ). T h e relative orientation of t h e two sets of axes
0 0
may be determined by t h e orthogonal scheme of transformation
#0 20
X M x
(1)
y Li Mt
z ^ 3
in which, for example, L is t h e cosine of t h e angle between the axis of x at

x
P and t h e axis of x at P . W e shall express t h e cosines L ... , t h e com

2 0 l9
ponents of curvature ic tc-[ and the twist T in terms of u, v, w, 0.

ly x
289. Orientation of the principal torsion flexure axes.

T h e direction cosines L , M N~ are those of t h e t a n g e n t at P to t h e
3 s> 3 1
strained central-line referred to t h e axes of x , y , z at P . Now t h e co 0 0 0
ordinates of P referred to these axes are identical with t h e components of

1
displacement u, v, w. L e t P' be a point of t h e unstrained central-line near to

/
P , let & be the arc PP', and let S# > Sz be t h e coordinates of P referred
0 0
to t h e axes of x , y , z at P , also let £, TJ, % be the coordinates of P / , t h e

0 Q Q
displaced position of P', referred to t h e same axes. The limits such as

lim (£ — u)/8s are t h e direction cosines L , z L e t (u' v', w') be t h e dis-
}
8s=0
placement of P ' referred to t h e axes of x , y , z a t P', and (U, V, W) t h e 0 0 0
same displacement referred to t h e axes of x y , z a t P. T h e n 0i 0 0
(£ % 0 = (8x 0 + U', 8y Q + Y, 8z + W). 0
T h e limits of 8x /8s, 8y /8s, 8z /8s are 0, 0, 1. T h e limits of (u' — u)j8s, ...

0 0 0
are du/ds,... and we have t h e usual formulas connected with moving axes in
such forms as
V —— Uj
u u _du
UjLL F
=o 8s— = 3ds7 — VT + WfC .

lim 0 0
Hence we obtain t h e equations
T du , ux- dv , T dw , / o x
VT WK = WfC + T 3 =
ds ~~ ° °' ds~~ ° ^ °' + VKQ. ...(2)
2 2 2
T h e equation £ + lf 4- iV = 1 leads, when we neglect squares and products
3 3 3
of u, v, w, to t h e equation
^ — UK 0
;
+ VK 0 = 0, (3)
which expresses t h e condition t h a t t h e central-line is unextended. I n conse

r
quence of this equation we have A = 1. 3
The direction cosines of t h e axes of x, y a t P , referred to t h e axes of 3
a a r e
®o> Vo, #o ^ P, determined by t h e conditions t h a t t h e plane of (x,z) makes
a small angle /3 with t h e plane of (x , z ), a n d t h a t t h e scheme of transforma Q 0
tion (1) is orthogonal a n d its determinant is 1. These conditions give us

x 1 = i, jf 1 = y 8, JV^-Z,, i
L = -/3,
2 M =l, 2 N = -M . 1
2 3
These equations might be found otherwise from t h e formulas (7) of Article

253 by writing L , ... instead of l ... , t a k i n g 6 to be small, and p u t t i n g /3
Y 1}
for 0 + T|T. They are, of course, correct to t h e first order in t h e small

quantities u, v, w, ft.
290. Curvature a n d twist.

For t h e calculation of t h e components of curvature and t h e twist we have
t h e formulas (6) of Article 253, in which K , . . . are written for /e, . . . . I n X
those formulas l ... denoted direction cosines of t h e axes of x, y, z referred to

1}
fixed axes. H e r e we have taken L ... to denote t h e direction cosines of t h e ly
axes of x, y, z a t P referred to t h e axes of x , y , z a t P. If P' is a point

x 0 0 0
near to P , so t h a t t h e arc PP' = 8s, and P / is t h e displaced position of P', we

may denote by X / , . . . t h e direction cosines of t h e axes of x, y, z a t P / referred
to t h e axes of x , y , z a t P', a n d t h e n t h e limits such as lim ( i / — L^)\8s are
0 0 0
Ss=0
t h e differential coefficients such as dLJds. L e t t h e fixed axes of reference
for l . . . be t h e axes of x y , z a t P , and let ^ + 8^, ... denote t h e direction
ly 0} 0 0
cosines of t h e axes of x, y, z a t P / referred to these fixed axes. T h e n t h e

limits such as lim SljSs are t h e differential coefficients such as dljds. I t is
s
clear that, a t P , l = L . . . b u t t h a t dljds 4 dLJds, . . . . W e have in fact t h e
x l9
usual formulas connected with moving axes, viz. :—

7
dh/ds = dL^jds — M T X 0 + A ^',
dmjds = dMJds —NK X Q + ZIT , 0
dn^jds = dN"i/ds — + Mô,

with similar formulas for dl /ds, . . . a n d2 dl /ds,....
s
I n t h e formulas (6) of Article 253 we write K . . . for K, . . . , p u t w = J V g = l , 1} 3
replace l . . . by t h e values found for L . . . in (2) and (4), a n d substitute t h e

l} l9
values j u s t found for dl-i/ds, Rejecting terms of t h e second order in t h e

small quantities u, v, w, 0, we obtain t h e equations
7*1 = T + - T - + tf iy + K M ,
0 0 3 0 3
in which L and M are given by t h e first two of equations (2).

3 s
291. Simplified formulae.

The formulas are simplified in t h e case where fo = iir. I n this case t h e
axis of XQ, which is a principal axis of a cross-section a t a point of t h e
unstrained central-line, coincides with t h e principal normal of this curve a t
the point. W h e n this is t h e case we have
K =0,0 K '=l/p ,
0 0 T =l/2 ,
0 0
(6)
T h e condition t h a t t h e central-line is unextended is

The measures of curvature and tortuosity and the direction cosines of t h e
principal normal and binormal can be calculated from these formulae or from
t h e more general formulae of Article 290.
292. Problems of equilibrium.

The theory is applicable to such problems as t h e deformation of the links
of chains* by t h e pressure of adjacent links, and it may be used also to give
an account of t h e behaviour of arches f, t h e link or the arch being treated
as a thin curved rod. The equations of equilibrium have been given in
Article 259, and we have found in preceding Articles of this chapter expres
sions for all t h e quantities t h a t occur in terms of t h e displacement (u, v, w)
and the angular displacement /3, the quantities u, v, w being themselves con
nected by an equation (3) or (7). Naturally any special problem, such as
those mentioned, is of a very technical character, and we shall content our
selves here with a slight study of some cases of t h e bending of a rod in t h e
form of an incomplete circular ring.
(a) Incomplete circular ring bent in its plane.
Let the unstrained central-line be a circle of radius a, and let 9 be the
angle between the radius drawn from the centre of the circle to any point on
it and a chosen radius, then
p = dsjdO = a.
0
The displacement u is directed along the radius drawn inwards, and the
displacement w is directed along t h e tangent of t h e circle in the sense in
which 8 increases. W e shall suppose t h a t the plane of the circle is a
principal plane of the rod at any point, and t h a t the flexural rigidity for
bending in this plane is B. Then v, /3 and 1/S vanish, and t h e condition
0
t h a t t h e central-line is unextended is
dw
.(8)
d6
The flexural couple 0' in t h e plane of t h e circle is
(9)
t h e other flexural couple and the torsional couple vanish.
Let the rod be bent by forces having components X , Z per unit of length
* E . Winkler, Der Civilingenieur, Bd. 4 (1858). Winkler's memoir is described at length

and corrected in detail in Todhunter and Pearson's History, vol. 2, pp. 422 et seq.
t M. Bresse, Recherches analytiques sur la flexion et la resistance des pieces courbes, Paris 1854.
An account of this treatise also is given in Todhunter and Pearson's History, vol. 2, pp. 352
et seq. H. T. Eddy, Amer. J. of Math., vol. 1 (1878), has proposed a graphical method of treat
ment of the problem of arches.
directed along the radius and t a n g e n t a t any point. The equations of
equilibrium obtained from (26) and (27) of Article 259 are
dN rIT dG' +
•N+Za = 0, Na = 0. ..(10)
dO d6 dd
Hence we find t h a t t h e shearing force N and t h e tension T are expressed
in terms of w by the equations
AT - - — w B dw 5 s
d w\
~ ^) , T=-Xa + .(11)
and t h a t w satisfies t h e equation*

B fd^w <frw dw 2
(dX_
.(12)
3
a \aW +
W + a
- [do '
We note the following results :—
(i) When the rod is slightly bent by couples equal to K applied at its ends in its
plane, the central-line remains circular, but its radius is
reduced by the fraction KajB of itself.
(ii) When the ends of the rod are given by 6 = ± a, so
that the line joining them subtends an angle 2a at the
centre, and the rod is slightly bent by forces equal to R
acting as tension along this line as in Fig. 64, the displace
Fig. 64. ment is given by the equations
3
w=- (a E/B) 6 (cos a + i cos 6\ u=dw/d6.
(iii) When the rod is slightly bent by forces equal to applied as shown in Fig. 65
to rigid pieces attached to its ends and extending across
the chord of the incomplete ring, the displacement is
§ \ w=-$(a?S/B)6 sine, u=dw/d0.
(iv) When the rod forms a complete circular ring, and
S is slightly bent by normal pressures equal to X applied x
Pig. 65. at the opposite ends of a diameter, we measure 6 from

this diameter as shown in Fig. 66, and find for the dis
placement w at a point on that side of this diameter in which 7 r > # > 0
3
w=-X 1(a JB) [6fir - i (1 - cos 6 - % 6 sin <9)], u = dw/dS.
The displacements are clearly the same at any two
points symmetrically situated on opposite sides of this
diameter.
We may deduce the value of u at any point, and we
may prove that the diameter which coincides with the
line of thrust is shortened by {(TT — 8 ) / 4 7 r } (X^/B), 2
while the perpendicular diameter is lengthened by
(v) When the rod forms a complete circular ring of

Fig. 66.
weight TF, which is suspended from a point in its cir
cumference, we measure 6 from the highest point, and
* Cf. H. Lamb, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 19 (1888), p. 365. The results given in the
text under the numbers (i)—(v) are taken from this paper.
t These results are due to Saint-Venant, Paris C. R., t. 17 (1843).
292] CIRCULAR RING 429
find for t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t w at a p o i n t for w h i c h T T > 6 > 0 the value

3
w=~ W(a jB) (87T)" 1
{(<9 - TT) 2
sin 0- 4 (0 - TT)(1 - cos (9) - TT 2
sin 6} ;
t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t i s t h e s a m e a t t h e corresponding p o i n t i n t h e other half of t h e ring.
I n t h i s case w e m a y prove t h a t t h e a m o u n t s b y w h i c h t h e vertical d i a m e t e r i s

l e n g t h e n e d and t h e horizontal d i a m e t e r s h o r t e n e d are t h e h a l v e s of w h a t t h e y w o u l d b e i f
t h e w e i g h t W were c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e l o w e s t p o i n t .
(vi) W h e n t h e rod forms a c o m p l e t e circular ring w h i c h rotates w i t h angular v e l o c i t y

© about one d i a m e t e r * , t a k e n a s axis of y, i t s central-line describes a surface of revolution
of w h i c h t h e m e r i d i a n curve i s g i v e n b y t h e e q u a t i o n s
2 5
x — a sin 6 + ^ (^co a /B) 3
sin #,
2 b
y = a cos 0 4- T \ o a /B) (1 - cos 0),3
where m d e n o t e s t h e m a s s of t h e ring per u n i t of l e n g t h , and B i s m e a s u r e d from t h e

diameter about w h i c h t h e ring rotates. T h i s d i a m e t e r i s shortened a n d t h e perpendicular
2 5
d i a m e t e r l e n g t h e n e d b y t h e s a m e a m o u n t -J (moo a /B).
(b) Incomplete circular ring bent out of its plane.

As before we take a for the radius of t h e circle, and specify a point on i t
by an angle 0; and we t a k e t h e plane
of t h e circle to be t h a t principal plane
of the rod for which the flexural rigidity
is B. W e consider t h e case where t h e
rod is bent by a load W, applied a t t h e
end 0 — a in a direction a t right angles
to this planef, and is fixed a t t h e end
Q = 0, so t h a t t h e t a n g e n t a t this point
is fixed in direction, and t h e transverse
linear element which, in t h e unstressed
state, is directed towards t h e centre of
t h e circle is also fixed i n direction. Then u, v, w, /3, du/d9, dvjdO vanish
with 0.
The stress-resultants N, N\ T a t any section are statically equivalent t o
the force W, of which t h e direction is parallel to t h a t of t h e axis of y a t any 0
section, and we have, therefore,

f
N = /3W N =W, T = (Wla).(dv/d6).
9 ...(13)
The equations of moments are, therefore,
dG TT TTr dGr ^TTJ. dH ~ _ .„
+ H a W = a W G = O 1 4
d 6 = ' W -$ > d 0 - < >
From t h e first a n d third of these, combined with t h e conditions t h a t
G and H vanish when 0 = a, we find
0 = - aW sin (a - 6), H = aW {1 - cos ( a - 0)} (15)
* G. A. V. Peschka, Zeitschr. f. Math. u. Phys. (Schlomilch), Bd. 13 (1868).
f The problem has been discussed by Saint-Venant, Paris C. B., t. 17 (1843), and by
H . Resal, J. de Math. (Liouville), (Ser. 3), t. 3 (1877).
Now we have
2
dv
dfr
and from these equations and t h e terminal conditions at 0 — 0 we can obtain

the equations
Wa<
v + af3 = —Q- {0 — sin a + sin (a — 0)},
Wa ...(17)
v = —jj- {(0 — sin 6) — sin a (1 — cos 0)}
[0 cos (a — 0) — sin 0 cos a}.
2
W e may prove also t h a t u and w are small of t h e order v .
293. Vibrations of a circular ring.

W e shall illustrate the application of t h e theory to vibrations by con
sidering the free vibrations of a rod which, in t h e unstressed state, forms
a circular ring or a portion of such a ring, and we shall restrict our work to
the case where t h e cross-section of t h e ring also is circular. W e denote t h e
radius of the cross-section by c, and t h a t of t h e circle formed by t h e central-
line by a, and we take t h e displacement u to be directed along the radius
drawn towards t h e centre of t h e latter circle. T h e equations of motion,
formed as in Articles 278—280, are
2 2
dN m du dJST dv dT
• JV = ma .(18)
and
3
dO dv
c'm dFdd'
da
N a = m + W
.(19)
de + i * w \ m
dH
de ' dv
in which m is the mass of the ring per unit of length, and
2 4 2
d v\ „, , „ c ,d < & (dv 8/3
H- +a
g>j>
d * ~ a'Kdffi +
dej' de W,
(20)
E being t h e Young's modulus and fi t h e rigidity of t h e material of t h e ring.
T h e above equations with the condition
dw
=U .(8 Ms)
d~0 '
yield t h e equations of motion.
I t is clear t h a t t h e above system of equations falls into two sets. I n t h e
first set v and /3 vanish, and t h e motion is specified by t h e displacement u or
w, these variables being connected by equation ( 8 ) ; in this case we have
flexural vibrations of t h e ring in its plane. I n t h e second set u and w vanish,
and t h e motion is specified by v or /3, so t h a t we have flexural vibrations
involving both displacement at right angles to t h e plane of t h e ring and twist.
I t may be shown in t h e same way t h a t t h e vibrations of a curved rod fall
into two such classes whenever t h e central-line of t h e unstressed rod is a
plane curve, and its plane is a principal plane of t h e rod a t each point. I n
case t h e central-line is a curve of double curvature there is no such separa
tion of t h e modes of vibration into two classes, and t h e problem becomes
extremely complicated*.
(a) Flexural vibrations in the plane of the ring.

W e shall simplify t h e question by neglecting t h e "rotatory inertia."
This amounts to omitting t h e right-hand member of t h e second of equations
(19). W e have then
4 4 2 3
, T Eire (d w d w\ m dw dN
3 4 2
4a V8# 90V' dt d6 d6 '
6 4 2 2 2
•j Eire 4
fd w a dw d w\ d ( dw
and +2 + ma w
^\w w wr w\ ^d»
The normal functions for free vibration are determined by taking w to be
of t h e form W cos (pt + e), where W is a function of 0. W e then have the
equation
6 4 4 2 4 2
dW 9 dW (PW / _ 4<ma p \ 4<ma p w _ n
2 4 4
d0* d6 V Eire J ^ Eire
T h e complete primitive is of t h e form
W = 2 (A cos n 6 + B sin n 6), K K K K
where n , 7i are t h e roots of t h e equation

2 s
2 2 2 2 4 2 4
n (n - l ) = (n + 1) (4<ma p /Eire ).
If t h e ring is complete n must be an integer, and there are vibrations

with n wave-lengths to t h e circumference, n being any integer greater than
unity. T h e frequency is then given by t h e equation \
2 2 2
2 _ Eire 4
n (n -l)
P 4 2 2 1
~ 4ma ™ +l ~ ^ ^
* The vibrations of a rod of which the natural form is helical have been investigated by
J. H. Michell, loc. cit. p. 423, and also by the present writer, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Trans.,
vol. 18 (1899).
t The result is due to R. Hoppe, J. f. Math. (Grelle), Bd. 73 (1871).
W h e n t h e ring is incomplete t h e frequency equation is to be obtained by
forming t h e conditions t h a t N, T, Gr vanish at the ends. The result is diffi
cult to interpret except in the case where t h e initial curvature is very slight,
or t h e radius of t h e central-line is large compared with its length. The pitch
is t h e n slightly lower t h a n for a straight bar of t h e same length, material
and cross-section*.
(b) Flexural vibrations at right angles to the plane of the ring.
W e shall simplify t h e problem by neglecting t h e " rotatory inertia/' t h a t
is to say we shall omit t h e right-hand members of t h e first and third of
equations ( 1 9 ) ; we shall also suppose t h a t the ring is complete. W e may
t h e n write
i) = V cos (nd + a) cos (pt -He), ft = F cos (nd + a) cos (pt + e),
where V, B\ a, e are constants, and n is an integer. From t h e first and third
of equations ( 1 9 ) and t h e second of equations ( 1 8 ) we find t h e equations
2 f 2 2 f
n (aB + n V)+^n (aB + 7 ) = 7,
2 2
^ n (aF + 7 ) + (aF + n V) = 0,
from which we obtain t h e frequency equation f
F 4 2 9 v J
4<ma n + 1 + a
where cr is Poisson's ratio for t h e material, and we have used t h e relation
E = 2fi ( 1 + cr). I t is noteworthy that, even in t h e gravest mode (n = 2 ) , t h e
frequency differs extremely little from t h a t given by equation ( 2 1 ) for t h e
corresponding mode involving flexure in t h e plane of the ring.
(c) Torsional and extensional vibrations.
A curved rod p o s s e s s e s also m o d e s of free vibration analogous t o t h e torsional and
e x t e n s i o n a l vibrations of a straight rod. F o r t h e torsional vibrations of a circular ring w e
t a k e u a n d w t o v a n i s h , and s u p p o s e t h a t v is s m a l l in comparison w i t h a(3, t h e n t h e
second of e q u a t i o n s (18) and t h e first of e q u a t i o n s (19) are satisfied approximately, and t h e
third of e q u a t i o n s (19) b e c o m e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
2
/J^ffl(«/3)
2
Frrc* 2
d (a$)
2a dB 2
4a P~ a
2 m c
p •d
F o r a c o m p l e t e circular ring t h e r e are v i b r a t i o n s of t h i s t y p e w i t h n w a v e - l e n g t h s t o t h e

circumference, a n d t h e frequency p\2ir is g i v e n by t h e equation
p 2 = / ^ ( 1 + 0 . + w 2 ) (23)
L m a 2 \ I \ I
W h e n n = 0, t h e e q u a t i o n s of m o t i o n c a n b e satisfied e x a c t l y b y p u t t i n g v=0 and t a k i n g

(3 to be i n d e p e n d e n t of 6. T h e characteristic feature of t h i s m o d e of vibration is t h a t each
* The question has been discussed very fully by H. Lamb, loc. cit. p. 428.
t The result is due to J. H. Michell, loc. cit. p. 423.
circular cross-section of the circular ring is turned in its own plane through the same
small angle ft about the central-line, while this line is not displaced*.
For the extensional modes of vibration of a circular ring we take v and ft to vanish,
and suppose that equation (8) does not hold. Then the extension of the central-line is
- 1 2 1
c t (dw/dd-u), and the tension T is Eire or (dw/dd -u). The couples G, If and the
shearing force N' vanish. The expressions for the couple G' and the shearing force N
4 2
contain c as a factor, while the expression for T contains c as a factor. We may, there
fore, for an approximation, omit G' and iV, and neglect the rotatory inertia which gives
rise to the right-hand member of the second of equations (19). The equations to be
satisfied by u and w are then the first and third of equations (18), viz. :
2 2 2 2 2
du Eire {dw \ dw Errc fd w du\
ma 2 u ma 2
W ~-oT\Te- )> W =^KW-de)'
The displacement in free vibrations of frequency p/Zrr is given by equations of the form
u = (A sin nd + B cos nd) cos (pt + e),
w=n (A cos nB — B sin nd) cos (pt+e),
2 2
where p = (1 + n ) (24)
r 2
ma '
When n — 0, %o vanishes and u is independent of 0, and the equations of motion are
satisfied exactly. The ring vibrates radially, so that the central-line forms a circle of
periodically variable radius, and the cross-sections move without rotation.
The modes of vibration considered in (c) of this Article are of much higher pitch than
those considered in (a) and (b), and they would probably be difficult to excite.
* The result that the modes of vibration involving displacements v and ft are of two types
was recognized by A. B. Basset, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 23 (1892), and the frequency of the
torsional vibrations was found by him.
CHAPTER XXII.
THE STRETCHING AND BENDING OF PLATES.
294. Specification of stress i n a plate.

The internal actions between the parts of a thin plate are most appro
priately expressed in terms of stress-resultants and stress-couples reckoned
across t h e whole thickness. W e take t h e plate to be of thickness 2h, and on
t h e plane midway between t h e faces, called t h e " middle plane," we choose an
origin and rectangular axes of x and y, and we draw t h e axis of z a t right
angles to this plane so t h a t t h e axes of x, y, z are a right-handed system.
W e draw any cylindrical surface G to cut t h e middle plane in a curve s.
The edge of t h e plate is such a surface as G, and t h e corresponding curve is
t h e " edge-line." W e draw t h e normal v to s in a chosen sense, and choose
the sense of s so t h a t v, s, z are parallel to t h e directions of a right-handed
system of axes. W e consider the action exerted by t h e part of t h e plate lying
on t h a t side of G towards which v is drawn upon t h e part lying on t h e other
side. L e t 8s be a short length of t h e curve s, and let two generating lines of
G be drawn through t h e extremities of 8s to mark out on G an area A. T h e
tractions on t h e area A are statically equivalent to a force a t t h e centroid of A
and a couple. W e resolve this force and couple into components directed along
v s, z. L e t \T\ [$], [N] denote t h e components of t h e force, [H], [(?], [K]
}
those of t h e couple. W h e n 8s is diminished indefinitely these quantities

have zero limits, and t h e limit of [K]/8s also is zero, b u t [T]/8s, ... [6r]/&,
may be finite. W e denote t h e limits of [T]/8s, ... by T, .... Then T, S, N
are the components of t h e stress-resultant belonging to t h e line s, and H, G
are t h e components of t h e stress-couple belonging to t h e same line. T is a
tension, S and N are shearing forces tangential and normal to t h e middle
plane, G is a flexural couple, and H a torsional couple. W h e n t h e normal v
to s is parallel to t h e axis of x, s is parallel to the axis of y. I n this case we
give a suffix 1 to T, .... W h e n t h e normal v is parallel to t h e axis of y, s is
parallel to t h e negative direction of t h e axis of x. I n this case we give a
suffix 2 to T, The conventions in regard to t h e senses of these forces
and couples are illustrated in Fig. 68.
For the expression of T, ... we take temporary axes of x', y', z which are
parallel to the directions of v, s, z, and denote by X'^, ... the stress-com
ponents referred to these axes. Then we have the formulas*
Fig. 68.
h h h
T=f X' >dz,
x S=f X' dz yf } N=[ X' >dz,
z
J -h J -h J -h
k k
H=f -zX'ydz, G=f zX'^dz;
J-h , J-h
and, in the two particular cases in which v is parallel respectively to the axes
of x and y, these formulas become
rh rh rh \
T,= X dz, S,= X dz,
x N ^ l X dz, y z
J -h J -h J -h
rh rh •a)
H = I — zX dz, Gi =
l zX dz, y x
J -h J-h '
rh rh rh \
and S =\
2 -Xydz, T =\ Y dz, N =\ Y dz,
2 y 2 z
J -h J -h J -h •(2)
G =j 2 zYydz, zXydz.
We observe that in accordance with these formulas

S = — Si,
2 H =—H 2 1
.(3)
295. Transformation of stress-resultants a n d stress-couples.

When the normal v to the curve s makes angles 6 and with the
axes of x and y, T, S, ... are to be calculated from such formulas as
rh
T
J -h
in which the stress-components X' >, ... are to be found from the formulas (9)
x
of Article 49 by putting
^ == cos 6, m — sin1 0, l = — sin
2 0, ra = cos 6, n — n = l = m = 0, n = l.
2 1 2 i z &
* It is assumed that the plate is but slightly bent. Cf. Article 328 in Chapter xxiv.
28—2
2 2
W e find T=T 1 cos 0 + T sin 0 + 8 sin 2(9, \
2 1
S = i(T ~ 2 TO sin 2(9 + S,cos 2(9,

J V ^ ^ c o s f l + JVasinfl, I (4)
2 2
G = G cos 5 + G sin 0 - H, sin 2(9,
1 2
H = ±(G -G )sm20 + H cos20.

1 2 , 1
Instead of resolving the stress-resultants and stress-couples belonging to

the line s in t h e directions v, s, z we m i g h t resolve t h e m in t h e directions
x, y, z. T h e components of t h e stress-resultant would b e :
parallel to x, T cos 6 — 8 sin 8, or T cos # 4- ^ sin 0? x
parallel to y, T sin 0 + $ cos 0, or T sin 0 + $ cos 0,1 2 2 (5)

parallel to z, cos 0 4- N sin 0 ; 2
and those of t h e couple would be :

about an axis parallel to x H cos 0 — G sin 0, or H cos 0 — G sin 0, j
y 1 2 ^
about an axis parallel to y, H sin 0 + 6? cos 0, or cos 0 — H sin 0.j 1
Let G denote, as before, a cylindrical surface c u t t i n g the middle plane a t
right angles in a curve s, which we take to be a simple closed contour. T h e
external forces applied to t h e portion of t h e plate within G may consist of
body forces and of surface tractions on t h e faces (z = h and z = — h) of t h e
plate. These external forces are statically equivalent to a single force, acting
at t h e centroid P of t h e volume within G, and a couple. L e t [X'\ [ F ' ] , [Z'~\
denote t h e components of t h e force parallel to t h e axes of x, y, z, and
[27], \_M'\ [N'] t h e components of t h e couple about t h e same axes. W h e n
t h e area oo within the curve s is diminished indefinitely by contracting s
towards P, the limits of [X'] ... [ 2 / ] , ... are zero and t h e limit of \_JSf\jco also
t
is zero, b u t t h e limits of [X']/a>, ... may be finite. W e denote t h e limits of

[X']/oo, ... by X', .... Then X', YZ' are t h e components of t h e force-
resultant of t h e external forces estimated per unit of area of t h e middle
plane, and L', M are t h e components of t h e couple-resultant of t h e same
forces estimated in the same way.
The body force per unit of mass is denoted, as usual, by (X, Y, Z), and t h e
density of the material by p. The definitions of X, Y', Z', 11, M' are expressed
analytically by the formulae
rh
X' = pXdz + (X ) z z==h — (X )^_ ,
z h
J -h
J -h
h
Z' = f pZdz + (Z,\_ h - (Z \ _ , 2 = h
J -h J
295-297] OF A PLATE 437
and 1J = f - z p Y d z - h {(Y )^ z h + {Y \,_ },

2 h
J -h
W = f zpXdz + h {(X )^ z h + (X %^ \.
z h
J -h '
W e equate to zero t h e force- and couple-resultants of all t h e forces acting
on t h e portion of t h e plate within t h e cylindrical surface G. From t h e
formulas (5) we have t h e equations
j(T cos 0 + 8 sin 0) ds + jjX'dxdy

x X = 0,
j(T sin 0 + 8 cos 0) ds + jjTdxdy

2 X = 0, .(9)
j(N cos 0 + N sin 0)ds+jjz'dxdy

± 2 = 0,
where t h e surface-integrals are taken over t h e area within s, and t h e line-

integrals are t a k e n round this curve. From t h e formulas (5) and (6) we have
t h e equations
j{(Hj cos 0-G 2 sin 0) + y (N cos 0+N x 2 sin 0)) ds +jj (If + yZ') dxdy = 0,'
r
j{(G cos 0-Hi
Y sin 0 ) - x (N, cos (9 + A sin (9)} efo + jj 2 (M' - xZ') dxdy = 0,
j{x (T sin 2 0 + S cos 0) — y(T cos0

1 1 + S sin 0)} ds+jj(xY'~
1 yX') dxdy = 0.
.........(10)
Since cos 8 and sin 0 are t h e direction-cosines of t h e normal to s referred

to t h e axes of x and y, we m a y transform t h e line-integrals into surface-
integrals. W e t h u s find from (9) three equations which hold a t every point
of t h e middle plane, viz.
2
' ^ + ?$L + X' = 0 ^ | - + f = 0 Mi + ^ + ^ = o. ...(11)
dx dy ' dx dy ' dx dy
W e transform t h e equations ( 1 0 ) in t h e same way and simplify t h e results
by using equations ( 1 1 ) . T h e third equation is identically satisfied. We
t h u s find two equations which hold a t every point of t h e middle plane, viz.
...(12)
ox oy ox oy
Equations ( 1 1 ) and ( 1 2 ) are t h e equations of equilibrium of t h e plate.
/
2 9 7 . B o u n d a r y conditions.
I n a thick plate subjected to given forces t h e tractions specified b y
X , Y Z , where v denotes t h e normal to t h e edge, have prescribed values a t
v vy v
every point of the edge. W h e n t h e plate is thin, t h e actual distribution of

t h e tractions applied to t h e edge, regarded as a cylindrical surface, is of no
practical importance. W e represent therefore t h e tractions applied to t h e
edge by their force- and couple-resultants, estimated per unit of length of t h e
edge-line, i.e. the curve in which t h e edge cuts the middle surface. I t follows
from Saint-Venant's principle (Article 89) t h a t the effects produced at a
distance from t h e edge by two systems of tractions which give rise to t h e
same force- and couple-resultants, estimated as above, are practically t h e
same. Let these resultants be specified by components T, S, N and H , G in
t h e senses previously assigned for T, S, N and H, G, t h e normal to the edge-
line being drawn outwards. L e t t h e stress-resultants and stress-couples
belonging to a curve parallel to t h e edge-line, and not very near to it, be
calculated in accordance with the previously stated conventions, t h e normal
to this curve being drawn towards t h e edge-line; and let limiting values of
these quantities be found by bringing t h e parallel curve to coincidence with
the edge-line. L e t these limiting values be denoted by T, 8, A^ and H, G. I t
is most necessary to observe t h a t t h e statical equivalence of t h e applied
tractions and the stress-resultants and stress-couples at t h e edge does not
require t h e satisfaction of all t h e equations
T=T, S = S, . F = N , ff = H , G = G.
These five equations are equivalent to t h e boundary conditions adopted by

Poisson*. A system of four boundary conditions was afterwards obtained
by Kirchhoff f, who set out from a special assumption as to t h e n a t u r e of t h e
strain within t h e plate, and proceeded by t h e method of variation of t h e
energy-function. T h e meaning of t h e reduction of t h e n u m b e r of conditions
from five to four was first pointed out by Kelvin and T a i t J . I t lies in t h e
circumstance t h a t t h e actual distribution of tractions on t h e edge which give
rise to t h e torsional couple is immaterial. The couple on any finite length
m i g h t be applied by means of tractions directed at right angles to t h e middle
plane, and these, when reduced to force- and couple-resultants, estimated per
unit of length of t h e edge-line, would be equivalent to a distribution of
shearing force of t h e type N instead of torsional couple of the type H . The
required shearing force is easily found to be — dH/ds. This result is obtained
by means of t h e following theorem of S t a t i c s : A line-distribution of couple of
amount H per unit of length of a plane closed curve s, t h e axis of t h e couple
at any point being normal to t h e curve, is statically equivalent to a line-
distribution of force of amount — dH/ds, t h e direction of t h e force at any point
being at right angles to t h e plane of t h e curve.
* See Introduction, footnote 36. Poisson's solutions of special problems are not invalidated,
because in all of them H vanishes,
t See Introduction, footnote 125.
X Nat. Phil, first edition, 1867. The same explanation was given by J. Boussinesq in 1871.
See Introduction, footnote 128.
The theorem is proved at once by forming the force- and couple-resultants of the line-
distribution of force -dH/ds. The axis of z being at right angles to the plane of the
curve, the force at any point is directed parallel to the axis of z, and the force-resultant is
dH
--^-ds taken round the closed curve. This integral vanishes.
/
The components of the couple-resultant about the axes of x and y are expressed by the
dH c dH
-y -^ds and \x~^ds taken round the curve. If v denotes the direction of
/
the normal to the curve, we have
j—y*^ds=Jff^ds = JH cos(x, v) ds,
and jx^ds=j~H^ ds = JHcos (y, v)ds,

the integrations being taken round the curve. The expressions jH cos (x, v) ds and
j IT cos (y, v)ds are the values of the components of the couple-resultant of the line-
distribution of couple H.
The theorem may be illustrated by a figure. We may think of the curve s as a polygon
of a large number of sides. The couple lids, H-5H H H+5H
belonging to any side of length ds, is statically A A ^
equivalent to two forces each of magnitude H,
directed at right angles to the plane of the curve
in opposite senses, and acting at the ends of the
side. The couples belonging to the adjacent sides
may similarly be replaced by pairs of forces of
magnitude H+ dH or H- dH as shown in Fig. 69, V
H
where dH means (dH/ds) ds. In the end we are ~ 5 H H H
+ ^H
left with a force - dH at one end of any side of Fig. 69.
length ds, or, in the limit, with a line-distribution of force -dH/ds.
F r o m this theorem it follows t h a t , for t h e purpose of forming t h e equations
of equilibrium of any portion of the p l a t e contained within a cylindrical
surface G, which cuts t h e middle surface at right angles in a curve s, t h e
torsional couple H may be omitted, provided t h a t t h e shearing stress-resultant
N is replaced by N-dH/ds*. Now the boundary conditions are limiting
forms of the equations of equilibrium for certain short narrow strips of t h e
p l a t e ; the contour in which the boundary of any one of these strips cuts t h e
middle plane consists of a short arc of t h e edge-line, the two normals to this
curve at the ends of t h e arc, and t h e arc of a curve parallel to t h e edge-line
intercepted between these normals. The limit is taken by first bringing t h e
parallel curve to coincidence with t h e edge-line, and then diminishing t h e
length of the arc of the edge-line indefinitely. I n accordance with t h e above
* This result might be used in forming the equations of equilibrium (11) and (12). The line-
integrals in the third of equations (9) and thefirsttwo of equations (10) would be written
and these can be transformed easily into the forms given in (9) and (10).
theorem we are to form these equations by omitting H and H , and replacing
N and N by W-dHjds and N - 3 H / 3 s . T h e boundary conditions are t h u s
found to be
T=T, S = S, F-dE/d8 = N-dH/ds, G = G.
These four equations are equivalent to t h e boundary conditions adopted
by Kirchhoff.
In investigating the boundary conditions by the process just sketched we observe that
the terms contributed to the equations of equilibrium by the body forces and the tractions
on the faces of the plate do not merely vanish in the limit, but the quotients of them by
the length of the short arc of the edge-line which is part of the contour of the strip also
vanish in the limit when this length is diminished indefinitely. If this arc is denoted by
ds we have such equations as
Hm^_ (8»)-i o jJx'dxdyÔ, lim^^S*)- 1

j j(L'+yZ )dxdy
f
= 0,
the integration being taken over the area within the contour of the strip. The equations
of equilibrium of the strip lead therefore to the equations
1 1
lim (ds)- [(Tcosd-Smn6)ds = 0, lim (ds)- [(Tain 0 + 6)ds = 0,\
Ss=0 J 8s=0 J
Um , 1 GlBintf (13)
s =o * ~V(' ~^)* ' . 4i=0(*)" /{- +y (^-^)}*-°» [
lim
s
(s ) y =0
^. W^/{ffO0Btf-,(^-^)}&-0,
o
in which the integrations are taken all round the contour of the strip, and T, ... denote
the force- and couple-resultants of the tractions on the edges of the strip, estimated in
accordance with the conventions laid down in Article 294. We evaluate the contributions
made to the various line-integrals by the-four lines in which the edges of the strip cut
the middle plane. Since the parallel curve is brought to coincidence with the edge-line,
the contributions of the short lengths of the two normals to this curve have zero limits ;
and we have to evaluate the contributions of the arcs of the edge-line and of the parallel
curve. Let v denote the direction of the normal to the edge-line drawn outwards. The
0
contributions of this arc may be estimated as

{T cos (x, v) 0 - S cos (y, v )}
0 ds, {T cos (y, v) +
0 S cos (x, v )}
0 ds, |N - ~ | ds,
v 8M
and j —Gcos(y, o) + # ^ ~ ^ ~ ^ | JGcos(#, V ) - X 0 ~ ^
In evaluating the contributions of the arc of the parallel curve, we observe that the con
ventions, in accordance with which the T, ... belonging to this curve are estimated,
require the normal to the curve to be drawn in the opposite sense to v , and the curve to 0
be described in the opposite sense to the edge-line, but the arc of the curve over which
we integrate has the same length ds as the arc of the edge-line. In the limit when the
parallel curve is brought to coincidence with the edge-line we have, in accordance with
these conventions,
T=T, S=S, JV=-F, G=G, 1 1 = 3 , dR/ds= -dH/ds,'
and cos 6— - cos (x, v ),
0 sin 6 — — cos (y, v ).0
Hence the contributions of the arc of the parallel curve may be estimated as
{- Tcos(x, v ) + Scos(y, v )} ds, {-Tcos(y,

0 0 v )-#cos
0 (x, i> )}55, | - i V - f ^ j fo,
0
v - c o s - +
and j#cos(#, o) + .y j ^ (#» ^ o ) ^ ( ~ ^ ^ ) } ^*
On adding the contributions of the two arcs, dividing by ds, and equating the resulting
expressions to zero, we have the boundary conditions in the forms previously stated.
7
I n general we shall omit t h e bars over t h e letters I , . . . , and write t h e
boundary conditions at an edge to which given forces are applied in t h e form
T = T, S = S,
i ^ - ^ ^ N - ^ , G= Q (14)
qs ds
A t a free edge T, S, N — dH/ds, G vanish. A t a " s u p p o r t e d " edge t h e
displacement w of a point on t h e middle plane at r i g h t angles to this plane
vanishes, and T, S, G also vanish. A t a clamped edge, where t h e inclination
of t h e middle plane is not permitted to vary, t h e displacement (u, v, w) of a
point on the middle plane vanishes, and dw/dv also vanishes, v denoting t h e
direction of t h e normal to t h e edge-line.
The effect of the mode of application of the torsional couple may be illustrated
further by an exact solution of the equations of equilibrium of isotropic solids*. Let
the edge-line be the rectangle given by x=±a, y=±b. The plate is then an extreme
example of a flat rectangular bar. When such a bar is twisted by opposing couples about
the axis of x, so that the twist produced is r, we know from Article 221 (c) that the dis
placement is given by
2 n + 1 2 n + 1
sinh ( ^^ ( )™ s i n
u^-ryz + r 2 ' rr———7 , v^-rxz, w=rxy, 2 ? + 1 7 r &

TT 3
( 2 ^ + L )
n==0 coah ( ^ )
3
2A
provided that the tractions by which the torsional couple is produced are expressed by
the formulae
2* A „ (_)» cosh 2 A an ^
2A
a 1
o 4 A s i n h [)»y c o s ( »+ >»«
2A 4
oo (_)n 2A 2h
2
^ ^ n l o ( 2 ^ + L ) , (2n + L M
c o s n
There are no tractions on the faces z — ±h or on the edges y — ±b. The total torsional
couple on the edge x=a is
4 5 1
re uf \ S I, < > + !)*-&
V ^ - ^ A 4
(-) ^ — — T+ A N L I I - ^ — 5
and of this one-half is contributed by the tractions X directed parallel to the middle y
plane, and the other half by the tractions X directed at right angles to the middle z
plane.
* Kelvin and Tait, Nat. Phil., Part 2, pp. 267 et seq.
When the plate is very thin the total torsional couple is approximately equal to
^pr/fib, so that the average torsional couple per unit of length of the edge-lines x= ±a
is approximately equal to § /xrA . At any point which is not near an edge y = ± b, the state
3
of the plate is expressed approximately by the equations

u— — ryz, v= — rzx, w — rxy.
The traction X is nearly equal to - 2FIRZ at all points which are not very near to the
y
edges y=±b, and the traction X is very small at all such points. The distribution of
z
traction on the edge x — a is very nearly equivalent to a constant torsional couple such as
3
would be denoted by H , of amount j^rk , combined with shearing stress-resultants such
x
as would be denoted by N having values which differ appreciably from zero only near
u
3
the corners (x=a, y= ±b), and equivalent to forces at the corners of amount f jirh . At
a distance from the free edges y—±b which exceeds three or four times the thickness,
the stress is practically expressed by giving the value - 2FXRZ to the stress-component X y
and zero values to the remaining stress-components. The greater part of the plate is in
practically the same state as it would be if there were torsional couples, specified by
3
ir^îirh at all points of the edges x= ±a, and H = - | / x r A at all points of the edges
2
3
y=±b. Thus the forces at the corners may be replaced by a statically equivalent distri
bution of torsional couple on the free edges, without sensibly altering the state of the plate,
except in a narrow region near these edges.
Within this region the value of the torsional couple H , belonging to any line y = const.,
2
3
which would be calculated from the exact solution, diminishes rapidly, from -|/xrA to
zero, as the edge is approached. The rapid diminution of H is accompanied, as we should
2
expect from the second of equations (12), by large values of N . If we integrate N\

x
across the region, that is to say, if we form the integral jN-^dy, taken over a length, equal
to three or four times the thickness, along any line drawn at right angles to an edge
y = b or y—-b and terminated at that edge, we find the value of the integral to be very
nearly equal to ±|-/xrA .3
This remark enables us to understand why, in the investigation of equations (14),

1
the third of equations (13), viz. lim^ ^(ds)~ j(^X— ds=0, where the integration is
taken round the contour of a "strip," as was explained, should not be replaced by the
1
equation lim^ ^ (ds) ~ j]Vds = 0, and also why the latter equation does not lead to the
result iV=N. When N, H are calculated from the state of strain which holds at a distance
from the edge, and equations (14) are established by the method employed above, it is
implied that no substantial difference will be made in the results if the linear dimensions
of the strip, instead of being diminished indefinitely, are not reduced below lengths equal
to three or four times the thickness. When the dimensions of the strip are of this order,
the contributions made to the integral jXds by those parts of the contour which are
normal to the edge-line may not always be negligible; but, if not, they will be practically
balanced by the contributions made to j — (dff/ds) ds by the same parts of the contour*.
298. Relation b e t w e e n t h e flexural couples a n d t h e curvature.

