YD in Sri Lanka

Youth in Development: Sri Lanka
M.K. Nadeeka Damayanthi

G.G. de L.W. Samarasinhe
M.A.C.S. Bandara
H.M.S.J.M. Hitihamu
Subashini Perera
Research Report No: 161 October 2013
Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute

114, Wijerama Mawatha
Colombo 7
Sri Lanka
I
First Published: October 2013
© 2013, Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute
Final typesetting and lay-out by: Dilanthi Hewavitharana
Coverpage Designed by: Udeni Karunaratne
ISBN: 978-955-612-159-9
II
FOREWORD
Every year, the Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute (HARTI)
had been submitting a country report for the Centre on Integrated Rural Development
for Asia and Pacific (CIRDAP), Rural Development Report. The CIRDAP prepares a single
report for the region using information of the country reports, but entire text of the
country report has not been published anywhere. Therefore, for the first time the HARTI
attempted to publish the country report as a research publication and this is the result
of that effort.
This report covered vast areas including government policies and programmes towards
youth development, youth in education, employment, peace and social harmony,
science and technology, agriculture and fisheries etc. In Sri Lanka, around 27 percent of
the total populations are youths belonging to age 15-29 years. Compared with her
counterparts, Sri Lankan youths had benefited much in many sectors such as education
and health. Furthermore, the successive governments have formulated number of
policies and implemented programmes towards youth development. In addition to the
public sector, NGOs and private sector had been involved in youth development
providing scholarships, facilities for research and training in modern technology and
increasing employment opportunities for youth.
This report reveals that even with many achievements in most of the sectors, Sri Lankan
youth are still facing some problems. These includes mismatch between education and
job market, sectorial disparities in the achievement of education, deterioration of
traditional counseling system and social tie up and non-availability of counseling system
and high rate of suicide.
I congratulate the research team for successfully undertaking this study and hope the
findings and recommendations would be very useful to conduct an effective regional
programme towards youth development.
E.M. Abhayaratne
Director
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research team wish to express their heartfelt appreciation to youths who
participated for the focus group discussions and key informants who provided most
valuable information for this report. We would like to Specially thank, Ms Nilanthi
Sugathadasa, Additional Secretary, Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, Mr.
Manula Chamal Perera, Director/Administration, National Youth Services Council and
Mr. Milinda Rajapaksha, working Director/Additional Youth Council, for their support
and valuable information given for the success of the research. Further, Our sincere
thanks go to Mr. D.C.A. Gunawardena, Director General of Department of Census and
Statistics and his staff, because, without their support we couldn’t have a completed the
report as given by the CIRDAP Terms of References.
Our thanks also go to Mr. Lalith Kantha Jayasekrara, Former Director of the HARTI for his
administrative support and Mr. E.M. Abhayaratne, Director, the HARTI for his constant
support provided to publish the report. The research team also wish to express sincere
thanks to Dr. L.P. Rupasena, Additional Director, HARTI for his comments on the
preliminary draft and encouragement given to publish the report. Our thanks also go to
Rev.Dr. W. Wimalarathana, Senior Lecturer, University of Colombo for his valuable
comments on the draft report.
We are also thankful to Prof. W.I. Siriweera for editing and staff members of the
publication and printing units for making arrangements for publishing the report.
Finally, we would like to thank Miss. N.A. Kanchana Sandamali and Mrs. Dilanthi
Hewavitharana for their contribution for page setting of the report.
M.K. Nadeeka Damayanthi

G.G. de L.W. Samarasinhe
M.A.C.S. Bandara
H.M.S.J.M. Hitihamu
Subashini Perera
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EXECUTIVE SUMMERY
This study was conducted in 2012, with the aim of providing country information and
analysis for Rural Development Report - 2012 of the Centre on Integrated Rural
Development for Asia and Pacific (CIRDAP), Bangladesh. The study is mainly based on
secondary data, but research team also used primary data collected through key
informant discussions and focus group discussions when required.
The objectives of the study were to conduct a situation analysis on youth in