I n Article 9 0 we found a particular solution of t h e equations of equili
b r i u m of an isotropic elastic solid body, which represents t h e deformation of
* Cf. H . Lamb, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 21 (1891), p. 70.

a plate slightly bent by couples applied at its edges. To express t h e result
which we then found in t h e notation of Article 294 we proceed as follows :—
On t h e surface into which t h e middle plane is bent we draw t h e principal
t a n g e n t s at any point. W e denote by s s t h e directions of these lines on t i 2
t h e unstrained middle plane, by R R t h e radii of curvature of the normal l y 2
sections of the surface drawn through t h e m respectively, by (?/, G t h e 2
flexural couples belonging to plane sections of t h e plate which are normal to

t h e middle surface and to t h e lines s s respectively. W e determine t h e l f 2
senses of these couples by the conventions stated in Article 294 in t h e same

way as if s s z were parallel to t h e axes of a right-handed system. Then,
lt 2i
according to Article 90, when t h e plate is bent so t h a t R R are constants, 1 } 2
and the directions s are fixed, t h e stress-resultants and t h e torsional

2
couples belonging to t h e principal planes of section vanish, and t h e flexural

couples G i , G belonging to these planes are given by t h e equations
2
,
G = -D(l/R
1 1 + <r/B ) 2 9 G^-Dil/R. + a/R.l (15)
where, with t h e usual notation for elastic constants,
D = J M / ( 1 - <x ) = f ph* ( X + fi)/(\ + 2fi)
8 2
(16)
The constant D will be called t h e " flexural rigidity " of t h e plate.
Now let the direction s make angles <j) and \ i r — cf> with the axes of x 1
and y. Then, according to (4), G l t G 2 i H are given by the equations

1
2 2
G, cos 0 + G 2 sin <f> - H sin 1 2cj> = - D (l/R 1 + er/iy,
2 2
Gx sin c/> + G 2 cos <f> + H ± sin 2cf> = - D (1/R 2 + a/R^
£ (Oi ~ ft) sin 2(f) + H, cos 2 0 = 0,
from which we find
"cos ^ 2 2
/sin cf> 2
cos <f>\ 2
G 1 = - D
R ± R 2 \ Ri R 2
2 2 2 2
sin </> c o s 0 ^ ('/cos <£ ^ sin <&
-I T\
|
1- cr I — . 1 a
7
Ri R 2 \ R l R,
Again, let w be the displacement of a point on t h e middle plane in t h e

direction of t h e normal to this plane, and write
2 2
_d w _a w _ 3w _ 2
Kl K T { U )
~dx*> *~dtf> ~ ^ b y
T h e n t h e indicatrix of t h e surface into which t h e middle plane is b e n t is
given, with sufficient approximation, by t h e equation
2 2
K\X + K y + 2rxy = const.; 2
and, when the form on the left is transformed to coordinates i), of which
t h e axes coincide in direction with t h e lines s s it becomes l t 2i
H e n c e we have t h e equations
2 2 2 2
cos 6 sin 6 sin <b cos 6 a . ^, / 1 1
iX x Xl 2 ^ 1 XL 2 xt 2
and t h e formulas for Cr , 2 become

G ^ - D ^ + cr*,), = + (7*0, jffi-Da-^r. ...(18)
W e shall show t h a t t h e formulas (18), in which K K , T are given by (17), and 1} 2
D by (16), are either correct or approximately correct values of t h e stress-

couples in a very wide class of problems. We observe here t h a t they are
equivalent to t h e statements t h a t t h e flexural couples belonging to the two
principal planes of section at any point are given, in terms of t h e principal
radii of curvature at t h e point, by the formulas (15), and t h a t t h e torsional
couples belonging to these two principal planes vanish.
If s d e n o t e s t h e direction of t h e t a n g e n t to a n y curve d r a w n on the middle plane, a n d
v t h e direction of t h e n o r m a l t o t h i s curve, and if 6 d e n o t e s t h e angle b e t w e e n t h e directions
vy w e find, b y s u b s t i t u t i n g from (17) and (18) in (4), t h e e q u a t i o n s
W e m a y transform t h e s e e q u a t i o n s , so as t o avoid t h e reference t o fixed a x e s of x and y*,

b y m e a n s of t h e formulae
as dy ox dv ox oy dv os p
where p' i s t h e radius of curvature of t h e curve in question. W e find
« ~ » { ^ ° ^ m - '-»<>-"£© <»)
T h e s e e q u a t i o n s h o l d w h e n e v e r t h e stress-couples are expressed b y t h e formulae (18).
I n the problem of Article 90 we found for t h e potential energy of the

plate, estimated per unit of area of the middle plane, t h e formula
or, in our present notation,

2
\D l( Kl + * ) - 2 (1 - cr)
2 - T )]2
(21)
W e shall find t h a t this formula also is correct, or approximately correct, in a
wide class of problems.
299. M e t h o d of determining t h e stress i n a p l a t e f .

W e proceed to consider some particular solutions of t h e equations of
equilibrium of an isotropic elastic solid body, subjected to surface tractions
only, which are applicable to t h e problem of a plate deformed by given forces.
* Cf. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, vol. 1, § 216.
t The method was worked out briefly, and in a much more general fashion, by J. H. Michell,
London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 31 (1900), p. 100.
These solutions will be obtained by means of t h e system of equations for t h e
determination of t h e stress-components which were given in (iv) of Article 9 2 .
I t was there shown t h a t , besides the equations
? ^ + < ^ + ^ z = 0 3
< ^ + ^S + ^ = o ^ + ^ * + —*==0 (22)
dx dy dz dx dy dz 'doc dy dz '
we have t h e two sets of equations
2 2 2
1 d® 1 d® 1 B(B)
and
2 2 2
3@ 1 1 d© 1 8(B)
y
1 + a dydz 1 + a dzdx 1 + a dxdy
where Q = X a + Yy + Z z (25)
2
I t was shown also t h a t t h e function © is harmonic, so t h a t V 0 = 0 , and t h a t
4
each of t h e stress-components satisfies the equation V / = 0 .
We shall suppose in t h e first place t h a t t h e plate is held by forces applied
a t its edge. only. Then t h e faces z = ± h are free from traction, or we have
X = Y = Z — 0 when z— ± h. I t follows from t h e third of equations ( 2 2 )
z z Z
t h a t dZ /dz vanishes at z = h and at z = — h. Hence Z satisfies the equation

z z
4
V i ^ = 0 and t h e conditions Z — 0 , dZ jdz = 0 at z — ± h. If t h e plate had z z
no boundaries besides t h e planes z = + h, t h e only possible value for Z would z
be zero. We shall t a k e Z to vanish*. I t t h e n follows from t h e equations

z
2 2 1 2
V ® = 0 , V Z = - ( 1 + c r ) - d <d/dz\ t h a t © is of t h e form ® + z® where ©<>
Z 0 l9
and ®! are plane harmonic functions of x and y which are independent of z.

For t h e determination of X , z Y we have t h e equations
z
+ z z
dx dy ' l + o- dm' 1+ ady'
and t h e conditions t h a t X z = Y = 0 at z — ± h.
z A particular solution is
given by t h e equations
W e shall take X and Y to have these forms. W h e n X

z z Zi Y Zy Z z are known
general formula3 can be obtained for X Y, X. Xi y y
If ®! is a constant, X and Y vanish as well as Z , and t h e plate is then

z z z
in a state of " plane stress." If depends upon x and y t h e plate is in a

state of " generalized plane stress " (Article 94). We shall examine separately
these two cases.
I n like manner, when t h e plate is bent by pressure applied to its faces,
4
we find a particular solution of t h e equation V ^ = 0 which yields t h e
prescribed values of Z at z — h and z = — h, and we deduce t h e most
z
general form of (B) which is consistent with this solution. W e proceed to

* J. H. Michell, loc. cit., calls attention to the analogy of this procedure to the customary
treatment of the condenser problem in Electrostatics.
find particular solutions of t h e equations satisfied by X and Y and to deduce z z
general formulas for X , Y , X . x y y
3 0 0 . Plane stress.
W h e n X Y , Z vanish throughout the plate there is a state of plane
z> z z
stress. W e have already determined in Article 145 t h e most general forms

for the remaining stress-components and t h e corresponding displacements.
W e found for © t h e expression
© = e + £s, (27) 0
l S a
where © plane harmonic function of x and y, and /3 is a constant. T h e
0
stress-components X , Y , X are derived from a stress-function ^ by the

x y y
formulas
Y __ y _ *X d
Y - *X f9A\
A Ay
*-dy> ~~dx~dy'
n a s r m
and x the f °
1 2
©o, .(29)
2
where V* = © , Xo 0 V 2 % 1 = /3 (30)
If we introduce a pair of conjugate functions £, TJ of x and y which are
such t h a t
.(31)
dx dy °' dy dx'
the most general forms for X o and ^ can be written
Xo = M +/> Xi = i / 3 («" + j f ) + F , (32)
1
where / and J? are plane harmonic functions. The displacement (u, v, w) is
then expressed by t h e formulas
1 8 @
f t •O ^ 1 2 0 \ \ + <T d , , '
3© \ 0 1+ a d
v = -j= [r +pyz + \<yz - 2
.(33)
E dy (%o + *X>)>
; 1
dy J
2 2
™= " 4 (* + 2/ + <^ ) + « © o } + 4 2
^ %i•
The solution represents two superposed stress-systems, one depending

on © o , Yo> B>d the other on /3,
a
These two systems are independent
of each other.
301. Plate stretched, by forces i n its plane.
Taking the (© , % ) system, we have t h e displacement given b y t h e
0 0
equations
3y/ E dy
where % is of the form \x% +/, @ and / are plane harmonic functions, and
0 0
7} are determined by ( 3 1 ) . The normal displacement of the middle plane

vanishes, or the plate is not bent. The stress is expressed by t h e formulae
21 + 0-
1 cr .(35)
» dx' 21 + 0-
X,. = —
dxdy X
{" 21 + 0-
T h e stress-resultants T u T lt 8 are expressed by t h e equations

1
31+a-
1 <T
.(36)
3 1 + cr
1
2% VA
dxdy \~' ° 31+ a
T h e stress-resultants N N , and the stress-couples G G , -ffi vanish. The
1} 2 1} 2
equations (11) and (12), in which X\ Y\ Z', L\ M\ vanish, are obviously

satisfied by these forms.
When we transform the expressions for T T , S by means of t h e equa lt 2 x
tions ( 4 ) , we find that, at a point of the edge-line where t h e normal makes

an angle 0 with t h e axis of x, t h e tension and shearing-force T, S are given
by t h e equations
2
T = (cos 01dy- + B i n * * - 2 sin 0 cos 0 ^ ) ( 2 % - \ ^ ,
2
! d \
S = -Ism 0 cos 0 2 2
fix dy ) dxdy] 31+07
W h e n these equations are transformed by means of t h e formula? ( 1 9 ) so as to

eliminate the reference to fixed axes of x and y, they become
2
'd 1 d\ 1
3
2
A <H) 0
ds p dv, 3 1 + cr
8
= 'dv\ds{^ 31 + G-
These expressions are sufficiently general to represent the effects of any forces
applied to the edge in the plane of t h e plate*. If t h e forces are applied by
means of tractions specified in accordance with equations ( 3 5 ) , the solution
expressed by equations ( 3 4 ) is e x a c t ; but, if t h e applied tractions at t h e
edge are distributed in any other way, without ceasing to be equivalent to
* The case of a circular plate was worked out in detail by Clebsch, Elasticitdt, § 42.
resultants of t h e types T, 8, t h e solution represents t h e state of t h e plate
with sufficient approximation at all points which are not close to t h e edge.
It may be observed that the stress-resultants and the potential energy per unit of area
can be expressed in terms of the extension and shearing strain of the middle plane. If we
write u, v, for the values of u and v when z = 0, and put
u v
8u _dv (_ _^ _|_^
r
€l 62 9
~dx' dy dy dx"*
wefind € l = _(_--crg-^, €a = _ ^ - ^ _ ) , e i + , 2 = ___e , 0
1
E dxdy'
and then we have
2Eh Eh*<r d \ .
Ti = YZT^2 ( « i + 2 ) - i Yzr^ a y 2 (<i+
2
m 2Ek . . 1 Eh** d ,
^ = 1 3 ^ 2 + <r*0 - 3 ^ («! + € ), 2
2
a Eh , . ÂV 8 ,
S + i { e i +
^ T ^ T ^ d ^ d y ^'
The potential energy per unit of area can be shown to be
+ * i ? - 2 (1 - «r) ( , - i w») ] v
e i 2 ( f 1 + f 2 ) + f 2 2 ( e i + e s ) + w ( E I + F 2 )
+ * |_ S~ % d^y J
2
z u
1 - or 1 - cr 1_ [ d^? 2
J [ 9y 2
J [ d#9y J J
Some special examples of the general theory will be useful to us presently.
a
(i) If we put e = 0, xo is plane harmonic function, and the state of the plate is one
0
of plane strain involving no dilatation or rotation [cf. Article 14 (d)]. We have
9
E dx ' E dy' •
and 2 \ = * —
= e 2 2
(ii) If e is constant we have g = e x, -q — Q y, and we may put xo i o(^' +3/ )j and
0 0 0
then we have
1 1 cr 1 cr cr _
v> = i-jg-®oX, v = i—^-e y, w=--ê z 0 0 y
7
and 7 = ^ = e A , #! = 0. 1 2 0
This is the solution for uniform tension e A all round the edge. 0
2 2
(iii) If Q —ax, where a is constant, we have £ = \a (x — y ), r) = axy, and we may put
0
3
X = i # , and then we have
0 a
a, , 92 29 2 a era
u> = hfl(<rz -o-x -y \ 9
v^^xy, w=--^xz,
and 7\ = 0, T =2hax,
2 ^=0.
A more general solution can be obtained by adding the displacement given in (i).
301, 302] PLATE BENT TO A STATE OF PLANE STRESS 449
(iv) B y t a k i n g t h e function xo i n (i) t o b e of t h e second degree i n x and y , w e m a y

o b t a i n t h e m o s t general s o l u t i o n in w h i c h t h e stress - component s are independent of x and y,
or t h e plate i s stretched uniformly. T h e results m a y be expressed in t e r m s of t h e q u a n t i t i e s
€ e , & t h a t define t h e s t r e t c h i n g of t h e m i d d l e plane. W e should find for t h e stress-
lj 2
c o m p o n e n t s t h a t do n o t v a n i s h t h e expressions
X = JB{*i + cre )/(l-a*)
x 2 9 Y = E(e
y 2 + 0 ^ / ( 1 - er»), X = ± En/(1 + c~\
y
a n d for t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t t h e expressions
u = e x + ^my,
1 v = € y + ^'&x,
2 w= - o-z^ + ^ji}.-a).
302. Plate bent to a state of p l a n e stress.

O m i t t i n g in equations ( 3 3 ) t h e terms t h a t depend on @ , %> we have t h e 0 0
displacement given by t h e equations
i l+ o- di X
[ (38)
+f +
az
w =
~ &* ( 2
2
+
^ 2 an(
where %i has t h e form Xi = i@ (# + 2/ ) + F> ^ F is a plane harmonic function.
T h e stress is expressed by t h e equations
x Z y Z y
^ " d f * ~ dx*> dxdy'
The stress-resultants vanish, and t h e stress-couples are given by t h e
equations
1 3
1 x 1
~* h
dy*' ^ ~ a*»' " ^ '
T h e equations ( 1 1 ) and ( 1 2 ) , in which X\ Y\ Z\ L\ M' vanish, are obviously
T h e normal displacement w of t h e middle plane is given by t h e equation
w = -A (a;2 + 2/ s ) + L+5 X L , (40)
so t h a t t h e curvature is expressed by t h e equations
K l 2 2 2
~ E E dx ' * ~~ E E dy ' E dxdy'
2
F r o m these equations and t h e equation V j ^ = /3, we find
so t h a t t h e formulae ( 1 8 ) hold.
T h e stress-couples a t t h e edge are expressible in t h e forms
*-*»k$) <»>
L. E. 29
450 PLATE BENT TO A STATE OF PLANE STRESS [CH. XXII
and, if t h e edge is subjected t o given forces, 0 and dSjds m u s t have pre

scribed values at the edge. Since xi satisfies t h e equation = /3, the
formulae (41) for G and dff/ds are not sufficiently general to p e r m i t of t h e
satisfaction of such conditions. I t follows t h a t a plate free from any forces,
except such as are applied at t h e edge and are statically equivalent to
couples, will not be in a s t a t e of plane stress unless t h e couples can be
expressed by t h e formulae (41).
Some particular results are appended.

(i) When the plate is bent to a state of plane stress the sum of the principal curvatures
of the surface into which the middle plane is bent is constant.
(ii) In the same case the potential energy per unit of area of the middle plane is given
exactly by the formula (21).
(iii) A particular case will be found by taking the function F introduced in equations
(32) to be of the second degree in $ and y. Then xi l is °f the second degree in x and y
a s 0
}
and we may take it to be homogeneous of this degree without altering the expressions for
the stress-components. In this case w also is homogeneous of the second degree in no and y,
and «j, K , r are constants. The value of î is
2
F
w K
Xi = -iiZT^2[("a + * + ( i + <™a) f ~ 2 (1 - tr)rxy\
and the stress-components which do not vanish are given by the equations
F E F
(iv) This case includes that discussed in Article 90, and becomes, in fact, identical
with it when the axes of % and y are chosen so that r vanishes, that is to say so as to be
parallel to the lines which become lines of curvature of the surface into which the middle
plane is bent. Another special sub-case would be found by taking the plate to be rectangular,
and the axes of x and y parallel to its edges, and supposing that KI and * vanish, while r 2
is constant. We should then find

U—-ryz, l>~-r2tr, V) = rxy.
The stress-resultants and the flexural couples G G vanish, and the torsional couples H
1} 2 x
a r
and H e equal to ±D(l ~ a) T. The result is that a rectangular plate can be held in the
2
form of an anticlastic surface w —rnoy by torsional couples of amount D(l— <r)r per unit
of length applied to its edges in proper senses, or by two pairs of forces directed normally
to the plate and applied at its corners* The two forces of a pair are applied in like senses
at the ends of a diagonal, and those applied at the ends of the two diagonals have opposite
senses. The magnitude of each force is %D (1 - cr) r.
303. Generalized p l a n e stress.

W h e n Z vanishes everywhere, and X , Y vanish at z « + h, we take t h e
z z z
values of X and Y t o be given by equations (26) of Article 299. To

z z
determine X , Y X we have t h e first two of equations (22) and (23), t h e

x y) y
t h i r d of equations (24), a n d equation (25), in which Z vanishes, X and Y t z z
are t a k e n to be given by (26), a n d 0 has t h e form ® + z& t h e functions 0 1}
* H . Lamb, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 21 (1891), p. 70.

© and ©! being plane harmonic functions of x, y and independent of z. T h e
0
stress depending upon © has been determined in Article 300, and we shall
0
omit © . W e have therefore t h e equations

0
9 1
^ + ^ ^ ^ _ ^ = = 0 ^ + ^ i - - ^ - ^ = 0 ^
dx dy 1 + a dx ' dx dy 1 -j- cr dy
0
^ + 1 4 - ^ = ° > W ' + T i r ^ - 0
' ^ f r - i n r - ^
2 y 2 y
1 + cr dx 1 + cr dy 1 + cr dxdy
z 8 + r ,=«e .
1 1
.(42)
From t h e first two of these equations we find
where %' is a function of x, y, z\ and t h e last equation of (42) gives
The remaining equations of (42) can now be transformed into t h e forms
33/ 2
a w\ 3
a ^y 2
_ 2 - * \_ d i ( d ^ c _ ^ @ \
2
a / a y _ 2 - 0 -
2
5©! = 0 .
a#ay v dz 1 + cr
These equations show t h a t t h e expression ^ - £ © i is a linear function

of # and y, and we m a y t a k e it to be zero without altering t h e values of
Xx> Y X. yiW e therefore write
y
where v ^ ' ^ - j j ^ © ! (45)
If we introduce two conjugate functions £ ^ of x, y which are such t h a t 1;
d d
dx c
lljjh = ® J} = J^ll (46)
8# 3y dy dx'
we m a y express %i in t h e form
+ ( 4 7 )
* ' - - 2 ^ ) * * ' -
where is a plane harmonic function. Thus t h e form of a n d therewith
also t h a t of X , Y X , is completely determined.
x y> y
T h e displacement is determined by t h e equations of t h e types

du 1 dw dv 2 (1 + cr)
^ - ^ ( ^ , - c r y ^ c r ^ ) , _ + - = _ _ _ y , ,
in which Z vanishes, X and Y are given by (26), and X
z z z x ,Yy> X y by (43).
The resulting forms for u, v, w are
1
E
^.tt+ut-o,"--
dx
1
V— .(48)
E
w= -[(l + ^ ' + ^ - i ^ e j .
304. Plate bent to a state of generalized p l a n e s t r e s s .
T h e normal displacement w of the middle plane is given by t h e equation
1
W = ^|^© 1 + ( l + «7) '}, Xl .(49)
and, since V^©! = 0, we have by (45)

4
V! w = 0 , .(50)
4 4 4 4 4 2 2
where V i denotes the operator 3 /9# + 3 /9?/ 4- 2d*/dx dy , and then
e __£_-v,„, , -
I= x = r |_ w + «Lv,„ .(51)
Ez d E E 2
The stress-components
V^w-f are givenzwby-f-t h e equations
I - a 2
dy I + o- 1 — <r 2
Ez d 2
" E E
V 1
2
W + zw +
1-cr 2
dx 2
1— a
F„ = - d 2
" E E
Xy zw +
dxdy _1 + <T 1— a
1 EQ?-*) d 1 E{h?-z>) d
2 l-<
.(52)
The stress-resultants and stress-couples are given by the equations
^ = ^ = ^ = 0,
2 2 2
~ „ /9 w 9 w\ 8 + <r _ , „ 3 „ ,
e D ra v w .(53)
'— is?+» *?) TO- +
v ' ' y
7 f
Equations (11) and (12) in which X , Y', Z', L\ M vanish are obviously
303, 304] GENERALIZED PLANE STRESS 453
T h e stress-resultants and stress-couples belonging to any curve s of which

t h e normal is v can be expressed in t h e forms
T = Sf = 0,
> N = -D~V *w, 1
dv
y...(5i)
where p denotes t h e radius of curvature of t h e curve. A t a boundary to

which given forces and couples are applied 0 and N— dH/ds have given
values. T h e solution is sufficiently general to admit of t h e satisfaction of
such boundary conditions. T h e solution expressed by (48) is exact if t h e
applied tractions at t h e edges are distributed in accordance with (52), in
which w satisfies ( 5 0 ) ; b u t , if they are distributed otherwise, without ceasing
to be equivalent to resultants of t h e types N G> H, t h e solution represents t
t h e state of the plate with sufficient approximation a t all points which are
not close to t h e edge.
The p o t e n t i a l energy p e r u n i t of area c a n b e s h o w n t o b e
[8H-a-^
^
»,-r9-,){55-(|jy}]
4fl w
w9 Vi w
2(12 2 2 2
a w3 V! w ^ 2 2 2
8 w ffyfoH
2 i g
2 2 2 2
10 [_dx dx dy dy dxdy dxdy J
2 2 2 2 2 2
272 + 64a- + 5o- r 3 V w d V^w _
1 fd ^fw\ l
2 2 ( }
420(l-a-) I dx dy \dxdy J ]
T h e results here obtained include those found in Article 302 b y p u t t i n g
©! = /3. Equations (53) show t h a t t h e stress-couples are not expressed by
t h e formulae (18) unless t h e sum of t h e principal curvatures is a constant or
a linear function of x and y. I n like m a n n e r t h e formula (21) is not verified
unless t h e sum of t h e principal curvatures is c o n s t a n t ; b u t these formulae
yield approximate expressions for t h e stress-couples and t h e potential energy
when h is small.
The theory which has been given in Art. 301 and in this Article consists
rather in t h e specification of forms of exact solutions of t h e equations of
equilibrium t h a n in t h e determination of complete solutions of these equations.
T h e forms contain a n u m b e r of unknown functions, and t h e complete solutions
are to be obtained by adjusting these functions so as to satisfy certain
differential equations such as (50) and certain boundary conditions. These
forms can represent t h e state of strain t h a t would be produced in a plate
of any shape by any forces applied to t h e edge, in so far as these forces are
expressed adequately by a line-distribution of force, specified b y components,
T, S, N — dH/ds, and a line-distribution of flexural couple G.
305. Circular plate loaded at its centre*.
The problem of the circular plate supported or clamped at the edge and loaded at the
centre may serve as an example of the theory just given. If a is the radius of the plate,
and r denotes the distance of any point from the centre, we may take w to be a function
of r only, and to be given by the equation
/a , 1 d\
2
W . a . , . Ka
where W, A are constants, and then we have on any circle of radius r

W
a = 0
'
and the resultant shearing force on the part of the plate within the circle is W. Hence W
is the load at the centre of the plate. The complete primitive of (56) is
w = ^ ^rHog^ + r^+iArt + B+Clogr,
where B and G are constants of integration. If the plate is complete up to the centre,
G must vanish, and we take therefore the solution
W = = r2 l 0 g + r 2 Af R
8^ ( ~r )+ i *+
The flexural couple O at any circle r = a is given by the equation
We may now determine the constants A and B. If the plate is supported at the edge,
so that w and G vanish at r=a, we find
and the central deflexion, which is the value of — w at r—0, is

W ( 3 + or 8 + 0- \ 7 2
If the plate is clamped at the edge, so that w and dw/dr vanish at r — a, we have
w= g ^ [ > l o g ^ - i (58)
and the central deflexion is Wa^/VoirB. If the plate is very thin the central deflexion is
greater when it is supported at the edge than when it is clamped at the edge in the ratio
(3 + 0-) : (1 + cr), which is 13 : 5 when o- = J.
306. Plate i n a state of stress w h i c h is uniform, or varies uniformly,
over its plane.
When the stress in a plate is the same at all points of any plane parallel to the faces
of the plate the stress-components are independent of x and y, and the stress-equations of
equilibrium become
Mô
U
dz ' dz ~ ' dz '
If the faces of the plate are free from traction it follows that X , Y , Z vanish, or the plate
z z z
is in a state of plane stress. The most general state of stress, independent of x and y,
which can be maintained in a cylindrical or prismatic body by tractions over its curved
surface can be obtained by adding the solutions given in (iv) of Article 301 and (iii) of
* Results equivalent to those ohtained here were given "by Saint-Venant in the * Annotated
Clebsch,' Note du § 45.
305, 306] UNIFORMLY VARYING STRESS 455
Article 302. In these cases the stress is uniform over the cross-sections of the cylinder or
prism.
When the stress-components are linear functions of x and y the stress varies uniformly
over the cross-sections of the cylinder or prism. We may determine the most general
possible states of stress in a prism when the ends are free from traction, there are no
body forces, and the stress-components are linear functions of x and y. For this purpose
we should express all the stress-components in such forms as
X =X 'x + X ''y + XJf»,
x 9 x
where X \ X \ X (°) are functions of z. When we introduce these forms into the various
x x x
equations which the stress-components have to satisfy, the terms of these equations which
contain x, or and the terms which are independent of x and y must separately satisfy
the equations.
We take first the stress-equations of equilibrium. The equation
dX x ^ dX y dX g = Q
dx dy dz '
combined with the conditions that X vanishes at z = ±h, gives us the equations
z
f
z;=o, x/'=o, H^+x +x "=o, x y
and in like manner we have the equations
3F(°)
F;=O, F;'=O, ^ + i ; + r ; = o .
It follows that X and Y are independent of x and y. The third of the stress-equations
z z
becomes therefore dZ jdz — 0, and, since Z vanishes at the faces of the plate (z—
z z it
vanishes everywhere.
Again 0 is of the form xe'+yQ" + G(°\ where 0', 0", e(°) are functions of z, and,
since 0 is an harmonic function, they must be linear functions of z. The equation
2
2
1 d0 2 2
V X = - — - „ - takes the form d XJdz =constant, so that &XJdz*=0. Since X satisfies
1 y 1
Z
l + o-dxdz z
2 2
this equation and vanishes at z=±h, it must contain z -h as a factor, and since it is
2 2
independent of x and y it must be of the form A(z -h ), where A is constant. Like
statements hold concerning Y . z
It follows that, if a cylindrical body with its generators parallel to the axis of z is free
from body forces and from traction on the plane ends, the most general type of stress which
satisfies the condition that the stress-components are linear functions of x and y is included
under the generalized plane stress discussed in Article 303 by taking 0 and 0 to be linear O X
functions of x and y and restricting the auxiliary plane harmonic functions / and F x
introduced in equations (32) and (47) to be of degree not higher than the third.
It may be shown that, in all the states of stress in a plate which are included in this
category, the stress-components are expressible in terms of the quantities E e sr, which L5 2i
define the stretching of the middle plane, and k K , T , which define the curvature of the u 2
surface into which this plane is bent, by the formulae

E \
E
e
^Y i =
2 { 2-R-O-EI-(K + 0"KIM> 2
1 — cr
E
^ l + ^ & s * - ^ } , I (59)
Z =0.
t
T h e s t r e s s - r e s u l t a n t s a n d stress-couples are expressed b y t h e formulse
2Eh 2Eh Eh
e f
11 = J 3 ^ 2 ( l + °" 2), e 1
2 = f ^ 2 A 2 + O-fi), b = X ™->
d d .(60)
G = -D(KI
x + <TK2), G= -Z>(K2 2 + O-KI), HI = D(1-O)T,
and t h e p o t e n t i a l energy per u n i t of area i s
Eh [(î + ^ ) - 2 ( l - c r ) ( e e - i ^ ) ] 2
1 2
l-o-
2
+ ±D[( KI + K2 )*-2(1-O-)(K K -T )] 1 2
2
Dh d(K +K )) 2
|3(y« )j j 2
1 2 { 2 t
.(61)
dx
307. Plate bent b y pressure uniform over a face.

4
W h e n t h e face z = h is subjected t o uniform pressure p, we have V Z = 0 z
everywhere, dZ jdz = 0 a t z = A a n d z = — h, Z = — p a t z = A, Z — 0 a t
z z z
z = — h. A particular solution is
2 2 3
^ = lhr*p (z + A) (z - 2A) = lhr*p {f - 3h z - 2A ), (62)
and we t a k e this t o b e t h e value of Z . z To determine © we have t h e
equations
2 2 2 3
V © = 0, . d ®jdz = - | ( l +^hr pz,
of which t h e most general solution has t h e form
3 s z 2 2
© = - 1 ( l + a-) hr pz + | ( l + o-) hr pz (x + y ) + z® + © , x 0
where © a n d © are plane harmonic functions. W e may omit t h e terms

x 0
#©! a n d © o because t h e stress-systems t h a t would be calculated from t h e m

have been found already. W e t a k e therefore for © t h e form
s 3 s 2 2
© = - i (1 + cr) h~ pz + | ( l + o-) hr pz (x + y ) (63)
To determine X and Y we have t h e equations z z
^ . d Y . S p 2 2
s V
.h ) = 0 V X = - ^ V 2
7 = - § ^
dx ^ dy 4/i
and t h e conditions t h a t X and Y vanish a t z = A a n d a t z z z

A. A particular
solution is
X = §A~ p (A - * 3 2 2
) F 3
= § A~£> (A - 5 ) y, 2 2 (64)
z z
and, as in Article 299, we t a k e X and Y t o have these values. z z
To determine X , x Y, X y y we have t h e equations

dX x dX _ 3pxzy dX y dY _ Spyz y
3 3
dx dy 4A ' dx dy 4A '
2 2 2
VX X = V Y = - f hr*pz,y VX y = 0,
3 2 9 3
X x + 7 = Ihr+p [ - (2 + o) s + 3* { i ( l + <r) («* + 2/ ) + A } + 2A ].
y
To satisfy the first two of these equations we take X Xy Y,
y X y to have
t h e forms
A {X y ) + Yy X + y ) + A y
*~8h* + dy*' ^Sh^ dx*> ~ dxdy'
where x must satisfy t h e equation
and then the remaining equations of (65) show t h a t
v 2 2 2
f^ + i X + f § * ( * + 2/ )
must be a linear function of x and y. As in previous Articles, this function
may be taken to be zero without altering X , Y or X , and therefore x must x y y
have the form
s z
2 + o-pz* 2 + <rpz /<} _x , pz , 2 | „ . ,,
where %/' and x " are functions of x and y which satisfy t h e equations
Q
2 2 6 6
VV=-l(i-^)fs(* + 2/ ) + l f > W = f c > ; ( >
t n e
and we may t a k e for x" particular solutions
Xl " = -1 (1 - a) | + yj + (* + f)\ 2
.(67)
2 2
%o'' = ^ < > + < / ) . '
More general integrals of t h e equations (66) need not be t a k e n because t h e

arbitrary plane harmonic functions t h a t m i g h t be added to t h e solutions (67)
give rise to stress-systems of t h e types already discussed.
T h e expressions which we have now found for X , x Y, X y y are
X* = lp + %P J (* + f + h*) - & (1 - <r)p J 2

+ 3f) ~ J> JjP
Yy = \P + %P J (* + f + 2
- A (!-«•) P J ( 3 a j 2
+ 2/ ) - ^ 2
^ J - (68)
V
The stress-components being given by (62), (64) and (68), t h e corresponding

displacement is given by t h e formulae
u =
~ T m [ ( 2
" a ) z %
~ m
" z
" m
~ 1 ( 1
~ a ) z { a ? + f ) l
v=- ^ | | [(2 - a)z*- Wz - 2h* - f (1 - a ) z(*» + f)\
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
w= -r^r,[(l+o-)^-6^ -8A^+3(/i -o-^)(* +2/ )-|(l-^)(* +2/ ) ]-
(69)
I t is noteworthy t h a t when the displacement is expressed by these formulse
the middle plane is slightly stretched. W e have, in fact, when z = 0
du dv , / 1 , x p dv du n
T h e stress-resultants and stress-couples are given by t h e formulse
T = %ph,
x T = iph,
2 ^ = 0,
3-a-
ft = ^ { ( 3 + c r ) ^ + ( l + 3ir)y-} + ^ ^ , .(70)
3-o- 2
0 = ^ { ( l + 3 i r ) ^ + ( 3 + ( r ) 2/ } +
a
l v 1 y v J
2
1
JDA ,
16 20
H =
1 -$(l-<r)pxy.
These forms obviously satisfy equations ( 1 1 ) and ( 1 2 ) in which X', Y\ L\ M'
vanish and Z' is replaced by — p.
The middle plane is b e n t into t h e surface expressed by t h e equation

2
Sh
and we find 0, = - D ( Kl + <™ ) + 2 l+"

20 (1 -
+ a
\
a)
ph;
+ 0- + CT' 2
ph ,
20 (1 - a)-
= D ( 1 — cr) r .
T h e formulas ( 1 8 ) are not exactly verified, b u t they are approximately correct

when h is small.
308. Plate b e n t b y pressure varying uniformly over a face.

Before proceeding with t h e discussion of particular illustrations of t h e
solution obtained in Article 3 0 7 we extend t h e results to t h e case where t h e
pressure on t h e face exposed to pressure is a linear function of x and y. I t
will be sufficient to t a k e t h e case where p is replaced by p x. By t h e process Q
already employed we find for Z , ©, X Y t h e expressions

z z> z
y (72)
and thence we obtain, in t h e same way as before, t h e formulae
X 2 2
* =f £ [12^ - (6 + <r) ^ + H 5 + <r) * + f (1 + a) f],
Yy = l 8 h
°" ( + 3') 2 z %
+ f i d + 5<r)a? + f (1 + <r)y }*], 2
...(73)
T h e displacement is t h e n given by t h e formulae

i 2 3 2
S-c
u = 2zh + z h -±z% +
E W 20
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ s ( 5 # + 2/ ) ( a + 2/ ) + § ^ A - (Sx + y ) z*
E 4A3 2A ^3/ H 3
— (# + 2
y) 2
j ~ xyz z
y (74)
1 + cr £>„ 2 2
x (* + yj + \{x* + 3xy*) A
4 J j
T h e middle plane is slightly stretched in a direction at right angles to
t h a t along which t h e pressure varies. W e have, in fact, when z — 0
du • dv - .p x dv du f 0
= 0 = i { 1 + a ) + =
^ > dy ^ ' dx dy °-
T h e stress-resultants and stress-couples are given by t h e formulae
1\ = 0 , T =p hx,
2 0 5 = 0, X \
ft = T6 i>o [J. ( 5 + a) X" + (1 + a) y x 2

+ § ( 1 4 - cr) fe], I (75)
3 2 2
^2 = t V [ £ ( 1 + 5o-)tf + ( 1 + c r ) ^ - | ( 2 + 3 < r ) h x \
3
Si = TVi>o [ - 4 ( 1 - *•) ( 3 a f y + 2/ ) + | ( 2 - cr) % ] .
f
These forms obviously satisfy equations ( 1 1 ) and ( 1 2 ) in which X', Y', L', M
are p u t equal to zero and Z' is p u t equal to — p x. 0
The middle plane is bent into t h e surface expressed by t h e equation
w = - IjjOC
Po <k(x +y ) i 2 2 2
l-o-
2
(x + Sy ) 2
.(76)
and we find (*! = -!>(*! + <r/e ) + V 2 ¥ 1 _ a Poh x, 2
2
= - JJ (K + a-Ki) + 2 p h x,
0
1 — cr
H =
1 D ( l - * ) r - ^ p h ' y . t
T h e formulae ( 1 8 ) are approximately correct when h is small.

309. Circular plate bent by uniform pressure and supported at
t h e edge.
When a plate whose edge-line is a given curve is slightly "bent by pressure, which is
uniform, or varies uniformly, over one face, the stress-system is to be obtained by com
pounding with the solution obtained in Article 307 or 308 solutions of the types discussed
in Articles 301 and 3 0 2 or 303, and adjusting the latter so that the boundary conditions
may be satisfied. We shall discuss the case of a clamped edge presently. When the edge
is supported, the boundary conditions which hold at the edge-line are
w = 0, 0=0, T=S=0 (77)
Let the plate be subjected to uniform normal pressure p and supported at the edge,
and let the edge-line be a circle r—a. The solution given in (71) yields the following
values for w, G, T, S at r—a :—
2 2 Z Z
w=-A|« (« -^), 0 = ^pa^ ^fph\ T=iph, S=0.
The solution given in (ii) of Article 301 yields the values

w = 0, G = 0, T=iph, S=0
when e is put equal to \p. The solution given in Article 302 yields zero values for T
0
and and it may be adjusted to yield constant values for w and G at r — a by putting
X i i 0 ( # + # ) + y> where y is a constant. These values are
= 2 2
2
fa , l + o- r j ;
If we put
Zp / 3 + o- , 3 - < r \ 3 ( l - o - ) ^ / 5 + <ro» 8 + 0- + 0-2
^ ~ A 3 \~l6-a +
-W )> h
y~ 2h* VlT^64 + 2
1 - e r 40,
the values of w and G at r=a, as given by the solutions in Article 302 and in Article 307,
become identical.
We may now combine the three solutions so as to satisfy the conditions (77) at r—a.
We find the following expressions for the components of displacement
_px
=
E
Pl
' E
pz
.(78)
where w = - j £ (a» - r*) a? - r») + * ^ y ^ ~ hj (79)

7
The stress-resultants and stress-couples at the edge vanish with the exception of A , which
is equal to \pa.
The middle plane is bent into the surface expressed by the equation (79), and the
right-hand member of this equation with its sign changed is the deflexion at any point.
The comparison of this result with (57) of Article 305 shows that, when the plate is thin,
the central deflexion due to uniformly distributed load is the same as for a load concen
trated at the centre and equal to £ (5 + o-)/(3 + 0-) of the total distributed load.
The middle plane is stretched uniformly, and the amount of the extension of any linear
element of it is \o-pjE. This is half the amount by which the middle plane would be
stretched if one face of the plate were supported on a smooth rigid plane and the other
were subjected to the pressure p .
Linear filaments of the plate which are at right angles to its faces in the unstressed
state do not remain straight or normal to the middle plane. The curved lines into which
they are deformed are of the type expressed by the equation
where U is the radial displacement, and £7 , UI, U are given by the formulae
0 3
TT i pr
8 + 9 2 )
Î—£[(»+')A-')S-A-^S-< '-' £]'
TT — Pr
2 + o - —cr 2
These lines are of the same form as those found in Article 95 for the deformed shapes of
the initially vertical filaments of a narrow rectangular beam bent by a vertical load. The
tangents to these lines cut the surface into which the middle plane is bent at an angle
310. Plate bent by uniform pressure and c l a m p e d at t h e edge.
L e t (u, v, w) be the displacement of any point of the middle plane.

W h e n t h e plate is clamped at t h e edge the conditions which m u s t be satisfied
at t h e edge-line are
u = 0, v = 0, w = 0, dw/dv = 0, (80)
v denoting t h e direction of the normal to the edge-line. W e seek to satisfy
these conditions by a synthesis of t h e solutions in Articles 301, 303 and 307.
W e have
1
E
1_
^ _ ( L + C R ) | & + i ( L + C R ) P Y
E
I n these expressions £ and rj are conjugate functions of x and y which are
related to a plane harmonic function © by t h e equations 0
dx dy ' dy dx'
s n e
and Xo i °f ^ form \x% + / , where / is a plane harmonic function. T h e
functions © and / must be adjusted so t h a t u and v vanish at t h e edge-
0
line. One way of satisfying these conditions is to t a k e © to be constant. 0
If we p u t
1 + 1 1+5 , L + < 7
PX, IT) = - A -L py,
2
L-o- 2
- < R J
we shall have j1 + C T
v O + y'); 2
and then u and v vanish for all values of x and y.

We may show that this is the only way of satisfying the conditions. For this purpose
we put
and then we have to show that there is only one way of choosing e , £, rj, xo which will 0
make U and V take given values at a given boundary. This is the same thing as showing
2
that if U and V vanish at the boundary they vanish everywhere. Since V! xo=0O)
we have
9 | = ^ = _ 1 fdU .dV\
dx dy 1- dx dy
and we have also
dx 2
~ \dx dy
Since V 1
2
|=0, we have
2
I—crdx \dx dy J dy \dx dy J '
and we have also
2
1 — crdy \dx dy J dx \dx dy J
It follows that
+
jj\_ u
d~x GJ l£) - * ^ (a£ ~ ^)}
+V
• dy \dx dy J dx \dx dy J dxdy = 0, 2
the integration being extended over any part of the middle plane. When it is extended
over the area within the edge-line, and U and V vanish at the edge-line, the integral can
be transformed into
- /" / f J — fiE J \ 1 f I _ _ E \ ^ dxdy, d 2
+2
d d
Jjb-o-ydx + dy) \dx dy) _

and this cannot vanish unless
dU dV dV dU _ A
«—h = 0 , and ~ -~— = 0.
1
ox oy ox oy
It follows that V and U would be conjugate functions of x and y which vanish at the
edge-line, they would therefore vanish everywhere.
T h e form of w is given by t h e equation
w=—
3 1- 2
l + o- 2 2 (81)
E (1 + o) i X + - y - j T - P (* + f f + TS P (* + 3/ )
where © is a plane harmonic function and

x = —^ ^ ©i- Any solution
4
of t h e equation D V w = — p can be thrown into this form.
2 To determine w
we have t h e equation
4
i)V w = x -p
and t h e boundary conditions, viz.:
w = 0 and dw/dv = 0
at t h e edge-line. There is only one value of w which satisfies these con
ditions. W h e n w is known © is given by t h e equation x
2
V w =
1
E
and Xi is given by (81).
As an example we may take the case of a circular plate of radius a. The deflexion w
is given by the equation
1 2 2 2
'w=-e 4|(« -^ ) , • -(83)
where r denotes distance from the centre. The central deflexion is one quarter of that
which would be produced by the same total load concentrated at the centre (Article 305).
Another example is afforded by an elliptic plate* of which the boundary is given by
2 2 2 2
the equation x \a -\-y \b —\. It may be shown easily that
8 2 2 2 2 .(84)
D\ ct b) / b^ a b )'
In the case of the circular plate equations (82) and (83) show that e is constant, and x
it is therefore convenient to use the solution in the form given in Article 302 instead of
Article 303. We have
2
where Vi xi=/3. On comparing this form with (82) we see that
X l =^ - J ( l - < r ) ^ , ^=_ A |(l + ( 7 )[ 2_i^J.

a
The complete expressions for the components of displacement are then given by the
equations
A 2
•^ )+A l - o -
1 w -1 .(85)
' D [A(«
+16 a 8
W
~ W +
Bl^l-cr l-o- l-<r ¥
(l-cr)2 *(i-<r)* J'
where w is given by (83). In this case the middle plane is bent without extension. Linear
elements of the plate which, in the unstressed state, are normal to the middle plane do
not remain straight, nor do they cut at right angles the surface into which the middle plane
is bent.
311. Plate bent b y -uniformly varying pressure and c l a m p e d at
t h e edge.
W e seek to satisfy t h e conditions (80) at t h e edge-line by a synthesis of
t h e solutions in Articles 3 0 1 , 303 and 308. For u and v we have t h e forms
V =
E
in which the unknown functions must be chosen so t h a t u and v vanish at
t h e edge-line. W e may show in t h e same way as in Article 310 t h a t these
conditions cannot be satisfied in more t h a n one way. T h e unknown functions
depend upon t h e shape of t h e edge-line.
* The result was communicated to the Author by Prof. G. H . Bryan.

When this line is a circle or an ellipse the conditions may be satisfied by assuming for
where a 1 } ft, yi are constants. For a circle of radius a we should find

3 p ( l + cr)
0 _j9 (3-r-5o-) 0 _ a V ( l + cr)p 0
a i P l 7 l
~ 6-2o- ' ~4(6-2<r)' ~ 6-2cr '
(r 2 2
and thence u = - °'P~~t ^ ^ (a - f ) , v = 0 .
o — Jicr Mi
2 2 2 2
For an ellipse given by the equation x /a -r-y /b =l we should find
i 2 2 2
Q. + <r)(a* + 2V )p 0 {qg(l+3cr)4-26 (l + cr)}yo- cr (I + cr)p a b
0
G l 2 2 2 2 y i 2 2
~ 2 a ( l - o - ) + 46 ' ^ 4{2a (l-o-)+46 } ' 2a (1 -o-) + 4& >
2 2 2 2
, ,, 1 o-(l + cr) p a b 0 fx j \ .
u 1 V =
and t h e n c e °giJ(l- ) r + 4}» W + g - ) ' °-
In these cases the middle plane is slightly extended.
Again t h e form of w is given by t h e equation
2 2 2
w = i [(1 + <r) % 1 ' + A'®J - j ^ (* + y ) - i ^ + 3y'- .(86)
so t h a t w satisfies t h e equation
and t h e conditions
w = 0, dw/dv = 0,
a t t h e edge-line. These conditions determine w. W h e n w is known, © x is
given by t h e equation
1 w .(87)
E D 1 -cr
and Xi is given by (86).
For the circle we have

w--Tfe^(«*-r»)*; .(88)
and for the ellipse* we have
2 2
w j 2 W 1 _^_ _ t \ 1 ( 1 1 + +JL\
2 4 2 2 2 2
D V « b ) I \a^b^ a b )'
312. Plate bent by its o w n weight.

W h e n t h e plane of t h e plate is horizontal, and t h e plate is bent by its own
weight, t h e solution is to be obtained by superposing two stress-systems. I n
one of these stress-systems all t h e stress-components except Z vanish, and Z z z
* The result was communicated to the Author by Prof. G. H . Bryan.

is gp(z + h) t h e axis of z being drawn vertically upwards.
} The corresponding
displacement is given by the equations
2 2 2
u = — <rgp(z + h)xlE 9 v = -<rgp(z + h)y/E, w = \gp [z + 2hz + a(x + y )}IE.
(90)
I n the second stress-system there is pressure 2gph on the face z = h of the
plate, and the solution is to be obtained from t h a t in Article 3 0 7 by writing
2gph for p. The surface into which t h e middle plane is bent is expressed by
t h e equation
and the stress-couples are given by the equations

2
' ^ , , 2 4 + 23(7 + 3 d
9 9
& = - D { Kl + 07c ) + a 20(1- a) >
2
n 2 4 + 23<7 + 3<7 ,3 8
G =-V 2 (K + o-*!) + —
2 3 Q ^ ^ #/^ ,
J5r = D ( 1 - <r) r.
x
T h e formulae ( 1 8 ) are approximately correct when h is small.

To satisfy t h e boundary conditions in a plate of any assigned shape,
supported in any specified way, we m u s t compound with t h e solution here
indicated solutions of t h e types discussed in Articles 3 0 1 and 3 0 3 , and
adjust the latter solutions so as to satisfy these conditions.
3 1 3 . Approximate theory of the bending of a plate by transverse

forces*.
I n all t h e solutions which we have found t h e formulae ( 1 8 ) of Article 2 9 8
are either correct or approximately correct. W e seem to be justified in con
cluding that, in a plate slightly bent by transverse forces, these formulae may
be t a k e n to give a sufficient approximation to t h e stress-couples. I n a plate;
so bent t h e appropriate equations of equilibrium are
ox oy ox oy ox oy
r
By eliminating Nj and A from these we obtain t h e equation
2
2 2
3 ffi j - y g , 2d H, ) Z,__ Q
2 2
dx dy dxdy
and by substituting from ( 1 7 ) and ( 1 8 ) in this equation we find t h e equation
DV *w = £ '
a ..(92)
* For authorities in regard to the approximate theory, see Introduction, pp. 27—29. A general
justification on the same lines as that of the corresponding theory for rods (Article 258) will be
found in Article 329 of Chapter xxiv. A very elaborate investigation of exact solutions for
various distributions of load has been given by J. Dougall, Edinburgh B. Soc. Trans., vol. 41
(1904). In this investigation the correctness of the approximate theory is verified for all cases-
of practical importance.
L. E. 30
T h e stress-couples G, H at t h e edge are given in accordance with (17) and
(18) by t h e formulas
To find an expression for the shearing force N in the direction of the normal
to the plane of the plate we observe that
and then on substituting from (17) and (18) we find t h e formula
N=-D~
V^w. (93)
ov
To determine the normal displacement w of the middle plane we have
t h e differential equation (92) and t h e boundary conditions which hold at t h e
edge of t h e plate. A t a clamped edge w and dw/dv vanish, at a supported
edge w and G vanish, at an edge to which given forces are applied N—dH/ds
and G have given values.
The same differential equation and the same boundary conditions would
be obtained by t h e energy method by assuming t h e formula (21) for t h e
potential energy estimated per u n i t of area of t h e middle plane*.
I n all t h e solutions which we have found the differential equation (92) is
correct whether the formulae (18) and (21) are exactly or only approximately
correctf. The solutions t h a t would be obtained by the approximate method
described in this Article differ from t h e exact solutions t h a t would be
obtained by t h e methods described in previous Articles only by very small
amounts depending on t h e small corrections t h a t ought to be made in t h e
formulae (18) for the stress-couples. I n general t h e form of t h e b e n t plate is
determined with sufficient approximation by t h e method of this Article.
314. Illustrations of t h e approximate theory.

(a) Circular plate loaded symmetrically %-
W h e n a circular p l a t e of radius a s u p p o r t s a load Z' per u n i t of area w h i c h is a function
of t h e d i s t a n c e r from t h e centre of t h e circle, e q u a t i o n (92) b e c o m e s
r or L or [r or \ or / J_
t h e direction of t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t w b e i n g t h e s a m e as t h a t of t h e load Z'. W e shall

record t h e r e s u l t s i n a series of cases.
* The process of variation is worked out by Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, § 215.
t A more general form which includes (92) in the special cases previously discussed is given
by J. H. Michell, loc. cit. p. 444.
X The general form of the solution and the special solutions (i)—(iv) were given by Poisson
in his memoir of 1828. See Introduction, footnote 36. Solutions equivalent to those in (v) and
(vi) were given by Saint-Venant in the 'Annotated Clebsch,' Note du § 45.
313, 314] OF THE BENDING OF PLATES 467
(i) When the total load W is distributed uniformly and the plate is supported at
the edge
W 2 2
- (a - r ) i*^-— ~ ) • x
a % r 2
> \ l + cr /
(ii) When the total load W is distributed uniformly and the plate is clamped at
the edge
W
2
U>rra D (a -r ) . 2 2 2
(iii) When the load W is concentrated at the centre and the plate is supported at
the edge _
W
W "".[-HlogJ+igf^-f-)].
~8TTD I
(iv) When the load W is concentrated at the centre and the plate is clamped at
the edge
(v) When the total load W is distributed uniformly round a circle of radius b and
the plate is supported at the edge, w takes different forms according as r > or < b.
We find
2(l + <0«*
a 2 2
W V /9,i9M , t 9 i9\ , (3 + °") « - (1 - cr) b o 2 ~|
(
^<»°S^L~ ^ + y ) l 0 8
g + ( f ) + ( a T )
}
W 2
T a , (3 + < R ) « * - ( L - < R ) 6 , ' 2 .1
W & = ( + ] g + ( a r )
-> 8^>L" r 2 ( l + a)«» J-
(vi) When the total load W is distributed uniformly round a circle of radius b and
the plate is clamped at the edge, we find
a
Wr<» = 8 ^ [ - ( « * + » ' ) l 0 g f + ( f - f t » ) + i ( L + ^ ) ( « » - » * ) ] ,
2 2 2
[-(rH& )log" + i ( L + ^ ) ( a - r ) ] .
(b) Application of the method of inversion*.

The solutions given in (iii) and (iv) of (a), or in Article 305, show that, in the
neighbourhood of a point where pressure P is applied, the displacement w in the direction
2
of the pressure is of the form (PjîrD) r log r+f, where f is an analytic function of
x and y which has no singularities at or near the point, and r denotes distance from the
point.
4
Since w satisfies the equation v w = 0 at all points at which there is no load we may2
apply the method of inversion explained in Article 154. Let 0' be any point in the plane
of the plate, P any point of the plate, P' the point inverse to P when 0' is the centre of
inversion, x\ y' the coordinates of P\ R' the distance of P' from 0\ w' the function
2
of x', y' into which w is transformed by the inversion. Then R' w' satisfies the
4 4 4
3 8 8
4 2 4
equation V / (R' w') = 0, where V / denotes the operator 7 ^ + ^ + 2 A , „ , . 0 0
4 4 2 2
dx cy dx dy
2 2
It is clear that, if w and dw/dv vanish at any bounding curve, R' w' and d (R' w')/dp
vanish at the transformed boundary, v' denoting the direction of the normal to this
boundary.
* J. H. Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 34 (1902), p. 223.
We apply this method to the problem of a circular plate clamped at the edge and
loaded at one point 0. Let 0' be the
inverse point of 0 with respect to the
circle, G the centre of the circle, and a
its radius, also let c be the distance of
0 from G. The solution for the plate
clamped at the edge and supporting a
load W at C is
^[-^log^J(a -^)], 2
where r denotes the distance of any

point P from G. Now invert from G'
Fig. 70. with constant of inversion equal to
2
a^c -a . The circle inverts into itself, G inverts into G, P inverts into P' so that, if
2
GP' = R and G'P' = R\ we have

R R'
2
r " a jc'
2
Hence R' w' is 2 2
W ™ r a*R . 2 cR'.(„ a^R \\
Wa± r
}
2
2
STTC J)\_'
R
It follows that the displacement w of a circular plate of radius a clamped at the edge
and supporting a load W at a point G distant c from the centre is given by the equation
+ 2 52 (94)
'= 8S[-^ °S K^' - )]' l0
where R denotes the distance of any point of the plate from 0, and R! denotes the distance
of the same point from the point inverse to 0 with respect to the circle.
We may pass to a limit by increasing a indefinitely. Then the plate is clamped along
a straight edge and is loaded at a point G. If G' is the optical image of G in the straight
edge, the displacement in the direction of the load is given by the equation
w= _jB21og 2 2
8S[ f+i^' -^ )]> •••• 0»)
where R> R' denote the distances of any point of the plate from the points G and G'.
The contour lines in these two cases are drawn by Michell {loc. cit.).
(c) Rectangular plate supported at a pair of opposite edges.

Let the origin be taken at one corner and the axes of x and y along two edges, let the
other edges be given by x — 2a, y = 2b. We expand Z' in the form
. mirx . Tiny
Z' — S2^L
where m and n are integers. Then a particular solution of equation (92) is

_ 16Z' sin {mirx\2a) sin (ri7ry/2b)
Wl 2 m n 2 2
~^D ?n*la± + n*/b* + 2mW/a b '
If the edges ^ = 0 and x== 2a are supported this solution satisfies the boundary con
ditions at these edges. If all four edges are supported the solution satisfies all the
conditions, but if the remaining edges are. not simply supported we have to find a solution
4
w of the equation V x w = 0 so that the sum W i + w may satisfy the conditions at y=0
2 2 2
and y = 2b. We assume for w the form * 2
w =Sl sin
2 m — ,
where Y is a function of y but not of x. Then Y satisfies the equation

m m
2 2
d*Y m mV d Y m my*
4 2 2 + 4 r V
d# 2a c&/ 16a ™~ >
and the complete primitive is of the form
Z ==^ cosh*|^+i? sm^

m m m
where A B , A ', B ' are undetermined constants. These constants can be adjusted so
mi m m m
as to satisfy the boundary conditions at y = 0 and y = 26+.

(d) Transverse vibrations of plates.
The equation of vibration is obtained at once from (92) by substituting for Z' the
expression - 2ph . We have
3% 3% .„ J ^ _ _ _ 2 g A 3 ? w ( m
2 2 2 V ;
dx* dy* dx dy ~ I) dt ' *
When the plate vibrates in a normal mode w is of the form W cos (pt + e\ where W is
a function of x and y which satisfies the equation
4 4 4 2 2
8W 3 W 3W __S (l-a )p P
+ + 2 2 2 ;
dx* dy* dx dy ~ Eh
and the possible values of p are to be determined by adapting the solution of this
equation to satisfy the boundary conditions. From the form of the coefficient of W in
the right-hand member of this equation it appears that the frequencies are proportional
to the thickness, and inversely proportional to the square of the linear dimension of the
area within the edge-line.
The theory of those modes of transverse vibration of a circular plate in which the
displacement W is a function of distance from the centre was made out by Poissonf, and
the numerical determination of the frequencies of the graver modes of vibration was
effected by him. In this case the boundary conditions which he adopted become identical
with KirchhofPs boundary conditions because the torsional couple H belonging to any
circle concentric with the edge-line vanishes. The general theory of the transverse
vibrations of a circular plate was obtained subsequently by Kirchhoff §, who gave a full
numerical discussion of the results. The problem has also been discussed very fully by
Lord Rayleigh||. The free vibrations of a square or rectangular plate have not, so far,
* This step was suggested by M. Levy, Paris C. P., t. 129 (1899).

f The case of four supported edges is discussed by Saint-Venant in the * Annotated Clebsch,'
Note du § 73. A number of cases are worked out by E . Estanave, 'Contribution a Tetude de
l'equilibre elastique d'une plaque...' (These), Paris, 1900. Elastic constants are sometimes
measured by observing the central deflexion of a rectangular plate supported at two opposite
edges and loaded at the centre; see A. E . H. Tutton, Phil. Trans. B. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 202
(1903).
$ I n the memoir of 1828 cited in the Introduction, footnote 36.
§ J . / . Math. (Crelle), Bd. 40 (1850), or Ges. Abhandlungen, p. 237, or Vorlesungen uber math.
Physik, Mechanik, Vorlesung 30.
|| Theory of Sound, vol. 1, Chapter x.
been determined theoretically. The case of elliptic plates has been considered by
E. Mathieu* and M. Barthelemy t.
(e) Extensional vibrations of plates.
We may in like manner investigate those vibrations of a plate which involve no
transverse displacement of points of the middle plane, by taking the stress-resultants
T T , #1 to be given by the approximate formulae, [cf. (iv) of Article 301],
u 2
_ 2Eh (du dv\ 2Eh (dv du\ Eh (du. dv\
or the potential energy per unit of area of the middle plane to be given by the formula
Eh r / 3 u dvy _ 2 _ (du dw _ /du.
1 dyyr
1 — cr 2
[\dx dy) ^ ' [dx dy ^ \dy dx) ) _
The equations of motion are
d2a 8 ! 2 2
^m i ' p(l-o- ) 9 u
' y T n T
'ai%" E dp>
.(97)
2 2 2 2 2
... 3 v , 3 v , i/-, . 9 u p(l-<r )3 v
2 ( 1 - ^ ) ^ + ^2+2(1 +
s
^ ) 9 ^ = - - ^ ^ —^ 2 -
At a free edge the stress-resultants denoted by T, S vanish. The form of the equations
shows that there is a complete separation of modes of vibration involving transverse
displacement, or flexure, from those involving displacement in the plane of the plate, or
extension, and that the frequencies of the latter modes are independent of the thickness,
while those of the former are proportional to the thickness.
The theory of the vibrations of plates has here been treated in a provisional manner.
Detailed discussion of the modes and frequencies of transverse vibration appears to be
unnecessary, since they have been investigated minutely by the writers already cited.
Some special results in regard to extensional vibrations will be found in a Note at the end
of this book. A more detailed investigation of the theory on which the equations of
vibration are founded will be given in Chapter xxiv. See especially Article 333.
* J. de Math. (Liouville), (Ser. 2), t. 14 (1869).

t Mem. de VAcad. de Toulouse, t. 9 (1877).
CHAPTER XXIII.
INEXTENSIONAL DEFORMATION OF CURVED PLATES OR SHELLS.
3 1 5 . A CURVED plate or shell may b e described geometrically by means

of its middle surface, its edge-line, and its thickness. W e shall take t h e
thickness to be constant and denote it by 2h, so t h a t a n y normal to t h e
middle surface is c u t b y t h e faces in two points distant h from t h e middle
surface on opposite sides of it. W e shall suppose t h a t t h e edge of t h e plate
cuts t h e middle surface a t right angles; t h e curve of intersection is t h e
edge-line. T h e case in which t h e plate or shell is open, so that there is an
edge, is much more important t h a n t h e case of a closed shell, because a n
open shell, or a plane plate with a n edge, can be bent into an appreciably
different shape without producing in it strains which are too large t o b e
dealt with b y t h e mathematical theory of Elasticity.
T h e like possibility of large changes of shape accompanied b y very small
strains was recognised in Chapter x v i u . as a n essential feature of t h e
behaviour of a thin r o d ; b u t there is a n important difference between t h e
theory of rods and t h a t of plates arising from a certain geometrical restriction.
T h e extension of any linear element of t h e middle surface of a strained plate or
shell, like t h e extension of t h e central-line of a strained rod, must b e small.
I n t h e case of a rod this condition does not restrict in any way t h e shape of t h e
strained central-line; and this shape may b e determined, as in Chapters XIX.
and x x i . , by taking t h e central-line to b e unextended. But, in t h e case of t h e
shell, t h e condition t h a t no line on t h e middle surface is altered in length
restricts t h e strained middle surface to a certain family of surfaces, viz. those
which are applicable upon t h e unstrained middle surface*. I n t h e particular
case of a plane plate, t h e strained middle surface must, if t h e displacement
is inextensional, be a developable surface. Since t h e middle surface can
undergo b u t a slight extension, t h e strained middle surface can differ b u t
slightly from one of t h e surfaces applicable upon t h e unstrained middle
surface; in other words, i t m u s t b e derivable from such a surface b y a
displacement which is everywhere small.
* For the literature of the theory of surfaces applicable one on another we may refer to the
Article by A. Voss, * Abbildung und Abwickelung zweier Flachen auf einander' in Ency. d. math.
Wiss., i n . D 6a.
316. Change of curvature i n inextensional deformation.
We begin with the case in which the middle surface is deformed without
extension by a displacement which is everywhere small. L e t t h e equations
of t h e lines of curvature of t h e unstrained surface be expressed in the forms
a — const, and ft = const., where a and ft are functions of position on t h e
surface, and let R R denote the principal radii of curvature of the surface
l 9 2
at a point, R being t h e radius of curvature of t h a t section drawn through the

x
normal at the point which contains the tangent at the point to a curve
T
of the family ft (along which a is variable). W hen the shell is strained
without extension of the middle surface, the curves a = const, and ft = const,
become two families of curves drawn on t h e strained middle surface, which
cut at right angles, but are not in general lines of curvature of t h e deformed
surface. The curvature of this surface can be determined by its principal
radii of curvature, and by t h e angles at which its lines of curvature cut t h e
curves a and ft. Let -i- + S -i- and - i + S - i - be the new principal curvatures
Mi Mi M 2 M 2
at any point. Since the surface is bent without stretching, t h e measure of

curvature is unaltered*, or we have
1 1
R1
+ 8 Ri)
4 - ^\R 4 - + ^ - 2 R1
2 R1R2'
1 1
or, correctly to the first order in 8 -JY and 8 ,
M ± M 2
+ 0 (i)
IT 2 ITI J^L ^2
Again let YJR be t h e angle at which t h e line of curvature associated with
t h e principal curvature + 8 -J^- cuts t h e curve ft = const, on t h e deformed

-Tli Mi
surface, and let R / , R be the radii of curvature of normal sections of this
2
surface drawn through t h e tangents to the curves ft = const, and a = const.

I n general yjr must be small, and i ? / , R can differ b u t little from R R . 2 1 ) 2
The indicatrix of the surface, referred to axes of x and y which coincide with
these tangents, is given by the equation
x Y 2
( 1 2
1 \
X y
~R~I +
W + t a n 2
^ \ R ? ~ 57/ ° 0 T 1 S t
'
Referred to axes of £ and 77 which coincide with t h e tangents to the lines
of curvature, the equation of the indicatrix is
+ s + + 8 c o n
^(i i) ^(i i)= ^
* The theorem is due to Gauss, 'Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas,' Gottingen
Comm. Rec, t. 6 (1828), or WerTce, Bd. 4, p. 217. Cf. Salmon, Geometry of three dimensions,
4th edition, p. 355.
+ 1 _ i _|_ 2 + § 1
+ g i_
Ri R2 Ri R2 -Ri '
...(2)
4
R±R 2 ^ ^ (jB/ i? ') 2 (-Ki - B i ) (-R2 ^0 -BiJ?2' >
The bending of the surface is determined by t h e three quantities /c tc , T lt 2
defined by the equations

1 1 1 1 u 0 ( / l 1\
T=itan (o)
^ r - ' - r ^ K
^ R ~ r w Mw~id
The curvature ljR of the normal section drawn t h r o u g h t h a t t a n g e n t
line of the strained middle surface which makes an angle co with the curve
/3 = const, is given by the equation
2 2
1 COS G> sin n •
D / = P , + J Y 7 + "T sm co cos co,
and t h e curvature 1/R of the corresponding normal section of t h e unstrained

middle surface is given by the equation
1 cos co ^ sin co 2 2
R R ± R 2 '
so t h a t the change of curvature in this normal section is given by the equation
— = tc cos co + K sin co -f- 2T sin co cos co

x
2
2
2
(4)
W e shall refer to K K , T as t h e changes of

19 2 curvature.
In general, if R ^R 1 2I equations ( 2 ) give, correctly to t h e first order,
7? ^ 1 * T) —
K
2f T> ^ T> ~ yJ
'
ML JLl 2 JX 2 III
For example, in the case of a cylinder, or any developable surface, if t h e

lines /3 = const, are the generators, tc vanishes, and t a n 2i|r = — 2TR . x 2
The case of a sphere is somewhat exceptional because of t h e indeterminate

ness of the lines of curvature. I n this case, p u t t i n g R = R , we find from (1) 1 2
, 1 £ 1 £ 1
^-w = - o ^ = 8 - ^ say,
JL1 1 L I 2 JAJ
and then we have, correctly to t h e first order,

#i -f /c = 0, 2 t a n 2i/r = 2 T / ( ^ ! — K ) = T//C 2 1)
and, correctly to the second order,

2 2
=— K FC 1 2 + T = K^ + T,
b u t /Cj and tc are not equal to 8
2 and 8 -p- unless r = 0, and ^ is not small
unless T is small compared with
The result that, in the case of a cylinder slightly deformed without extension, K =0, x
or there is no change of curvature in normal sections containing the generators, has been
noted by Lord Rayleigh as "the principle upon which metal is corrugated." He has also
applied the result expressed here as K.I/R + K /RI = 0 to the explanation of the behaviour of
2 2
Bourdon's gauge*.
317. Typical flexural strain.

W e imagine a state of strain in the shell which is such that, while no line
on t h e middle surface is altered in length, t h e linear elements initially normal
to t h e unstrained middle surface remain straight, become normal to t h e
strained middle surface, and suffer no extension or contraction. W e express
t h e components of strain in this state with reference to axes of x, y, z, which
are directed along t h e t a n g e n t s to t h e curves ft and a at a point P on t h e x
strained middle surface and t h e normal to this surface at P . Let P be t h e x
point of t h e unstrained middle surface of which P is t h e displaced position, 1
and let 8s be an element of arc of a curve s, drawn on t h e unstrained surface,

and issuing from P; also let R be t h e radius of curvature of t h e normal
section of this surface drawn through t h e tangent to s at P. The normals
to t h e middle surface a t points of s meet a surface parallel to t h e middle
surface, and at a small distance z from it, in a corresponding curve, and t h e
length of t h e corresponding element of arc of this curve is approximately
equal to {(R — z)/R}8sf. W h e n t h e surface is b e n t so t h a t R is changed
into R', and z and 8s are unaltered, this length becomes {(R' — z)jR') 8s
approximately. Hence t h e extension J of t h e element in question is
(R'-z R-z\ IR-z . , /l 1\ x
?
VR irJ/T o r
' pp™
a a t e ]
y, - ^ ( ^ - s j -
L e t t h e t a n g e n t to s at P cut t h e curve ft a t P a t an angle co. T h e
direction of t h e corresponding curve on t h e parallel surface is nearly t h e
s a m e ; and t h e extension of t h e element of arc of this curve can be ex
pressed as
e xx cos co + e
2
yy sin co + e 2
xy sin co cos co.
E q u a t i n g t h e two expressions for this extension, and using (4), we find
e x cos co + e
X
2
yy sin co + e
2
xy sin co cos CO = — Z(K COS CO 4- K sin co + 2r sin co cos co),
1
2
2
2
and therefore exx = — ztc ly e yy = ZK ,

2 e xy = — 2zr.
* Proc. R. Soc, vol. 45 (1889), p. 105, or Scientific Papers, vol. 3, p. 217.
+ Near a point on the middle surface the equation of this surface can be taken to be
= 2 2 an<
2£ Z IPi + V lP2i ^- tbe coordinates of the point in which the normal at (£', 77') meets the
parallel surface can be shown, by forming the equations of the normal, to be approximately
2 2 2
£' (1 - z/RJ and TJ' (1 - zjR2). Putting £' = ds. cos w, t{ — ds . sin 03, and neglecting z jR^ and z /R2 ,
we obtain the result stated in the text.
X Cf. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, 2nd edition, p. 411.
I n t h e imagined state of strain e , e , e vanish. W i t h this strain we zx yz zz
may compound any strain by which the linear elements initially normal
to t h e unstrained middle surface become extended, or curved, or inclined
to t h e strained middle surface. The most important case is t h a t in which
there is no traction on any surface parallel to the middle surface. I n this
case t h e stress-components denoted by X , Y , Z vanish, and t h e strain- Z Z Z
components e , e , e are given by t h e equations

zx yz zz
ex
Z = 0, e = 0,
yz e = - [a1(1 - <r)} (e
zz xx + e\
yy
where cr is Poisson's ratio for the material, supposed isotropic. I n this state
of strain the linear elements initially normal to t h e unstrained middle surface
remain straight, become normal to the strained middle surface, and suffer
a certain extension specified by t h e value of e written above. I t is clear zz
t h a t this extension can have very little effect* in modifying the expressions
for e , e , e , and we may therefore take as approximate expressions for t h e
xx yy xy
strain-components
e
6** = — ^ ! , e yy = — ZK 2) e=
zz ^ £(/ci + /g )> xy — — 2 T ^ , e = e ^0.
2 zx yz ...(5)
This state of strain may be described as t h e typical flexural strain.