development, to explore further strategies to be adopted in youth development
regionally and to examine the way forward for youth in development. Non availability of
processed, published data on youth was one of the major limitations of the study. The
adopted definition "youth" in this study was both "male and female" who belong to 15-
29 years.
The proportion of youth population was 27.1 percent (5,576,000) of total population in
2010 and it shows declining trend of youth population when compared with 2000 data
(29.7 percent). Of the total youth 28.7 percent were employed in 2010 and it consisted
of 53.6 percent of males and 24.3 percent of females. However, percentage of
employed youth also shows a declining trend compared with 2000 data.
The successive governments had made many efforts towards improvement of the youth
by providing positive policy directions such as increasing the age of marriage, preventing
child abuse improving the quality and strengthening of vocational trainings and skill
developments, improving the facilities and quality of higher education institutions and
signing bi-lateral agreements for foreign employment. However, there are many issues
and challenges on youth development as well as to get youths’ fullest support for the
development process.
The issues related to youth are, less youth participation at decision making level of
politics and labour market, small but considerable number of child labour, less trust on
political and governing systems, sectorial disparities in resources distribution and
marginalized group far from national figures of educational achievement and low
computer literacy rate. Furthermore, weakness in the use of two languages and
difficulties to build up mutual trust among different ethnic groups, high suicide rates
among youth lack of saving habits, difficulties in access to credit average age of entering
the job market being high are other issues related to youth development.
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The research team suggested strengthening carrier guidance, conducting of awareness
programmes to change the mind set of youth on job market, implementing most related
but not yet implemented recommendations of the Presidential Commission on youth in
1989, implementing of bi-lingual policy in a more practical way, and develop proper
coordinating and monitoring mechanism to improve youth development in CIRDAP
member countries.
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CONTENTS
Page
No.
FOREWORD i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii
EXCECUTIVE SUMMARY iii
CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES ix
ABBREVIATIONS x
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction 1
By M.K. Nadeeka Damayanthi
1.1 Background and Overview 1
1.2 Objectives 5
1.3 Methodology 5
1.4 Limitation 5
1.5 Organization of the Report 5
CHAPTER TWO
Strategies for Youth Development 7
By G.G. de L.W. Samarasinhe
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Definition of Youth 7
2.3 Roles and Responsibilities of Ministries Dealing with Youth 7
2.4 Policy on Youth Development 9
2.4.1 National Youth Policy of Sri Lanka 9
2.4.2 Government Policy for Marriage 9
2.4.3 Government Policy for Motherhood 9
2.4.4 Government Policy for Education 9
2.4.5 Government Policy for Employment 11
2.5 Specific Strategies for Enhancing Youth Development 11
2.6 Achievement of Strategies of Different Ministries 11
2.7 Best Examples of Activities for Youth Development 13
2.8 Roles and Responsibilities of NGOs, Local and International 14
Development Partners Dealing with Youth
2.9 Private Sector Contribution in Youth Development 15
2.10 Conclusion 16
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CHAPTER THREE
Status of Youth 17
By M.A.C.S. Bandara
3.1 Introduction 17
3.2 Youth Population 17
3.2.1 Proportion of youth in Total Population 18
3.2.2 Age Distribution 18
3.2.3 Growth Rate 20
3.2.4 Sex-Ratio 20
3.2.5 Rural-urban Youth Distribution 21
3.3 Educational Attainment 22
3.4 Employment 25
3.4.1 Mean Age during Engagement in Employment 25
3.4.2 Total Number of Youth in Employment 26
3.4.3 Total Waged Employee/Workers 27
3.4.4 Non-waged Employee/Workers 27
3.4.5 Youth in Unemployment 28
3.5 Youth Migration 29
3.5.1 Domestic Migration 30
3.5.2 International Migration 30
3.5.3 Reasons for Migration 33
3.5.4 Government Initiatives for International Migration 34
CHAPTER FOUR
SWOT Analysis 35
By H.M.S.J.M. Hitihamu
4.1 Introduction 35
4.2 Strengthen 35
4.3 Weakness 36
4.4 Opportunities 37
4.5 Threats 37
4.6 Discussion 37
4.7 Conclusion 40
CHAPTER FIVE
A Way Forward 41
5.1 Introduction 41
5.2 Youth as Key Players in Sustainable Development 41
5.3 Problems of Youth 43
5.3.1 Education, Vocational Training and Labour Market 43
5.3.2 Agriculture and Fisheries 45
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5.3.3 Science and Technologies 45
5.3.4 Savings and Investments 46
5.3.5 Governance and Politics 47
5.3.6 Caste System and its Impacts 48
5.3.7 Widows and Child Labour 49
5.3.8 Differently Abled youth 50
5.3.9 Peace and Social Harmony 50
5.3.10 Self Employment and Income Earning 51
5.3.11 Suicide 51
5.4 Emerging Constraints due to Climate Change and Other Natural 52
Calamities
5.5 Way to Involve Youth in Adaptation and Mitigation Strategy 53
5.6 Conclusion 54
CHAPTER SIX
Regional Collaboration for Youth Development 55
By Subashini Perera
6.1 Introduction 55
6.2 Efforts of Regional Collaboration in Developed World 55
6.2.1 Multinational Negotiations 55
6.2.1.1 Commonwealth Youth Programme 55
6.2.1.2 International Youth Foundation 58
6.2.1.3 Beyond Boarders 58
6.2.1.4 International Labour Organization (ILO) 59
6.2.1.5 World Bank 59
6.2.1.6 Asian Development Bank 59
6.2.1.7 World Health Organization 60
6.2.1.8 United Nations 61
6.2.1.9 United Nations International Children’s’ Emergency 61
Fund (UNICEF)
6.2.1.10 ILO,ADB and World University Service: Canada 61
6.2.2 Bilateral Negotiations 61
6.3 Efforts of Regional Collaboration in CIRDAP Member Countries 64
6.4 Impacts of Collaborations 65
6.5 Strategies to be Adopted for Regional Collaborations 66
6.5.1 Youth Villages 66
6.5.2 Fully Integrated Continuum of Services 67
6.5.3 Training and Capacity Building to Boost up Skills, Jobs and 67
Career Development
6.5.4 Psychological Counseling 69
6.5.5 Participation at Grass Roots Levels 70
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6.6 Formulation of a Regional Action Plan among CIRDAP Member 72
Countries
6.7 Conclusion 72
CHAPTER SEVEN
Recommendations 73
7.1 Introduction 73
7.2 Policy Recommendations 73
7.2.1 Policy Formulation and Implementation 73
7.2.2 Education 73
7.2.3 Employment 74
7.2.4 Self Employment/Entrepreneurship 74
7.2.5 Agriculture and Fisheries 74
7.2.6 Vulnerable Groups 75
7.2.7 Decision Making and Politics 75
7.2.8 Peace and Social Harmony 76
7.2.9 Counseling 76
Reference 77
Annex 01: Institutes under the Purviews of Ministry of Youth Affairs and 81
Skills Development
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
No.
Table 1.1 Youth Unemployment (Age Group 15-29 Years) 02
Table 3.1 Youth Proportionate to the Total Population 18
Table 3.2 Estimated Mid-Year Total Population (‘000) by Age Group 21
Table 3.3 Percentage of Youth Distribution by Sector 22
Table 3.4 Literacy Rate by Sex (2001) 22
Table 3.5 Educational Attainment of Youth 24
Table 3.6 Employed Population by Industry Group 25
Table 3.7 Total Youth Engaged in Employment 27
Table 3.8 Total Waged Employed Youth Population 27
Table 3.9 Total Non-Waged Employed Youth Population 28
Table 3.10 Percentage of Waged and Non waged Youth Employees by 28
Gender
Table 3.11 Unemployed Youth Population 28
Table 3.12 Migration for Foreign Employment (2005 and 2010) 29
Table 3.13 Number of Departures for Foreign Employment by Skill Level, Age 31
Group and Gender 2010
Table 3.14 Estimated Stocks of Sri Lankan Overseas Contract Workers by 32
Manpower Level (2006)
Table 3.15 Departure for Foreign Employment by Age Group and Sex (2005) 33
Table 5.1 Development Targets by 2016 41
Table 5.2 Demand and Supply of Foreign Employment (2008-2009) 42
Table 5.3 Suicide Rate Among Youth (2000-2011) 52
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
No.
Figure 3.1 a Total Male Populations by Age in 2000,2005 and 2010 19
Figure 3.1 b Total Female Populations by Age in 2000,2005 and 2010 19
Figure 3.2 Sex Ratio and Annual Population Growth Rate (1992-2010) 20
Figure 3.3 Primary Education of Pupils (1970-2010) 23
Figure 3.4 Secondary Education of Pupils (1970-2010) 23
Figure 3.5 Educational Attainment Percentage to Total Youth Population 24
Figure 3.6 a Male Youth Engaged in Employment (2000, 2005 and 2010) 26
Figure 3.6 b Female Youth Engaged in Employment (2000, 2005 and 2010) 26
Figure 6.1 Organizational Structure of the Youth Club Network 71
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ABBREVIATIONS
ADB Asian Development Bank

CSR Co operate Social Responsibility
CYP Commonwealth Youth Programme
DTET Department of Technical Education and Training
GDP Gross Domestic Product
HNB Hatton National Bank
ICT Information Communication Technology
ILO International Labour Organization
IYF International Youth Foundation
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
KOICA Korea International Cooperation Agency
LFS Labour Force Survey
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
NAM Non –aligned Movement
NGO Non Governmental Organizations
NVQ National Vocational Qualifications
NVQF National Vocational Qualifications Framework
NYS National Youth Survey
NYSC National Youth Services Council
OUSL Open University of Sri Lanka
RYC Regional Youth Caucus
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
UN United Nations
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
USA United States of America
VET Vocational Educational Training Plan
WUSC World University Service of Canada
YESL Youth Enterprise and Sustainable Livelihood Programme
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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1 Background and Overview
The definition of ‘youth’ is not universal and it varies from society to society and country
to country. Psychologists define youth as ‘the period between puberty and adulthood’
while legislators define it based on age. In economic sense, "youth is a period in the life
of the individual in which she/he develops her/his occupational capacities". Considering
social level, youth can be defined as a period of investment (Sessional Paper III, 1967).
The United Nations has defined youth as ‘persons those within the age group of 15 to
24 years’ while the Sri Lanka National Youth Service Council (NYSC) has defined youth as
‘persons those within age group of 13-29 (Ibargüen, 2004). Apart from the age limit,
countries like Sri Lanka use some socio-cultural aspects such as marriage and
engagement in employment to define youth. The National Youth Survey (NYS) in Sri
Lanka conducted by 2000, adopted definition of youth as 15-29 years old unmarried
persons. This study, adopts definition of youth as 15-29 years old married and
unmarried persons including both male and female.
In Sri Lanka nearly 28 percent of the total population belongs to 15-29 years age group.
Furthermore, over 75 percent of the youth lived in the rural sector during the period
1960- 2000 (Ibargüen, 2004). Youth population in the category of no schooling has
declined remarkably and they had achieved satisfactory level of educational
achievements over the years after independence. Literacy rate of the youth (15-24
years) was 95.8 percent in 2006/07. Further, ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary
and tertiary were 99 percent, 105.7 percent and 187 percent respectively in 2006/07
(Department of Census and Statistics, 2009).
However, youth unemployment ratio was much higher when compared with national
unemployment ratio. As shown in Table 1.1, during the period of 1990–2011 country’s
youth unemployment accounted for 72.7 percent to 84.4 percent of the total
unemployment. There are several factors associated with the high rate of youth
unemployment in Sri Lanka. This includes better education and skills mismatch, queuing
for an opportunity to find a “good job” in the public sector (Ibargüen, 2004, Ministry of
Labour Relations and Foreign Employment, 2006, Heltberg and Vodopivec, 2008).
1
Table 1.1: Youth Unemployment (Age Group of 15-29 Years)
Year Youth Total Number Total