The corresponding stress-components are
E E
E
ZT
X Y = — > X =Y
Z Z = Z = 0,
Z
where E is Young's modulus for the material. The strain-energy-function

takes t h e form
2
Ez
2 2
i f— 2 + * ) - 2 (1 - a ) (K
2 IK2 - T )].
The potential energy of bending, estimated per u n i t of area of the middle

surface, is obtained by integrating this expression with respect to z between
t h e limits —h and h, t h e thickness of t h e shell being 2h. T h e result can be
written
1 D [(*, + K ) - 2 (1 - cr) - T ) ] , 2
2
(6) 2
where D is t h e "flexural rigidity" | f f i / ( l - 4 I n t h e case of a cylinder,

2 2
or any developable surface, this expression becomes \ B {/e + 2 ( 1 —a)r }. 2
3 2 2 3
In t h e case of a sphere it becomes f ^ ( % + T ) , or f fih (s -jj^ , where fx is
t h e rigidity of t h e material*)-.
* It will be seen in the more complete investigation of Article 327 below that such effects are
not entirely negligible.
t These are the expressions used by Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, 2nd edition, Chapter x A .
318. Method of calculating the changes of curvature.
T h e conditions which must be satisfied by t h e displacement in order
t h a t t h e middle surface may suffer no extension may be found by a straight
forward method. L e t A8a be t h e element of arc of a curve ft = const, between
two curves a and a 4- 8a, B8ft t h e element of arc of a curve a — const, between
two curves ft and ft 4- 8/3; also let x', y\ z' be the coordinates of a point on
t h e strained middle surface referred to any suitable axes. W e form expres
sions for x, y', z in terms of t h e coordinates of t h e point before strain and
of any suitable components of displacement. Since curves on the middle
surface retain their lengths, and cut at t h e same angles after strain as before
strain, we must have
1
A COL) \da) \da
*-i l ds) +
[dBj
+
\d8,
1,
dx' dx' dy' dy' dz' dz' _ -
These equations give us t h r e e partial differential equations connecting t h e

components of displacement.
T h e changes of curvature also may be calculated by a fairly straightforward
method. T h e direction cosines I, m, n of t h e normal drawn in a specified
sense to t h e strained middle surface can be expressed in such forms as
X
AB\doLdft dadftj'
and t h e ambiguous sign can always be determined. T h e equations of t h e
normal are
x — x' __y — y' _ z — z\
I m n '
and, if y, z) is a centre of principal curvature, we have
,J
x = x' + lp, y = y' -t-mp', z — z r np\
where p is t h e corresponding principal radius of c u r v a t u r e ; p is estimated as
positive when t h e normal (I, m, ri) is drawn from (V, y', z') towards (x, y, z).
If (a 4- 8a, ft + 8ft) is a point on t h e surface near to (#', y' z') on t h a t line of
y
curvature through (V, y y&')f r

f ° which the radius of curvature is p, t h e
quantities x, y, z, p are unaltered, to t h e first order in 8a, 8ft, by changing a
into a 4-"8a and ft into ft + 8ft. T h e quantity we have already called tani/r
is one of t h e two values of t h e ratio 58/9/A8a. Hence tan-v/r and p are
determined by t h e equations
These three equations are really equivalent to only two, for it follows
from t h e mode of formation of t h e expressions for I, rn, n, and from t h e
2 2 2
equation l + m -{-n = 1 , t h a t , when we multiply the left-hand members
by I, m, n and add t h e results, t h e sum vanishes identically. By elimin
a t i n g t h e ratio Sa/S/3 from two of these equations we form an equation
1 1 1 1
for p, and t h e values of lip' are -^+8^- and + S ^ - ; by eliminating o
ilj jftj ±l 2 Jt2
from two of t h e equations we form an equation for S/3/Sa, which determines

tan i/r.
We shall exemplify these methods in the cases of cylindrical and spherical shells. In
more difficult cases, or when there is extension as well as change of curvature, it is advisable
to use a more powerful method. One such method will be given later; others have been
given by H. Lamb* and Lord Rayleight. The results for cylindrical and spherical shells
may, of course, be obtained by the general methods; but these cases are so important that
it seems to be worth while to show how they may be investigated by an analysis which
presents no difficulties beyond the manipulation of some rather long expressions. The
results in these cases were obtained by Lord Rayleigh J.
319. Inextensional deformation of a cylindrical shell.
(a) Formulce for the displacement.
W h e n the middle surface is a circular cylinder of radius a, we t a k e t h e
quantities a and ft at any point to be respectively t h e distance along t h e
generator drawn through t h e point, measured from a fixed circular section,
and the angle between t h e axial plane
containing t h e point and a fixed axial
p l a n e ; and we write x and in place of
a and /3. W e resolve t h e displacement
of t h e point into components: u along
t h e generator, v along t h e t a n g e n t to t h e
circular section, w along t h e normal to t h e
surface drawn inwards. The coordinates
x, y\ z of t h e corresponding point on t h e
strained middle surface are given by t h e
equations
x' = x + u, y' —{a — w) cos <fi — v sin c/>, Fig. 71.
z — (a — w) sin G/> + v cos cf).
The conditions t h a t t h e displacement m a y be inextensional are
/
dx dx dy dy' dz dz'
dx dcp dx deft dx d<f>
f Theory of Sound, 2nd edition, vol. 1, Chapter X A .
t London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 13 (1882), or Scientific Papers, vol. 1, p. 551, and the
paper cited on p. 474 supra. See also Theory of Sound, 2nd edition, vol. 1, Chapter x A .
On writing down t h e equations
u w
^ ^ cos 6 — ^ sin <f> — ^ sin 6 + — cos 6
dx~~ dx' dx dx ^ dx ^' dx dx ^ dx ^'
dx du dy' [dw \ , ( dv\ . ±
dz I dv\ (dw \ .
= la — w -f ) cos cp — l^-r + v) sm c/>, r
3</> V dcpj \d<j) j
we see t h a t these conditions are, to t h e first order in u, v, w,
du dv dv 1 du ^
— = 0, w = ^-r, ^ - + - ^ 7 = 0 (7)
dx dcp dx a dcp
These equations show t h a t u is independent of x, and v and w are linear
functions of x.
If t h e edge-line consists of two circles x = const., u, v, w must be periodic
in cp with period 2TT, and t h e most general possible forms are
u = — 2 ^ B sin (ncp + /3 ),
n n v—2 cos (ncp + a ) + B x cos n n -f |
w = -%n [A sin (w0 + «») + 5 ^ sin (n<£ + £ ) ] ,

n n
(8)
where A , B , a , $
n n n n are constants, and t h e summations refer to different
integral values of n.
(b) Changes of curvature.

T h e direction cosines Z, m, n of t h e normal to t h e strained middle surface
drawn inwards are
I - 1filLA A jt\ d d d
a \dx dcp dx dcp) ' '

W e write down t h e values of dx/dx,... simplified by using (7), in t h e forms
dx' __ ^ dy' 1 du . , dw dz' _ 1 du dw .
dx ' dx a dcp ™ dx ^' dx a dcp ™ 3# ^'
9a?' 3^ 3y' . . / 3w\ , 3 / / dw\ . .
= a s m < > v + cos< > a c o s ( > v + 8m( >
d^ - l -{ d4,) t ' ^ t - [ d4,) f '
and we find, to t h e first order in u, v, w,
7 <^w . 1 / , dw\ . , . , 1 / , dw\
I = — T— , m — ~ cos 0 + - v + ^T7 sm <p, w = — s m © ^ + ^TT COS ©.
7 T
da? a\ 3<£/ a \ dcp) r r
The principal radii of curvature and t h e directions of t h e lines of curva

t u r e are given by t h e equations
1 (dxdy' dy'dx'\ 1 /dx'dm dl dy' dmdx' dy dl\
2
p \dx dcp dx dcp) p \dx dcp dx dcp dx dcp dx dcp)
dl dm dm dl _ ^
dx dcp dx dcp '
/gJA2 x 9 m
and (&*)•(dx' dm dy' dl\ ^ fi ' ty' ^

dx dx dx dx) ^ \d(f> 3</> dcj> d ^ + ^ — ^ — ^ —\ — 0
\dx d$ dx d(p dx d(j> dxd<pj
F o r t h e purpose of calculating t h e coefficients in these equations we write
down t h e values of dl/dx,simplifying t h e m slightly by means of (7) and
by t h e observation t h a t v and w are linear functions of x. W e have
dl_ dm _ sin <j> 3 / dw\
= 0, 9
dx dx a dx \ dcj>)
=B
. in , L1+. 1 (d
fd w +.W \ ) +., cos</>
30 *l 5l^ J}
22
dl dhv dm cos / . ;dw
W =
~dxd$> — {V +
HJ
W e know beforehand that, when terms of t h e second order in u, v, w are
neglected, one value of 1/p is zero and t h e other is l/a + /c ; also t h e value 2
of aB^/Sx is tan-xjr, and tan 2^ = — 2ar. W e can now write down t h e above
equations for p and hxjhc\> in t h e forms (correct to t h e first order in u, v, w)
(1 + dw\ C0S
-+
^J ^
' . , 1 / dw\ . 1 /S w 2
. . ,
= 0,
, 1 9 / 8w\ . , , 1 , , , (du dhv \ .

a n d V + S m + tan S m
a die \ d<}>) * a* + (§* ~ ° m ) *
"Sm +1 /
*5
2
. ( 3w\ , 1 (d w \ . /
-t- - tan + C S + 2 + W S m
(* ^ j ^° *a \dcb
d<f>) a (d6 2
) *
T h e former of these gives, to t h e first order in u, v, w,
2
1 (d w \
\dcj> 2 •(9)
and t h e latter gives, to t h e same order,
tan 2yjr 2 +
di\ d4>)>
__ 1 3 / 3w\
.(10)
a 3# \ 30/
W i t h t h e values of u, v, w given in (8) these results become
K = 2
2 [4 W sin (w</> + a ) + n sin (ncj> + /3 )], %
.(11)
T = - 2 5 ^ cos (w<£ + £»).
320. Inextensional deformation of a spherical shell.

(a) Formulas for the displacement
W h e n t h e middle surface is a sphere of radius a we t a k e t h e coordinates
a and ft to be ordinary spherical polar coordinates, and write 0, cj) for a, ft.
The displacement is specified by
components u along t h e t a n g e n t to
t h e meridian in t h e direction of
increase of 0, v along t h e t a n g e n t
to the parallel in the direction of
increase of </>, w along t h e normal
to t h e surface drawn inwards. T h e
Cartesian coordinates of a point on
t h e strained middle surface are given
by t h e equations
x = (a — w) sin 0 cos cj>
4- u cos 0 cos c\> — v sin cf>>
Fig. 72. y — (a — w) sin 0 sin </>
4- u cos 0 sin 4- v cos cp,
z' = (a — w) cos 0 — u sin 0.
The conditions t h a t the displacement may be inextensional are
1,
a sin 0 V3<£/ V3<ft/ \36,
f f
dx' dx dy dy dz' dz _
+ +
d0d^ d0 30 30 30
W e write down t h e equations
dx'
(a-w 4- ^ cos 0 - ^ 4- M ) sin 0 cos — ^ sin 9,
d0
• dv
a—w• sm 0 4 cos <p,
d0
dz' I du\ . n (dw \ a
and
&»' 3v' 3^ ^ dw . n
(a — W)$VCL0 + U cos sin 0 4- ^ • C O S P - V - r r S i n ^ cos <£,
04-
3<j!> =
3f
dy_ dv' 3w ^ 3w . A
(a — w) sin 0 4- w cos 0 4-30_ C O S ( £ 4- 7T-7 cos 0 — v — TTT sm 0 sin cf>,
3<£" 3 + ,
30 d0
__ du . Q d u _ 3 v d u . „ d v „
W
~d0' S m
W^~d4>^rTd y
dcf>sm0 + sm 6 dd
^ sin
-r—pi 6 = 0. .. .(12)
The last two of these equations show that w/sin 6 and w/sin 6 are conjugate
functions of log (tan 0 ) and cp.
If the edge-line consists of two circles of latitude, u v, w must be periodic y
in cp with period 27r, and the most general possible forms for them are
71
e n e
u = sin 8 2 A n tan - cos (ncp -f- a ) + 5 n n c o t - cos (ncp + fi ) n
6 n
6 1
v = sin 6 2 A n t a n g sin (??(£ + a*) - B cot* - sin (n</> + j3 ) n n
.(13)
71
w = 2 (n + cos 6) A tan - cos (ncp + a ) n 9l
n
— - cos 6) B cot - cos (ncp + /3 )
n n
where A , B , a , fi
n n n n are constants, and the summations refer to different
integral values of n.
If in the formulae (12) we put n=0 we find displacements of the type
s m s R a = c o s c o s a
u=A sin 6 cos a> «*=-4o 0 i > ^ -ô
0 0 >
the terms in 5 being of the same type. The components of this displacement in the
directions of x\ y\ z' are
— A sin a sin 6 sin </>,
0 sin ct sin <9 cos <^>, — ^4 cosa, 0
and this displacement is compounded of a translation — ^4 cosa in the direction of the 0

_1
axis of z' and a rotation ^4 a sina about this axis. 0
If in the formulae (12) we put n = l, we find displacements of the types

u — ^4i(l — cos 0) cos (<£ + a ) , v—A^l — cos 0) sin (<£ + a), w=îsin#cos(<£+a),
and
w = B (1 + cos 6) cos (<£+/3), v = - ^ (1+ cos 6) sin (cp+£),
x w= - sin 0 cos (<£ + /3).
The former is equivalent to a translation ( —J^cosa, sin a, 0) and a rotation
1
^l a~ (sina, cos a, 0); and the latter is equivalent to a translation (Z^cos/3, — i^sin/3, 0)
1
1
and a rotation Zâ" (sin/3, cos/3, 0).
It appears from what has just been said that all the displacements
obtained from ( 1 3 ) by putting n = 0 or 1 are possible in a rigid body, and the
terms for which n has these values may be omitted from the summations.
Similar results can be proved in the case of cylindrical shells.
If the edge-line consists of one circle of latitude, and the pole 6 — 0 is

n
included, we must omit from ( 1 3 ) the terms in c o t | 0 , (n > 1 ) , for these
terms become infinite at the pole. If the sphere is complete the terms in
n
t a n | - # , (n>l), must be omitted also; that is to say no inextensional
L. E. 31
displacements are possible in a complete spherical shell except such as are
possible in a rigid body*.
(b) Changes of curvature.
W e form next expressions for t h e direction cosines I, m, n of t h e normal

to t h e deformed surface, by means of such formulae as
1 idy'dz' dz'dy\
t
~ a s i n 0 [dcp 30
2
3</> 30 J '
and for this purpose we first write down t h e expressions for dx'jdO,... simplified
by means of equations (12). We have
da/ , n (dw \ . dv .
n
^ = a cos 0 cos cp — ( + uj sm 0 cos 9 — ^ sm cp,
9y' /i • /9w \ • /i • 3#
^ = a cos 0 sm cp — f ^ + w 1 sm 0 sm 0 -f cos c/>,
3/ . . /9w \ .
— = — a sm 0 — y 7 ^ + cos 0,
and ^ = — a sm 0 sm cp + cos 0 — A — ^ sm 0J cos c/>,
3y . . (du
n c o s
' dw . A . ,
^ = a sm 0cos 9 + ^ 7 p - ^ - ^ s m t / 81116,
09 \dT7T + w cos 0 cos 9 + - [v -f- - — ^ ?rr sm 9,
^ a V30 / a \ sm 0 dcp/ T
. . . . 1 /3w \ „ . , 1 / 1 9w\
m = — sm 0 sm d> ^ + ^ cos 0 sin 6 7
[v+ -—^ ^rr cos cp, T
^ a\d0 / a\ s m 0 3c£/
n = - cos 0 + + - f^
sin 0.
a V30 /
Exactly as in t h e case of t h e cylinder, t h e principal curvatures and t h e
directions of t h e lines of curvature are determined by t h e compatible
equations
* The result is in accordance with the theorem that a closed surface cannot be bent without
stretching. This theorem is due to J. H. Jellett, Dublin Trans. R. Irish Acad., vol. 22 (1855).
and we therefore write down the following equations, in which we put for
shortness X = - ( ^ + u], Y = - (v +
a \dv J a\ sin 0 dcf>,
dl dX\ n , -rr • n , 3Y . ,
1 + 7^- J cos 0 cos 0 -f X sm 0 cos 0 + 30 sm 9,
dm - dX\ /, • . -rr • /i • , 3F
1 -f gg-1 cos 0 s m 0 + X sm 0 sm <p — ^ cos 0,

=
30
M _ 1 + j sin 0 + X cos 0,
and
30"
3?n _
r
sin 0 -I- A cos 0 -f- sin 0 — cos 0 — Y^j cos 0,
30 "
dn . sin
.3X0 + X cos 0 + cos 0 — cos 0 — F J sin 0,
= S m
3-0 % -
Our procedure in this case must be a little different from t h a t adopted
i n the case of t h e cylinder because, to t h e first order, t h e sum and product
of t h e principal curvatures are unaltered by t h e strain. W e therefore begin
by finding the equation for tan<\Jr, or sin0S0/S0. This equation may be
written
dx t a n yjr daf\ (dm t a n yjr dm\ (dy' tan yjr dy'\ (dl tan i/r dl \
+ + + 9
.30 "sinT30j V ^ " ^ i ^ ^ / V ^ " s m T 3 0 y V30 s m T 30/
and, by direct substitution of t h e values written above for 3 # / / 3 0 , i t is
found to be
dv 3F\ „ t a n ^ / . dX v a 3F\ a
a G 0 S 6 + a s m 6 X C 0 S C 0 S 5
30 " 30 ) ST0 [ 30 - ° ~ 30 )
2
, tan ^ f idX
^ cos 0 —1> — ^ sin 0 U sin 0 = 0 .
30 30
Now we have
dv_ 3 7 _ _ ^ / 1 dw\
a ;
30 30 " 30 U n 0 3 0 /
_ cos ^ _ « - _ sm 0 ] = sm * cos ^ ^ - j,
afsintfg-Xcostf ^ j = sir
2
dw
cW +
du
d0 • COS
n(dw
+W
^30 J--30-sin-0 30
\ dv 1 2
dw
1 3% , ^ dw
= sm < + w - 2 2
sm 0 30 30
where, in t h e last line, use has been made of t h e equations (12). But, since
31—2
w — du/d6, and u satisfies t h e equation obtained by eliminating v from t h e
second and third of (12), viz.
2 2
du . _ du A . A du A
+ sm0
dfi dffl - SIN 0 COS 0 ^ + ^ = 0,
it follows t h a t
2 2
1 dw , dw 1 3 / . „du , .
A du \ „dw , n A n
2
sin 03<£ + c o t 0de

2 2
^ + w ="sin
^ „ (930 V~ s m 30
^ + sin 0cos 0 30
^ - w + c o t 080
2
Q ^ + w 2
"30^ - w.
Hence t h e equation for tan becomes
2
3 / 1 dw\ l(d w
One of t h e equations for determining p is
1 + ^ ) sin 0 + X cos 6 + ~ t a n ->|r

or p
' sin0+Xcos0 + if!^ + cot0^f)tan^
T
a \d(j) d<j>J
,
= 1+ 8+X tan-^raZ 1 /8w
+ C0t ^ S M A )
^ înit^-al^ ^j}
Un
a \d6* ) a 80 0 deb)
2
1 /3 w "\
= 1 +
But, using t h e notation of Article 316, we have
2 2
— - = ^ cos i/r + # sin i/r + T sin 2^/r 2
— Kx (cos 2i/r + sin 2>jr tan 2 ^ )

= sec 2i|r.
I t follows t h a t
M 2 2+ W T 2
~ a V80 )' ~~ af 80 Wn 0 8<£
2
1 /8 w . \ _3 1
.(14)
W i t h t h e values of u, v, w given in (13) we now find
_ « w — m J . t a n -0 cos (ncp + or ) — 5 w n
c o t ^ cos (ncp -f y8 )
n w n n
2 _ Z
' " ^ I n ^
W — '/I 0
w
0 n
2 2
A n t a n - sin (ncp + « ) + J9 c o t ^ sin (w</> + n n fi )
n
a sin 0
320, 321] INEXTENSIONAL VIBRATIONS OF A THIN SHELL 485
3 2 1 . Inextensional vibrations.
If we assume t h a t t h e state of strain in a vibrating shell is t h a t which
has been described in Article 3 1 7 as the typical flexural strain, we may
calculate the frequency of vibration by forming expressions for the kinetic
and potential energies*. W e illustrate this method in t h e cases of cylindrical
and spherical shells.
(i) Cylindrical shell.
The kinetic energy, estimated per unit of area of t h e middle surface, is
ph
where p is the density of t h e material, and u> v, w are given by ( 8 ) , in which

the coefficients A , B are to be regarded as functions of t. The kinetic
n n
energy T of t h e vibrating shell is obtained by integrating this expression

over t h e area of t h e middle surface. If t h e ends of t h e shell are given by
oo— + l.we find
T=2irpalh% ...(16)
The potential energy of bending, estimated per unit of area of t h e middle

surface, is
ID[K +2(1-<7)T ],
2
2 2
where K and r are given by ( 1 1 ) . The potential energy V of t h e vibrating

2
shell is obtained by integrating this expression over t h e area of the middle

surface. W e find
V = Dirlt ( N 2
^ 1 ) 2
[n A2
n
2
+ &nH* + 2 ( 1 - cr) a } B ] 2
n
2
(17)
a
T h e coefficients A , B in t h e expressions ( 8 ) for the displacement may
n n
be regarded as generalized coordinates, and t h e expressions for T and V show

t h a t they are " principal coordinates," so t h a t t h e various modes of vibration
specified by different A'& or JB'S are executed independently of each other.
T h e vibrations in which all the B's and all b u t one of t h e A's vanish are two-
dimensional and t a k e place in planes at right angles to t h e axis of the cylinder.
T h e type is expressed by t h e equations
u = 0, v — A cos ncf), w — — nA sin nj>, n n
in which A is proportional to a simple harmonic function of t h e time with

n
a period 27rjp, and p is given by t h e equation

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2_ D n (n -l) _ Eh n (n -l) ( .
2
P
~2pha 4 2
n +l ~3/9(l-<7 X n +l 2
^ )
* The theory of inextensional vibrations is due to Lord Rayleigh, London Math. Soc. Proc,
vol. 13 (1881), or Scientific Papers, vol. 1, p. 551, and Proc. R. Soc, vol. 45 (1889), p. 105, or
Scientific Papers, vol. 3, p. 217. See also Theory of Sound, second edition, Chapter x A . A
discussion of the conditions for the existence of practically inextensional modes of vibration will
be given in Chapter xxiv. infra.
486 INEXTENSIONAL VIBRATIONS [CH. X X I I I
T h e vibrations in which all the A's and all b u t one of t h e B's vanish are
three-dimensional. The type is expressed by t h e equations
u = — ^B n sin ncj), v — xB n cos ncf), w = — nxB n sinn$>,
and the frequency P/2TT is given by t h e equation

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 Eh n (n — I ) 1 -I- 6 (1 - a) a /n l
P 2 4 2 2 2 2 2
~~3p(l-cr )a ~~~n +l l^Sa /n (n +l)l ^ '
If either n or l/a is at all large t h e two values of p belonging to t h e same
value of n are nearly equal.
(ii) Spherical shell.
We shall suppose t h e middle surface to be bounded by a circle of latitude
0 = a, and t h a t t h e pole 0 = 0 is included. Then in (13) and (15) the co
efficients B vanish. The kinetic energy T is given by t h e equation
n
2 a
dA \ C 0
T = 7rpa hX 2
j^j J sin 0 [2 sin 0 + (cos 0 + nf) tan " | d0 2 2
...(20)
The potential energy of bending, estimated per unit of area of t h e middle

2
surface, is F ph* (jc? + T ), where K± and T are given by (15) with t h e B's
omitted. Hence t h e potential energy V of t h e vibrating shell is given by
t h e equation
F- £ 2 [»• (»• - 1? AS £ TON- | ^ .(21)
The coefficients 4 in t h e expressions for the components of displacement

W
can be regarded as " principal coordinates" * and the frequency can be

written down.
I n a principal mode the type of vibration is expressed by the equations
0 0
n 71
u=A n sin 0 t a n ^ cos n<f> v = A sin 0 tan - sin n<f>,
y n
Q
71
w = A (n + cos 0) tan - cos
n
in which J . is proportional to a simple harmonic function of the time.

n The
frequency p / 2 i r is given by t h e equation
n
Pn2
= F -~ n4
2 2 2
(n - 1 ) Q^tan " | 2
^g)Y/( J sin(9{2 s i n 0 + (cos0 + n ) } t a n ^ ^ < 9 ^ .
a 2 2 2
I n this expression w may be any integer greater t h a n unity.
* When the edge-line consists of two circles of latitude, so that the coefficients B occur as well
as the coefficients A, the A's and B's are not principal coordinates, for terms containing such
products as (dAJdt). (dBJdt) occur in the expression for T. See Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound,
second edition, Chapter x A.
321] OF A THIN SHELL 487
The integrations can always be performed. We have
t a n 2«-2^ j= tan «2 + 2
|
3
2sm <9 8 + 2- - +
71 n+1 J'
n
a 2 2 2w (2-x)
( sin 6 {2 sin 6 + (cos (9 + ^) } tan %d0=f- 2 2
[(n-l) -f-2 (n + 1) so — x ] dx,
Jo * J:1 + C O S a X N
and the second of these can be evaluated for any integral value of n. In the case of a
hemisphere (a—îr) Lord Rayleigh (loc. cit.) finds the frequencies p , Pz> P± n=2, 3, 4 2
to be given by
^WdE)^ ^4 /(|j)(i4- 6),

2X 72
In the case of a saucer of 120° (<z = J7r) he finds
In the case of a very small aperture in a nearly complete sphere (a—IT nearly) the
frequency calculated from the above formula* is given approximately by
2 2 2
_A 8/xrc (T* -1)
4 4
"a 3/i (7r-a) *
Cf. H . Lamb, loc. cit. p. 477.

CHAPTER XXIV.
GENERAL THEORY OF THIN PLATES AND SHELLS.
322. Formulae relating to the curvature of surfaces.

F o r t h e investigations in t h e last Chapter t h e elements of t h e theory
of t h e curvature of surfaces are adequate. For t h e purpose of developing
a more general method of t r e a t m e n t of the problem of curved plates or shells
we shall require some further results of this theory. I t seems best to begin
by obtaining these results.
Let ot, ft denote any two parameters by means of which the position of
a point on a surface can be expressed, so t h a t t h e equations a = const.,
ft = const, represent families of curves traced on t h e surface. L e t % be t h e
angle between the tangents of these curves at any p o i n t ; % is in general
a function of a and ft. The linear element ds of any curve traced on t h e
surface is given by the formula
2 2 2 2 2
(ds) = A (da) + B (dft) + 2AB cos dadft, x (1)
where A and B are, in general, functions of a, ft. Let a right-handed system
of moving axes of a,.y, z be constructed so t h a t the origin is at a point (a, ft)
of t h e surface, t h e axis of z is t h e normal to t h e surface at the origin, drawn
in a chosen sense, the axis of x is t h e tangent to t h e curve ft = const, which
passes through t h e origin, drawn in the sense of increase of a, and t h e axis of
y is tangential to the surface, and at right angles to t h e axis of x*. When
t h e origin of this triad of axes moves over t h e surface t h e directions of t h e
axes change. If t represents t h e time, the components of velocity of t h e
origin are
. dec dft T> jy dft A
A + B C O a B S m
dt d t * d t K °'
parallel to the instantaneous positions of the axes of x y z. y y T h e components
* When the curves a = const, and (3=const, cut at right angles we suppose that the parameters
a and /3, and the positive sense of the normal to the surface, are so chosen that the directions in
which a and (3 increase and this normal are the directions of a right-handed system of axes.
322] CURVATURE OF SURFACES 489
of the angular velocity of t h e system of axes, referred to these same directions,

can be expressed in t h e forms
da dfi da dB da d/3
1 3
dt ' f l
di dt
in which the quantities p , ... are functions of a and /3. x
The quantities ... are connected with each other and with A, B, % by
t h e systems of equations (2) and (3) below. These results may be obtained
as follows:—
Let x, y, z denote the coordinates of a fixed point referred to the moving axes. Then
x, y, z are functions of a and /3, and the conditions that the point remains fixed while the
axes move are the three equations
dx da dx d(3 . da. t d(3\ , / da , d(3\
+
dadi d8di' + A
d t + £
d t c o a
x = 0
'
dy da , dy dfi ( da , df}\ , / da , d(3\ , ^d/3 .

da dt'dp dt ' dt
dz da dz d& ( da , d8\ ( da
=0.
dadi +
d f i d t - \ ^ X
d t ^ d t ) ^
'dt^^dtj^^^di^dtj 3*+*
Since these hold for all values of dajdt and dfSjdt, we have the six equations
dx dz
da ^qix-piy,
dx dz
• -Bco8 +r y-q2Z,
X 2 - B sin x+^-^x, ^s=q ^-p2y. 2
The conditions of compatibility of these equations are three equations of the form
d fdx\ 3 /dx\
an
(g-j = g- f gjg ) 9 d j in forming the differential coefficients, we may use the above
expressions for dx/da,.... The results must hold for all values of x, y, z.
T h e process j u s t sketched leads to t h e equations*
8pi_3p2
3/3 da
TlPl r pi, y •(2)

3/3 da" 2
df dr.
and OX
da B sin ^ \dB
COSX dB .(3)
J . sinpj; \ 3 a
+ i s l n C0S
5 r^" X = if %-
* The sets of equations (2) and (3) were obtained by D. Codazzi, Paris Mem. par divers savants,
t. 27 (1882).-
490 CURVATURE OF SURFACES [CH. X X I V
To express t h e curvature of t h e surface we form t h e equations of t h e

normal at (a + 8a, ft + 8 ft) referred to t h e axes of x, y, z a t (a, ft). T h e
direction cosines of t h e normal are, with sufficient approximation, (q-fia + q $ft), 2
— (pi8a-\-p 8ft), 1, and t h e equations are

2
x — (A8a + B8ft cos x) _ y — B8ft sin %

Z
( 8* + q 8ft)
qi 2 ~ " -( 8a Pl + p 8ft)~ '
2
I t follows t h a t t h e lines of curvature are given by t h e differential equation

2
Ap (da)* + B (p cos % + q sin x) (dft) + {Ap + B (p, cos % + q sin %)} dad ft=0,
x 2 2 2 x
W
and t h a t t h e principal radii of curvature are t h e roots of t h e equation
R 2
(PiV* -PzQi) - B [Ap - B (p cos x + qi sin %)} + AB sin % = 0. .. .(5)
2 1
From these results t h e equation of t h e indicatrix of t h e surface is easily

found to be
2+ cot
- S * (ds* " z *) f >= » +2 co st 6
<)
T h e measure of curvature is given by (5) and t h e third of (2) in the form
1 /dr\ _ dj\
AB sin x \W fa • ) •
323. Simplified formulae relating to t h e curvature of surfaces.

W h e n t h e curves a = const, and ft = const, are lines of curvature on t h e
surface t h e formulas are simplified very much. I n this case t h e axes of x and y
are t h e principal t a n g e n t s at a point, t h e axis of z being t h e normal at t h e
point. W e have
% = | T T , p = 0, q = 0, x (7) 2
and t h e roots of equation (5) are — Ajq x and B/p . 2 W e shall write
i_ = _2i j _l £? = j ( ) 8
5
Rx A R 2 B'
so t h a t R R are t h e radii of curvature of normal sections of t h e surface
l3 2
drawn through those tangent lines which are axes of x, y at any point. W e
have also
____idA i a B =
n y T
~ B dft * A da '
r (9) v }
AB d (\ dB\ d / l dA\
3
R,R da\A da) dft
2 \BdftJ
322-324] DEFORMATION OF A THIN SHELL 491
324. E x t e n s i o n and curvature of the middle surface of a plate

or shell.
I n general we shall regard t h e middle surface in t h e unstressed state
as a curved surface, and take t h e curves a = const, and ft — const, to be t h e
lines of curvature. I n the case of a plane plate a and ft may be ordinary
Cartesian coordinates, or they may be curvilinear orthogonal coordinates. I n
the case of a sphere a and ft could be taken to be ordinary spherical polar
coordinates. Equations (7) — (10) hold in t h e unstressed state. W h e n
t h e plate is deformed t h e curves t h a t were lines of curvature become two
families of curves traced on t h e strained middle surface, which cut each other
at an angle t h a t may differ slightly from a right angle. W e denote this
angle by x and its cosine by -DT, and we denote by e and e t h e extensions 2 2
of linear elements which, in t h e unstressed state, lie along the curves

ft = const, and a = const. The quantities a and ft may be regarded as
parameters which determine a point of the strained middle surface, and
the formula for the linear element is
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(ds) = A (1 + eO (da) + B (1 + 6 ) (dft) + 2AB (1 + ) (1 + e ) *r dadft.
2 6 l 2
As in Article 322, we may construct a system of moving orthogonal axes of

x, y, z with the origin on t h e strained middle surface, t h e axis of z along t h e
normal at t h e origin to this surface, and t h e axis of x along the t a n g e n t
at the origin to a curve ft — const. The components of velocity of the origin
parallel to t h e instantaneous positions of the axes of x and y are
dft dft
^ ( l + e i ) ^ T + £(l + e ) B(l+ € ) sin
2 x
2 O T
dt 3
dt '
T h e components of angular velocity of t h e triad of axes referred to these
same directions will be denoted by
, da ,d0 ,da ,dft , da ,dft
P l +P2 q i + q 2 T l T 2
dt dt> di dt' dt + dt'
Then in equations (2) and (3) we must replace A by A (1 + €i), B by B (1 + e ), 2
Pi, P2> ••• r by pi, p ', ... r .

2 The directions of t h e lines of curvature of t h e
2 2
strained middle surface, the values of t h e sum and product of t h e principal

curvatures, and the equation of t h e indicatrix are found by making similar
changes in t h e formula (4)—(6).
If we retain first powers only of e 1? e , vr, equations (3) give
2
1 dA v dB e dA
2 A d €l \
492 EXTENSION A N D BENDING [CH. X X I V
The indicatrix of the strained middle surface is given, to the same order
of approximation, by t h e formula
2
^(l-e )x 1 +^ ( l - e 2 ) - f ^ f + 2 ^ ( l - e 1 ) x y = const.
If US, R denote the radii of curvature of normal sections of t h e strained

2
middle surface drawn through t h e axes of x and y at any point, and i/r the
angle which one of the lines of curvature of this surface drawn through the
point makes with t h e axis of x at t h e point, we have, to t h e same order,
..(12)
tan2^=-^(l-e )y 1
I t is clear from these formulae that, when t h e extension is known, the state
of t h e strained middle surface as regards curvature is defined by t h e quantities
-qS/A, ps'/B, Pl'/A.
K = P
W e shall write — ~ — ~- — i, ~" y> r = T (13)
A. JrC JJ JX 1 A 2
and shall refer to Ki, K2, T as the " changes of curvature." I n t h e particular
cases of a plane plate which becomes slightly bent, and a shell which under
goes a small inextensional displacement, these quantities become identical
with those which were denoted by t h e same letters in Chapters x x n . and
XXIII.
The measure of curvature is given by t h e formula

1 - 6j - e (drS 2 dr \ 2
AB VS/3 doc
where r / , r are given by t h e first two of (11). W h e n there is no extension

2
t h e values of r / , r for the deformed surface are identical with those of r r

2 1} 2
for t h e unstrained surface, and t h e measure of curvature is unaltered by the

strain (Gauss's theorem). The sum of t h e principal curvatures, being equal
to 1/Ri +1/R ', can be found from the formulae (12).
2
325. M e t h o d of calculating t h e e x t e n s i o n and the changes of

curvature.
To calculate e ... p/, ... in terms of the coordinates of a point on t h e
ly
strained middle surface, or of the displacement of a point on the unstrained

middle surface, we introduce a scheme of nine direction cosines expressing
t h e directions of t h e moving axes of x y, z at any point relative to fixed axes
}
of x, y, z. L e t t h e scheme be
324, 325] OF A THIN SHELL 493
X J Z
X h m1 n x
.(14)
y h m 2 n 2
z h m 3 n 3
If now x, y, z denote the coordinates of a point on t h e strained middle

surface, t h e direction cosines l m , n of t h e t a n g e n t to t h e curve 8 = const,
lt x x
which passes through the point are given by t h e equations

dx
4 ( l + ) « h = | [ , A{l + eOfh = ^ . - ( 1 5 )
8a' e i
T h e direction cosines of t h e tangent to the curve a = const, which passes

2
through the point are 4 sin % + 4 cos and therefore, when OT and vre 2
are neglected, £ , m , r? are given by t h e equations

2 2 2
ds. AY
B {(1 + e ) l + <wl } =dB
2 2 B{(1 + e ) m + wmj =dB'
x 3 2
dz_
-B{(l + e ) WS + OTHJ} = 2 .(16)
dB'
The direction cosines l ra , w of the normal to the strained middle surface
S) 3 3
are given by t h e equations

l = mn
z x 2 — mn 2 lt ra 3 = nj 2 —nl 2 l} n = ^7/i — Z raj
3 2 2 (17)
From equations (15) and (16) we find, correctly to t h e first order in
/3z
.(18)
8/3; +
[dp,
__JL(9x9x 3y3y 3z3z)
m + +
~ J 5 \da d0 da d@ da d@j * )
Again, since the line whose direction cosines referred to the moving axes
are l l , l t h a t is the axis of x, is fixed relatively to t h e fixed axes, t h e
l9 2 3i
ordinary formulas connected with moving axes give us three equations of

t h e type
+ 1 +r + t s q i + q 2
dadt d/3 dt H dt * dt) [ dt di)-°>
and, by expressing t h e fixity of the axes of y and z, we obtain two other such
sets of equations. From these we find t h e formulae
dL drrio dn. dL dm» dn*
T h e formulae (18) enable us to calculate e 1 ? e , OT, and t h e formulae (19)
2
give us t h e means of calculating p/,
326. Formulae relating to small displacements.

L e t u, v, w denote t h e components of displacement of any point on t h e
unstrained middle surface referred to t h e tangents at t h e point to t h e curves
/3 = const, and a — const, and t h e normal at t h e point to t h e surface. We
wish to calculate t h e extension and t h e changes of curvature in terms of
u, v, w and their differential coefficients with respect to a and ft.
(a) The extension.

According to t h e formulae (18) we require expressions for dx/da, ... where
x, y, z are t h e coordinates of a point on the strained middle surface referred
to fixed axes. W e shall choose as these fixed axes t h e lines of reference for
u, v w at a particular point on t h e unstrained middle surface, and obtain t h e
y
required expressions by an application of the method of moving axes.
Let P(a, ft be the chosen point on the unstrained middle surface, P' (a + 8a, /3 + 8ft
a neighbouring point on this surface. The lines of reference for u, v, w are a triad of
moving axes, and the position of these axes when the origin is at P' is to be obtained
from the position when the origin is at P by a small translation and a small rotation.
The components of the translation, referred to the axes at P, are Aba, Bt)j3, 0. The
components of the rotation, referred to the same axes, are given by the results in
Article 323 in the forms
P8/3 Aba _dA da dB 8/3
+
R2 ' Rt ' dpB Ja ~A'
When P is displaced to P and P' to P{, the x, y, z of P are the same as the u> v, w
x x
of P; the x, y, z of Pi are
x + (dx/da) da + (dx/dp) 8ft ...,
and the u, v, w of P' are
u + (du/da) da + (du/dp) 8ft ....
These quantities are connected by the ordinary formulse relating to moving axes, viz.:
dz . dz . R (dw. dw_\ ( Aha\ , Bb$
and in these formulse we may equate coefficients of da and 80.