Unemployment of Persons Unemployment
(15-29 yrs) Unemployed Rate (% of Total
Labour Force
1990 79.9 953,794 15.9
1991 78.2 861,680 14.7
1992 80.5 845,957 14.6
1993 77.8 830,910 13.8
1994 79.2 797,591 13.1
1995 79.4 749,021 12.3
1996 81.4 704,604 11.3
1997 83.0 658,297 10.5
1998 80.3 611,285 9.2
1999 81.6 590,846 8.9
2000 82.3 517,168 7.6
2001 84.4 537,246 7.9
2002 83.5 625,967 8.8
2003* 82.9 640,961 8.4
2004** 81.4 667,324 8.3
2005*** 80.7 623,341 7.7
2006 78.3 493,440 6.5
2007 76.6 447,021 6.0
2008* 75.1 433,397 5.4
2009* 72.7 471,254 5.8
2010 74.0 215,578 7.7
2011 (2nd quarter) 83.2 357,471 4.0
nd
Up to 2 quarter of 2002, both Northern and Eastern provinces are excluded
*including Eastern Province but excluding Northern Province
** Excluding Mulathivu and Kilinochchi districts
*** All the districts are included
Source: Damayanthi and Rambodagedara, 2013
2
However, as some researchers argue majority of unemployed youths in Sri Lanka are
voluntary rather than lack of employment opportunities. Karunagoda (2004) has pointed
out that level of education has a strong influence on voluntary unemployment in Sri
Lanka.
In the year 2011, 16.3 percent of youth in 15-19 years age category had actively
participated in labour force while it was 12.6 percent in urban and 16.8 percent in rural
areas. Of the age category of 20-24 years, 54.5 percent had actively participated in
labour force and this rate was 66.1 percent among 25-29 years of age group. Of those,
economically inactive in the above age categories were unemployed mainly due to
engagement in studies (Department of Census and Statistics, 2012).
Some achievements of the welfare model in Sri Lanka are paradoxically creating
problems for youth. The relatively high levels of education among youth may have
created gaps between aspirations and available economic and social opportunities
which could be a cause of youth unrest and relative deprivation. Further, late marriage
is also a problem among youth in Sri Lanka.
A number of government, private sector and non-governmental organizations have

been involved in providing skills development training island-wide. The government has
expanded the vocational and technical education system with the establishment of the
Human Resource Development Council, the Tertiary and Vocational Education and the
National Technical Teacher Training Collage. Affiliated agencies of the Ministry of Youth
Affairs and Skills Development provide a large number of vocational and training
development programmes in different sectors for varying durations island-wide.
Further, they assist youth to find out job opportunities through ‘job fairs’. However, due
to lack of career guidance path to select suitable vocational or skills development
training for youth, considerable proportions of trainees drop out of the courses before
the end of the course ( Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, 2012).
As revealed by the literature contribution in the agriculture sector is low due to a

number of reasons. Some argue that landlessness, lack of managerial and technical
skills, negative perception towards farming (Jayatissa, Seneviratne and Sankar, 2005),
perception towards white collar jobs (Hettige and Mayer, 2002), lack of social
recognition, lack of social security systems, problems of availability and accessibility of
extension system, irrigation and marketing facilities (Damayanthi and Rambodagedara,
2013) have contributed less for youth participation in farming sector. However, as
revealed by recent research findings, youth involvement in agriculture has been
increasing in cash crop cultivation sector. In accordingly, around 28 percent of the youth
in 15-29 age group were full time farmers while around 19 percent and 24 percent of
the youth involved in agriculture on part time basis and as family labourers (Damayanthi
and Rambodagedara, 2013). This is a positive impact of governments’ policy. In the
3
meantime, youth population gets attracted to the manufacturing and service sectors.
After 1977, government policies including liberalization and industrial policies and
structural adjustment measures, contributed to generate thousands of jobs in the
private sector.
Though there are many important achievements in social development, Sri Lankan
youth perceive society as unjust and unequal, and they are frustrated due to failure of
most of the government agencies to address existing inequalities in the distribution of
resources as well as in gains created by economic development (Ministry of Youth
Affairs, 2007). They recognized that a highly politicized society has caused political
patronage and influential networks for employment opportunities rather than creating a
system of merit (Ibid, 2007, Ibargüen etal, 2005). In addition, youth have been
experiencing discrimination and inequalities in the labour market due to different
factors such as geography and sector, gender, class and status, ethnicity and physical
and mental disabilities (Ministry of Youth Affairs, 2007). Foreign employment brings in
considerable proportion of income earning for the youth but higher percentage of
migrated youth depart for the unskilled or semi skilled jobs. For example, 39 percent of
the total number of migrant workers in 2004 was between 20-29 years of age group and
most of them were in the low skilled category (Ibid, 2007).
There are number of issues and problems relating to youth and youth development in
Sri Lanka. Most of them are related to socio-cultural, economic and political issues.
Suicide rate is also high among the youth population. The ratio varied from 32.5 percent
of total number of suicides in 2000 to 27.7 percent in 2011 and most were in rural
agricultural areas (Department of Registrar General, 2011, www.police.gov.lk). Common
reasons for the suicide are frustration caused through love affairs, failure at
examinations and economic problems such as poverty, indebtedness, employment
problems and family disputes (www.police.gov.lk).
Sri Lanka lost thousands of youths due to two insurrections in 1971 and 1987/88 and
thirty years war. The majority of the youth who participated in these insurgencies
represented poor families from rural areas. First insurgency was a form of protest
against the elite groups who exercised political and social power after the
independence. They were driven by a sense of social injustice and lack of opportunities
especially in the area of employment. The second uprising was mainly due to
government attempts at power devolution and Indo-Sri Lanka peace accord but factors
like social injustice and lack of accessibility of employment opportunities also
contributed to the insurgency. As a result of the two youth insurgencies and ethnic
conflict, Sri Lanka lost many opportunities including thousands of human capital as well
as physical capital which country could have utilized for development process. In
addition considerable number of youth became disable or widowed resulting in a
burden to the country‘s economy as well as society.
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1.2 Objectives
The main objective of the study is to provide information for a regional action plan with
the identification of country specific needs for youth in development. The specific
objectives are,
(i) To identify and analyze the current national status of youth and the strategies
regarding youth in development
(ii) To identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities of youth and threats for youth
(iii) To identify way forward for youth development
(iv) To explore the strategies to be adopted for youth development at the regional
level
1.3 Methodology
This study used both primary and secondary data. Secondary data was mostly collected
from Department of Census and Statistics, Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills
Development and its’ affiliated institutions. In addition, secondary information was
gathered through research reports, journals, newspaper articles and report of the
Presidential Task Force on Youth Affairs etc. Primary data was collected through key
informant discussions with officers such as Additional Secretary (Youth Development),
The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, Directors of National Youth
Service Council etc. Sixty five youths from different areas of the country with different
educational levels and employment status were contacted for the data collection for
SWOT analysis. To collect primary data Researchers used to focus group discussion
method.
1.4 Limitation
This study was mainly based on secondary data due to time limit and earlier scheduled
work of the researchers. Therefore, researchers could not get real experiences from two
of the most vulnerable groups viz, youth from the conflict affected areas and estate
sectors. Further, non-availability of published/processed data on youth was one of the
limitations of the study. Report is also limited due to absence of some data for the given
time period by the TOR.
1.5 Organization of the Report
First chapter provides background information of the study including overview of the
youth in Sri Lanka, objectives of the study, methodology and limitations. Second chapter
discusses policies and strategies implemented by the government towards youths and
5
their development. The third chapter presents data and information related to status of
youth including education, employment and migration. The fourth chapter presents
SWOT analysis and a discussion on youth in development. The fifth chapter discusses
way forward including problems regarding youth, climate change and youth
involvement in sustainable development. The chapter six discusses efforts in regional
collaboration, strategies to be adopted for regional collaborations and presents ideas on
the formulation of regional action plan among CIRDAP member countries. The chapter
seven makes policy recommendations.
6
CHAPTER TWO
Strategies for Youth Development