T h e above process leads to t h e following expressions for dx/da, ...:
325, 326] T H I N SHELL SLIGHTLY DEFORMED 495
W h e n products of u, v, w and their differential coefficients are neglected t h e

formulas ( 1 8 ) and ( 2 0 ) give
1 dn v dA w 1 dw u dB w
+
B d$ AB da
.(21)
_ 1 dv 1 du u dA v dB
+
™~Ada Bdp~ABdp ABda'
These formulas determine the extension.
W h e n t h e displacement is inextensional u, v, w satisfy t h e system of

partial differential equations obtained from ( 2 1 ) by equating t h e right-hand
members to zero. As we saw in particular cases, in Articles 3 1 9 and 3 2 0 ,
t h e assumption t h a t the displacement is inextensional is almost enough to
determine t h e forms of u, v, iv as functions of a and J3.
(b) The changes of curvature.

According to t h e formulas ( 1 9 ) we require expressions for t h e direction
cosines l ... of t h e moving axes referred to t h e fixed a x e s ; we require also
1}
expressions for dl^da, W e shall choose our fixed axes as before to be

t h e lines of reference for u, v, w at one point P of t h e unstrained middle
surface. By ( 1 5 ) , ( 1 6 ) , ( 1 7 ) , ( 2 0 ) , ( 2 1 ) we can write down expressions for t h e
values of Hi, ... at t h e corresponding point P of t h e strained middle surface
1
in the forms
j 1 dv u dA 1 dw u
}
1,-1, ™i--Jda~ABdp == +
AdoL R ' 1
• 1 dv u dA _ 1 dw v
m n2 + .(22)
~Afa +
ABdp 2
~Bd/3 R>
1 dw u 1 dw v
Ada" Bdfi'
These are not t h e general expressions for l ... at any point. They are
lt
expressions for - t h e direction cosines of t h e moving axes at a point on t h e

strained middle surface, referred to t h e lines of reference for u, v, w at the
corresponding point of t h e unstrained middle surface. For these latter
direction cosines we may introduce t h e orthogonal scheme
u V
X h
y M 2
z M 3
T h e n we have t h e values
T M _ 1 dv _ v, dA „ _ 1 dw u
Jyi +
Mi—jfc ABd$' ~Adcc B'
1
+
.(23)
L
°~ Ada +
ABdfi' 2
' *~Bd/3 R ' 2
1 dw
and these hold for all points. W e apply the method of moving axes to
deduce expressions for dljda, and t h e n we form t h e expressions for p ^ , . . .
in accordance with (19).
The direction cosines of the axes of x, y, z at a neighbouring point P{, referred to the
lines of reference for v, w at P', would be denoted by L + (dL /da) da-\-(dLi/dp) 8/3,...; 1 1
the direction cosines of the axes of x, y, z at P{, referred to the fixed axes, which are the
lines of reference for u, v> w at P, would be denoted by l + (dli/da) da + (dli/dp) 80,.... Since x
the components of the rotation of the lines of reference for v, w are

Ada dA dad_B_bp
+
~d8 B d A> a
we have the ordinary formulse connected with moving axes in the forms
dh dh dL x
da dp h
n - M
\ ' T ^ T a i Y N
A - - ^ ) ^
dA da dB dp\
o a
"h
da dp
with similar formulae in which the suffix 1 attached to I, m, n and M N is replaced y
successively by 2 and 3. On substituting for Z . . . the values given in (23), we find l3
h 1 dA (dv u dA\ 1 (dw t Au\

da
a ~ AB dp \da B dp) R\da +
RJ '
dh ]^dB/dv _u d_A
2
dp " 'A da\da B dp
dmx d /I dv u dA i_ dA
~da~''da\Ada~ABdp
:
'Bd3>
dm _ d (1 dv
l u d_A\ _ B_ (}_dw u\ 1^ dB
+ +
dp ~ dp \A da AB dp) B \Ada R ) 2 1 Ada'
dni d /I dw u\ A
dn _d (\ dw u\
x B /I dv u dA\
+ +
dp ~dp\A da Ri) R \A
2 da'ABdp)'
326] T H I N SHELL SLIGHTLY DEFORMED 497
and
1 dv u dA I A d
'1 dw v
da '' A da +
ABdB R \Bdp
1
+
~R 2t
B dp
ch d_ I dv u dA
dp" "dp A da AB J +
A1 dB
da\
dm 2
1 dA (dv u dA
da ~~
'AB d(3 \da 'BdB
dm 2
^\_±dB/dv_u dA
2
R \dp
2 ^ RJ 2 A da\da B
y
dn 2
dw v 1 u dA
da da \B d(3 + -R ) 1
2 BdB
dn 2 1 div
dp\Bdp + R J 2 R2
I n calculating p,\... from t h e formulae (19), w e write for l u . . . t h e v a l u e s given i n (22),

and for dl,/da,... t h e v a l u e s j u s t found, and w e observe t h a t , since t h e s c h e m e (14) i s
orthogonal, t w o of t h e formulae (19) can b e w r i t t e n
. I' dl, , dm, dn,\ , ( dl, ,

1 dm, dn,\
= + M S +%
? 1
- - \ Ta * h +m
^ J' - ( SI h
"WT W) •
T h e process j u s t described leads to t h e formulas
1 dw v\ 1 3 A 11 dw u 1 fdv udA
P I
' da \B dB +
R.
B dB \A da ' R r
R, \da' BdB
A
q { +
_ldA/ldw +
Rx 9a G da r J Bds[BdB R. y...(24)
f =_ldA d (1 dv u dA A n 1 dw v
+
T l
~ BdB da +
\A da AB dB +
d~P R
and
,_B_ d_fld_w v\ 1I <dB
3 Sfl/ ! &dw u
P + + + +
* ~R, dB \B dB Rj A da \A 9 o ~ a R \
'_ d fl dw u\ 1 dB fl dw v B dv u dA
q 2
~ ~ W \ A f a +
R j A f a \ B W +
Bi AR 2 da' Bdp
,L.(25)
1 dB d fl dv u dA B^ 1 dw u
+
Ada^dB \A da AB dB Ri Ada R 1
We can now write down the formulae for the changes of curvature in t h e
forms
'1 dw
1 d 11 u\ . 1 dA 1 dw v
dw . u\
+
Kl =
A~da KKda R~J + Zl? 9/3 Bd$ R +
2
_1 9 fl dw v i dB 1 dw u
+ AB + .(26>
Ki
~BdS KBdp + R , dx Ada~ S ;
_ 1 9 fl dw v\ !_A4 9w 1_ dv
T +
~Afa\B~W Rj~A*Bd0du' AR.dal
L. E. 32
The above formulas admit of various verifications:
(i) In the case of a plane plate, when a and /3 are Cartesian coordinates, we have
2 2 2
_d w __d w _ dw
K2==
K l =
a^' ^ 3 * w T =
These results agree with the formulae in Article 298.

(ii) In the cases of cylindrical and spherical shells, the conditions that the displace
ment may be inextensional can be found as particular cases of the formulas (21), and the
expressions for the changes of curvature, found by simplifying (26) in accordance with these
conditions, agree with those obtained in Articles 319 and 320.
(iii) Let a sphere be slightly deformed by purely normal displacement, in such a way
that the radius becomes a+bP (cos #), where b is small, P denotes Legendre's nth
n n
coefficient, and 6 is the co-latitude. The sum and product of the principal curvatures
of the deformed surface can be shown, by means of the formulas of this Article and those
of Article 324, to be
~+~(n- l)(n + 2)P (co*0)
n and 1 + * ( - l ) ( w w + 2 ) P ( c o s B\
n
(Xi (X tli it
correctly to the first order in b. These are known results.

(iv) For any surface, when c e , are given by (21), and pi,... are given by (24) and
u 2
(25), equations (11) are satisfied identically, squares and products of u v w and their y y
differential coefficients being, of course, omitted.
327. N a t u r e of the strain i n a bent plate or shell.

To investigate t h e state of strain in a b e n t plate or shell we suppose t h a t
t h e middle surface is actually deformed, with b u t slight extension of any
linear element, so t h a t it becomes a surface differing b u t slightly from some
one or other of t h e surfaces which are applicable upon t h e unstrained middle
surface. W e regard t h e strained middle surface as g i v e n ; and we imagine a
state of the plate in which t h e linear elements t h a t are initially normal to
t h e unstrained middle surface remain straight, become normal to t h e strained
middle surface, and suffer no extension. Let P be any point on t h e unstrained
middle surface, and let P be displaced to P on t h e strained middle surface. x
Let x, y, z be t h e coordinates of P referred to t h e fixed axes. T h e points P

x
and P have t h e same a and ft. L e t Q be any point on the normal at P to

x
t h e unstrained middle surface, and let z be t h e distance of Q from P , reckoned

as positive in t h e sense already chosen for t h e normal to t h e surface. When
t h e plate is displaced as described above, Q comes to t h e point ft of which
the coordinates are
x + ^s, y + z + n z, 3
where, as in Article 325, l , m , n are t h e direction cosines of t h e normal to

3 3 s
the strained middle surface.

T h e actual state of t h e plate, when it is deformed so t h a t t h e middle
surface has t h e assigned form, can be obtained from this imagined state by
imposing an additional displacement upon t h e points Q . Let £, TJ, f denote 2
t h e components of this additional displacement, referred to axes of z

with origin at P which are drawn as specified in Article 324.
x Then t h e
coordinates of t h e final position of Q are
x + + l rj + l 0 + f),
2 s y + m^+m^ + m (z + £),
3
Z + Wif+ ^ + 7 1 8 (2: + f ) . ...(27)

I n these expressions l ly ... are t h e direction cosines so denoted in Article 325,
x z
> J, > hi ••• ^3 are functions of a and /3, and £, ?/, £ are functions of a, /3, -sr.
W e consider the changes which must be made in these expressions when,
f
instead of the points P, Q, we take neighbouring points P\ Q', so t h a t Q is
on t h e normal to t h e unstrained middle surface at P\ and t h e distance P'Q'
is z + 8z, where hz is small. Let P be (a, /3) and P' (a + 8a, /3 + 8/3), where
8a and 8/3 are s m a l l ; and let r denote t h e distance QQ', and I, m, n t h e
direction cosines of t h e line QQ', referred to the tangents at P to t h e curves
fi = const, and a = const, which pass through P and t h e normal to t h e un
strained middle surface at P . The quantities a, j3, z may be regarded as t h e
parameters of a triply orthogonal family of surfaces. T h e surfaces z = const,
are parallel to t h e middle surface; and t h e surfaces a = const, and /3 = const,
are developable surfaces, the generators of which are t h e normals to t h e
unstrained middle surface drawn at points on its several lines of curvature.
T h e linear element QQ' or r is expressed in terms of these parameters by t h e
formula
and t h e projections of this element on the tangents to t h e curves /3 = const,

a = const., drawn on t h e middle surface, and on t h e normal to this surface
are h, mr, nr. Hence we have t h e formulas
8 A = m ( 2 8 )
^(L-,/E )' 1 *fi-B{l™.lRj> * "
I n calculating the coordinates of t h e final position of Q' we have in (27)
to replace
h by h + hin'Scc + r,'S8)-l { 'Sa 3 qi + qr;S8),

h by 4 + k <jh'8a+ p,'B8) - k ( r / S a + r 'B8), 2
k by l + k (qiSa + q^'B8) - k
s (piSa+pt'88),
...,
z by z -f hz.
W e use also the formulae (15) and (16) for dx/da, ... and t h e formulas (28) for
8a, 8/3, 8*.
Let r denote t h e distance between the final positions of Q and Q'. W e
1
express r as a homogeneous quadratic function of I, m, n and deduce ex

x y
pressions for the components of strain by means of t h e formula

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
r = r [(I + m + w ) + 2 (e l
x xx +em yy + en zz + e mn yz + e nl +
zx e lm)].
xy
Now the difference of t h e x-coordinates of the final positions of Q and Q' is

Zr mr
r
+f |(4r/-%/)^ L ^ + ( W - « (L i}
, mr
+(z+o {ft?/ -tooj ^ ^ r - ) + - w iy(1 :; /i?2)
Iv 3f
+ k + ^ ?ir
8a 4 (1 - zjR ) +
^d/3B(l- x zjR ) ^ dz
2
Ir dr) . dv wiv drj

+ k
da A (1 - zjBn) dft B(l- z/R ) ^ dz 2
3? IT K mr / d%\ \
+ h + m
da A(l- zjR,) ~^dftB(i- z/R ) 2 V dz) '] '
The differences of the y- and z-coordinates can be written down by sub
stituting m m , TYI and n n , n successively for l l l . Since the scheme
1} 2 S lf 2 s lt 2y 3
(14) is orthogonal, we find t h e value of r^ in t h e form

I {z r/ a,', ^ 1 3£
1+
ri q' „ x 1 dn d£
+1 - z / R ,
2
I P i
+ r F (Z + + 1 + m
l-,,BA- i ^ A ^
+
+r 2
r I
B* +
B v +
Bd/3
(29)
In deducing expressions for t h e components of strain we observe that, in

order t h a t the strains may be small, it is clearly necessary t h a t t h e
quantities
1 z 1 z z
* (qi u \ ( pi , \ qi vi
l-z/RAA^ Rj' 1-Z/R \ 2 B^RJ' l-z/R B 2 \-z\R A Y
should be small. T h e third of equations (11) in Article 324 shows t h a t
Pi/A -f q 'IB is a small quantity, and we see therefore that, in t h e notation
2
of (13) in Article 324, t h e quantities z/c ZK , ZT must be small.

1} 2
The expressions for the components of strain which we obtain from

(29) are
1 -zjR,
1
1 -z\R 2
1
2 i _i.fr
1
— TZ
1-zjR, l-z/R. + \-z\R, B^ A
1 1 /3f
+l l-z/R B\dl3 ...(30)
- z ^ A \doc 2
dz'
1 /3£
eg
°~dz*l- - zjR, A \da
1 d
!( l-
€yz
~dz^l z/R 2 B \d/3
I n these expressions £, ??, f are functions of a, /3, # which vanish with z for all
values of a, /3.
W e observe t h a t t h e values found in Article 317 for e e , e would be XXi yy xy
obtained from t h e above by omitting e e , and £, TJ, £, and replacing

1} 2
1 — z/R, and \ — z\R by unity. 2
328. Specification of stress i n a bent plate or shell.

T h e stress-resultants and stress-couples in a curved plate or shell, or in a
plane plate which is appreciably bent, may be defined in a similar way to
t h a t adopted in Article 294 for a plane plate slightly deformed. Let s denote
any curve drawn on t h e strained middle surface, v t h e normal to this curve
drawn in a chosen sense on the tangent plane of t h e surface at a point P 1}
and let the sense of description of s be such t h a t the directions of the normal
v, the tangent to s, and t h e normal to t h e surface at P in t h e sense already 1 }
chosen as positive, are parallel to t h e axes of a right-handed system. W e

draw a normal section of the strained middle surface through the t a n g e n t to
s at P and mark out on it a small area by the normal to the surface at P
1} x
and t h e normal to t h e (plane) curve of section at a neighbouring point P / .

T h e tractions exerted across this area, by the portion of t h e plate on t h a t
side of s towards which v is drawn, upon the remaining portion, are reduced
to a force at P and a couple. The average components of this force and
x
couple per unit of length of P i P / are found by dividing the measures of t h e

components by t h e measure of this length. The limits of these averages are
t h e stress-resultants and stress-couples belonging to t h e curve s a t t h e point
P.
x W e denote them, as in Article 294, by T #, N, H, 0. For t h e expres y
sion of them we take temporary axes of x\ y', z along the normal v, t h e

tangent to s, and the normal to the strained middle surface at P and denote 1}
by X' >, ... t h e stress-components referred to these axes. Then, taking B! to

x
be the radius of curvature of the normal section of the surface drawn through
the tangent to s at P we have the formulae lf
T x 1 d N= x dz
-L '<( -i) '> S Z
-/L V(I-2?)*. iM -i) '
W h e n we refer to t h e axes of x, y, z specified in Article 324, and denote

t h e stress-resultants and stress-couples belonging to curves which are normal
to t h e axes of x and y respectively by attaching a suffix 1 or 2 to f, we
obtain t h e formulae
T i i 1 z l
>-LM -i) °- ""LH -^*'-L -{ -i)*-)
k
H, - f_^ - t X , ( l - -£,) it, 6, = j zX, (l - it,
and
1 dz 82= Xy 1 dz
T %
=/1 i ~i) > S\~ { ~i) > ° /I *i
7 y N = Y 1 dz
-u7) '
H zX l dz T 1 dt
^L A ~i) ' *-L' '{ -£) '
in which it!/ and R ' denote, as in Article 324, the radii of curvature of
2
normal sections of the strained middle surface drawn through the axes of x
and y.
i
W e observe t h a t t h e relations S + S = 0 and H + = 0, which hold in 1 2 Y
t h e case of a plane plate slightly deformed, do not hold when t h e strained

middle surface is appreciably curved. The relations between t h e T, S> N, 6r, H
for an assigned direction of v and those for t h e two special directions x and y y
which we found in Article 295 for a plane plate slightly deformed, are also
disturbed by the presence of an appreciable curvature.
3 2 9 . Approximate formulae for the strain, the stress-resultants

and the stress-couples.
W e can deduce from (30) of Article 327 approximate expressions for t h e
components of strain by arguments precisely similar to those employed in
Articles 257 and 259. Since £, 77, f vanish with z for all values of a and /3,
and d%/dz, ... must be small quantities of t h e order of admissible strains,
£, 7j, f and their differential coefficients with respect to a and ft may, for a
first approximation, be omitted. F u r t h e r , for a first approximation, we may
omit the products of z/R or zjR and any component of strain. I n particular,
1 2
since q^/B+pi/A is of t h e order eJR,, we omit the product of this quantity

€ l
and z\ and, for t h e same reason, we replace such terms as — . p and
1— z\Kx
ZK
1
1 - z/R, by 6j and ZK . X By these processes we obtain t h e approximate
formulae *
E € ZIC e €
XX — i ~~ \I yy — 2 ~~ ZK ,
2 e xy — vr — 2zr, e zx — ^ , e yz —^ , ezz —^ . .. .(33)
I n these £, ?/, f may, for a first approximation, be regarded as independent of

a and ft. I n case the middle surface is unextended, or t h e extensional
strains e, are small compared with the flexural strains
2
these expressions may be simplified further by t h e omission of e e , -sr. 1 ? 2
The approximate formula? (33) for the strain-components, as well as t h e

more exact formulas (30), contain t h e unknown displacements £, 77, £ and it is
necessary to obtain values for these quantities, or at any rate for their
differential coefficients with respect to z> which shall be a t least approxi
mately correct.
We begin with t h e case of a plane plate, and take a, ft to be Cartesian
rectangular coordinates, so t h a t A and B are equal to unity, and IjR, and
l / i 2 vanish. I n the formulas (33) £, rj, f are approximately independent of
2
a, ft. W e consider a slender cylindrical or prismatic portion of the plate

such as would fit into a fine hole drilled transversely through it. W e may
t a k e t h e cross-section of this prism to be so small t h a t within it e , e , and 2 2
tc K , T may be treated as constants. T h e n t h e strain-components, as ex

ly 2
pressed by (33), are the same at all points in a cross-section of t h e slender

prism. If there are no body forces and no tractions on t h e faces of t h e plate,
we know from Article 306 t h a t t h e stress in t h e slender prism, in which t h e
strains are uniform over any cross-section, is plane stress. Hence, to this
order of approximation X Y , Z vanish, and we have
Z) z z
!=°> S = °> g - - r ^ f c + « - * < * + * > } (84)
The remaining stress-components are then given by t h e equations

E E
X = x _ ^ {ei + <re - z {K 4- <r/c )), Y =
2 X 2 y g {e + <?*i
a - z (K2 + < T ^ ) } ,
* Equivalent formulae in the case of a plane plate were given by Kirchhoff, Vorlesungen iiber
math. Physik, Mechanik, Vorlesung 30.
From these results we may deduce approximate formulae for t h e stress-
resultants and stress-couples. For this purpose we omit from t h e formulse
( 3 1 ) and ( 3 2 ) t h e factors ( 1 - z/R ') and ( 1 — z\Rl). We should obtain zero
2
r
values for A , N , while T ... and G ... would be given by t h e formulae
3 2 ly lt
T, = - - (e + <re ),
1 2 T = 2 - ( e + creO,
2 - S = JS = —— *r, .. .(o6)
2 X
and
fl^-D^ + e™,), G ^ - D O r , * ^ ) , -H^H^Dil-*)^ ...(37)
To t h e same order of approximation t h e strain-energy per u n i t of area is

given by the formula
{Eh/(1 - 2
<r )} [ ( 6 l 2
2
+ e ) - 2 ( 1 - cr) ( E I 6 2 - Jw )]2
+ | D [(*, + * ) - 2 2
2
(1 - a) (*,*, - 2
T )]. .. . ( 3 8 )
To get a closer approximation in the case of a plane plate we may regard

t h e strain in t h e slender prism as varying uniformly over the cross-sections.
Then we know from Article 3 0 6 t h a t X and Y do not vanish, b u t the third z z
of ( 3 4 ) and t h e formulae ( 3 5 ) still hold, and therefore also ( 3 6 ) and ( 3 7 ) are

still approximately correct, while N and N are given according to the result X 2
of Article 3 0 6 by t h e formulae
N 1 = -D^(K 1 + K\ 2 JS[ = -JD^(K2 1 + K ).2
T
These values for JY JS could be found also from ( 1 2 ) of Article 2 9 6 by
lt 2
omitting the couples Z', M' and substituting for G G , H from ( 3 7 ) . l9 2 x
From this discussion of t h e case of a plane plate we may conclude t h a t

t h e approximate expressions ( 3 3 ) and ( 3 4 ) for t h e components of strain are
adequate for the purpose of determining the stress-couples; but, except in
cases where t h e extension of t h e middle plane is an important feature of t h e
deformation, they are inadequate for determining the stress-resultants. The
formulae ( 3 7 ) for t h e stress-couples are t h e same as those which we used in
Articles 3 1 3 , 3 1 4 . The results obtained in Articles 3 0 7 , 3 0 8 , 3 1 2 seem to
warrant t h e conclusion t h a t t h e expressions ( 3 7 ) for t h e stress-couples are
sufficient approximations in practically important cases whether the plate is
free from the action of body forces and of tractions on its faces or not.
I n t h e case of a curved plate or shell we may, for a first approximation,
use the formulae ( 3 3 ) and the theorem of Article 3 0 6 in t h e same way as for
a plane plate. Thus equations ( 3 4 ) and ( 3 5 ) are still approximately correct.
W e may obtain from t h e m t h e terms of lowest order in the expressions for
t h e stress-resultants of the type T, S and the stress-couples. On substituting
i n t h e formulae ( 3 1 ) and ( 3 2 ) , we find, to t h e first order in h y
r n 2Eh , \ m %Eh , \ a n Eh _ ..7

î = ^ - ( e ! + cre ),
2 2 T2 = ~(e 2 + ae,), - S, = S, = — — m, .. . ( 3 6 Us)
and, to t h e third order in h,
#1 == - J9 j*i + <™ + -jj-, (e 4- cre )|,

2 a 2 G = - D jtf 4- cr*! 4- ~ , ( e 4- a ^ j , j
2 a 2
3
* , - i > < l - „ ) ( r + > £ ) , fl,.-I,(l-.)( T + l ° ) . I-' "'
This first approximation includes two extreme cases. I n t h e first t h e

extensional strains € e , to- are small compared with t h e flexural strains
u 2
z/c ZK > ZT. T h e stress-couples are then given by t h e formulas

lt 2
G = -D(/e
1 + <r/c ), Q = -D(/e + CTK,),
1 2 - H = H = D (1 - a) r, .. .(37 Ms)
2 2 2 x
and t h e strain-energy p e r unit of area is given by t h e formula which we

found by means of a certain assumption in Article 317, viz.:
£2) + K 2 y - 2 (1 - a ) (fc K Y 2
2
- r )],
b u t t h e stress-resultants are not sufficiently determined.

I n t h e second extreme case t h e flexural strains z/c z/c , ZT are small j9 2
compared with t h e extensional strains e e , -sr. Then t h e stress-resultants l 3 2
of type T, S are given by t h e formulas (36), and t h e stress-resultants of type

iV and t h e stress-couples are unimportant. T h e strain-energy per unit of area
is given by t h e formula
2 2
{Eh/(1 - <x )} [ ( * + e ) - 2 (1 - a) { e -\^)} 2 €l 2 (40)
W h e n t h e extensional strains are comparable with t h e flexural strains, so
that, for example, w is of t h e order hr, t h e stress-resultants of type T, 8 are
given with sufficient approximation b y (36), and t h e stress-couples are given
with sufficient approximation by (37), while t h e strain-energy per unit of
area is given by (38).
From this analysis of t h e various possible cases i t appears that, whenever
t h e stress-couples Q G , H H need be calculated a t all, they m a y be
L T 2 lf 2
calculated from t h e formulas (37) instead of (39).

When the extensional strains are large compared with the flexural strains, approximate
equations of equilibrium can be formed by the method of variation described in Article
115, by taking the strain-energy per unit of area to be given by the formula (40). In
the same case approximate equations of vibration can be formed by using this expression
+ o r e
(40) for the strain-energy and the expression ph\ f-^J + ( ^ ) ( M ^ kinetic
energy per unit of area.
The strain-energy per unit of area is not, in general, expressed correctly to the third
order in h by (38). The complete expression would contain additional terms. In general
the complete expression for the strain-energy must be formed before equations of
equilibrium and vibration can be obtained by the variational method*. We shall use
a different method of forming the equations.
The approximate expression (38) for the strain-energy suggests, as the correct form,
a function expansible in rising powers of A, and having for coefficients of the various
powers of h expressions determined by the displacement of the middle surface only.
* A. B. Basset, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (Ser. A), vol. 181 (1890).
Lord Rayleigh* has called attention to the fact that, when there are tractions on the
faces of the shell, no such form is possible, and has illustrated the matter by the two-
dimensional displacement of a cylindrical tube subjected to surface pressure. In this
problem the first approximation, given by (40), is undisturbed by the surface pressures.
3 3 0 . S e c o n d a p p r o x i m a t i o n i n t h e case of a curved plate or shell.
In the case of an appreciably curved middle surface we can make some progress with
a second approximation provided that the displacement is small. Such an approximation
a r
is unnecessary unless the extensional strains €i,e ,w e small compared with the flexural
2
strains ZK ZK , &r. We shall suppose that this is the case. In calculating the strains
LY 2
1
e ,... from (30) instead of (33) we observe that the term ei (1 - z/Ri)' may still be replaced
xx
x
by ej, and that the term -ZK (1 -z\Ri)~ may be replaced by — ZK -Z K /R .
X The values 1
2
1 1
°f C which were given by the first approximation are
and these values may be substituted in the first three of (30). Further, in the terms of
(30) that contain £, rj, f we may replace pi,... by the corresponding quantities relating
to the unstrained shell, that is to say we may put<p{— q — 0, p /B=l/R , — qi jA — l l R±. 2 2 2
2
We reject all terms of the types € Zj'R e^z, K^Z . We thus obtain the equations
1 li
_ 2 AC! 1 a 2 <I + K 2
e -eyy 2 ZK z ^2 R 2 1 _ ( r z ^ ,
2
e =wxy - 2rz - rz (1/JKx + l/R ). 2
From the formula for e we can calculate S and S by means of (31) and (32) of
xy ± 2
Article 328, and in this calculation we may replace l/R\ and l/R by IjRi and ljR . 2 2
We find
ft-
In calculating a second approximation to T and T we may not assume that Z x 2 z
vanishes. As in the case of the plane plate, we take the shell to be free from the action
of body forces and of tractions on its faces. We observe that the axes of x, y, z specified
in Article 323 are parallel to the normals to three surfaces of a triply orthogonal family.
This is the family considered in Article 327, and the parameters of the surfaces are a, /3, z.
We write temporarily y in place of z, and use the notation of Articles 19 and 58. The
values of h h , k are given by the equations
l9 2 3
We write down an equation of the type of (19) in Article 5 8 by resolving along the normal
to the surface y. This equation is
+SM*-i)('-MI
-§(>-r^M'^)}40-i)^M'-A)H-
* London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 20 (1889), p. 372, or Scientific Papers, vol. 3, p. 280.
Returning to our previous notation, we write this equation
^-lM^H'-iW4M'-|)(i-iM
+4?(>-i)*+f('-i)i-»
To obtain an approximation to Z , we substitute in this equation for X ,... the values
z x
given by the first approximation, and integrate with respect to z. We determine the
constant of integration so that Z may vanish at z = h and z= -h. We must omit the
z
terms containing X and Y and use the approximate values given in (35) for X and Y .
z z x y
Further we may omit the factors 1 — zjR, and l — zjR and such terms as eiz/R,. We thus 2
find the formula
Now we have
X =^ ^
x 2 (EXX + o-E ) 4- YZT^.
YY ^ Z
> ^V
=
i _ 2 ( YV +
a
E
(re
xz)+J^ Z r ZJ
and hence, by means of the formulae for E XXI E Y Y I Z , we calculate approximate values for
z
Ti, T in the forms*

2
l-«r\ Ri R> JJ'
^=S(e 2 + ^ + i)[ K 2 (l-i)-i ^( I K l +

K2 )(i ^)
+
.(44)
1 — tr \ /J '
The formulae for the stress-couples are not affected by the second approximation, so far
at any rate as terms of the order DK, are concerned.
The equations of equilibrium are formed by equating to zero t h e resultant
and resultant moment of all t h e forces applied to a portion of t h e plate
or shell. W e consider a portion bounded by t h e faces and by t h e surfaces
formed by t h e aggregates of t h e normals drawn to the strained middle surface
a t points of a curvilinear quadrilateral, which is made u p of two neighbour
ing arcs of each of t h e families of curves a and ft. Since t h e extension of
t h e middle surface is small, we m a y neglect t h e extensions of t h e sides of t h e
quadrilateral, and we may regard it as a curvilinear rectangle. W e denote
t h e bounding curves of t h e curvilinear rectangle by a, a + 8a, ft, ft + 8ft, and
resolve t h e stress-resultants on t h e sides in t h e directions of fixed axes of
* The approximate forms of S £ , T T obtained in this Article agree substantially with

lt 2 19 2
those found by a different process by A. B. Basset, loc. cit. p. 505, in the cases of cylindrical and
spherical shells to which he restricts his discussion. His forms contain some additional terms
which are of the order here neglected.
508 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM [CH. X X I V
x, y, z which coincide with t h e tangents to ft and a at their point

of intersection and the normal to
t h e strained middle surface at this
point (Fig. 73).
Fig. 74 shows t h e directions
and senses of t h e stress-resultants
on the edges of t h e curvilinear
rectangle, those across t h e edges
a + Sa and ft + 8ft being distin
guished by accents. The axes of
t h e stress-couples H G, have t h e
lt
same directions as T S \ those of

1} x
H , G have t h e same directions as

2 2
To, S . Fig. 73.

2
Fig. 74.
The stress-resultants on the side a of t h e rectangle yield a force having

components
-T,B8ft, -S BSft,
1 -N.BBft
parallel to t h e axes of x, y, z. The corresponding component forces for the
side a + Sa are to be obtained by applying the usual formulas relating to
moving a x e s ; for t h e quantities T S N are t h e components of a vector
1} lt t
referred to moving axes of x, y, z, which are denned by the t a n g e n t to t h e

curve ft = const, which passes through any point and the normal to t h e
strained middle surface at t h e point. I n resolving t h e forces acting across
331] OF A T H I N SHELL 509
t h e side a 4- Sa parallel to the fixed axes, we have to allow for a change

of a into a + Sa, and for the small rotation (p/Sa, #i'Sa, r/Sa). Hence t h e
components parallel to the axes of x, y, z of the force acting across t h e side
a + Sa are respectively
T,B8ft + 8a ~ (2\£S/3) - ^ £ 8 / 3 . n'Sa + i W / 3 . g/Sa,
^.BS/3 + S a ^ ( S ^ S / 3 ) - ^BSft.pâ + ^58/3.r/Sa,
A ^ S / 3 + Sa ^ ( ^ £ 8 / 3 ) - T.BSft. g/Sa + ^ 5 8 / 3 .fr'Sa.
I n like manner we write down t h e forces acting across the sides ft and
ft + 8ft. For £ we have
S A8a,
2 -T A8a, 2 -F A8a; 2
and for ft + 8ft we have
- S A8a - 8/3 ^
2 (Sf ^8a) - T A8a.
2 2 r 8ft + N A8a.
2 2 q '8/3,
2
T A8a
2 + 8ft^ (T A8a)
2 - N A8a.
2 p 'S/3 - S A8a.
2 2 r 'S/3,
2
iV", J.8a + 8ft g | ( i M S a ) + S 4 8 a . q 'Sft + a 2 T A8a.p '8ft.

2 2
Let X \ Y\ Z ' and M\ 0 denote, as in Article 296, the components,

parallel to the axes of x, y, z, of t h e force- and couple-resultant of t h e externally
applied forces estimated per unit of area of the middle surface. Since the
area within t h e rectangle can be taken to be AB8a8ft, we can write down
three of the equations of equilibrium in t h e forms
3(2^8) _ d(S A)2
- (r{S B
x + r 'T A)
2 2 + (q^B + q N A) 2 2 + ABX' = 0, \
da dft
d(S B) , d(T A) - (p^^B + p 'N A) + ( r & B - r S A) f
+ A B T = 0,
1 2
2 2 2 2 (45)
da dft
d
+ - ^ ^ ~ (qiTiB - q*'S A) s + (p^S.B + p T A)2
f
2 + ABZ f
= 0.
Again the moments of t h e forces and t h e couples acting across the sides
of the rectangle can be written down. For the side a w e have t h e component
couples
-H.BSft, -ft.BS/3, 0,
and for the side a + Sa we have the component couples
H.BSft + 8a ( M S / 3 ) - G BS/3. 1 r/Sa,
G BS/3
1 + Sa 1- (GiBSft) + H B8ft.
x r/Sa,
- . g/Sa + Q BSj3.piSa;
1
for t h e side /3 we have the component couples
G A8a,
2 -H A8a,
2 0,
a n d for the side /3 4 S/3 we have the component couples
- G A8a - S/3 ^
2 (G A8a)
2 - H A8a.
2 r/S/3,
j y ^ S a + S/3 ^ (H A8a)
2 - G A8a. 2 r.'Sft
G A8a.
2 g 'S/3 + H A8a
2 2 .p '8/3.
2
F u r t h e r t h e moments about t h e axes of t h e forces acting across t h e sides

a 4- 8a and /3 4- &(3 can be taken to be
B8/3.N A8a,
2 -ABa.N^Sp, ABa.S^Bp + B8/3 .S A8a.
2
T h e equations of moments can therefore be written in the forms

diH.B) d(G A) 2
(G.Br,' -f H*Ar{) 4- (N 4- L') AB = 0,
2
da d/3
1 +
^ ^ W ~ G
^ - ~ MÂB- 0, ^
GiBpf 4 G ^ g ' - (HiBq,'

2 2 - J ^ p / ) + (ft + S ) AB = 0. J 2
Equations (45) and (46) are t h e equations of equilibrium.
332. Boundary conditions.

The system of stress-resultants and stress-couples belonging* to a curve
s drawn on t h e middle surface can be modified after t h e fashion explained
in Article 296, b u t account must be t a k e n of t h e curvature of t h e surface.
Regarding t h e curve s as a polygon of a large n u m b e r of sides, we replace t h e
couple H8s acting on t h e side 8s by two forces, each of a m o u n t H, acting a t
t h e ends of this side in opposite senses in lines parallel to t h e normal to t h e
surface at one extremity of 8s; and we do t h e like with the couples acting on
t h e contiguous sides. If P'PP" is a short arc of s and t h e arcs P'P and PP" }
are each equal to 8s, these operations leave us with a force of a certain
m a g n i t u d e direction and sense a t t h e typical point P . The forces at P and
P", arising from the couple on t h e arc PP", are each equal to H, and their
lines of action are parallel to t h e normal a t P, t h e force a t P being in t h e
negative sense of this normal. T h e forces at P' and P arising from t h e couple
on the arc P'P are each equal to H—8H, and their lines of action are parallel
to t h e normal at P', t h e force at P being in t h e positive sense of this normal.
{1)
Now let R 2 be the principal radii of curvature of t h e strained middle
surface a t P, so t h a t the equation of this surface referred to axes of £, rj, z
which coincide with t h e principal t a n g e n t s at P and t h e normal is approxi
mately
. 4 W + ^ » ) = o.
331-333] AT THE EDGE OF A THIN SHELL 511
Also let be t h e angle which t h e t a n g e n t a t P to P'PP" m a k e s with t h e

f
axis of £. The point P has coordinates — Bs cos 0, — Bs sin cj>, 0, and t h e
direction cosines of t h e normal at P' are, with sufficient approximation,
(1)
& c o s (jj/R^, Bs sin <f>/R , 1. T h e force a t P arising from t h e couple on
2
(1) {1)
P'P has components HBs cos <£/JRI , HBs sin 4>/R , H — 8H parallel to t h e 2
axes of £, rj, z. Hence the force a t P arising from t h e couples on P'P and
PP" has components parallel to t h e normal to s drawn on t h e surface, t h e
t a n g e n t to s and t h e normal to the surface, which are
HBssin <f> cos cf> (l/R^ - 1/JKaW), HBsjR', - BH,

2 2 (1) -1
where R\ = [cos cft/R^ + sin </>/i? ] , is t h e radius of curvature of the
2
normal section having the same t a n g e n t line as t h e curve s. Hence t h e

stress-resultants T, S, N and stress-couples H, G can be replaced by stress-
resultants
T+±Hsm2(j>{l/R U-llR M},

1 2 S + H/R', N-dH/ds, (47)
and a flexural couple G.
T h e boundary conditions at an edge to which forces are applied, or at a

free edge, can now be written down in the manner explained in Article 296.
T h e formulas (47) are simplified in case t h e plate or shell is b u t little bent,
for t h e n t h e radii of curvature and t h e position of t h e edge-line relative to
t h e lines of curvature may be determined from t h e unstrained, instead of t h e
strained, middle surface. They are simplified still more in case t h e edge is a
line of curvature*, for t h e n H does not contribute to T.
333. Theory of t h e vibrations of t h i n shells.

T h e equations of vibration are to be formed by substituting for t h e
external forces and couples X', Y', Z ' and U, M' which occur in equations
(45) and (46) of Article 331 t h e expressions for t h e reversed kinetic reactions
a n d their moments. If we neglect " r o t a t o r y i n e r t i a " the values to be
substituted for L\ M' are zero. W h e n we use t h e components a, v, w of
displacement defined in Article 326, t h e expressions to be substituted for
2 2 2 2 2 2
(X\ F ' , Z') are - 2ph(d u/dt , d v/dt , d wjdt ).
I n forming the equations we omit all products of u, v, w and their

differential coefficients; and, since t h e stress-resultants and stress-couples
are linear functions of these quantities, we may simplify t h e equations by
replacing p / , . . . by their values in t h e unstrained state, t h a t is to say, by t h e
values given iovp , ... in Article 323.
1
* The result that, in this case, H contributes to S as well as to N was noted by A. B. Basset,
loc. cit. p. 505. See also the paper by H. Lamb cited on p. 477.
512 THEORY OP T H E VIBRATIONS [OH. X X I V
T h e equations (46) of Article 331 become

(d(H B)_d(G A)
1 1 _ dA i r dB
+ N = 0, 2
AB\ da dB ¥
^ o B U
* da
1 (dJGJi) d{H,A) dB
+
6f 2 - ^ 1 = 0, .(48)
AB \ da dB da
+ & + 8 = 0; %
Bi i? 2
and t h e equations (45) become

\d{i\B) d(S A) 2 , Q dA dB du 2
2 U - 2ph
AB\ da ' dp +
^d/3 da irr -dt»
1 djS.B) d(T A) 2 dA dB I!*= dv 2
2ph ..(49)
AB da 9/3 "9/3 da d¥ y
R 2
1 jdj^B)
d{N A) T, T dw 2 2
_| i _| 1 :2ph
} 2
AB\ d/3 da ' 2
Ri R ~dt ' 2
T h e equations (49), some of t h e quantities in which are connected by t h e
relations (48), are t h e equations of vibration.
These equations are to be transformed into a system of partial differential
equations for t h e determination of u, v, w, by expressing t h e various quantities
involved in them in terms of u, v, w and their differential coefficients. This
transformation may be effected by means of t h e theory given in preceding
Articles of this Chapter. Equations (37) of Article 329 express G G ,H H in ly 2 ly 2
terms of K K , T, and equations (26) of Article 326 express K /c r in terms of

1} 2 LY 2y
u, v, w. By t h e first two of equations (48) therefore we have N N expressed l9 2
in terms of u, v, w. Equations (36) of Article 329 give a first approximation

to S S , T T in terms of e e , or, and equations (21) of Article 326 express
ly 2 ly 2 1? 2
€ i , € , <ur in terms of u, v w. A closer approximation to S S , T T is given

2 y ly 2 ly 2
in equations (42) and (44) of Article 3 3 0 ; and they are there expressed in
terms of K K , T as well as e e OT; SO t h a t they can still be expressed in
LY 2 ly 2y
terms of u, v %v. W h e n these approximate values are substituted in t h e

y
third of equations (48) it becomes an identity. W h e n N„ N S S , T 2y ly 2 ly
are expressed in terms of u, v w, t h e desired transformation is effected. y
The theory of the vibrations of a plane plate, already treated provisionally

in Article 314 (d) and (e), is included in this theory. I n all t h e equations
we have to take 1/R and 1/-R to be zero. T h e equations (48) and (49) fall
1 2
2 2 2 2
into two sets. One set contains d u/dt , d v/dt and t h e stress-resultants of t h e
2 2
type T, S; t h e other set contains d wjdt , t h e stress-resultants of type N, and
t h e stress-couples. Now, in this case, t h e stress-resultants of type T, S a r e
expressible in terms of e e by t h e formulae (36) of Article 329, a n d
ly 2y
€ e,
ly 2 are expressible in terms of u, v by t h e formulae
du dv dv . du
y
da [
d$ "8a 8/3'
a and ft being ordinary Cartesian coordinates. Hence one of the two sets of
equations into which (48) and (49) fall becomes identical w i t h - t h e equations
of extensional vibration given in Article 314 (e). Further, the stress-couples
are expressible in terms of K , K , T by the formulas (37) of Article 329, and
1 2
K K , T are expressible in terms of w by t h e formulas

1} 2
2 2
_ dw dw d?w_
Kl a T
~dtf' * ~3/P' ~dadft'
while N-t and N are expressible in terms of t h e stress-couples by t h e
2
equations
W — i ^2 AT — ^1 _ ^Ml
1 _ + 2
da dft ' ~ dft da '
The second of the two sets of equations into which (48) and (49) fall is equi
valent to the equation of transverse vibration given in Article 314 (d).
I n applying the results of Articles 329 and 330 to vibrations we make
a certain assumption. A similar assumption is, as we noted in Article 277,
made habitually in the theory of t h e vibrations of thin rods. W e assume in
fact t h a t t h e state of strain within a thin plate or shell, when vibrating, is
of a type which has been determined by using the equations of equilibrium.
For example, in t h e case of a plane plate vibrating transversely, we assume
t h a t the internal strain in a small portion of the plate is very nearly the
same as t h a t which would be produced in the portion if it were held in
equilibrium, with t h e middle plane bent to the same curvature. Consider a
little more closely the state of a cylindrical or prismatic portion of a plane
plate, such as would fit into a fine hole drilled transversely through it. We
are assuming that, when t h e plate vibrates, any such prismatic portion is
practically adjusted to equilibrium at each instant during a period. This
being so, the most important components of strain in the portion, when t h e
plate vibrates transversely, are given by
= — eyy = — ZK 2I e x y = - 2ZT, ezz = { c r / ( l — cr)} z (K +
X K ),
2
and, when it vibrates in its plane, they are given by

âw = €i, e =€ , e = zr, e = - {cr/(l - a)}
yy 2 + e );
xy zz 2
in both cases e is adjusted so t h a t t h e stress-component Z vanishes. I t is

zz z
clear t h a t the assumption is justified if t h e periods of vibration of t h e plate are

long compared with the periods of those modes of free vibration of the prismatic
portion which would involve strains of such types as are assumed. Now t h e
period of any mode of transverse vibration of t h e plate is directly proportional
to t h e square of some linear dimension of the area contained within t h e
edge-line and inversely proportional to t h e thickness, and t h e period of any
mode of extensional vibration is directly proportional to some linear dimen
sion of the area contained within t h e edge-line and independent of t h e
thickness, while t h e period of any mode of free vibration of t h e prismatic
portion, involving strains of such types as those assumed, is proportional
L. E. 33
514 THEORY OF THE VIBRATIONS [CH. X X I V
to t h e linear dimensions of the portion, or, at an outside estimate, to t h e

thickness of t h e plate. There is nothing in this a r g u m e n t peculiar to a
plane p l a t e ; and we may conclude t h a t it is legitimate to assume that,
when a plate or shell is vibrating, the state of strain in any small portion
is practically t h e same, at any instant, as it would be if t h e plate or shell
were held in equilibrium, with its middle surface stretched and bent as it
is at t h e instant. W e see also t h a t we ought to make t h e reservation
t h a t the a r g u m e n t by which the assumption is justified diminishes in cogency
as the frequency of the mode of vibration increases*.
The most important result obtained by means of this assumption is the approxi
mate determination of the stress-component Z . When there is equilibrium and the plate
z
is plane, Z —0 to a second approximation ; when there is equilibrium and the middle surface
z
is curved, Z vanishes to a first approximation, and by the second approximation we express

z
2 2
it as proportional to (h — z ) and to a function which is linear in the principal curvatures
and the changes of curvature. The results in regard to Z as a function of h and z can be
z
illustrated by a discussion, based on the general equations of vibration of elastic solid bodies,
of the vibrations of an infinite plate of finite thickness. Such a discussion has been given
by Lord Rayleigh t; and from his results it can be shown that, in this case, there are classes
of vibrations in which Z vanishes throughout the plate, and that, in the remaining classes,
z
the expression for Z can be expanded in rising powers of h and z, and the expansion
z
contains no terms of degree lower than the fourth.

W h e n the middle surface is curved the components of displacement
u, v, w must satisfy the differential equations (49) transformed as explained
above, and they must also satisfy the boundary conditions at t h e edge
of t h e shell. A t a free edge the flexural couple and t h e three linear com
binations of t h e stress-resultants and t h e torsional couple expressed in (47)
of Article 332 must vanish. T h e order of the system of equations is, in
general, sufficiently high to admit of the satisfaction of such conditions;
b u t the actual solution has not been effected in any particular case.
A method of approximate t r e a t m e n t of t h e problem depends upon t h e
observation t h a t t h e expressions for t h e stress-couples, and therefore also for
2
N N , contain as a factor D or Êh*/(1 — a ) while t h e expressions for t h e
1} 2
remaining stress-resultants contain two terms, one proportional to h, and t h e

z
other to h . Both members of each of t h e equations (49) can be divided by
h; and then those terms of t h e m which depend upon e e > are independent
lf 2
2
of h, and the remaining terms contain h as a factor. W e should expect to
2
get an approximately correct solution by omitting t h e terms in h . W h e n
this is done two of t h e boundary conditions at a free edge, viz.: those of t h e
type 6r = 0, N — dH/ds = 0, disappear; and t h e system of equations is of a
sufficiently high order to admit of the satisfaction of the remaining boundary
conditions. Since h has disappeared from t h e equations and conditions, t h e
* The argument is clearly applicable with some modifications of detail to the theory of the
vibrations of thin rods.
t London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 20 (1889), p. 225, or Scientific Papers, vol. 3, p. 249.
frequency is independent of t h e thickness. The extension of the middle
surface is the most important feature of t h e deformation, b u t it is necessarily
accompanied by bending. The theory of such extensional vibrations may be
obtained very simply by the energy method, as was noted in Article 329.
The extensional modes of vibration of a thin shell are analogous to t h e
extensional vibrations of a thin plane plate, to which reference has already been
made in this Article and in (e) of Article 314. The consideration of the case
of a slightly curved middle surface shows at once t h a t an open shell must
also possess modes of vibration analogous to t h e transverse vibrations of a
plane plate, and having frequencies which are much less than those of the
extensional vibrations. The existence of such modes of vibration may be
established by the following a r g u m e n t : —
A superior limit for t h e frequency of the gravest tone can be found by
assuming any convenient type of vibration; for, in any vibrating system,
t h e frequency obtained by assuming the type cannot be less t h a n the least
frequency of natural vibration*. If we assume as the type of vibration one
in which no line on the middle surface is altered in length, we may calculate
t h e frequency by means of the formulas for the kinetic energy and the potential
energy of bending, as in Article 321. Since t h e kinetic energy contains h as
3
a factor, and the potential energy h , the frequency is proportional to h. The
frequency of such inextensional vibrations of a shell of given form can be
lowered indefinitely in comparison with t h a t of any mode of extensional
vibration by diminishing h. I t follows t h a t the gravest mode of vibration
cannot, in general, be of extensional typef.
If we assume t h a t t h e vibration is of strictly inextensional type the forms
of t h e components of displacement as functions of a, /3 are, as we saw in
Articles 319, 320, and 326, very narrowly restricted. If displacements which
satisfy the conditions of no extension are substituted in the expressions for
the stress-resultants and stress-couples, t h e equations of motion and t h e
boundary conditions cannot, in general, be satisfied^. I t is clear, therefore,
t h a t the vibrations must involve some extension. To constrain t h e shell to
vibrate in an inextensional mode forces would have to be applied at its edges
and over its faces. When these forces are not applied, the displacement
must differ from any which satisfies t h e conditions of no extension. But, in
any of t h e graver modes of vibration, the difference must be slight; for,
otherwise, the mode of vibration would be practically an extensional one, and
* Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, vol. 1, § .89.

+ The case of a closed sheet, such as a thin spherical shell, is an obvious exception, for there
can be no inextensional displacement. A shell of given small thickness, completely closed
except for a small aperture, is also exceptional when the aperture is small enough.
X In the particular cases of spherical and cylindrical shells the failure of the inextensional
displacement to satisfy the equations of motion and the boundary conditions can he definitely
proved. The case of cylindrical shells is dealt with in Article 334 {d).
516 VIBRATIONS OF A THIN [CH. XXIV
t h e frequency could not be nearly small enough. From the form of the
equations of vibration we may conclude t h a t t h e requisite extension must
be very small over the greater part of the surface; b u t near the edge it
must be of sufficient importance to secure the satisfaction of the boundary
conditions*.
334. Vibrations of a t h i n cylindrical shell.

I t is convenient to illustrate the theory by discussing in some detail the
vibrations of a cylindrical shell. As in Article 319 we shall take a to be the
radius of t h e shell, and write x for a and G>/ for /3, and we shall suppose t h e
edge-line to consist of two circles x = I and x — — 1. According to t h e
results of Article 326, the extension and t h e changes of curvature are given
by t h e equations
du _ 1 /dv \ _ dv 1 du
6l== €2 W m r i
dx~> -a[d$~ )> ~dx" ad$
2 2
d iv _ 1 (d w dv\ __1 9 (dw
2 2 2 2 T
''dx~ ' * ~ a \d$ * dj>) > ~adx\d^>
The displacement being periodic in c/> with period 27T, and the shell being
supposed to vibrate in a normal mode with frequency p/27r, we shall take
u, v, w to be proportional to sines, or cosines, of multiples of </>, and to a simple
harmonic function of t with period 27r/p. The equations of vibration then
become a system of linear equations with constant coefficients for the
determination of u, v w as functions of x. W e shall presently form these
y
equations; but, before doing so, we consider t h e order of t h e system. The

expressions for e , e , -SJ contain first differential coefficients only; t h a t for K
x 2 Y
contains a second differential coefficient. Hence G and G contain second x 2
differential coefficients, and ^ contains a third differential coefficient. The

4 4
third equation of (49) contains d w/dx in a t e r m which is omitted when we
form t h e equations of extensional vibration. Thus t h e complete equations
of vibration will be of a much higher order t h a n t h e equations of extensional
vibration. I t will be seen presently t h a t the former are a system of the 8th
order, and the latter a system of the 4th order. The reduction of the order
of t h e system which occurs when the equations of extensional vibration are
t a k e n instead of t h e complete equations is of fundamental importance. I t
does not depend at all on t h e cylindrical form of t h e middle surface.
* The difficulty arising from the fact that inextensional displacements do not admit of the
satisfaction of the boundary conditions is that to which I called attention in my paper of 1888
(see Introduction, footnote 133). The explanation that the extension, proved to be necessary,
may be practically confined to a narrow region near the edge, and yet may be sufficiently
important at the edge to secure the satisfaction of the boundary conditions, was given simul
taneously by A. B. Basset and H. Lamb in the papers cited on pp. 505 and 477. These authors
illustrated the possibility of this explanation by means of the solution of certain statical
problems.
(a) General equations.
In accordance with what has been said above, we take
u~ 27sinw0cos (pt + c), v— Vcosncjy cos (pt + e), w= JFsin ncj) cos (pt + e), ...(50)
where U, V, W are functions of x. Then we have
€ = s i n w c o s e
l 7 7 7 9 ( + e
)> e
2— s m
^ c o s
\Pt + )>
fdV u \
W n C 0 S C 0 S e
~\~dx~^ ~a) ^ (-^~*~ ''
n< c o s €
K
l~ s m
^ c o s
+ )' e K
2~ 2 s i n
r + )>
T lJr n C S C 0 S
~a\cfv^ ^ ^ ° ^
Also G^-D sm ^0 cos (/rf + 0 ( ^ - cr ^~
G^-B sm w<£. cos (j>t+€) [v-fop
1== c o s n c o s e n
* > \ -dx- + J= -^-
The first two of equations (48) become
1 2
3a? a d(j> ' a d(j> dx '
and we have
xr n • A. / . . fePW 1 / „dW dV\\
^=-i> m^cos(^ e){^--^^^- »^|, S +
t
+
# = 2 -2)OOB«*OOBCP<+,) {- ^ - - s Pf+— ^ - ^7} .
We have also
r =i)^^+- )-2
2 1 I T ^- ) - - -J,
where *i,... have the values given above. The equations of vibration are
+ Z p h p + + + + W U
8* a 80 dx a 80 a ^ 8* a 80 a + ^ '
or, in terms of JJ, F, IF,
3
A |jfo?\flfo7. a J 2 a\dx a Jj ^
D T2 — 2o~ — 3a" 2
IF l + 2o- 2
/ r , A
(V+nW)
,(52)
,(53)
The boundary conditions at x — l and x— - I are
a a deb
and all the left-hand members can be expressed as linear functions of U F, W and their
9
differential coefficients with respect to x.

The system of equations for the determination of % v, w as functions of oc,
has now been expressed as a linear system of the 8th order with constant
2
coefficients. These coefficients contain the unknown constant p as well as
t h e known constants h and n; and n, being the number of wave-lengths to
the circumference, can be chosen at pleasure. If we disregard t h e fact t h a t
h is small compared with a or I, we can solve t h e equations by assuming that,
apart from t h e simple harmonic factors depending upon </> and t, t h e quantities
mx mx mx
u, v, w are of t h e form %e , rje fy , where
f TJ, m are constants. The
constant m is a root of a determinantal equation of t h e 8th degree, which is
2
really of the 4th degree in m' , for it contains no terms of any uneven degree.
2
T h e coefficients in this equation depend upon p . W h e n m satisfies this
2
equation the ratios £ : w : £ are determined, in terms of m and p , by any
two of t h e three equations of motion. Thus, apart from cf) and t factors, t h e
solution is of t h e form
4 4 4
in which t h e constants |>, are arbitrary, b u t the constants 7 ] , . . . are r
expressed as multiples of them. The boundary conditions at oc = l and

x = — l give eight homogeneous linear equations connecting t h e ; and
t h e elimination of the £, % from these equations leads to an equation to
2
determine p . This is the frequency equation.
(b) Extensional vibrations.
The equations of extensional vibration are obtained by omitting the terms in equations
2
(51)—(53) which have the coefficient Djh. The determinantal equation for m becomes a
quadratic. The boundary conditions at x— ±1 become T = 0, /Si = 0, or
x
dU W+nV dV nU
Since h does not occur in the differential equations or the boundary conditions, the
frequencies are independent of h.
In the case of symmetrical vibrations, in which u, v, w are independent of <£, we take
U = Ucos (pt + e), v = Fcos (pt + e), w = W COS (p£ + e),
and we find the equations
_^(<VU_ dW\ Z E dW
The boundary conditions at x — ± I are

dU_ W = Q dV^ Q
dx a ' dx
There are two classes of symmetrical vibrations. In the first class U and W vanish,
so that the displacement is tangential to the circular sections of the cylinder. In this
class of vibrations we have
2 2
mrx „ E n 7r
T T
F ^ c o e - p , p«= - 2 7 T - _ -^-,
j )
where n is an integer. These vibrations are analogous to the torsional vibrations of a

solid cylinder considered in Article 200. In the second class V vanishes, so that the
displacement takes place in planes through the axis, and we find
U=£ cos — , W=Q sm — ,
where £ and ( are connected by the equations
F
l p(l-o- ) 2 2
I _p 2
p ( l - o - ) la U
'
P 2 2 Q 2 V
l p(l-o- )a J p(l-cr ) la*~ '
2
The equation for p is
F P 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
P (l-a ) \a ^ I ) ^ p (l-* )a l
If the length is great compared with the diameter, so that ajl is small, the two types of
2
vibration are (i) almost purely radial, with a frequency {E/p (1 - o- )}^jlira, and (ii) almost
purely longitudinal, with a frequency n (E/p)^/2l. The latter are of the same kind as the
extensional vibrations of a thin rod (Article 278).
A more detailed investigation of the extensional vibrations of cylindrical shells with
edges will be found in my paper cited in the Introduction, footnote 133. For a shell of
infinite length the radial vibrations have been discussed by A. B. Basset, London Math.
Soc. Proc, vol. 21 (1891), p. 53, and the various modes of vibration have been investigated
very fully by Lord Rayleigh, Proc. R, Soc, vol. 45 (1889), p. 443, or Scientific Papers, vol. 3,
p. 244. See also Theory of Sound, 2nd edition, vol. 1, Chapter x A.
( c ) Inextensional vibrations*.
The displacement in a principal mode of vibration is either two-dimensional and given
by the formulse
tt=0, v=A co&
n (p t+€ ) coa (rKl> +
n n a\ n w= -nA coB(p t+€ )8m(nqy-\-a ),
n n n n
* See Chapter X X I I I . , Articles 319 and 321.

2 2 2
, 9 D n {n -l)
or else the displacement is three-dimensional and given by the formulae
u=-^B cos
n (p 't + O s i n (n0 +ftj,
n v=xB cos n (£>'tf + e ') c o s 0 0
n w
: - nxB cos (_p'tf + e ') sin (T*0 +0 ),

n ro n n
2 2 2 2 2 2
where jo ' = D w ( w - l ) 1 + 6(1 -<j)a \n l

w
2
2 2 2 2 2
~2pha± n + I l+Za /n (n +l)l '
All the values of p and JO' are proportional to h.
(d) Inexactness of the inextensional displacement.
To verify the failure of the assumed inextensional displacement to satisfy the equations
of motion, it is sufficient to calculate T from the equations of motion, and compare the 2
result with the second of the formulae (44). Taking the two-dimensional vibration specified
by A , we have the equation
n
r r n
a dx a oK 2
2(l-cr) a
2
2 + o~ i ) ^ ( 7 I - l )
3
A sin (n0 + a ) cos (p * + * ).
n n n w
2(l-o-) a
The two values of T are different, and the equations of motion are not satisfied by the
2
assumed displacement. It is clear that a correction of the displacement involving but

slight extension would enable us to satisfy the differential equations.
1
Two of the boundary conditions are G = 0, N — a~ dH /d(f) = 0. When the vibration 1 1 1
is two-dimensional, G is independent of x, and cannot vanish at any particular value of

x
x unless A =0.
n When the vibration is three-dimensional, N± and H are independent of x
1
x, and JVx — a~ 3^T /30 cannot vanish at any particular value of x unless B =0.
1 Thus the n
boundary conditions cannot be satisfied by the assumed displacement. The correction of

the displacement required to satisfy the boundary conditions would appear to be more
important than that required to satisfy the differential equations.
(e) Nature of the correction to be applied to the inextensional displace-

ment.
I t is clear t h a t t h e existence of practically inextensional vibrations is
connected with the fact that, when t h e vibrations are taken to be extensional,
t h e order of t h e system of equations of vibration is reduced from eight to
four. I n t h e determinantal equation indicated in (a) of this Article t h e
8 6 2
t e r m s which contain m and m have h as a factor, and t h u s two of t h e values
2
of m are large of t h e order 1/h. The way in which t h e solutions which
depend on t h e large values of m would enable us to satisfy t h e boundary
conditions may be illustrated by t h e solution of t h e following statical
problem* :—
A portion of a circular cylinder bounded by two generators and two
circular sections is held bent into a surface of revolution by forces applied
along the bounding generators, t h e circular edges being free, in such
a way t h a t the displacement v tangential to the circular sections is
proportional to t h e angular coordinate ; it is required to find the
displacement.
We are to have v = ccf), where c is constant, while u and w are independent
of <p. Hence
2
du c—w „ dw c ~
€ e = w = 0 K l = 2 = T = 0
^dx> * ~lT' ' ^ ' * ^' -
The stress-resultants Si, S 2 and the stress-couples H , x H 2 vanish, and we
have
T h e equations of equilibrium are
+
dx ' d<j> ' dx* a '
and t h e boundary conditions a t x = + I are
Ti = 0, JVi = 0, ^ = 0.
W e seek to satisfy these equations and conditions approximately by t h e
assumption t h a t t h e extensional strains e e are of t h e same order as t h e lt 2
flexural strains hfc , hfc . W h e n this is t h e case T± and T are given with
x 2 2
sufficient approximation by t h e formulae

2 2
T = (W/h )
x ( € L + (76 ), 2 T = (W/h )
2 (€ + (760-
2
To satisfy t h e equation dTJdx — 0 and the condition T = 0 at x = ± I we Y
2 2
m u s t p u t Ti = 0, or ^ = - ae , and t h e n we have T = 3 D (1 — <x ) e /A . The
2 2 2
equations of equilibrium are now reduced to t h e equation

2
8% 3(1-a ),
while t h e boundary conditions at x= ± I become

2
dw ac _ ^ 3% _ Q
2 2
3# a '
mx 2
If we take c — w to be a sum of t e r m s of the form %e , t h e n m is large of
t h e order 1/h; and t h e solution is found to be
w = c + G cosh (qx/a) cos (qx/a) -f C sinh (qx/a) sin (qx/a),
1 2
* This is the problem solved for this purpose by H. Lamb, loc. cit. p. 477. The same point
i n the theory was illustrated by A. B. Basset, loc. cit. p. 505, by means of a different statical
problem.
where
2
q = (a/2h) x/{3 (1 - <r%
and
(TO sinh (ql/a) cos (ql/a) — cosh (ql/a) sin (ql/a)
sinh (2ql/a) + sin (2ql/a)
ere sinh (gZ/g) cos (gZ/a) + cosh (ql/a) sin (ql/a)
<f sinh (2ql/a) + sin (2ql/a)
a r e
The form of t h e solution shows t h a t near the boundaries e e , ^*a> ^ 2 alll 5 2
of the same order of magnitude, b u t that, at a distance from the boundaries

which is at all large compared with (ah)*, € and e become small in com
1 2
parison with h/c . 2
I t may be shown that, in this statical problem, the potential energy d u e

to extension is actually of the order \f(h/a) of t h e potential energy due to
bending*, I n t h e case of vibrations we may infer t h a t t h e extensional strain,
which is necessary in order to secure t h e satisfaction of t h e boundary con
ditions, is practically confined to so narrow a region near the edge t h a t its
effect in altering t h e total amount of the potential energy, and therefore t h e
periods of vibration, is negligible.
335. Vibrations of a t h i n spherical shell.

The case in which t h e middle surface is a complete spherical surface, and
the shell is thin, has been investigated by H. Lamb*|- by means of t h e general
equations of vibration of elastic solids. All t h e modes of vibration are
extensional, and t h e y fall into two classes, analogous to those of a solid
sphere investigated in Article 194, and characterized respectively by t h e
absence of a radial component of t h e displacement and by the absence of a
radial component of the rotation. I n any mode of either class the displace
ment is expressible in terms of spherical surface harmonics of a single integral
degree. I n the case of vibrations of the first class the frequency p/2ir is
connected with t h e degree n of t h e harmonics by t h e equation
2 2
p a p/fji = (n — 1) (n + 2), (54)
where a is t h e radius of t h e sphere. I n t h e case of vibrations of t h e second
class t h e frequency is connected with t h e degree of t h e harmonics by t h e
equation
4 4 2 2
p a p p a?p
(55)
If n exceeds unity there are two modes of vibration of the second class,
* For further details in regard to this problem the reader is referred to the paper by
H. Lamb already cited.
+ London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 14 (1883), p. 50.
and t h e gravest tone belongs to t h e slower of those two modes of vibration
of this class for which n = 2. I t s frequency p/2ir is given by
_1
p = V(Wf>)a (1-176),
if Poisson's ratio for t h e material is taken to be | . T h e frequencies of all
these modes are independent of t h e thickness.
I n the limiting case of a plane plate t h e modes of vibration fall into two
main classes, one inextensional, with displacement normal to the plane of the
plate, and t h e other extensional, with displacement parallel to t h e plane of
the plate. [See Articles 314 (d) and (e) and 333 and N o t e F at t h e end of
t h e book.] The case of an infinite plate of finite thickness has been discussed
by Lord Rayleigh *, starting from the general equations of vibration of elastic
solids, and using methods akin to those described in Article 214 supra. There
is a class of extensional vibrations involving displacement parallel to t h e
plane of t h e p l a t e ; and t h e modes of this class fall into two sub-classes,
in one of which there is no displacement of the middle plane. The other
of these two sub-classes appears to be the analogue of t h e tangential vibra
tions of a complete thin spherical shell. There is a second class of extensional
vibrations involving a component of displacement normal to t h e plane of the
plate as well as a tangential component, and, when t h e plate is thin, t h e
normal component is small compared with t h e tangential component. T h e
normal component of displacement vanishes at t h e middle plane, and t h e
normal component of the rotation vanishes everywhere; so t h a t t h e vibrations
of this class are analogous to the vibrations of t h e second class of a complete
t h i n spherical shell. There is also a class of flexural vibrations involving a
displacement normal to the plane of t h e plate, and a tangential component
of displacement which is small compared with t h e normal component when
the plate is thin. The tangential component vanishes at t h e middle plane,
so t h a t the displacement is approximately inextensional. I n these vibrations
t h e linear elements which are initially normal to the middle plane remain
straight and normal to the middle plane throughout the motion, and t h e
frequency is approximately proportional to t h e thickness. There are no
inextensional vibrations of a complete thin spherical shell.
The case of an open spherical shell or bowl stands between these extreme
cases. W h e n the aperture is very small, or the spherical surface is nearly
complete, t h e vibrations must approximate to those of a complete spherical
shell. W h e n the angular radius of t h e aperture, measured from the included
pole, is small, and t h e radius of t h e sphere is large, t h e vibrations must
approximate to those of a plane plate. I n intermediate cases there must be
vibrations of practically inextensional type and also vibrations of extensional
type.
* London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 20 (1889), p. 225, or Scientific Papers, vol. 3, p. 249.
Purely inextensional vibrations of a thin spherical shell, of which the
edge-line is a circle, have been discussed in detail by Lord Rayleigh* by t h e
methods described in Article 321 supra. I n the case of a hemispherical
shell t h e frequency pj2nr of t h e gravest tone is given by
p=j(jilp)(hla*) (4-279).
When the angular radius a of t h e aperture is nearly equal to 7r, or the spherical
surface is nearly complete, t h e frequency P/2TT of the gravest mode of
inextensional vibration is given by p = V(/Vp) [hja (TT — a) } (5*657). By
2 2
supposing 7r — a to diminish sufficiently, while h remains constant, we can

make t h e frequency of t h e gravest inextensional mode as great as we please in
comparison with the frequency of the gravest (extensional) mode of vibration
of t h e complete spherical shell. Thus t h e general argument by 'which we
establish the existence of practically inextensional modes breaks down in t h e
case of a nearly complete spherical shell with a small aperture.
W h e n t h e general equations of vibration are formed by the method
illustrated above in t h e case of the cylindrical shell, t h e components of
displacement being taken to be proportional to sines or cosines of multiples
of t h e longitude G/>, and also to a simple harmonic function of t, they are a
system of linear equations of the 8th order for t h e determination of the com
ponents of displacement as functions of the co-latitude 8. The boundary
conditions at the free edge require t h e vanishing, at a particular value of 6,
of four linear combinations of t h e components of displacement and certain of
their differential coefficients with respect to 6. The order of the system of
equations is high enough to admit of the satisfaction of such conditions; and
the solution of t h e system of equations, subject to these conditions, would
lead, if it could be effected, to the determination of the types of vibration and
t h e frequencies.
The extensional vibrations can be investigated by t h e method illustrated
above in t h e case of t h e cylindrical shell. The system of equations is of t h e
fourth order, and there are two boundary conditions*]". I n any mode of
vibration t h e motion is compounded of two motions, one involving no radial
component of displacement, and the other no radial component of rotation.
Each motion is expressible in terms of a single spherical surface harmonic,
b u t the degrees of the harmonics are not in general integers. The degree a
of the harmonic by which the motion with no radial component of displace
m e n t is specified is connected with t h e frequency by equation (54), in which
a is written for n; and the degree /3 of the harmonic by which the motion
* London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 13 (1881), or Scientific Papers, vol. 1, p. 551. See also
Theory of Sound, 2nd edition, vol. 1, Chapter x A .
t The equations were formed and solved by E . Mathieu, J. de VEcole poly technique, t. 51
(1883). The extensional vibrations of spherical shells are also discussed in the paper by the
present writer cited in the Introduction, footnote 133.
with no radial component of rotation is specified is connected with t h e
frequency by equation (55), in which ft is written for n. The two degrees
a and ft are connected by a transcendental equation, which is t h e frequency
equation. The vibrations do not generally fall into classes in t h e same way
as those of a complete shell; but, as the open shell approaches completeness,
its modes of extensional vibration tend to pass over into those of the com
plete shell.
The existence of modes of vibration which are practically inextensional is
clearly bound up with t h e fact that, when t h e vibrations are assumed to be
extensional, the order of t h e system of differential equations of vibration is
reduced from 8 to 4. As in the case of the cylindrical shell, it may be shown
t h a t t h e vibrations cannot be strictly inextensional, and t h a t the correction
of the displacement required to satisfy the boundary conditions is more
important t h a n t h a t required to satisfy the differential equations. W e may
conclude that, near the free edge, the extensional strains are comparable with
the flexural strains, b u t t h a t the extension is practically confined to a narrow
region near the edge.
If we trace in imagination t h e gradual changes in the system of vibrations

as the surface becomes more and more curved*, beginning with t h e case of a
plane plate, and ending with that of a complete spherical shell, one class of
vibrations, t h e practically inextensional class, appears to be totally lost. T h e
reason of this would seem to lie in the rapid rise of frequency of all t h e
modes of this class when the aperture in the surface is much diminished.
The theoretical problem of the vibrations of a spherical shell acquires
great practical interest from the fact t h a t an open spherical shell is t h e best
representative of a bell which admits of analytical treatment. I t may be
taken as established t h a t t h e vibrations of practical importance are inex
tensional, and t h e essential features of t h e theory of t h e m have, as we have
seen, been made out. The tones and modes of vibration of bells have been
investigated experimentally by Lord Rayleigh-f*. H e found t h a t the nominal
pitch of a bell, as specified by English founders, is not t h a t of its gravest
tone, but t h a t of t h e tone which stands fifth in order of increasing frequency ;
in this mode of vibration there are eight nodal meridians.
336. Problems of equilibrium.

W h e n a thin plate or shell is held deformed by externally applied forces,
t h e strained middle surface must, as we observed in Article 315, coincide
very nearly with one of t h e surfaces applicable upon t h e unstrained middle
surface. W e may divide t h e problem into two parts : (i) t h a t of determining
* The process is suggested by H. Lamb in the paper cited on p. 477.
f Phil. Mag. (Ser. 5), vol. 29 (1890), p. 1, or Scientific Papers, vol. 3, p. 318, or Theory of
Sound, 2nd edition, vol. 1, Chapter x.
526 EQUILIBRIUM CONFIGURATIONS [CH. X X I V
this applicable surface, (ii) t h a t of determining t h e small displacement by

which t h e strained middle surface is derived from this applicable surface.
This is t h e procedure adopted by Clebsch* in his t r e a t m e n t of t h e problem
of finite deformation of plane plates. I t appears that there is some degree of
indefiniteness attaching to this division of t h e problem, since any one of t h e
surfaces applicable upon t h e unstrained middle surface, and derivable one
from another by displacements of t h e order which we regard as small, would
serve equally well as a solution of t h e first part of t h e problem. Greater
precision m a y be imparted to t h e procedure if we regard t h e two steps as
(i) t h e determination of an inextensional displacement, which need not be
small, (ii) t h e determination of an additional displacement involving ex
tensional strains a t least of t h e same order of magnitude as the additional
flexural strains, and possibly large in comparison with them.
T h e first step is analogous to t h e determination of equilibrium configura

tions of a thin rod, discussed in Chapters XIX. and x x i . ; but, unless t h e
displacement is small, little progress can be made. When t h e displacement
is small, it is, as we know, very narrowly restricted as regards its functional
character. This restriction carries with it a notable difference in procedure
between t h e problems of rods and of plates or shells, and it also increases t h e
theoretical, though not t h e practical, importance of t h e second step in t h e
solution of the problem.
These points may be illustrated by a particular problem :—Let a hemispherical shell be

deformed by a string stretched tightly with tension F between two opposite points on its
edge. In the notation of Article 320 we take these points to be 0=^TT, <£ = 0 and <£ = 7R,
and we suppose that the pole 6 - 0 is included. The type of small inextensional displace
ment is given by the equations
u=sin3 2 A tau -
n
n
cosn<f>, v=sin# 2 A tan - n
w
sin ?2</>,
00
w
w— 2 (?i + c o s # ) J t a n - c o sn
The potential energy of bending V is given according to Article 321 (b) by the equation
= §^^2«(n2-l)( ^_ j 2. 2 1 ) n
The work done by the tension of the string in a small displacement is

F2n ( 1 + cos mr)bA , n
and the increment of the potential energy of bending is

2 2
f 7T/x 2n (n - 1) (2n - 1) A n U n .
* Elasticitat, § 70.
336] OF A THIN SHELL 527
Hence we have
2
. o Fa l-f-cosft7r
N 4 3 2 2
7TT/A (?I -1)(2^ -1)'
so that A vanishes when n is odd, and, when n is even,
n
F a ? 1
A -* n 2 2
~*irfik* (n -l)(2n -l)'
The inextensional displacement is now determined*.
In this solution the necessity of satisfying boundary conditions at the edge is left out
of account, and it is on account of these conditions that the second step in the complete
solution, viz.: that of determining a subsidiary extensional displacement, acquires so much
theoretical importance. From the first part of the solution we could calculate the flexural
couple and the radial stress-resultant at the edge. In the case of small displacements the
equations of equilibrium under no forces except at the edge are formed by omitting the
kinetic reactions in the equations of vibration. We thus have the forms of these equations,
and we know that they are of a sufficiently high order to admit of the satisfaction of the
conditions (i) the tension and shearing force at the edge vanish, (ii) the flexural couple and
the radial stress-resultant at the edge have given values. If we take these given values to
be those calculated from the first part of the solution with reversed signs, the displacement
which satisfies the equations of equilibrium and the boundary conditions is the required
subsidiary displacement. As in the case of vibrations the subsidiary displacement
diminishes rapidly as the distance from the edge increases, and becomes very small as
soon as the distance from the edge is a considerable multiple of the mean proportional
between the radius and the thickness. The method of determining the subsidiary
displacement in the case of a cylindrical shell was illustrated in Article 334 (e), where the
inextensional displacement was u=0, v = c<f>, w=c.
There are cases in which t h e first part of t h e solution may be omitted.
For example, no inextensional displacement can be produced in a spherical
bowl by forces which are symmetrically distributed round t h e axis. T h e
bowl is very stiff, b u t not, of course, infinitely stiff, to resist such forces. T h e
method of solution in such cases may be illustrated by t h e problem of a
hemispherical bowl resting with its edge on a smooth horizontal plane and
deformed by its own weight.
Specifying the displacement by components u, v, w as in Article 320, and using the
results of Article 326, we find
I (du \ 1 (dv , , . A 1 fdv I du , a
a \dd J' a sm 0 \dcj> ) a \pB sm 6 8$

The stress-resultants are given by the formulae (36) of Article 329, viz. :
3D 3Z) 3D
_ 2
• m»**„
h2 ^-£2^.-!,, -I" ^ 2 (1 —cr) k
The equations of equilibrium become
1
^ + (<S ->S )cotd+J^||=0,
1 2 Tt+Tz+fypha cos 6=0.
* The method and this example of its application are due to Lord Rayleigh, London Math.
Soc. Proc, vol. 13 (1881), or Scientific Papers, vol. 1, p. 551, or Theory of Sound, Chapter X A .
528 STABILITY OF A T H I N PLATE OR SHELL [CH. X X I V
Now, the forces being independent of cf), the displacements are also independent of G/>,
and thus these equations become
( 2 )
|_ _ ) w + < r { u C o t 6 - » ) ] + (l -o-)cot 6 ( g - « cat *) + ^ ^ a i n 0 = 0, '
|(|- cot*) V + 2 c o u ( g - » c o u ) = 0,
YPG (
^+«cotfl-2 + W ' 2 , - ' o o < ? = 0.- r)
B
The boundary conditions at 6 = \ i r are % = 0, v=0. The solution is

U - 9 P < #
sin 6 - tan ^ -I- sin (9 log (1 -f cos 0)J,
2/*
v=0,
2|I [ 1 + (T J
337. Problems of stability.