By G.G. de L.W. Samarasinhe
2.1 Introduction
“Mahinda Chinthana Vision for the Future” is the development policy framework of the
Government of Sri Lanka up to 2016. This document has outlined Sri Lanka’s new
development strategy for a higher economic and quality growth in each sector.
According to the vision document, the country will slowly move towards a knowledge
based economy which will create more job opportunities for educated youth. In order to
achieve that status and cater to the workforce requirement, the government has
recognized the value of developing science and technology, strengthening education,
training and skills process and developing high quality human resources. To ensure that
the Sri Lankan youth acquire necessary skills and knowledge, many strategies have been
formulated by the government such as expansion, reprioritizing and updating existing
programmes and introducing new programmes.
2.2 Definition of Youth
Definition of youth in Sri Lanka is different from the global definition by youth of the
United Nations General Assembly. According to the National Youth Services Council of
Sri Lanka, youth is defined as people from 13 to 29 years of age.
2.3 Roles and Responsibilities of Ministries Dealing with Youth
Among the number of Ministries that has linkages to youth related programmes, the
Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development with 17 affiliated institutes (Annex 1)
holds the overall responsibility of formulating policies and strategies and implementing
projects regarding youth development. Vision of the ministry is to create globally
employable empowered youth by “Making available of effective policy environment and
institutional framework enabling the youth to acquire necessary skills, knowledge and
attitudes to become productive citizens”. Main functions of the Ministry of youth Affairs
and Skills Development are focused on four thrust areas viz, youth development,
entrepreneurship development, skills development and vocational training
development.
Regarding youth development the Ministry is conducting programmes to empower and

organize them, developing sports, aesthetic skills, leadership and personality. Further
the Ministry is making an effort to create an environment for proper recognition for Sri
7
Lankan youth at international level. To develop the entrepreneurship among youth,
many programmes are being conducted to provide entrepreneurial skills while creating
job opportunities and introducing of new business opportunities for them. In addition,
the Ministry is involved in building up international relations for skills development.
In order to develop vocational training, the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills
Development is engaged in conducting programmes to popularize vocational training
programmes of vocational training institutes, providing carrier guidance facilities,
developing infrastructure facilities and developing new training courses while improving
the quality of the existing courses.
Other than the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, the Ministries of
Education, Labour and Labour Relations, Sports, Culture and the Arts, Child
Development and Women’s Affairs are few other organizations that provide especial
attention to the youth through their projects and programmes.
The Ministry of Labour and Labour Relations is aiming to achieve the status of “A
satisfied productive Sri Lankan labour force” by focusing on industrial peace and
harmony, labour standards and enforcement. Other main areas of interest include
protection of working women, elimination of child labour, social protection,
occupational safety and health and research and development. The Ministry of Social
Services’ mission is to get the partnership of under privileged persons to the national
development process by providing a suitable environment and opportunities through
policy initiatives in social welfare and social development. By conducting and
coordinating counseling services, programmes related to empowerment of women and
people with disabilities, protection of their rights, the Ministry of Social Services is
playing a vital role in youth development. The Ministry of Child Development and
Women’s Affairs are also directed towards activities to entire development, protection
and participation of women in the development process. The many goals of the Ministry
of Sports are aimed to use sports to enrich the quality of life, physical well-being and
health of all Sri Lankans by providing knowledge, access and the opportunity for
everyone to participate in sport and enjoy its benefits.
The Ministry of Education’s mission is to develop competent citizens keeping with the
global trends using innovative and modern approaches to education. It is expected that,
this will eventually result in efficient, equal and high quality performances among the
workforce ensuring stakeholder satisfaction.
8
2.4 Policy on Youth Development
2.4.1 National Youth Policy of Sri Lanka
The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development initiated formulation of a National
Youth Policy for Sri Lanka in the latter part of 2012. Consultative workshops have been
conducted island wide to obtain public opinion regarding the policy and the process is
expected to be completed by mid 2013. Technical and specialty assistance for policy
formulation has been given by the Open University of Sri Lanka while the National Youth
Services Council has agreed to provide its fullest support throughout the process.
Main objective of the youth policy is to assess the current status and needs of youth
population and to prepare a framework that will create a developing and securing an
environment for sufficient resources for empowerment. Through the strategies and
programmes of the National Youth Policy, it is expected to identify and provide policy
directions to address youth problems related to different sectors such as health,
environment, security and livelihood.
2.4.2 Government Policy for Marriage
Legally accepted minimum age for marriage is 18 years for both males and females in Sri
Lanka. The Government of Sri Lanka in 1988 increased the legal age at marriage for
women from 14 years to 18 years. This amendment is considered a really significant
achievement towards women’s health and reproductive health rights. This also
facilitates the offense of statutory rape effective for sexual intercourse with a female
under the age of 18 years with or without her consent.
2.4.3 Government Policy for Motherhood
In 1998, the government amended the legislation, again with significantly improving the
position of women in society by providing facilities to women engaged in productive
employment outside households. It entitled working women with 84 days paid leave in
the event of child birth and 1 hour breast-feeding breaks until the baby is 6 months old
and ready to accept alternative food.
2.4.4 Government Policy for Education
Government implements a free education policy along with providing text books and set
of school uniforms free of charge for all school children. School children are also
benefited by the subsidized bus fares for government road and railway transport as well
as in private sector transport. In addition government is extending its support for
students from families with low income and less privileged backgrounds.
9
In 1998, age limit of compulsory education was fixed between 5 to 14 years. However,
according to the present government’s “Mahainda Chinthana” development policy
document, this age limit has been extended to 16 years or up to General Certificate of
Examinations Ordinary Level (G.C.E. O/L). The primary motive of this reform was to
protect a large number of children who were not attending school and who were
subject to various forms of abuse such as being employed as child labourers.
Bilingual education is promoted by the education policy. Therefore, other than English it
is expected to learn both Sinhala and Tamil languages during primary education.
Government is adopting a free education policy for state universities though there is still
limited to about 2 percent (CENWOR, 2002). Student selection criteria are based on
merit basis as well as district quota system which provides equal opportunities to
students in all parts of the country. Scholarships are being awarded to students who
excel in advanced level examination and for those from financially difficult families to
assist in their expenses through the Mahapola fund.
To expand the opportunity of higher education, the University Act was amended
allowing few more institutions to award their own degrees. One such prominent
institution is the Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology (SLIIT). From 2011, to
improve the employability of undergraduates the government made it mandatory for all
students selected for undergraduate courses in state universities to undergo leadership
training.
The Ministry of Higher Education in collaboration with the University Grants

Commission (UGC) has a continuous dialogue with academia, trade unions and other
key stakeholders to uplift the higher education system to global standards. The Higher
Education for the Twenty First Century (HETC) Project is working towards achieving the
task of increasing the quality of higher education system. To facilitate access to higher
education, the National Online Distance Education System (NODES) project is also in the
process of expansion. With the objective of assuring excellence in higher education
through quality assurance the Ministry of Higher Education is taking measures to
strengthen its institutional framework by establishing Quality Assurance and
Accreditation Council (QAAC) under the University Grants Commission. Initiatives have
been taken to improve effective communication skills and literacy in Information
Technology. One of the key initiatives of this nature is Information Communication
Technology (ICT) specialization for BA degrees which will have higher demand in the job
market.
10
2.4.5 Government Policy for Employment
Currently the legal age for employment is 18 years. In order to broaden the employment
opportunities for youth and enabling them to compete better in job markets, the
Ministry of Youth Affairs is integrated with the skills development – a single entity
making it the 3rd largest segment in the annual budget. Sri Lanka encourages youth to
be innovative and creative. The 2010 United Nations General Assembly outcome
document on the MDGs has also endorsed a similar call for effecting such
improvements.
2.5 Specific Strategies for Enhancing Youth Development
Direct link has been identified between youth related issues and the country’s peace
and security. With this understanding it is vital to assure the access of youth to
education, health and productive employment. The Government policies with a link to
country’s youth such as education, health and employment have been formulated giving
prime importance to the above factors. The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills
Development along with all other institutes that comes under its purview has developed
strategies for four thrust areas that has identified to implement their work plan.
Economic development strategy is basically focused on provision of vocational training,
assistance for self employment development, providing entrepreneurship training,
vocational guidance and agricultural training.
In order to create a productive workforce that require knowledge and skills, need of a
comprehensive education program which go together with the process of
transformation has recognized as a vital requirement. As a prerequisite, intake and
output capacities of all primary, secondary and tertiary education institutions, including
technical and vocational schools were supposed to be strengthened. As a way of
improving the productivity of youth in development by developing knowledge and skills,
introduction of modern class rooms, teaching methods and provision of resources such
as infrastructure of information technology, computer laboratories, revised text books
and e-libraries was to be implemented immediately.
2.6 Achievement of Strategies of Different Ministries
Job Banks and vocational guidance centers have been established to guide the youth.
The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development is amalgamating the Government,
private and Non Government Organizations in this regard. There are 133 registered
vocational training institutes operating in the country and for vocational training and
skills development sector by September 2012, about 75,000 trainees had been recruited
for vocational education and training due to promotional programmes conducted
through the National Carrier Guidance Center. In addition, five advisory service centers
11
are in operation with the objective of providing consultation services to youth with
problems.
The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development has organized many training
programmes, workshops and competitions to sharpen the skills of Sri Lankan youth
while providing a forum to show them to the public. Skills and innovation competitions,
“Shramabhimani” youth camps and educational exhibitions attract large number of
participants. One day entrepreneurship training programmes for upcoming young
entrepreneurs, provision of vocational training for disabled youth and 2 days leadership
training programmes for school prefects are few more such efforts of the Ministry.
To improve the trainee’s English language competency, a programme has been initiated
to improve the language knowledge of the English Instructors with the assistance of the
British Council, Colombo. Attempts of getting the service of volunteers from various
universities in Britain for the English training program was also a success.
Members of the academic staff who are attached to training institutes that comes under
the Ministry have been trained in collaboration with Nanyang Polytechnic International
Institute, Singapore. Further, training programme on Pedagogical Training for
instructors of the institutions under this Ministry with the assistance of Institute of
Technical Education (ITE) in Singapore had commenced.
Action has been taken to sign the following Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with
other Ministries under the inter Ministerial programme to develop youth skills. Under
this programme, the Ministry of Rehabilitation and Prison Reforms provides vocational
training for prisoners. According to the MoU signed with the Ministry of Power and
Energy, students who successfully completed the courses stipulated by respective
technical colleges or colleges of technology will get the opportunity of following three
years on the job industrial training. A MoU was signed with the Ministry of Education to
prepare a systematic programme which facilitates awarding National Vocational
Qualification (NVQ) to students who follow Information Communication Technology
(ICT) as a subject in school curriculum. An agreement was made between the Ministry of
Foreign Employment Promotion and Welfare to initiate a separate programme to offer
vocational qualifications for persons who seek foreign employment.
Members of the Youth Club Federation participated at the youth exchange programme
between Sri Lanka and United Kingdom. Sri Lankan youth were able to take part in
Japan- Sri Lanka friendship programmes such as Fuji-Maru Ship Programme.
Drama contests are been conducted in Sinhala and Tamil medium at provincial level.
National Youth Awards Authority has introduced and implemented a youth awards
programme for the youth in youth circles. This programme was conducted among the
12
Tamil community in the estate sector and in rural areas under the patronage of the
Ministry of Economic Development.
To develop sports skills of differently abled youth of the country, sports equipment were
supplied for those groups and “Sihinaya” (Dream) sports festivals is been conducted to
give them an opportunity to participate in competitive sports. To improve their talents
of singing, dancing and acting “Dream be on the reality” programme is been conducted.
2.7 Best Examples of Activities for Youth Development
A Youth Parliament of Sri Lanka was conceived and implemented to mark the
International Year of Youth and it consists of 335 members between the age group of
15-26 years representing all ethnic communities in the country. By now, the Sri Lanka
Youth Parliament has completed seven sessions.
Twenty five per cent of the young parliamentarians are from the predominantly Tamil
areas in the North of the country. The drive for setting up the Youth Parliament was to
create leaders or representatives nurtured in the finest democratic ideals and practices.
It also provides an important opportunity in post-conflict Sri Lanka to foster ideals of
peace, solidarity, and harmony among the country’s younger generation. These aspiring
leaders in the Youth Parliament could one day meaningfully contribute to strengthening
and revitalizing the country’s democratic institutions, democratic governance and
further promote ideals of peace, tolerance and justice.
Policy makers are keen on creating a more secure and better environment for
development for youth population of the country in the post-conflict Sri Lanka. The
Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development and institutions under its supervision
such as the National Youth Services Council of Sri Lanka have established youth capacity
building programmes throughout the country to disseminate entrepreneurial, social and
life skills, non-violent conflict resolution, and vocational training to increase their overall
capacity for gainful employment in order to enhance their quality of living. The network
of Youth Centers under the National Youth Services Council has extended its activities to
12,000 villages out of the 14,000 total villages across the country. Vocational training
centers have been re-established in the Northern and the Eastern parts of the country
to provide opportunities to those youth who missed years of schooling during the
conflict. Further, to ensure the completion of secondary education for former young
adults and child combatants, special programmes called “Catch-up School Programmes”
have been conducted.
13
2.8 Roles and Responsibilities of NGOs, Local and International Development
Partners Dealing with Youth
There are 247 registered local and international Non Governmental Organizations
(NGOs) operating in Sri Lanka. They play an important role in many disciplines such as
environmental protection, social welfare, especially of women and children,
empowerment of low income category people, and uplifting community health
standards. NGOs are key actors in the national reproductive health and gender
programmes also and their service has been recognized by the government. They
provide valuable support to government programmes mainly in the areas of family
planning, adolescent health, and STI/HIV prevention. Their programmes are directed
towards educating, training, and counseling of adolescents on above subjects. Further
they provide counseling facilities, reproductive health information and conduct various
youth projects.
In collaboration with the United Nations Family Planning Association (UNFPA) several
NGOs have implemented projects targeting the vulnerable sectors of the society such as
the Free Trade Zone workers, the plantation and rural community, youth, adolescents,
and army personnel. The project was to distribute condom vending machines island-
wide to encourage the use of condoms as a temporary solution to prevent sexually
transmitted diseases and also to reduce the chances of unwanted pregnancies.
An NGO in collaboration with the Global Network of Religions for Children (GNRC) South
Asia Secretariat has hosted a special youth consultation day to mark the International
Day of Peace on the theme of Youth for Peace. The youth participants of diverse
backgrounds were able to prepare critical peace statements through a participatory
learning process. The critical peace statements they prepared expressing their
aspirations for sustainable peace in Sri Lanka by grappling with various issues in Sri
Lankan society.
With support and endorsement from several United Nations agencies operating in the
country a group of youth led and youth focused organizations which are engaged in
environmental issues perform many activities. These included management and
conservation of environment, climate change, sustainable development and advocacy
for environmental issues. These organizations are working to inspire, engage and
support young people to take collective action towards achieving a sustainable
development and greener Sri Lanka especially among youth category
(srilankayouth.lk/regeional.php). UNICEF with the assistance of local NGOs has
conducted a programme covering nearly 100 schools with the aim of promoting life
skills to prevent risk behavior among students (Perera, 2007)
14
2.9 Private Sector Contribution in Youth Development
Private sector firms have taken considerable effort to empower Sri Lankan youth
initiating many activities such as knowledge and skills development programmes,
providing on the job training facilities and loans and etc. Few examples are summarized
as follows:
The Hatton National Bank (HNB) one of the premier banks in Sri Lanka has introduced
Yauwanabhimana programme to empower the Sri Lankan youth by fostering personal
and professional development and creating employability. Number of other renowned
companies such as the Hayleys, Dialog Axiata PLC, Chemical Industries Colombo Ltd.
(CIC), Diesel & Motor Engineering PLC (DIMO), Holcim Lanka Ltd as well as the British
Council, the University of Colombo and the World University Service of Canada (WUSC)
Sri Lanka are partners of the Yauwanabhimana programme. Yauwanabhimana
programme offers numerous opportunities, including internships, knowledge sharing
and exposure to private sector operations to increase the employability of young people
of the country. Yauwanabhimana programme has organized youth development
workshops covering all parts of the country to improve their knowledge in English
language. This programme has also given training and exposure to a variety of
industries, including mechanical engineering, telecommunication, construction and
agriculture to improve skill and develop the ability of youth to be successful in a
professional environment. In addition, the HNB offers a series of financial services
including savings accounts and educational, vehicle, personal, housing and
entrepreneurial loans, to empower young people with financial opportunity.
Dialog Axiata PLC and Varam Sri Lanka have joined hands in a youth self-employment
initiative. The Varam Welfare Centers have been providing job skills training for young
people. Its paper recycling project which is part of a greeting card manufacturing
programme was funded by the Dialog Axiata PLC Change Trust.
Dialog awards local and foreign scholarships annually to assist young people to pursue
their higher education. Local scholarships are awarded to students who excel at the
Ordinary Level and Advanced Level examinations. Selection of students for the
scholarships is done by the Ministry of Education of Sri Lanka and is based on the best
results in each of the 25 administrative districts. In addition to the above scholarships,
approximately four differently abled students get scholarships each year. Dialog has also
awarded fully sponsored scholarships to Sri Lankan scholars, to pursue a BSc
Engineering Degree, at Multimedia University (MMU) Malaysia, acclaimed as one of the
most technologically advanced universities in the World.
To uplift and facilitate research, development and higher learning in Sri Lanka, the
Dialog invested for the first ever research lab for telecommunication technologies
research which was established at the Moratuwa University. It will benefit University
graduates with interest in the Electrical and Telecommunication Engineering fields.
15
Applied research projects and product development initiatives, that are beneficial to the
industry and are academically challenging are undertaken by the laboratory, while
facilitating technology transfer among similar research bodies. Further, Dialog facilitates
interaction between scholars and the company’s employees which facilitates mentoring,
internships and soft skills development to train these scholars for job market
requirements.
The Sampath Bank, one of the leading banks in Sri Lanka has joined hands with the
University of Sri Jayewardenepura to promote youth empowerment in the country. The
bank has adopted various mechanisms to enhance employee engagement. For that
purpose, the bank has implemented its Cooperate Social Responsibility (CSR) projects in
rural and semi urban sectors and focuses on small and medium scale projects to
facilitate more beneficiaries. This is being done through developing partnerships,
strategic agreements and industry collaboration with respective bodies.
Talented undergraduates of the Sri Jayewardenepura University and qualified foreign