I n accordance with the general principles explained in Article 267 we see
that an extensional configuration of equilibrium of a t h i n plate or shell can
be unstable if there can exist both an extensional and an inextensional con
figuration of equilibrium with t h e same externally applied forces. I n such
cases interest is centred in t h e determination of critical values for t h e
external forces, or for the linear dimensions of t h e plate or shell, which must
not be exceeded if the system is to be stable. W e illustrate some methods
appropriate to such questions by means of two problems.
(a) Buckling of a rectangular plate under thrust in its plane.
When the length and breadth of the plate, or the thrust at the edge, are not too great,,
the plate simply contracts in its plane, in the manner indicated in Article 301; but when
the linear dimensions, or the thrusts, are great enough it bends. We shall suppose that
it is very slightly bent.
We take the centre of the rectangle as origin, and lines parallel to the edges as axes of
x and y, and use x and y instead of a and /3 in the formulae of Article 326, in which we put
A = B = l and 1/R = 1/B = 0. We find 1 2
2 2 2 2 2
, , dw , dw , dw , dv , dv
R I =
P l
~ ' ^ - d ^ / > q i =
~ ~ & > p
* ~ d f > A^. r
^ m y -
Also we have
2 2 2 2 2
r i ._. (d w d w\ „ _ /d w d w\ T1 Tr . d io
J E I = = I > ( 1 < R )
G
^ - n
{ w > +
" w ) ' a
^ - D
W + < r
^ ) ' - ^ - A ^ -
Omitting products of differential coefficients of u, v, w> we find from equations (46) of
Article 331
2 2 2 2
a a d (d w d w\ , 3 (d w d w\ XT 7
2 T 2 z 2 2
dx \dx dy )' ~~ dy\dx ^ dy J '
The first two of equations (45) of the same Article are satisfied approximately, when
X\ Y\ Z' vanish, by putting T and T equal to constants and JS and JS equal to zero. x 2 1 2
We take
T =^-P T =-P x u 2 2i
336, 337] COLLAPSE OF BOILER FLUES 529
where P and P are the thrusts at the edges x — const, and y — const., each estimated per
x 2
unit of length of the corresponding edge. The third of equations (45) becomes.
1 2 1 2 + 2 2
\& dy dx^dy ) dx dy
If the plate is "supported" at the edges x— ±a and y — ±b, we must have w = 0 and
6^=0 at x= ±a, and w = 0 and G = 0 at y= ± b. We have a solution of the form
2
T j r . m7r(x + a) . mrty + b)
iv— If sin ^ -sm — ~ — - ,
2a 2b
where m and n are integers and W is a constant, provided that
2 2 2 2 2
, ~, / m 0 n\ „ m ^ n
This equation gives the critical thrusts. For example, if Pi=P , 2 the critical value of
2 2 2
Pj and P is ^Dn (l/a + l/& )*
2
(b) Collapse of a tube under external pressure.

When a cylindrical shell of circular section is subjected to external pressure p, which
is not too great, it suffers a purely radial displacement, the amount of which can be
calculated by the method of Article 100; but, when p is too great, the shell bends under
the pressure. In the case of a long cylinder, supposed to bend slightly in two dimensions
without stretching, the displacement is given, according to Article 319, by the formulae,
u=0, v = 2A cosn(f), n w = — 2nA sin n<fi, n

2
Ki—0, r=0, K =1{n(n -
2
2
l)/a } A smn<j). n
According to the formulae (24) and (25) of Article 326, all the quantities pi ... 9 vanish
except p which is l + a* . We shall write
2y 2
p =a/R,
2 R=a — a K 2
2 + ...)
where R is the radius of curvature of the deformed cross-section of the middle surface.
The ordinary approximation to the stress-couples + gives
-B(TK , 2 G =-DK ,2 2 TI = 2 -IljÔ;
and the first two of equations (46) give
a ocj)
The second and third of equations (45) give
r
a dcj) R ' a 8<£ R
Eliminating T from these, we find
2
1 ^(RdN \ pJ_R 2
adcj)\a dcf) J'*' R^ adcj) '
* The problem is strictly analogous to that of the doubly pivoted strut considered in Article
264. The above solution is due to Gr. H. Bryan, London Math. Soc. Proc, vol. 22 (1891), p. 54,
who discusses a number of special cases.
t It is assumed that the existence of pressure on the outer surface of the tube does not
seriously affect the first approximation to the strain. The second approximation is not required
for the calculation of the stress-couples.
L. K 34
530 COLLAPSE OF BOILER F L U E S [CH. XXIV
or, neglecting the square of an , 2
There can be a solution in which K is proportional to sin ncj) if

2
3
Hence the least value of p for which there can be a form other than circular is 3D/a .
3
We infer that the circular cylinder is unstable if the external pressure exceeds 3Z)/a *
The result just obtained admits of application to the problem of the collapse of boiler
flues. The pressure of steam in a boiler is much in excess of the pressure of the air
in the flues, and it is found that long flues tend to collapse under the pressure. To obviate
this weakness it is usual to construct the flues in several detached pieces with massive
flanged joints, thus shortening the effective length of the flue to the distance between
consecutive joints. Our result is that a flue of infinite length will not collapse unless the
2 3
pressure exceeds [22£/(I — cr )] (h/a) , where 2? and cr denote Young's modulus and Poisson's
ratio for the material, and k/a is the ratio of the thickness to the diameter. The portion
of the flue between two joints is effectively a thin cylindrical shell with fixed ends, and the
fixity of the ends has the consequence that the middle surface cannot be bent without
stretching. If, however, the pressure exceeds the critical pressure, and the length is
sufficiently great, the extension may be practically confined to a narrow region near the
ends, while the greater part of the surface bends almost without extension.
The most interesting question to be settled concerns the critical length, or the least
length for which collapse is possible under the critical pressure. An exact numerical
value cannot be obtained, but an indication of the relations between the various dimensions
of the flue can be gathered from the principles explained in Article 334 (e). For collapse
to be possible, the effective length, or the distance between the joints, must be great enough
for the inextensional configuration to be established over the greater part of the length, in
other words, it must be great enough to secure that the subsidiary extensional displacement
required to satisfy the terminal conditions shall diminish to a negligible quantity between
.an end and the middle of the flue. From the method of solution adopted in Article 334 (E)
we can see at once that the distance required must be a large multiple of the mean
proportional between the thickness and the diameter. It would appear therefore that, in
flues of different sizes, the rule for spacing the joints, by which the flues are protected
against collapse, ought to be: The distance between the joints should be proportional to
the geometric mean between the thickness and the diameter.
* The result is due to G. H. Bryan, Cambridge Phil. Soc. Proc, vol. 6 (1888), p. 287. The
analogous result for a ring is given in Article 275 supra.
NOTES.
NOTE A.
Terminology and notation.

QUESTIONS of notation, and of the most appropriate nomenclature, for elasticity have
1
been much discussed. Reference may be made to the writings of W. J. M. Rankine ,
2 3
to Lord Kelvin's account of Rankine's nomenclature , to K. Pearson's efforts after
4
consistency and uniformity, to pronouncements on the subject by H. Lamb and
5
W. Voigt . The following tables show some of the more important notations for strain-
components and stress-components.
Strain-components.
8 3
Text 6
Kelvin and T a i t 7
Kirchhoff Saint-Venant 9
Pearson
®xx-> &yyi &zz e

> /> 9 ^xj yyi z
z $X 5 °V 5 $Z S X) Sy, S s
@yz) &zxi &xy a, b, c y,

z %xi x
y $yzi <jfzx) 9xy °~yzy °~zxi °~xy
Stress-components.
10
T e x t and 3
Kelvin and T a i t 7
Lame 11
Saint-Venant 9
Pearson
Kirchhoff s
^-X) Yy , Z Z p, e, R ^XX) tyy, tzz

xx, yy, ?z
Y Z , Z , Xy
X
S, T, U tyzy ^zxt %xy yz, zx, xy
1
Cambridge and Dublin Math. J., vol. 6 (1851), p. 47, or Miscellaneous Scientific Papers,
p. 6 7 ; also Phil. Trans. R. Soc, vol. 146 (1856), or Miscellaneous Scientific Papers, p. 119.
I n the first of these memoirs the word " s t r a i n " was appropriated to express relative displacement,
and in the second the word " s t r e s s " was appropriated to express internal actions between the
parts of a body. The memoir of 1856 also contains Rankine's nomenclature for elastic constants
of seolotropic solid bodies.
2
Baltimore Lectures on Molecular Dynamics, Cambridge, 1904.
3
Todhunter and Pearson's History, vol. 1, Note B.
4
London Math. Soc Proc, vol. 21 (1891), p. 73.
5
Rapports presentes au Congres International de Physique, t. 1, Paris, 1900.
6
For the definitions see Article 8.
7
Natural Philosophy, Part 2.
8
Vorlesungen uber math. Physik, Mechanik.
9
Theorie de Velasticity des corps solides de Clebsch, Paris, 1883, frequently referred to as the
* Annotated Clebsch.'
1 0
For the definitions see Article 47.
11
Legons sur la theorie mathematique de Velasticity des corps solides.
532 NOTE A. TERMINOLOGY A N D NOTATION
Kelvin and Tait's notation for strain-components and stress-components has been
adopted by Lord Rayleigh and J. H. Michell, among others, and it was used in the first
edition of this book. KirchhofFs notation for stress-components has met with very general
acceptance, but there seems to be no equally suggestive and convenient notation for
strain-components. The notation X , Y , Z for the components of traction across a
v v v
5
plane, the normal to which is in the direction v, is supported by Voigt .
The word "shear" has been used in the sense attached to it in the text by Kelvin and
12
Tait. Rankine proposed to use it for what has here been called "tangential traction."
The word "traction" has been used in the sense attached to it in the text by Kelvin and
3
Tait. Pearson uses "traction" in the sense here attached to "tension." The strains
which have here been called "extension" and "shearing strain" have been called by him
"stretch" and "slide." It appears to be desirable to maintain a distinction between " simple
shear," or "pure shear," and "shearing strain," and also between "tangential traction" and
"shearing stress."
3
The "stress equations" of equilibrium or motion (Article 54) are called by Pearson
"body-stress-equations," and the equations of equilibrium or motion in terms of displace
ments (Article 91) are called by him "body-shift-equations." The terms "Young's
modulus," "rigidity," "modulus of compression" (Articles 69, 73) are adopted from Kelvin
7 3
and Tait ; these quantities are called by Pearson the "stretch-modulus," the "slide-
modulus," and the "dilatation-modulus." The number here called "Poisson's ratio" is
3
called by Pearson the "stretch-squeeze ratio."
For isotropic solids Lame introduced the two constants X and of Article 69; \i is
11
the rigidity and X + f/x is the modulus of compression. Kelvin and Tait and Lord Rayleigh
9
have used the letter n to denote the rigidity. Saint-Venant used the letter G. Many
writers, including Clebsch and Kelvin and Tait, have used the letter E, as it is used in this
book, to denote Young's modulus; in Lord Rayleigh's Theory of Sound the letter q is used.
Poisson's ratio, here denoted by cr, has been denoted so by Kelvin and Tait, Clebsch and
Lord Rayleigh have denoted it by fx, Saint-Venant and Pearson by rj. In many of the
writings of Italian elasticians the constants (\ + 2jj)/p and /x/p are used, and denoted by
2 8
i2 and oo ; Q, and co are the velocities of irrotational and equivoluminal waves, Kirchhoff
2
used two constants which he denoted by K and 6; K is the rigidity, and 6 is the number
7
0-/(1 — 2<r), where a is Poisson's ratio. Kelvin and Tait used two constants m, n connected
with Lamp's X and p by the equations m = X-f-/x, n=[x.
In the case of seolotropic solids there are comparatively few competing notations.
3
Pearson has suggested the following notation for the elastic constants which we have
5
denoted after Voigt by c ...:— ll9
c = | xxxx | , CI2= | ocxyy | ,... c | yzyz | ,....

n 44
The rule is that any suffix 1, 2 or 3 is to be replaced by xx, yy or zz, and any suffix
4, 5 or 6 is to be replaced by yz, zx or xy. The two first letters in any symbol refer to a
component of stress, as X , and the two last letters to a component of strain as e . The
x xx
letters in either of these pairs can be interchanged without altering the meaning of the
symbol. The conditions (c = c ), expressing that there is a strain-energy-function, are
sr rs
represented by the statement that the two pairs of letters in a symbol are interchangeable.
Cauchy's relations (Article 66) amount to the statement that the order of the letters is
indifferent.
The constants by which the strain is expressed in terms of the stress, denoted in
5
Articles 72 and 73 by Cn/JJ,are denoted by Voigt by s , a n d this usage has been n
12
Applied Mechanics.
13 5
followed by Liebisch . Voigt has proposed the name "modulus" for these coefficients,
but this proposal seems to run counter to the usage implied in such phrases as "Young's
1
modulus." Names for the coefficients c ,... and <7n/n,... were proposed by Rankine , and
n
accounts of his terminology will be found in Lord Kelvin's Baltimore Lectures and in
Todhunter and Pearson's History, vol. 2.
NOTE B.
The notion of stress.

One way of introducing the notion of stress into an abstract conceptual scheme of
Rational Mechanics is to accept it as a fundamental notion derived from experience. The
notion is simply that of mutual action between two bodies in contact, or between two parts
of the same body separated by an imagined surface; and the physical reality of such modes
of action is, in this view, admitted as part of the conceptual scheme. It is perhaps in this
14
meaning that we are to understand the dictum of Kelvin and Tait that "force is a direct
15
object of sense." This was the method followed by Euler in his formulation of the
16
principles of Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics, and by Cauchy in his earliest writings
on Elasticity. When this method is followed, a distinction is established between the two
types of forces which we have called "body forces" and "surface tractions," the former
being conceived as due to direct action at a distance, and the latter to contact action.
Natural Philosophers have not, as a rule, been willing to accept distance actions and
contact actions as equally fundamental. It has been held generally that a more complete
analysis would reveal an underlying identity between the two modes of action. Sometimes
it has been sought to replace action at a distance by stress in a medium; at other times to
represent actions generally recognized as contact actions by means of central forces acting
17
directly at a distance . As an example of the former procedure, we may cite Maxwell's
18
stress-system equivalent to electrostatic attractions and repulsions . The alternative
procedure is exemplified in many of the early discussions of Elasticity, and an account
will be given presently of Cauchy's use of it to determine the stress-strain relations in a
19
crystalline material . Any such reduction of contact actions to distance actions tends
to obliterate the distinction between surface tractions and body forces, and it has been
customary to maintain the distinction by means of an hypothesis concerning the molecular
structure of bodies. In such theories as Cauchy's the apparent contact actions are traced
to distance actions between "molecules," and these actions are supposed not to extend
beyond a certain region surrounding a "molecule," known as the "region of molecular
activity." The body forces, on the other hand, are traced to distance actions which are
sensible at sensible distances. Thus a second way of introducing the notion of stress is to
base it upon an hypothesis concerning intermolecular forces.
1 3
Physikalische Krystallo graphic, Leipzig, 1891.
14
Nat. Phil., Part 1, p. 220.
15
Berlin Hist, de VAcad., t. U (1755).
16
Exercices de mathematiques, t. 2 (1827), p. 42. Cauchy's work dates from 1822, see
Introduction, footnote 32.
1 7
The fluctuation of scientific opinion in this matter has been sketched by Maxwell in a
lecture on ' Action at a distance,' Scientific Papers, vol. 2, p. 311.
1 8
Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd edition (Oxford 1881), vol. 1, Part 1, Chapter v. Cf.
Article 53 (vi) supra.
1 9
' De la pression ou tension dans un systeme de points materiels,' Exercices de mathematiques,
t. 3 (1828), p. 213.
A third way is found in an application of the theory of energy. Let us suppose that a
strain-energy-function exists, and that the equations of equilibrium or vibration of a solid
body are investigated by the method of Article 115, and let the energy of that portion
of the body which is contained within any closed surface S be increased by increasing the
displacement. Part of the increment of this energy is expressed as a surface integral
of the form
[ [ridW dW dW ) 1
cos(
jJLfc**' " ) +
A^ C O S ( Y
' v ) +
o \ x
c o
^ ")}«*+-"+-.J^
Now in the formulation of Mechanics by means of the theory of energy, "forces" intervene
as the coefficients of increments of the displacement in the expression for the increment
of the energy. The above expression at once suggests the existence of forces which act at
the surface bounding any portion of the body, and are to be estimated as so much per unit
of area of the surface. In this view the notion of stress becomes a secondary or derived
notion, the fundamental notions being energy, the distinction of various kinds of energy,
and the localization of energy in the medium. This method appears to be restricted
at present to cases in which a strain-energy-function exists.
Cauehy's investigation of stress-strain relations i n a crystalline body.
The body is supposed to be made up of a large number of material points, or particles,
which act upon one another at a distance by means of forces directed along the lines
joining them in pairs. The force between two particles of masses m, m' at a distance r
a n
apart is taken to be an attraction of amount mm'x (f)> d the function ^ (r) is supposed
to vanish when r exceeds a certain finite value R, called by Cauchy the "radius of the
sphere of molecular activity." The particles are supposed to form, when in equilibrium
under no external forces, a "homogeneous assemblage." By this it is meant that all of
them have the same mass, and that, if three of them are situated at points P, P', Q, and a
line QQ' is drawn from Q, equal and parallel to PP' and in the sense from P to P', there is
a particle at Q'.
Let x, y z be the coordinates, and M the mass, of any particle P. We draw a closed
y
curve s round P in the plane (p) which passes through P and is parallel to the plane of
(y, z\ so that all the radii vectores drawn from P to s exceed R. Let S be the area within
this curve. We shall suppose that all the linear dimensions of S are small compared with
ordinary standards. The statical resultant of all the forces whose lines of action cross p
within s is a force, of which the components parallel to the axes are denoted by
X S,X Y S,
X Z S,X
where X , Y Z are the components of the traction across the plane at P.

x X9 x But these
components are also the sums of such expressions as
where m$ denotes the mass of a particle situated on that side of the plane for which x is
greater than the x of P, m/ denotes the mass of a particle situated on the other side of the
plane, denotes the distance between these particles, A^-, py, denote the direction
cosines of the line drawn from m/ to m^ The summation extends to all pairs so situated
that the line joining them crosses p within s and the distance r - does not exceed R. i3
From the assumed homogeneity of the assemblage it follows that there is a particle
Q of mass m (equal to M or m - or m/), so situated that the line PQ is of length r equal to
t
r and is parallel to the direction (X#, ft^-, vy). Thus the terms of the above sums may
ij9
be replaced by
Mmx {r) X, Mmx (r) Mm\ (r) v,
where r is the distance of a particle m from M, and X, /x, v are the direction cosines of the
line drawn from M to m. The summation may be effected by first summing for all the
pairs of particles (m^ m/) which have the same r, X, v and are so situated that the line
joining them crosses p within s, then summing for all the directions (X, p., v) on which such
pairs of particles occur, and lastly summing for all the pairs of particles on any such line
whose distances do not exceed R. The first summation is effected by multiplying the
expressions such as Mmx (r) X by the number of particles contained in a cylinder of base
S and height rX. This number is pSrkjM, where p is the density, or mass per unit of
volume, of the system of particles. Thus we require the sums of such quantities as
If the summation is extended to all directions (X, tt, v) round P in which particles occur,
any term will be counted twice, and therefore the required expressions for the component
tractions X ... are
xy
2 r
X =ip2mr\
x x M, Y =ip2mr\p
x X ( ), Z ^\p2mr\vx(r\
x
in which the summations extend to all particles whose distance from P does not exceed i?.
If there is no initial stress the six sums of these types vanish, or we have
2
2mr\ x (r) — 0,..., 2mrX/x x (f) = 0,...;
but, when there is initial stress, the values of the six components of it at any point are
0
X,( ),..., where
2
X (0) = ip2mr\ x(r),X/)=ip2mrX/* (r),....
x x
The stress-strain relations are obtained by investigating the small changes which are
made in the above expressions when the system undergoes a small relative displacement.
As in Article 7, we may take the unstrained position of M to be given by coordinates
y, z, and its strained position by coordinates a + u, y+v, z + w. At the same time m is
displaced from (# + x, y + y , z + z) to (x+x+u + u,...), where u,... are given with sufficient
approximation by such formulse as
~ dx ^ dy dz'
so that r\ becomes rk + $ (rX), where
ft / ^ v A du du du\
and we have similar formulse for § (rp,), $ (rv). Also r becomes r (1 where
2
«=EXX X + e p? + e v +e p.v+e v\
2
u y zz yz 2X +e xy X/x,
and p becomes p\ where

/ du dv dw\
P ^\ dx dy dz)'
The effect of these changes is to give us for X ,... x such expressions as
f 2
X = ip>2 [m ~ ^
x r ) { (r) + er (r)} {r\ + d (rX)} ],
x x
X = J p's \m
y { (r) + er ' (r)} {r\ + d (rX)} {rp + d (rp)}
x x
When there is no initial stress, these equations give us the stress-strain relations in such
forms as
2 2 2 2
X = Jp2 [mr {r ' (r) - 0)} X {e k + e^p + e v + e p,v + e v\ + e \p)],
x x x xx zz yz zx xy
X 32 m r r r r 2 2 2
y=i/ l { X ( ) ~ X ( )} X/A feX + <%/i + e v + 2Z + e v\ + ^ V } ] 5
zx
536 NOTE B. STRESS
and the elastic constants CN,... are expressed by sums of the types
4 2
c =$ p2 [mr {r ' (r) - ( r ) } X ] ,
n x x c = c =JpS [mr { r ' ( r ) - (r)} X V ] ,
12 m x x
f
C i 4 = c 5 6 = i p 2 [mr {r (r) - (r)} \*pv],
x x c = 4 p 2 [«ir
16 {r ' x (r) - x (r)} 3
X p].
There are 15 of these, Green's 21 coefficients being connected by the 6 relations which
have been called Cauchy's relations (Article 66).
When there is initial stress we have to add to the above expressions for X and X x y
the terms
dz
dw
and ^ + jyo) ^ + r / ) ~ + ^ ( ° ) ^+-r (o) ( i -
xjfi) y 3 x y
dx^* dy dz^" dz "dz
with similar additions to the remaining stress-components (Article 75).

The above investigation is given as an example of the kind of methods by which the
elements of the theory of Elasticity were originally investigated. A modification by which
the results may be made to accord with experiment, at any rate for isotropic solids, has
been proposed by W. Voigt, Ann. Phys. (Ser. 4), Bd. 4 (1901).
N O T E C.
Applications of the method of moving axes.

The theory of moving axes may be based on the result obtained in Article 35. Let a
figure of invariable form rotate about an axis of which the direction cosines, referred to
fixed axes, are I, m, n, and let it turn through an angle SB in time dt. At the beginning
of this interval of time let any point belonging to the figure be at the point of which the
coordinates, referred to the fixed axes, are x, y, zx then at the end of the interval the same
point of the figure will have moved to the point of which the coordinates are
x+(mz - ny) sin b8 - {x -1 (lx-\-my + nz)} (1 - cos d#),....
Hence the components of velocity of the moving point at the instant when it passes through
the point (x, y, z) are
d e d e 7 d e d e d e , 7 d e
— yn-^ + zm-^-, .— zt -y- + xn - = - , — am-j-+ yt -TT .
* dt dt' dt dt' dt * dt
We may localize a vector of magnitude dB/dt in the axis (I, m, n\ and specify it by
components co , co , co , so that co —lde/dt,....
x y z This vector is the angular velocity of the
x
figure. The components of the velocity of the moving point which is passing through the
point (x, y, z) at the instant t are then
-y<og+ZCDY, -zco + xco , x 2 -xco +yco .
y x
Let a triad of orthogonal axes of (#', y', z'), having its origin at the origin of the fixed
axes of (x, y, z), and such that they can be derived from the axes of (x, y, z) by a rotation,
rotate with the figure; and let the directions of the moving axes at the instant t be
specified by the scheme of nine direction cosines.
X y z
x' h m l Ml
y' h m 2 n2
h m3 %
Let B 0 j # 3 denote the components of the angular velocity of the rotating figure parallel
ly 2
to the axes of x\ y\ z\ so that

CO — l 0 -\- l B + ^ 3 ^ 3 ) • • • > X 1 1 2 2
and let a point (x\ y\ z') move so as to be invariably connected with the figure. The
coordinates of this point referred to the fixed axes are, at the instant t, l x'' + l y'' + l z' x 2 3
and we may equate two expressions for the components of velocity of the point. We thus
obtain three equations of the type
d
•j (hrf + l y' -f htf) = - (mix' + why' + m^) (nxBx+n B + M 3 )
t 2 2 2
+ (iixa/+n y'+n z') ( m ^ +ra 0 + ^ 3 ^ 3 ) - 2 3 2 2
Since the axes of (x\ y', z') can be derived from those of (x, y, z) by a rotation, we have
such equations as
mn —mn = l. 1 2 2 1 3
f
The above equations hold for all values of x , y\ z\ and therefore, x', y\ z' being
independent of the time, we have the nine equations
dm x A A dm 2 A A dm 3•
-~=m B -m B ,
2 3 3 2 - r ==m 6i'-m e^
o t z 1 =m e -m 6 }•
1 2 2 u (1)
dn x A A dn 2 A A dn 3 '
^j==n B -n B ,2 3 3 2 -^ = n B -n B , 3 1 1 3 -^-=M2-Mi.
Now let u, v, w be the projections on the fixed axes of any vector, u\ v\ w' the projections
of the same vector on the moving axes at time t. We have such equations as
r
=h (^ ve^w'0î
r 2 (^-w'dû'e^j+k (^-u e +v% 2 •(2)
Hence the projections on the moving axes of that vector whose projections on the fixed
axes are
du dv dw
di* di' ~dt
f
are -^-v B 3 + wB ,
2 -^-wBx + u'B^ -u'B +vB
2 1 (3)
We may abandon the condition that the origin of the moving axes coincides with that
of the fixed axes. The formulse (1) are unaltered, and the formulse (2) also are unaltered
unless 11, v, w are the coordinates of a point. Let # , y z be the coordinates of the origin 0 0i 0
of the moving axes referred to the fixed axes, x, y, z and x\ y\ z' those of any moving point
referred respectively to the fixed axes and the moving axes. We have such formulse as
x=x + l x' + l y' + k z\
0 x 2
and therefore
Let UQ, VQ WQ be the projections of the velocity of the origin of (V, y\ z') on the
9
instantaneous positions of the moving axes, then we have

Hence the projections of the velocity of any moving point upon the instantaneous positions
of the moving axes are
v
W+^ - y ^ + s ^ , o'+% - ^ i + ^ 3 , < + ^ - ^ 2 + ^ i (4)
These formulae can be utilized for the calculation of differential coefficients. Let
a, ft y , . . . be any parameters, and let a triad of orthogonal axes of x', y', z' be associated
with any system of values of the parameters, so that, when the parameters are given, the
position of the origin of this triad and the directions of the axes are known. Let the
position of a point relative to the variable axes be supposed to be known; the coordinates
x', y', z' of the point are then known functions of a, ft y , . . . . Let x, y z be the coordinates 9
of the point referred to fixed axes. Then x, y, z also are functions of a, ft y, and we
wish to calculate the values of dx/da,.... When a, ft y , . . . are altered the origin of the
variable axes undergoes a displacement and the axes undergo a rotation, and we may
regard this displacement and rotation as being effected continuously with certain velocities.
Thus we have a velocity of the origin and an angular velocity of the triad of axes. This
velocity and angular velocity being denoted, as before, by their components uj, v ', w ' and 0 0
#2 > # 3 referred to the instantaneous positions of the variable axes, the quantities
5
u \...,
0 are linear functions of dajdt, dfijdt,..., and the coefficients of dajdt,... in
these functions are known functions of a, ft y, Thus we have such equations as
+
K a *% § + • • - * {<<£ i % £+-) - W
+*{"+d*+IS+-)-'*W 1
, 7 t , , (dz' da , dz d8 \ ,, , ,. \
We may equate the coefficients of dajdt, dfi/dt,... on the two sides of these equations, the
quantities UQ, being expressed as linear functions of dajdt,....
In like manner, if u, v, w and u', v', w' denote the projections of any vector on the fixed
and variable axes, equations (2) give us formulae for calculating du/da,.... In applications
of the method it is generally most convenient to take the fixed axes to coincide with the
positions of the variable axes that are determined by particular values a, ft y , . . . of the
parameters, then in equations (2) we may put £ = m = ? i 3 = l and l =...=0. When this
1 2 2
is done the values of dto/da,... belonging to these particular values of a,... are given by
formulae of the type
duda t dudft dudy fdv! da du! dB du! dy \ f/%
+ + + + + v 6 + w 6 ( 5 )
T a m w t i ^ d t " - = \ ^ m W d i ^ d t + - - T * *
The above process has been used repeatedly in Chapters xvin., xxi., xxiv. As a
further illustration we take some questions concerning curvilinear orthogonal coordinates.
The coordinates being a, ft y, the expression for the linear element being
{(da/h^ + idp/ktf+idyjh^,
and the variable axes being the normals to the surfaces, we have
,_1 da ,_ 1 d{3 ,_\dy
Uo W
~hdt' ^-hzdt' °-h dt'
3
To determine the values of 6 6 , 6 we have recourse to Dupin's theorem cited in

ly 2 3
Article 19. It follows from this theorem that the tangents drawn on a surface y, at
points of its intersection with a surface ft to the curves in which the surface is cut by two
neighbouring surfaces of the family a, say a and a + da, ultimately intersect when da is
diminished indefinitely, and the point of ultimate intersection T is a centre of principal
curvature of the surface ft In Fig. 75 the point P is (a, ft y), P is (a + 6\z, ft y), P is 1 2
(a, /3 + oft y), § is (a + oa, y3 + S/3, y). The length of the arc PP can be taken to be da/h 1 u
Fig. 75.
and the excess of the length P Q above PP\ is, to the second order, 8(3 ^
2 . We may
regard the tangents to P P at P and PiQ at P as intersecting in
2 x and take the length
of PP to be 673/^2 • Then the angle PTP
2 X is - A ^ 2 5a. Hence the coefficient of
dajdt in 0 is - A ^ ^ ) • In like manner the coefficient of dj3/dt in 0 is ^ ^-
3 2 3 .
We can now write down the formulas
_ 3 ZlWy 8 /1WJ3
^ " ^ ^ 8 \hj 1t~^dy \h ) dt' 2
. d [l\da
a d f l \ dy h
6 2 = k3
fy\kjdt~ da hl
\hjdt> .(6)
e M h2 1
^ T a \h )dt- dp
2 \hj dt'
The above argument shows that the principal curvatures of the surface y, belonging to
its lines of intersection with surfaces a and ft are respectively
We have similar formulae for the principal curvatures of the surfaces a and ft
Let M, N be the direction cosines of a fixed line referred to the normals to the
surfaces at a particular point (a, ft y), and let L\ M\ N' be the direction cosines of the
same line referred to the variable axes at any point. Then L\ M\ N' are functions of
a, ft y, but X, M, N are independent of a, (3, y. We may use the formulae (5), and in them
we may replace w by Z, M, N and u\ v', w' by L\ M\ N\ We find
dL' ,,,, d /1\ d fl\ dL' 3 /1\ 82/
dM'_ ,,
T d i\ dM' ,,
Tt A /i\ r / I A /i\ AJP A / r
3
da dy \hi
These formulae were used in Article 58.
20
To investigate expressions for the components of strain and rotation we take (vf, v', w')
to be the displacement {u , up, WY), and (u, % w) to be the displacement referred to fixed
a
axes of no, Y, z which coincide with the normals to the surfaces A,FT,Y at the point (a,FT,Y).
Then we have, for example, at (a,FT,Y)
du du8?* ^_T, ^
2
ay ??' A^-^V
Now using the formulas (5) and (6) we have
du da dudft du dy _ du da du dft du dy a a a
+ + + +
c^& o^di fydi^lfodi dp& lfydi
+% As Ai
and from these we have

- /h
{ 1 ® f -* @ 3 { ® S - £ ® S}' h
k h
du , (du a , 7 3 /1YI
du 7 (3« a 7 3/1X1 du , (diia. , 3/1X1
The formulse (36) of Article 20 and (38) of Article 21 can now be written down.
20
To investigate the stress-equations we take the same system offixedaxes, and consider
the resultants of the tractions on the faces of a curvilinear parallelepiped bounded by
surfaces A, a + Sa, FT, FT+BFT, Y, Y + DY. (Cf. Fig. 3 in Article 21.) We may take the areas
of the faces a,FT,Y to be A , A , A , where x 2 3
N
A ^ D F T D Y / H ^ , A 2 = DYDA/H H ,
S 1 A = 6 a673/iM -
3 2
The tractions per unit of area across the surface A can be expressed by X , Y , Z a A A
or by aa, AFT, ya, and the resultant tractions across the face A can be expressed as x
X A ,
A Y A ,
X Za&i or as aaA a/3Ai, yaAi. In the formulse (5) X AI,
A X Y A l5Z A can A A U A X
take the places of u, v, w, and aaA^ AFTAI, yaAi, the places of u', v', w'. Similarly
X$A ,2 Y P A , Z P A can take the places of u, v, w, and AFTA , FTFTA , (3yA those of 2/', v', vf,
2 2 2 2 2
and so on. Now the equations of motion can be expressed in such forms as
where the notation is the same as in Article 58. We have the equations
+ Q a 2 ) d +
=1 i I i h
= | - ( ^ A ) J + | ( ^ A ) f + 1 ( ^ A ) J-Â ^+Â ^,
3 3 S 3 3
where 6 , 0 are given by (6). Equation (19) in Article 58 can be written down at once.
2 3
20
Cf. E. R. Webb, Messenger of Math., vol. 11 (1882), p. 146.
NOTE D.
Dr A. Timpe has called rny attention to the fact that the form of the lines of stress in
Fig. 15, p. 195, appears to indicate the existence of points at which more than two lines of
stress, in the plane of the figure, meet. If there are such points the stress at either of them
must be a simple tension or pressure at right angles to the plane of the figure, and two
principal stresses vanish. The existence of such points has not been proved; for the
positions of the lines were computed by Hertz, loc. cit. p. 195, for the parts of the figure
near to A'OA and to the line drawn through 0 at right angles to A'OA, and the rest of the
figure was drawn conjecturally.
NOTE E.
Stress in a beam loaded uniformly.

Using the notation of Article 244 (a), (b\ (c) I find the following expressions for the
stress-components in a circular cylinder bent by its own weight:—
2 2 2 2 2
X =^f[(6
x + 2cr)(a -x )^(l-2cr)y ], F , = ^ [ 3 ( l + 2<r)(a -y ) - (1 - 2<r)^],
2 2 2
X ^[(l-2o-)(a -y )-3(l+2cr)x l
y
2 2 2
Xz = fx(Kl + 2K z) [ - (i + icr) (a - x ) + ( | - icr)y ],
2 Y =/x(
z Kl + 2K Z)
2 (J + cr)xy,
2 2 2 2
Z=
2 - E(K 0 + K z+ X 2
2
K Z )X- xK x[i(9 f 2 + l3o' + 4o- )a -(l+±cr)(x +y )].
The constant K is given by the equation
2
2
K2=gp/na (l + <r).
When the beam, of length I, is fixed horizontally at z = 0, and the end z = lis unloaded,
o 7 Yn 2 7 + 12o- + 4o-2-|
k 2 2
* 1 = - 2K Z, 2 *0 = 2 | J - « 6(l+cr) J '
When the beam, of length 21, is supported at the ends z=l and z= - I, these ends being at
the same level,
2
A T72, 7 + 12(r + 4o- "l 2
An independent calculation of the displacement kindly sent to me by Mr G. C.