interns from Bosnia, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Germany, Pakistan, Russia and
Ukraine had served as resource persons for the programme. Leadership Training
programmes conducted by this project has covered topics such as Corporate World,
Social Dancing, Documentary Writing, Presentation and Public Speaking, Social Etiquette
etc.
However, these programmes do not sufficiently reach rural areas of the country yet.
Therefore, youth empowerment programmes via CSR projects of private sector that will
ensure good knowledge to increase the employability is vital for development of rural
youth of Sri Lanka.
2.10 Conclusion
The Government has taken so many initiatives to utilize the contribution of Sri Lankan
youth for the countries’ development process by developing their knowledge and skills
to their fullest potential by expanding and updating education and training facilities,
skills development opportunities, aesthetic skills as well as overall well-being through
various programmes and Ministries. Role of NGOs (local as well as international) should
be acknowledged for their services in this regard. Though, the overall performances of
youth development programmes demonstrate success, to reach the desired status of
“globally employable youth” still there are many limitations in the existing education
system as well as in training programmes in terms of their quality and access. Poor
selection of target groups for various programmes has been identified as one of the
major weaknesses. However with current government’s initiatives to strengthen carrier
guidance and counseling programmes it is expected to address this issue. In addition,
information that will gather from these consultations will produce more productive
youth development programmes in the future.
16
CHAPTER THREE
Status of Youth
By M.A.C.S. Bandara
3.1 Introduction
In this Chapter, an attempt is made to provide a profile of Sri Lankan youth, outlining
only some selected aspects such as demographic, socio economic and economic
profiles. In addition, the chapter presents data related to migration and discuss reasons
for migration.
3.2 Youth Population
The standard United Nations definition of youth is people ages 15 through 24. The
International Labour Organization (ILO) follows the UN definition. Both organizations,
however, recognize that the operational definition of youth varies widely from country
to country depending on cultural, institutional, and political factors (Higgins, 1997).
In Sri Lanka, the National Youth Survey defines youth as those in between ages 15-29
years. As in most industrial countries, the lower age limit corresponds to the
constitutional minimum school-leaving age. The upper limit of 29 years reflects several
factors. One has to do with the average age of a university student. Sri Lankan students
are usually 19 years when they complete their secondary school education. The results
of the General Certificate of Education Advance-level or A/L, examination are usually
released in the following year and university entrance is exclusively depends on these
results. This long lag time combined with a history of youth unrest, student strikes, and
political instability in the country, which have led to temporary closures of the
universities, mean that a student’s actual entry to university is often delayed for at least
one or two years.
Moreover, students are allowed to retake the A/L exams twice if they are interested in
improving their aggregate score to be eligible for university entrance. As a result, by the
time university students graduate and enter the job market they are usually between
the ages of 24 and 27 years. However, situation has been changed now due to stable
political conditions. Now a student who passed G.C.E. A/L can enter into the university
within less than 6 months after reaching the results. As a result they graduate between
ages 22 and 24 years and can enter in to the job market earlier than before.
17
3.2.1 Proportion of Youth in Total Population
The first Population Census in Sri Lanka conducted in the year 1871 showed a
population of 2.4 million. The pervious census in 2001 showed a population of 14.8
million. Currently population is around 20.277 million (Department of Census and
Statistics, 2011). Table 3.1 shows the proportionate of youth to the total population by
sex. According to the information, in the year 2005 and 2010, youth proportion had
decreased compared to early days. Nearly 2.6 percent proportionate reduction of youth
could be seen during year 2000 to 2010.
Table 3.1: Youth Proportionate to the Total Population
Percentage of Total Population

2000 2005 2010
Age group
Male Female Male Female Male Female
15-19 5.5 5.3 4.9 4.8 4.9 4.8
20-24 5.2 5.1 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7
25-29 4.3 4.3 3.9 4.0 3.9 4.0
Total 14.9 14.7 13.6 13.5 13.5 13.5
Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2012
3.2.2 Age Distribution
Figure 3.1a & 3.1b illustrate the population by age and sex. According to the Figure 3.1a
& 3.1b, during the early days (year 2000) male population was comparatively high.
However, during the year 2005 it showed minor decreasing trend up to age 30 to 34 but
then again male population started to rise. One prominent feature of the Figure 3.1a &
3.1b is the gradual decrease in the population below 15 especially after year 2000. This
is mainly attributable to declining fertility levels in the recent past. In the year 2005 and
2010 the highest population was in 15-19 age groups for both sexes. But it was reported
for 0-4 age group in 1981 and the rest until 2000.
18
Figure 3.1a: Total Male Populations by Age in 2000, 2005 and 2010
Figure 3.1b: Total Female Populations by Age in 2000, 2005 and 2010
19
3.2.3 Growth Rate
In this section the growth rate of total population is discussed. Growth rate does not
show much spatial variation. According to the previous census of the year 2001, most of
the wet zone districts had very low growth rates of less than 1 percent. A very clear
exception was the Gampaha district which had a high growth rate (1.9 percent). This
could be due to domestic migration, particularly to Free Trade Zone. Colombo district
too had a growth rate, which was more than the average value. On the other hand,
districts in the dry zone area had growth rates exceeding 1 percent. The highest growth
rates were recorded for the dry zone districts of Vavuniya (2.2 percent), Mullaitivu (2.2
percent) and Ampara (2.1 percent). However, censes 2001 data shows an annual overall
growth rate of 1.2 percent. During the period 1981 to 2010 it had decreasing and very
closer to 1 (Fig 3.2). However, decreasing growth rate could be observed in the past
decade. This was mainly due to the conflict situation especially in the Northern and
Eastern provinces of the country. According to the 2012 census (preliminary data)
population growth had been further reduced to 0.7.
3.2.4 Sex-Ratio
Sex ratio, which is defined as the number of males per 100 females was 99 in the year
2010. Comparison with 1981 census Figures reveals that the overall sex ratio had
decreased by 4.8 units from 104.0 in 1981 to 99.2 in 2001 and further to 99 in 2010.
According to the Table 3.2, out of the total population 5,667,000 (29.67 percent),
5,312,000 (27.04 percent) and 5,576,000 (27.10 percent) were the youth in the
population years 2000, 2005 and 2010 respectively. During early days, males had
consistency outnumbered the females at all censuses from 1871 to 2001.
Figure 3.2: Sex Ratio and Annual Population Growth Rate (1992-2010)
20
Population density is measured as the number of persons per square kilometer of land.
While the land area remains constant, the population density increases with the growth
of the population. Today, Sri Lanka is one of the densely populated countries of the
world. According to the 2001 Census, Sri Lanka population density stood at 300 persons
per square kilometer. Wide variation in population density exists across the districts.
Colombo is overwhelmingly the most densely populated district with 3,330 persons per
square kilometer, which is nearly 11 times higher than the national Figure.
Table 3.2: Estimated Mid-Year Total Population (‘000) by Age Group
Age group Year

2000 2005 2010
0-4 2,387 1,671 1,755
5-9 2,165 1,721 1,817
10-14 2,173 1,771 1,859
15-19 2,063 1,911 2,003
20-24 1,964 1,846 1,942
25-29 1,640 1,555 1,631
30-34 1,449 1,497 1,580
35-39 1,079 1,460 1,538
40-44 898 1,359 1,425
45-49 784 1,195 1,250
50-54 693 1,064 1,126
55-59 543 780 817
60-64 438 576 609
65-69 324 469 485
70-74 234 352 372
75 & Over 268 417 444
Total 19,102 19,644 20,653
3.2.5 Rural-Urban Youth Distribution
In the 2001 census, urban sector comprised of all Municipal and Urban Council areas.
Estate sector is defined as plantations of 20 acres or more in extent upon which there
are 10 or more resident labourers. Rest of the areas is treated as the rural sector.
Although the definition of estate sector is similar to that used in the 1981 census, the
definition of urban sector is not comparable between the two censuses. This had
happened as a consequence of abolishing Town Councils which were treated as urban in
the 2001 census and absorbing the administration of such areas into Pradesheeya
21
Sabhas which were considered as rural since 1987. Therefore, the urban population
figures and percentages seem to be underestimating the true picture of urban sector
and should be interpreted cautiously. Anyhow, majority of the youth population had
stagnated in rural areas. However, due to changes of Town Councils from time to time,
it is difficult to give any reasonable arguments to the changes.
Table 3.3: Percentage of Youth Distribution by Sector
Year Rural Urban

Male Female Male Female
2000 44.1 42.7 6.6 6.6
2005 42.9 45.0 6.3 5.7
2010 41.5 46.1 5.6 6.8
3.3 Educational Attainment
In this section the total population frequencies other than youth population are
discussed. Ability to read and write at least one language was regarded as literate. The
literacy rate by sex is shown in Table 3.4. The literacy rate of the population of year
2001 aged 10 years and over was 91.8 percent. Findings revealed (Table 3.4) that
literacy rate is comparatively higher in male population.
Table 3.4: Literacy Rate by Sex, (2001)
Sex Literacy rate

Male 92.8
Female 90.6
The number of primary education pupils in Sri Lanka was 1,720,806 as at 2010 (Figure
3.3). As the graph below shows, over the past 40 years this indicator had reached a
maximum value of 2,304,499 in 1986 and a minimum amount of 1,436,300 in 1975.
22
Figure 3.3: Primary Education of Pupils (1970 – 2010)
The value for Secondary education, general pupils in Sri Lanka was 2,390,895 in 2010. As
the graph below shows (Figure 3.4), over the past 9 years this indicator had reached a
maximum value of 2,419,496 in 2001 and a minimum value of 2,225,785 in 2006.
Figure 3.4: Secondary Education of Pupils (1970 – 2010)
According to the Table 3.5, during the early years, higher numbers of male students
entered into the primary and secondary education rather than females. But, during the
23
later years, even though male students entered primary education in more numbers
than females, it was reduced at the tertiary education levels. More female youth who
had entered into the primary to secondary had ended up with tertiary. But, of the male
youth who had entered into the primary and secondary levels less percentage had gone
to the tertiary level. Other important fact is that in the year 2010, less number of
students had entered into the primary education and that was 153,819.
Table 3.5: Educational Attainment of Youth
Primary Secondary Tertiary

Year Male Female Male Female Male Female
2000 197,193 175,835 1,810,065 1,659,027 216,796 328,718
2005 123,094 104,932 1,771,354 1,689,753 304,360 466,475
2010 84,351 69,468 1,578,246 1,654,536 313,130 496,072
Figure 3.5 shows the percentage of educational level of youth during years 2000, 2005
and 2010. It shows that higher percentage of female youth were more educated than
males under the category of tertiary level. Also, significant decrease of primary
education on 2010 can be shown in both sexes.
Figure 3.5: Education Attainment Percentage to Total Youth Population
24
3.4 Employment
The main source of data for this part is the Labour Force Survey (LFS) data published by
the Sri Lankan Department of Census and Statistics (DCS). Because of the ethnic conflict,
the LFS surveys did not cover Northern and Eastern provinces from 1990 to 2002 or for
2006. The survey covered some parts of Northern and Eastern provinces in 2003 and
2004, but only in 2005 did the survey cover all the administrative districts. To keep data
comparable across different years, most of the analysis are conducted for the country
excluding these two provinces. Where appropriate, information for these two provinces
are provided using 2005 data.
Table 3.6 reveals that, about 7.7 million persons were employed during the year 2010
and that was 6.3 million in the year 2000. Table 3.5 depicts the trends in employment by
main industry group from year 2000, 2005 and 2010. It shows a gradual increase of
employment in industry and service sector while depicting a decreasing trend in
agriculture sector from 2000 to 2005. However, again agriculture sector emergence can
be shown from 2005 to 2010. It can be noticed that there is a transition of employment
within economic sectors in recent annual Figures.
Table 3.6: Employed Population by Industry Group
Year Total Employed Major Industry Group (% to the Total) Total

Number Agriculture Industries Services Percentage
1992 4,924,130 42.2 20.1 37.7 100.0
2000 6,310,247 36.0 23.6 40.3 100.0
2005 6,788,119 30.3 26.3 43.3 100.0
2010 7,706,593 32.7 24.2 43.1 100.0
3.4.1 Mean Age during Engagement in Employment
According to the Figure 3.6, the mean age during engagement of male’s employment
was around 25 years and that was 22 years in females. Because, most of the persons
who go through the formal education and ended up at the university or following some
professional courses had come to the job market mostly between the 22 years to 25
years of age. But, recently the lower limit of the age of engagement in work has gone
down to 20 years.
25
Figure 3.6 a: Male Youth Engaged in Employment (2000, 2005 and 2010)
Figure 3.6 b: Female Youth Engaged in Employment (2000, 2005, 2010)
3.4.2 Total Number of Youth in Employment
Table 3.7 reveals that, the total number of youth in employment has been reduced
during the period of 2000 to 2010. Both male and females employed had been reduced
with the years. More than 50 percent of the male youth engaged in employment,
however, female youth employment was comparatively lower.
26
Table 3.7: Total Youth Engaged in Employment
Male Female Total

% of % of % of
Year
Number Male Number Female Number Total
Youth Youth Youth
2000 1,252,913 56.32 621,275 28.7 1,874,188 33.07
2005 1,244,425 56.60 590,769 26.13 1,835,194 34.55
2010 1,060,063 53.65 540,612 24.35 1,600,675 28.71
3.4.3 Total Waged Employee/Worker
Table 3.8 shows the total waged employed youth males during the year 2000, 2005, and
2010. Shown in above Table 3.7 the total number of waged employee youth was
fluctuating over the period of 2000 to 2010.
Table 3.8: Total Waged Employed Youth Population
Male Female Total

% to the
% to the % of
Year Total
Number Total Male Number Number Total
Female Youth
Youth
Youth
2000 795,314 35.75 444,051 20.52 1,239,365 21.87
2005 876,545 39.86 440,544 19.48 1,317,089 24.80
2010 704,222 35.64 394,574 17.77 1,098,796 19.70
3.4.4 Non-waged Employee/Worker
Table 3.9 explains the non-wage employment population of youth in 2000, 2005 and
2010. One can hardly find any trend in waged and un-waged youth in the Table 3.10.
However, there was slight increase of female waged employed in years of 2005 and
2010 compared to the year 2000. Female waged employment percentage was
comparatively high with same male category.
27
Table 3.9: Total Non-Waged Employed Youth Population
Male Female Total

% to the
% to the
Year Total
Number Total Male Number Number (%)
Female
Youth
Youth
2000 457,599 20.57 177,224 8.19 634,823 11.20
2005 367,880 16.73 150,225 6.64 518,105 9.75
2010 355,841 18.01 146,038 6.58 501,879 9.00
Table 3.10: Percentage of Waged and Non-Waged Youth Employees by Gender
Waged Employed (%) Non-Waged Employed (%)