Calliphronas confirms these results.
NOTE F.
21
Extensional vibrations of a plane plate .
The equations of vibration are equations (97) of Article 314 (e). They may be expressed
very simply in terms of the areal dilatation A' and the rotation w, these quantities being
defined analytically by the equations
A'=— + — 2s7 = — - — (1)
The equations take the forms
[L } +{l (r) ( }
dx dy- E W ~d^ ~ 'dx'- E W
In this form they are readily transformed to any suitable curvilinear coordinates.
2 1
Equations equivalent to (97) of Article 314 (e) were obtained by Poisson and Cauchy, see
Introduction, footnotes 36 and 124. Poisson investigated also the symmetrical radial vibrations
of a circular plate, obtaining a frequency equation equivalent to (10) of this Note, and evaluating
the frequencies of the graver modes of this type.
Consider more particularly the case of a plate with a circular edge-line. It is
appropriate to use plane polar coordinates r, B with origin at. the centre of the circle.
Let U, V be the projections of the displacement of a point on the middle plane upon the
radius vector and a line at right angles to the radius vector. Then we have
u=UcosB- VsinB, v=l sm6+ VcosB, (3) r
, dU U IdV dV V ldU 0
and = —+- — 2m = ^ + ^ , (4)
or r r oB or r r oB
and the stress-resultants belonging to any circle r=const, are T, JS, where
2Eh VdU m (U , 1 dV\~] „ Eh \~dV VI dUl
T = + S= + ( 5 )
t t l W *\-r'+rl3)]> T+~o-l-¥--r r d B ]
The equations of vibration give
_ p(l-,r»)8»A' 2p(l + , r ) A ^
We put
U== U cos nB cos pt, V— V sin nB cos pt, n (7) n
where V and V are functions of r, and we write

n n
2 2 2 F2 2
K = (l-cr )p /E, K = 2p(l + cr)p /E.P (8)
Then A' is of the form ^'^(KT^COST^COS^, and w is of the form B'J (KV) smnB cos pt, N
where A' and B ' are constants, and J denotes Bessel's function of order n. The forms of N
U and V are given by the equations

<
tf=[^ ^W-^]co 0cos^ SW ) T ^ - ^ ^ + . B ^ ^ J s i n ^ c o s ^ , (9)
and with these forms we have
2 2 r
A ' = — AK J (<r) cos w# cos pt, 2ar = BK' J (K r)sinn6 cos pt.
n N
We can have free vibrations in which V vanishes and U is independent of B; the

frequency equation is
_ ^ _ + -Ji( «)-.0,
K (10)
a being the radius of the edge-line. We can also have free vibrations in which U vanishes
and V is independent of B; the frequency equation is
da a ^ '
These two modes of symmetrical vibration appear to be the homologues of certain
modes of vibration of a complete thin spherical shell (cf. Article 335). The mode in which
JJ vanishes and V is independent of B is the homologue of the modes in which there is no
displacement parallel to the radius of the sphere. The mode in which V vanishes and U is
independent of B seems to be the homologue of the quicker modes of symmetrical vibration
of a sphere in which there is no rotation about the radius of the sphere.
In the remaining modes of extensional vibration of the plate the motion is compounded
of two: one characterized by the absence of areal dilatation, and the other by the absence
of rotation about the normal to the plane of the plate. The frequency equation is to be
formed by eliminating the ratio A : B between the equations
r
, r i - cr dJ (<a) ( 1 — <j \ , . ~\
n 0. ri dJJK a) 1 -r / , vl
2
_
2nA
. I"! dJ (ica)
n 1 , ,
Ka
.1
+ B
„ T 2 dJJiz'a) f 2n \ J T , , l
N .
- [a <tr ~ a^ U la ^ o " + ^j = °-
(12)
These modes of vibration seem not to be of sufficient physical importance to make it worth
while to attempt to calculate the roots numerically.
INDEX.
AUTHOBS CITED.
[The numbers refer to pages.]
Abraham, M., 44. Chree, C , 120, 125, 143, 172, 239, 240, 247,
Airy, G-. B., 17, 86. 249, 253, 255, 259, 263, 265, 274, 275,
Alibrandi, P., 107. 277, 405, 409, 421, 422.
Almansi, E . , 22, 107, 239, 342. Christoffel, E . B., 18, 287.
Amagat, E . H., 103. Cilley, F . H., 108.
Aron, H., 29. Clapeyron, B . P. E . , 22, 358.
Clausius, B., 9, 10.
Bach, C , 110, 331. Clebsch, A., 14, 17, 21, 24, 27, 28, 29, 35,
Barthelemy, A., 470. 176, 177, 204, 257, 371, 372, 379, 381, 447,
Basset, A. B., 24, 381, 433, 505, 507, 511, 526.
516, 519, 521. Codazzi, D . , 489.
Bauschinger, J., 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115. Coker, E . G., 349.
Beltrami, E . , 49, 86, 132, 290. Cornu, M. A., 102, 128.
Bernoulli, Daniel, 3, 4, 5. Cosserat, E . and F., 125, 239, 240.
Bernoulli, James, 3. Coulomb, C. A., 3, 4, 118.
Bernoulli, James (the Younger), 5. Coulon, J., 292.
Betti, E., 16, 44, 47, 170, 171, 220. Cox, H., 421.
Binet, J., 23. Culman, K., 23.
Blanchet, P. H., 18.
Boltzmann, L., 116, 143. Darwin, G. H., 16, 118, 253, 256, 257.
Borchardt, C. W., 53, 106, 235, 259. Davidoglou, A., 421.
Boscovich, B. J., 6. Dougall, J., 184, 222, 225, 230, 233, 465.
Boussinesq, J., 16, 20, 24, 26, 29, 87, 182, Duhamel, J. M. C , 106.
185, 187, 190, 208, 228, 230, 302, 304, Duhem, P., 47.
336, 411, 415, 420, 438. Dunkerley, S., 422.
Braun, F., 116.
Bresse, M., 24, 427. Eddy, H. T., 427.
Brewster, D., 87. Edwardes, D., 240, 260.
Bromwich, T. J. I'A., 274, 289, 297. Estanave, E . , 469.
Bryan, G. H., 30, 392, 463, 464, 529, 530. Euler, L., 3, 4, 5, 384, 388, 533.
Burkhardt, H., 7, 15. Everett, J. D., 103.
Butcher, J. G., 116. Ewing, J. A., 32, 84, 110, 111, 112, 113, 331.
Ewing and Bosenhain, 110.
Calliphronas, G. C , 541.
Canevazzi, S., 23, 363. Fabre, 347.
Cardani, P., 102. Filon, L. N. G., 135, 211, 263, 304, 348,
Cauchy, A. L., 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 18, 19, 349, 352.
27, 35, 57, 72, 79, 81, 105, 108, 376, 533, Flamant, 110, 208.
541. Foppl, A., 110, 117, 119, 331.
Cerruti, V., 16, 225, 228, 230, 235, 292. Fourier, J. B. J., 420.
Cesaro, E., 55. Fresnel, A., 7.
Chladni, E . F. F., 5. Fuss, P. H., 3.
Galileo, 2. Lame-, G., 13, 15, 17, 51, 55, 81, 87, 89,
Garrett, C. A. B., 421. 117, 139, 142, 259, 531.
Gauss, C. F., 472. Lame and Clapeyron, 11, 15.
Gehring, F., 27. Laplace, P. S., 6.
Germain, Sophie, 5. Larmor, J., 164, 166, 249, 257, 291, 304,
Goldschmidt, V., 154. 383, 392.
Grashof, F., 22, 323, 331, 332. Lauricella, G., 230, 233, 235, 239, 292.
Green, G., 11, 15, 18, 57, 83, 109, 288. Levy, M., 23, 358, 363, 404, 405, 469.
Greenhill, A. G., 143, 302, 307, 308, 400, Lewis, W. J., 154.
404, 405, 406, 421, 422. Liebisch, Th., 146, 159, 533.
Guest, J. J., 119. Liouville, J., 289.
Lipschitz, B., 97.
Hadamard, J., 29, 57, 292. Lorenz, L., 293.
Halphen, G.-H., 404.
Hamburger, M., 197. MacCullagh, J., 166, 288.
Harnack, A., 63. Macdonald, H. M., 289, 308.
Hausmaninger, V., 25. Mallock, H. B. A., 102, 128, 142.
Heppel, J. M., 22. Marcolongo, B., 230, 236.
Hertz, H., 16, 26, 190, 195, 213, 295, 541. Mariotte, E . , 2.
Hess, W., 24, 384, 398. Mascart, M. E . , 87, 146.
Hicks, W. M., 220. Mathieu, E., 29, 470, 524.
Hilbert, D., 169. Maxwell, J. C , 17, 82, 86, 87, 106, 116,
Hilton, H., 147. 143, 220, 533.
Hooke, B., 2. Mesnager, A., 208.
Hopkins, W., 45. Meyer, O. E . , 116.
Hopkinson, J., 25, 107, 143. Michell, A. G. M., 400, 402.
Hoppe, B., 25, 431. Michell, J. H., 17, 22, 24, 29, 86, 89, 133,
134, 139, 198, 200, 207, 208, 209, 212,
Ibbetson, W. J., 17, 133. 213, 215, 230, 259, 262, 339, 342, 346,
349, 423, 431, 432, 444, 445, 466, 467.
Jaerisch, P., 18, 265, 272. Miers, H. A., 154.
Jeans, J. H . , 253, 274. Miller, J. W., 398.
Jellett, J. H., 482. Minchin, G. M., 67, 133.
Jouravski, 22. Mohr, O., 23, 118, 119, 360.
Morera, G., 86.
Kelvin, Lord, 12, 16, 40, 54, 55, 59, 77, 93, Morrow, J., 102, 421.
97, 106, 107, 109, 115, 116, 117, 169, 180, Miiller-Breslau, H. F . B., 23.
236, 245, 256, 257, 282, 287, 295, 531.
Kelvin and Tait, 14, 20, 24, 29, 35, 57, 67, Navier, 7, 22, 25, 353.
69, 118, 129, 187, 248, 255, 257, 302, 365, Neumann, C., 169, 235.
396, 403, 418, 438, 441, 531, 532, 533. Neumann, F., 14, 87, 106, 152, 173.
Kerr, J., 87. Newton, I., 6, 195.
Kirchhoff, G., 14, 23, 27, 28, 30, 49, 50,
97, 163, 167, 290, 365, 371, 372, 377, 379, Ostrogradsky, M., 18.
382, 395, 421, 438, 469, 503, 531.
Klein and Sommerfeld, 395. Pearson, K., 13, 22, 117, 346, 348, 358, 531.
Konig, W., 295. See also Todhunter and Pearson.
Kohlrausch, B., 107. Perry, J., 333, 398.
Kriemler, C. J., 391. Perry and Ayrton, 363.
Kubler, J., 391. Peschka, G. A. V., 429.
Phillips, E.,. 27.
Lagerhjelm, P., 97. Pochhammer, L., 16, 18, 25, 259, 275, 277,
Lagrange, J. L., 3. 350, 409.
Lamarle, E . , 391. Pbincare, H., 220, 235, 392.
Lamb, H., 18, 29, 55, 79, 170, 230, 234, Poisson, S. D . , 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 17, 18, 25,
265, 272, 274, 297, 428, 432, 442, 450, 27, 274, 282, 289, 438, 466, 469, 541.
477, 487, 511, 516, 521, 522, 525, 531. Poncelet, J. V., 12, 117, 120.
Poynting and Thomson, 142. Timpe, A., 541.
Prandtl, L., 310, 391, 400, 402. Tissot, M.* A., 63.
Purser, F . , 144, 306. Todhunter and Pearson, 7, 27, 57, 97, 109,
117, 118, 120, 391, 421, 427.
Eankine, W. J. M., 22, 110, 288, 331, 333, Tresca, H., 114.
531, 532. Tutton, A. E . H., 469.
Rayleigh, Lord, 19, 26, 29, 96, 107, 170, 176,
276, 277, 280, 288, 289, 293, 295, 408, 409, Unwin, W. C., 78, 110, 111, 115, 116, 117.
410, 411, 418, 420, 421, 444, 466, 469,
474, 475, 477, 485, 486, 506, 514, 515, Verdet, E., 7.
519, 523, 525, 527. Vicat, L. J., 114.
Resal, H., 429. Voigt, W., 14, 21, 25, 44, 79, 97, 116, 118,
Ribiere, C , 352. 154, 156, 158, 160, 313, 334, 531, 532,
Ritter, A., 23. 536.
Routh, E . J., 367. Volterra, V., 233, 292.
Voss, A., 471.
Saalschiitz, L., 384, 392.
Saint-Venant, B., 13, 14, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, Wangerin, A., 260.
23, 25, 26, 27, 29, 49, 57, 109, 117, 120, Warburg, E . G., 116.
126, 129, 158, 161, 299, 305, 307, 311, Webb, R. R., 69, 260, 358, 540.
314, 324, 325, 329, 368, 376, 377, 398, Weber, H., 230.
411, 418, 420, 423, 428, 429, 454, 466, Weber, W., 114.
469, 531. Wehage, H., 119.
Salmon, G., 43, 52, 472. Weierstrass, K., 169.
Schneebeli, H., 196, 197. Weingarten, J., 87.
Schoenflies, A., 147, 154. Wertheim, G., 13, 97, 107.
Sebert and Hugoniot, 26. Weyrauch, J. J., 23, 353.
Somigliana, C , 230, 232, 233, 235. Whittaker, E . T., 395.
Stokes, G. G., 10, 11, 12, 18, 26, 38, 47, 96, Wilberforce, L. R., 398.
102, 290, 292, 294, 305, 351, 421. Willis, R., 26, 421.
Wilson, Cams, 208, 351.
Tait, P. G., 196. Winkler, E . , 427.
Tedone, O., 230, 260, 292. Wohler, A., 117.
Thomson, J. J., 55.
Thomson, Sir W., see Kelvin, Lord. Young, T., 4, 7.
L. E. 35
INDEX.
MATTERS TREATED.
[The numbers refer to pages.]
Additional deflexion of beams, 333. 350—353; of particular forms of section

Molotropy, 103, 1 4 6 ; of inertia, 288; Curvi (narrow rectangular, 136, 331, 349 ; circular,
linear, 1 6 1 ; produced by permanent set, 116. 320, 327, 328, 348, 5 4 1 ; elliptic, 321, 324,
Molotropic solid, Constants and Moduluses of, 333 ; rectangular, 322, 325 ; other special
103—105, 158 ; propagation of waves in, 18, forms, 323, 332).
286—289. Bending moment, 314, 344 ; Relation of, to
Afterstrain, 114. curvature, 127, 323, 345, 350.
Angle, Transmission of stress from an, 209. Bernoulli-Eulerian theory, 19, 350, 353.
Anorthic crystals, 155. Beryl, Constants for, 161.
Anticlastic curvature, 21, 128, 129, 325, 347. Blade : see Stability.
Applicable surfaces, 471. Body forces, 7 3 ; Particular integrals for, 180,
Applied Mechanics, Treatises on, 110 ; Criti 217, 232, 246, 294.
cism of some methods used in, 331—333. Boiler-flues, Collapse of, 530.
Arches, 427. Boundary conditions, 98, 132, 164 ; in torsion
Average strains, Determination of, 171. problem, 2 9 9 ; in flexure problem, 315, 317,
Axes, Moving, 536—540 ; Principal, of strain, 3 2 8 ; in plates, 27, 437—442 ; in shells, 30,
37, 60 ; of symmetry, 147 ; Principal torsion- 510, 5 1 5 ; in gravitating sphere, 2 5 0 ; in
flexure, of a rod, 366. vibrating sphere, 268 ; in vibrating cylinder,
278, 280.
Bars: see Beams, Rods, Torsion, &c. Bourdon's gauge, 474.
Barytes, Constants for, 161. Brass, Constants for, 13, 103.
Beams, iEolotropic, 159, 330. Breaking st7'ess, 112.
Beams, Bent, Curvature of, 323, 345, 348, 349 ; Bridges, Travelling load on, 26, 4 2 1 ; Suspen
Deflexion of, 325, 333, 3 5 5 — 3 5 8 ; Twist pro sion, 347.
duced in, by transverse load, 325, 3 4 4 ; Buckling, Resistance to, 390. See also Stability.
Stress produced in, by transverse loads, 136,
314—316, 331, 332, 336—345, 5 4 1 ; Shearing Cannon: see Gun construction.
stress in, 136, 316—318, 327, 331, 3 3 2 ; Dis Cantilever, 21, 353.
placement in, 318—320, 323—327 ; Obliquity Capillarity, 6.
of cross-sections of, 137, 324, 325, 3 3 3 ; Cartography, 63.
Distortion of cross-sections of, 326 ; Strength Cast iron, 107, 112, 113.
of, 3 2 9 ; Extension produced in by trans Cast metals, 95.
verse load, 347, 349. See also Bending of Cauchy's relations, 14, 98.
Beams, Bending moment, Bernoulli-Eulerian Central-line, of prismatic body or curved rod,
theory, Loading, Neutral plane, &c. 127, 379.
Beams, Continuous, 22, 353 ; Single span, 355 Chains, Links of, 427.
—358 ; Several spans, 358—364. Circular arc : see Arches and Circular ring.
Bells, Vibrations of, 5, 29, 525. Circular cylinder, Equilibrium of, under any
Bending of Beams, History of theory of, 2, 3, forces, 257, 259 ; bent by its own gravity,
20, 2 1 ; by couples, 126—129, 159 ; by 348, 541 (see also Beams)', strained sym
terminal load, 136—138, 3 1 4 — 3 3 3 ; by uni metrically, 263 ; Vibrations of, 18, 275—280,
form load, 339—349; by distributed" load, 405.
Circular disk, Rotating, 1 4 4 ; Equilibrium of, uniformly, over its cross-sections, 454. See
under forces in its plane, 213—215. also Beams, Plane strain, Plane stress,
Circular ring, Equilibrium of, 385, 403, 427— Rods.
430 ; Stability of, 23, 405 ; Vibrations- of, Cylindrical coordinates, 56, 89, 140, 161, 259,
430—433. 260, 275.
Clamped end, of a rod, 354. Cylindrical flaw, in twisted shaft, 121, 304.
Collapse: see Stability. Cylindrical shells, Equilibrium of, under pres
Collision: see Impact. sure, 141.
Colour fringes : see Light, Polarized. Cylindrical shells, Thin, Inextensional deforma
Combined strain, 329. tion of, 4 7 7 ; Vibrations of (Inextensional,
Compatibility, Conditions of, 49. 488, 519 ; general theory, 5 1 6 ; extensional,
Complex variable: see Conjugate functions. 518); Stability of, under pressure, 529.
Compression, Modulus of, 12, 101, 1 0 4 ; of a
body under pressure, 102, 105, 139, 141,161, Deflexion : see Beams and Plates.
172, 173 ; of a sphere by its own gravitation, Density, Table of, 103.
140 ; of a body between parallel planes, 172, Diagrams, of plane stress, 8 6 ; stress-strain,
2 6 3 ; Centre of, 184, 294. 111.
Cones, Equilibrium of, 200. Dilatation, Cubical, 41, 5 9 ; Uniform, 44 ;
Conformal transformation : see Conjugate func Average value of, 172 ; in curvilinear co
tions. ordinates, 5 4 ; Waves of, 18, 282, 286, 2 8 8 ;
Conjugate functions, 46, 211, 216, 259, 260, Centre of, 1 8 4 ; Determination of, 221.
301, 307, 321. Discontinuity, Motion of a surface of, 283—285.
Conjugate property, of normal functions, 176 ; Displacement, 35.
of harmonic functions, 218, 240. Distortion, Waves of, 18, 282, 286, 2 8 8 ; of
Constants, Elastic, Controversy concerning, 13 cross-sections of twisted prism, 3 0 8 ; of
—15 ; Definition of, 97 ; Magnitude of, 103 ; cross-sections of bent beam, 326.
Thermal variations of, 1 0 7 ; of isotropic Divergence, of a vector, 46.
bodies, 1 0 0 ; of crystals, 160 ; Experimental Double force, 184, 234, 294.
determination of, 22, 102, 142, 160, 469. Dynamical resistances, 2 6 , 1 2 0 , 411—417, 420—
Continuing equation, 412. 422.
Coordinates, Curvilinear orthogonal, 52 ; Strain
in terms of, 54, 5 4 0 ; Stress-equations in Earth, In a state of initial stress, 107, 140;
terms of, 87, 164, 540 ; General equations in Strained by its own gravitation, 140, 248 ;
terms of, 138, 164. See also Cylindrical Stress produced in, by weight of continents,
coordinates, Polar coordinates, Conjugate 2 5 3 ; Ellipticity of figure of, 2 5 4 ; Tidal
functions. effective rigidity of, 255—257 ; Period of
Copper, Constants for, 103. spheroidal vibrations of, 273.
Crushing, of metals, 114; of cylindrical test Earthquakes, 297.
pieces, 263. Ease, State of, 111.
Crystalline medium: see Molotropic solid, and Elastica, 3, 24, 384—388, 392.
Crystals. Elastic after-ioorking, 114.
Crystals, Symmetry of, 152 ; Classification of, Elasticity, defined, 90 ; Limits of, 113.
1 5 4 ; Elasticity of, 14, 1 5 6 ; Elastic con Ellipsoid, Solutions of the equations of equi
stants of, 1 6 0 ; Neumann's law of physical librium in, 239, 240, 260.
behaviour of, 14, 152. Elliptic cylinders, Solutions of the equations
Cubic capacity, of a vessel, 121. of equilibrium in, 259, 2 6 0 ; Solution of the
Cubic crystals, 155, 159. torsion problem in, 305 ; Solution of the
Curl, of a vector, 46. flexure problem in, 3 2 1 ; Confocal, 308, 322.
Curvature: see Beams, Rods, Plates, Shells, Energy, Intrinsic, 91. See also Potential
Surfaces. Energy and Strain-energy-function.
Cylindrical body of any form of section, Equili Equilibrium, General equations of, 7—12, 82,
brium of, under tension, 102 ; under gravity, 98, 130, 132, 138, 166, 217 ; of bifurcation,
124, 172; under fluid pressure, 125 ; in a 392.
state of plane strain, 259 ; in a state of stress Equipollent loads, Elastic equivalence of, 129.
uniform along its length, 334 ; in a state of Existence theorems, 169, 220.
stress varying uniformly along its length, Experimental results, Indirectness of, 94.
336 ; in a state of stress uniform, or varying Extension, 32, 40, 44, 59 ; of beam bent by
distributed load, 347; of plate bent by pres Hydrodynamic analogies, to torsion problem,
sure, 458—464. 302.
Extensional vibrations, of rods, 408, 411—420; Hysteresis, 116.
of a circular ring, 433 ; of plates, 470, 523,
5 4 1 ; of shells, 5 1 5 ; of cylindrical shells, Identical relations, between strain-components :
518 ; of spherical shells, 524. see Compatibility, conditions of.
Extensions, Principal, 42, 60. Impact, 16, 195—197 ; of spheres, 197; Longi
Extensometer, 94, 111. tudinal, of bars, 25, 418—420 ; Transverse,
of bars, 420.
Factors of safety, 118, 120. Incompressible solid, equilibrium of, 248 ; vibra
Failure : see Rupture. tions of, 271, 273 ; waves on surface of,
Fatigue, 117. 296.
Flaius, 120, 304. Inextensional displacement, in thin rod, 425 ;
Flexure, see Beams. in thin shell, 476, 495.
Flexure functions, 317, 328, 338. Initial stress, 107, 249.
Flexure problem, 317. Integration, methods of, for equilibrium, 15,
Flexural rigidity, of beam, 354 ; of rod, 372 ; 218, 220, 234, 239 ; for vibratory motion,
of plate, 443. 176, 289.
Flow: see Plasticity. Intermolecular action, 6, 7, 9, 10, 533, 534.
Flue : see Boiler-flues. Invariants, of strain, 43, 60, 100 ; of stress, 81.
Fluid, 115, Inversion, of plane strain, 2 1 2 ; applied to
Fluor spar, Constants for, 160. plate, 467.
Flux of energy, in vibratory motion, 174. Iron, Constants of, 103 ; Elastic limits of, 114 ;
Fourier's series, 306. Yield point of, 114. See also Cast iron.
Fracture: see Rupture. Isostatic surfaces, 87, 89.
Frameworks, 23. Isotropic solids, 100.
Frequency equation, 176. Isotropy, Transverse, 157.
FresneVs wave surface, 288.
Funicular polygon, 360. Kinematics, of thin rods, 365—370, 423—426 ;
of thin shells, 492—498.
Galileo's problem, 2. Kinetic analogue, for naturally straight rod,
Girders : see Beams. 3 8 2 ; for naturally curved rod, 3 8 3 ; for
Glass, Constants of, 13, 103. elastica, 385 ; for rod bent and twisted by
Graphic representation, of stress, 86; of solu terminal forces and couples, 394 ; for rod
tion of the problem of continuous beams, subjected to terminal couples, 398.
3 6 0 — 3 6 4 ; of the theory of torsion, 3 0 8 ; Kinetic moduluses, distinguished from static,
and flexure, 326, 327. 96, 97.
Gravitation : see Compression and Earth.
Gravity, Effect of, on vibration of sphere, 2 7 4 ; Lamina, 4.
on surface waves, 297. Lead, Constants of, 103.
Green's functions, 219. Length, standards of, affected by atmospheric
Green's transformation, 83. pressure, &c., 120.
Groups, of transformations, 69, 148, 153. Light, Polarised, Examination of stress-systems
Gun construction, 143. by means of, 87, 351.
Limitations, of the mathematical theory, 110.
Hamiltonian principle, 163. Limits : see Elasticity, Limits of.
Hardening, by overstrain, 113. Lines of shearing stress, in torsion, 303, 309 ;
Hardness, 16. in flexure, 327.
Harmonic function, 218. Lines of stress, 8 7 ; for two bodies in contact,
Harmonics, spherical, 218, 236, 266. 195, 541 ; for force at a point, 199.
Heat: see Thermal effects. Load, 95 ; Sudden application or reversal of,
Height, consistent with stability, 405. 120, 178 ; travelling, 26, 421.
Helix: see Rods, Thin and Springs. Loading, Effect of repeated, 116 ; Asymmetric,
Hertz's oscillator, Type of waves due to, 295. of beams, 3 2 8 ; Surface, of beams, 351.
Hexagonal crystals, 155. Longitudinal vibrations, of rods: see Exten
Hooke's laiv, 2, 9, 1 2 ; generalised, 95 ; ex sional vibrations, of rods.
ceptions to, 95, 110. Longitudinal ivaves, 8, 11.
Magnetometer, deflexion-bars, 121. Polar coordinates, 56, 89, 138, 161, 198, 259,
Matter, Constitution of, 6. 274, 479.
Maxwell's stress-system, 82, 85, 133, 533. Potassium Chloride, Constants for, 160.
Membrane, Analogy of, to twisted shaft, 310. Potential, Newtonian, Theory of, 169, 218.
Middle third, Rule of, 84, 209. Potential energy, of strained body, Minimum,
Modulus, 104, 533. See also Compression, 168 ; Theorem concerning, 170.
modulus of, Rigidity, Young's modulus. Potentials, Direct, Inverse, Logarithmic, 189,
Molecular hypothesis, 6—10. 190.
Moments, theorem of three, 22, 358—360. Pressure, Hydrostatic, 79, see also Compression;
Monoclinic crystals, 155. does not produce fracture, 1 1 9 ; between
Multiconstant theory, 13. bodies in contact, 190—195.
Prism, Torsion of: see Torsion.
Neutral axis: see Galileo's problem. Prismatic crystals, 155.
Neutral plane, 324. Punching, of metals, 114.
Neutral surface, 347, 349. Pyrites, Constants for, 160.
Nodal surfaces, of vibrating sphere, 272.
Normal forces, rod bent by, 403. Quadrie surfaces, representing distribution of
Normal functions, of vibrating system, 176. strain, 37, 41, 60, 62, 6 5 ; and of stress,
Notation, 531. 79, 82.
Quartz, Constants for, 160.
Nuclei, of strain, 183, 198, 205, 294.
Radial displacement, 139, 141, 161.
Oblique crystals, 155. Radial vibrations, of sphere, 2 7 3 ; of spherical
Optics, influence of theories of in stimulating shell, 274 ; of cylindrical shell, 519.
research in Elasticity, 7, 8, 11, 30. Rari-constant theory, 13.
Orthogonal surfaces, 52. Rays, equivalent, 146, 153.
Perturbations, Local, 186. Reality, of the roots of the frequency equation,
Pendulum, Analogy to elastica, 385. 177.
Photo-elasticity : see Light, Polarized. Reciprocal strain-ellipsoid, 37, 60.
Piezo-electricity, 146. Reciprocal theorem (Betti's), 16, 170, 221, 223,
Piezometer, 94, 142, 162. 232.
Plane, Problem of the, 15, 188—190, 200, 225— Refraction, Double, due to stress, 8 7 ; to un
232. equal heating, 106.
Planes, Principal, of stress, 79. Resilience, 170.
Plane strain, 4 5 , 1 3 4 ; Displacement accompany Rhombic crystals, 155.
ing, 2 0 1 ; Transformation of, 211. Rhombohedral crystals, 155.
Plane stress, 8 1 , 1 3 5 ; Displacement accompany Rigid body displacement, superposable upon
ing, 203 ; in plate, 446. displacement determined by strain, 5 0 ; or
Plane stress, Generalised, 135, 2 0 5 ; in bent stress, 166.
beam, 136, 3 4 9 ; in plate, 450. Rigidity, 101, 105. See also Flexural rigidity,
Plasticity, 114. Torsional rigidity, Tidal effective rigidity.
Plate, elliptic, Bending of, by pressure, 463, Ring: see Circular ring.
4 6 4 ; Vibrations of, 470. Rocksalt, Constants for, 160.
Plate, Thick, stretching of, 446—449 ; bending Rods, Naturally curved, Approximate theory of,
of, 129, 449—465. 379, 4 2 3 ; Problems concerning, 383, 403,
Plate, thick circular, Bending of, by central 405, 427—430; Vibrations of, 430—433.
load, 4 5 4 ; by uniform pressure, 460, 463; Rods, Thin, Kinematics of, 365; Equations of
by variable pressure, 464. equilibrium of, 370; Strain in, 3 7 3 ; Ap
Plate, Thin, bounded by straight edge, 468. proximate theory of, 372, 377; Problems of
Plate, thin circular, 466—468. equilibrium concerning, 382—406; Vibrations
Plate, thin, Subjected to forces in its plane, of, 4 0 7 — 4 1 1 ; of variable section, 406, 421 ;
205—216; Boundary conditions for, 27, Problems of dynamical resistance concerning,
437—442; Bending of, 4 6 5 ; Vibrations of, 411—421.
469, 512, 522, 5 4 1 ; General theory of, 5 0 3 ; Rotation, of a figure, 67; Strain produced in a
Stability of, 528. cylinder by, 1 4 3 ; Centre of, 185, 294.
Plates, History of theory of, 5—6, 27—29. Rotation, Components of, 39, 55, 7 1 ; Deter
Poisson's ratio, 13, 101, 105. mination of, 224, 231.
Rotationally elastic medium, 166. placement effectively determined by, 5 0 ;
Rupture, Hypotheses concerning the conditions referred to curvilinear coordinates, 54, 5 4 0 ;
of, 117. General theory of, 5 7 — 6 4 ; Composition of
finite homogeneous, 6 9 ; Appropriated by
Safety : see Factors of Safely and Rupture. Rankine to denote relative displacement, 531.
Saint-VenanVs principle, 129. Strain-ellipsoid, 37, 61.
Scope, of the Mathematical theory, 119. Strain-energy-function, Introduction of, 1 1 ;
Screw-propeller shafts, 119. Existence of, 12, 9 2 ; Form of, 9 6 ; in
Semi-inverse method, 19. isotropic solids, 99, 152 ; in seolotropic
Set, 111. solids, 98 ; in crystals, 156; in solids ex
Shafts: see Rotation, Torsion, Whirling. hibiting various types of aeolotropy, 157;
Shear, Pure, 3 3 ; Simple, 33, 68, 6 9 ; Used by Generalisation of, 97.
Kelvin and Tait to denote a strain, 532; by Strength, Ultimate, 112.
Rankine to denote a stress, 532. Stress, Cauchy's theory of, 8 ; Notion of, 72,
Shearing strain, 45. 533 ; Specification of, 75 ; Components of,
Shearing stress, 8 0 ; cone of, 82. See also 77 ; Measure of, 77 ; Transformation of, 78 ;
Beams and Lines of shearing stress. Types of, 7 9 ; Resolution of, into mean
Shells, Thin, Inextensional displacement of, tension and shearing stress, 8 1 ; Uniform
471—487 ; General theory of, 29, 488—516. and uniformly varying, 84, 99, 101, 1 2 3 ;
Simple solutio7is, 182, 187. See also Nuclei, of Graphic representation of, 86 ; Lines of, 87 ;
strain. Methods of determining, 9 8 ; Direct deter
Sound tvaves, 96. mination of, 17, 132, 133, 4 4 5 ; Appropriated
Sphere, Problem of the, 1 5 ; Equilibrium of, by Rankine to denote internal action, 531.
140, 236—257; with given surface displace Stress-difference: see Rupture.
ments, 236 ; with given surface tractions, Stress-equations, 82 ; referred to curvilinear
240; under body forces, 2 4 6 ; Vibrations of, coordinates, 87, 164, 540.
268—274. Stress-functions, 17, 85, 133, 201—204, 260—
Spherical cavity, in infinite solid, 245. 263.
Spherical shell, Equilibrium of, under pressure, Stress-resultants and stress-couples, in rod, 370;
139, 1 6 1 ; under any surface tractions, 245, in plate, 28, 4 3 4 ; in shell, 502.
259 ; Vibrations of, 274. Stress-strain relations, 94, 95, 97, 100, 101.
Spherical shell, Thin, Inextensional deforma Strut: see Stability.
tion of, 477; Inextensional vibrations of, Supported end, of a rod, 3 5 4 ; edge of a plate,
486; Extensional and other vibrations of, 441.
522 ; Equilibrium of, 526, 527. Surface of revolution, Equilibrium of solid
Spheroidal vibrations, 273, 274. bounded by, 260.
Springs, Spiral, 23, 396. Surface tractions, 73.
Stability, General criteria for, 30, 97, 3 9 2 ; Surfaces, Curvature of, 488.
Strength dependent on, 120; of strut, 3, Suspension bridges, 347.
3 8 8 — 3 9 1 ; of elastica, 392 ; of rod subjected Symbolic notations, 287, 532.
to twisting couple and thrust, 399; of flat Symmetry, Geometrical, 147 ; Alternating, 147;
blade bent in its plane, 400; of ring under Elastic, 1 4 8 ; of crystals, 152 ; Types of,
pressure, 24, 4 0 5 ; Height consistent with, 157.
4 0 5 ; of rotating shaft, 4 2 1 ; of plate under
thrust, 5 2 8 ; of tube under pressure, 529. Tangential Traction, 11, 82.
Statical method, of determining frequencies of Tenacity, 112.
vibration, 421, 422. Tension, 7 3 ; Mean, 81.
Steel, Constants for, 103 ; Elastic limit, and Terminology, 531.
Yield-point of, 114. Testing machines, 111.
Strain, Cauchy's theory of, 8 ; Examples of, Tetragonal crystals, 155.
32, 33 ; Homogeneous, 36, 6 4 — 7 1 ; Pure, 39, Thermal effects, 93, 106.
65 ; Determined by displacement, 39 ; Com Thermodynamics, Application of, 91, 93.
ponents of, 40, 5 9 ; Transformation of, 4 2 ; Thermo-elastic equations, 106.
Invariants of, 43, 44, 6 0 ; Types of, 44, 45 ; Tidal deformation, of solid sphere, 255.
Resolution of, into irrotational dilatation Tidal effective rigidity, of the Earth, 256.
and equivoluminal distortion, 4 7 ; Identical Time-effects, 114.
relations between components of, 4 9 ; Dis Topaz, Constants for, 161.
Tore, Incomplete) torsion and flexure of, 423. Typical flexural strain, 475.
Torsion, History of theory of, 4, 1 9 — 2 1 ; of a
bar of circular section, 126 ; of prisms of Uniqueness of solution, of the equations of
isotropic material, 298—311; of prisms of equilibrium, 167; of the equations of vibra
aeolotropic material, 312; of prisms of special tory motion, 173; Exceptions to, 30, 392.
forms of section, 305—308, 313; Stress and
strain, that accompany, 44, 298, 303; strength Variational equation, 163; Difficulty of forming,
to resist, 304. in case of thin shells, 505.
Torsion function, 300. Variations, Calculus of, 169.
Torsion problem, 300. Vibrations, General theory of, 175—178.
Torsional couple, in rod, 376 ; in plate, 4 3 4 ; Viscosity, 115.
in shell, 502.
Torsional rigidity, 3 0 0 ; Calculation of, 310. Watch spring, 116.
Torsional vibrations, of cylinder, 276; of rod, Waves, Propagation of, in isotropic media, 11,
409 ; of circular ring, 432. 18, 281—286, 289—295; in aeolotropic media,
Tortuosity, Measure of, of central-line of rod, 18, 286—289; in infinite cylinder, 276—280;
367, 368, 380, 395, 424, 427. over surface of solid, 295—297.
Traction, 7 2 ; used by Pearson in sense of* Wave surfaces, 287.
Tension, 532. Whirling, of shafts, 421.
Transmission of force, from point of application, Wires: see Rods, Thin.
180, 206. See also Plane, Problem of the. Work, done by external forces, 91.
Trees, 406.
Triclinic crystals, 155. Yield point, 112.
Tubes: see Cylindrical shells. Young's modulus, 4; in isotropic solid, 1 0 1 ; in
Tivinning, of crystals, 160. gGolotropic solid, 105, 1 5 8 ; Quartic surface
Twist, of a rod, 365, 366. for, 105, 159.
CAMBRIDGE : P R I N T E D BY J O H N CLAY, M.A. AT T H E U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS.

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A TREATISE

London: FETTER LANE, E.C.

New York: THE M A C M I L L A N C O M P A N Y .

Bombay and Calcutta: M A C M I L L A N A N D C O . ,L T D .

[All Rights reserved.]

AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

f 1 1 H I S book is a second edition of one with t h e same title which was

heating, t h e rendering of glass doubly refracting by strain, t h e theory of t h e

OXFORD, December, 1905.

13. Additional methods and results 43

CHAPTER II. A N A L Y S I S O F STRESS.

41. Introductory . .72

CHAPTER III. THE ELASTICITY OF SOLID BODIES.

CHAPTER IV. THE RELATION BETWEEN THE MATHEMATICAL

76. Limitations of the mathematical theory . . . . . . . . 110

CHAPTER V. THE EQUILIBRIUM OF ISOTROPIC ELASTIC SOLIDS.

85. Recapitulation of the general theory 122

C H A P T E R VI. E Q U I L I B R I U M O F ^ O L O T R O P I C ELASTIC SOLID BODIES.

103. Symmetry of structure • . . .146

CHAPTER VII. GENERAL THEOREMS.

115. The variational equation of motion 163

129. Introductory 180

CHAPTER I X . T W O - D I M E N S I O N A L ELASTIC SYSTEMS.

143. Introductory 201

CHAPTER X. THEORY OF THE INTEGRATION O F T H E EQUATIONS

157. Nature of the problem 217

C H A P T E R XI. THE E Q U I L I B R I U M O F AN ELASTIC S P H E R E AND

171. Introductory 236

CHAPTER XII. V I B R A T I O N S O F S P H E R E S AND CYLINDERS.

190. Introductory 265

215. Stress and Strain in a twisted prism 298

CHAPTER X V . THE B E N D I N G O F A BEAM BY T E R M I N A L

227. Stress in a bent beam 314

235. Criticisms of certain methods : (a) A method of determining the shearing

CHAPTER X V I . T H E B E N D I N G O F A BEAM LOADED UNIFORMLY

236. Introductory . 334

CHAPTER X V I I . T H E THEORY O F CONTINUOUS BEAMS.

245. Extension of the theory of the bending of beams 350

CHAPTER X V I I I . G E N E R A L THEORY OF THE BENDING AND

251. Introductory 365

260. Kirchhoff's kinetic analogue 382

CHAPTER X X . V I B R A T I O N S O F RODS. P R O B L E M S O F DYNAMICAL

277. Introductory 407

CHAPTER X X I . S M A L L DEFORMATION O F N A T U R A L L Y C U R V E D RODS.

287. Introductory 423

294. Specification of stress in a plate . 434

315. Introductory 471

CHAPTER X X I V . G E N E R A L THEORY O F T H I N P L A T E S A N D SHELLS.

322. Formulas relating to the curvature of surfaces 488

327. Nature of the strain in a bent plate or shell 498

A. Terminology and Notation 531

Authors cited 543

>. 143, equations (61). For "/x " read "^

T H E Mathematical Theory of Elasticity is occupied with an a t t e m p t

elasticae...edunt...' published in Gommentarii Academics Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitance,

Whenever, owing to any cause, changes take place in t h e relative

length before stretching, and I t h e length when stretched. Then (l — l )/l 0 0

is a n u m b e r (generally a very small fraction) which is called t h e extension of

is clear t h a t for t h e measurement of such small quantities as this rather

and — zr y -f tXyZ; and there is a fundamental kinematical distinction be

A s i m p l e e x t e n s i o n i s accordingly e q u i v a l e n t t o a strain specified by t h e s e six com

15. Relations connecting t h e dilatation, t h e rotation a n d t h e dis