Year Male Female Male Female
2000 63.5 71.5 36.5 28.5
2005 70.4 74.6 29.6 25.4
2010 66.4 73.0 33.6 27.0
3.4.5 Youth in Unemployment
According to the Table 3.11 total number of unemployed youth in year 2000 was
424907. It was 9.68 percent of the total youth population in the year 2000. Anyhow,
national level of unemployment rate of the year 2000 was 7.6. The number of
unemployed persons was estimated at about 401,146 during the year 2010. Out of this
total, 46 percent were males and 54 percent were females. However, total
unemployment rates had changed over time. It was 13.8 percent in 1993 and 8.9
percent in 1999 and had reduced to 4.9 percent in 2010.
Table 3.11: Unemployed Youth Population
Male Female Total

% to the % to the
Year
Number Total Male Number Total Female Number %
Youth Youth
2000 222,094 9.98 202,813 9.37 424,907 77.5
2005 205,286 9.34 213,175 9.43 418,461 7.9
2010 130,765 6.62 146,156 6.58 276,921 5.1
28
3.5 Youth Migration
This section attempts to identify key characteristics of Sri Lankan youth migrants, the
trends and patterns associated with migration from the country, and the impact of
migration on individuals. Further it is extended to identify the reasons for migrations
and government initiatives regarding international migrations. Despite the significant
numbers of youth migration, no specific analysis has yet been done on the youth
component of the migrant labour force in Sri Lanka. The percentage of departures in the
age of 19 years and below category was extremely small. However, there is no any
proper mechanism or procedures to collect statistics related to the youth migration in
Sri Lanka. Anyhow, an attempt is made here to elaborate the national situation of
migration and issues (Table 3.12), trends and patterns in the country situation.
Table 3.12: Migration for Foreign Employment (2005 and 2010)
Category 2005 2010

Total Migration for Employment (Number.) 231,290 267,507
Number of Males 93,896 148,001
Percentage of Total Migration 40.6 55.0
Number of Females 137,394 119,506
Percentage of Total Migration 59.4 45
Migrant Employment by Skills (%)
Professional 0.6 1.1
Middle Level 3.5 2.6
Clerical & Related 3.6 3.0
Skilled Labour 20.2 28.5
Unskilled Labour 18.1 22.6
Housemaids 54.3 42.1
1,221,763 1,932,245
Estimated Stock of Foreign Employment (a)
Foreign Employment as a % of Total Labour Force 16.7 23.8 (a)
Foreign Employment as a % of Total Number 17.2
Employed 25.1 (a)
(a) Provisional
Source: Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment
Department of Immigration and Emigration
In Sri Lanka, rural-to-urban migration has been marginal until recently because of the
pro-rural policies of successive governments (Hettige and Mayer, 2002). The majority of
Sri Lankans who migrate overseas do so for short periods of time to ease economic
burdens but almost always with a hope of return (Kottegoda, 2004). So while migration
29
is a key feature of Sri Lanka’s labor market, at the individual level migration is mostly a
temporary phenomenon.
3.5.1 Domestic Migration
The majority of the workers who migrate internally from rural areas to urban centers
are employed in the informal sector in low-status, casual jobs mainly in the construction
industry and in the free-trade zones (Hettige and Mayer, 2002). The informal sector is
characterized by low job security, low wages, poor working environment, little internal
structure with arbitrary rules, and few benefits. Workers in the free trade zones are
predominantly females.
3.5.2 International Migration
There are several types of international migration: seasonal, project-tied, contract,

temporary, and highly skilled or professional (ILO, 2005). The contract labour migrants
to the Middle East since the early 1980s differ from the economic migrants of the
preceding decades. Before economic liberalization in the late 1970s, overseas migration
was undertaken by highly skilled professionals whose migration tended to be long-term
or permanent (Kottegoda, 2004).
New political policies in the early 1970s forced English-speaking middle-class

businessmen as well as middle-class professionals to migrate to Australia, the United
Kingdom, the United States, and Canada (Waxler-Morrison, 2004). Today, overseas
migration from Sri Lanka is dominated by low skilled workers on fixed-term contracts,
usually of two to five years in length, mainly to oil-rich Middle East countries (SLBFE,
2007). From a macro-economic perspective, the main beneficiary of migration is seen as
the sending countries’ economy, which gains valuable foreign exchange for its balance
of payments. Migrant workers’ contributions have been estimated to be as much as
one-third of Sri Lanka’s national savings (Rodrigo and Jayatissa, 1989). Table 3.13
explains foreign employment by skill, age and gender in year 2010.
30
Table 3.13: Number of Departures for Foreign Employment by Skill Level, Age Group
and Gender 2010
Gender Age Group (years) Age Total

Below 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 Above not
20 49 report-
ed
Number of Departures for Professional, Middle and Clerical Level Jobs
Male 161 1,651 3,707 3,383 2,446 1,752 1,261 1,539 0 15,900
Female 25 243 437 365 282 248 169 195 0 1964
Total 186 1,894 4,144 3,748 2,728 2,000 1,430 1,734 0 17,864
Departures for Skilled Level Jobs

Male 1,480 9,798 13,974 12,827 9,443 7,413 5,750 4,434 1 65,120
Female 320 1,620 1729 1,301 742 418 181 106 0 6,417
Total 1,800 11,418 15,703 14,128 10,185 7,831 5,931 4,540 1 71,537
Departures for Semi Skilled Level Jobs
Male 75 847 1,296 900 579 330 195 148 0 4,370
Female 31 194 141 78 43 27 32 16 0 562
Total 106 1,041 1,437 978 622 357 227 164 0 4,932
Departures for Unskilled Level Jobs
Male 1,211 10,777 14,077 10,514 6,537 4,218 2,595 1,530 1 51,460
Female 214 958 1,450 1,585 1,406 1,562 1,190 597 0 89,62
Total 1,425 11,735 15,527 12,099 7,943 5,780 3,785 2,127 1 60,422
Departures for Housemaid Jobs (Female only)
Total 2,927 23,073 33,054 27,624 19,005 13,713 9,801 7,651 3 136,850
Departures for all Occupations

Male 2,927 23,073 33,054 27,624 19,005 13,713 9,801 7,651 3 136,850
Female 3,053 15,398 21,859 23,093 20,905 22,579 16,319 7,450 2 130,657
Total 5,980 38,471 54,913 50,717 39,910 36,292 26,120 15,101 5 267,507
Source: Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment
Foreign employment is the second largest earning source of foreign exchange in Sri
Lanka. Private remittances for 2006 amounted to LKR 241,816 million Rupees, of which
57.1 percent were from migrant workers in the Middle East. In fact, 95 percent of
employees working abroad are in the Middle East. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab
Emirates (UAE), Qatar, and Lebanon are the major labour-receiving countries, capturing
83 percent of Sri Lanka’s export labour market. The number of departures for
employment abroad had steadily increased until 2006, when there was a 12 percent
decrease. Fifty-two percent of the departures in 2006 were women, 89.3 percent of
whom worked as housemaids. It is estimated that about 1.5 million Sri Lankans are
currently overseas for employment (Table 3.14).
31
Table 3.14: Estimated Stocks of Sri Lankan Overseas Contract Workers by Manpower
Levels (2006)
Number Percentage of
Total
Category Male Female Total
Professional 10,750 2,536 13,286 0.9
Middle-level 33,250 9,500 42,750 3.0
Clerical & related 57,600 11,200 68,800 4.8
Skilled 222,750 101,225 323,975 22.3
Unskilled 210,640 76,810 287,450 19.9
Housemaid 0. 711,446 711,446 49.1
Total 534,990 912,717 1,447,707 100.0
Source: SLBFE, 2007
Approximately half of those are housemaids. The skilled and unskilled categories
combined account for another 600,000, or 42.3 percent, of the estimated stock of
overseas contract workers. Professional, middle-level, and clerical workers account for
only 8.7 percent of the total jobs filled. Engineers, medical professionals, accountants,
administrative staff, and teachers make up the majority of professional-level staff, and
the middle-level workers are dominated by clerical and technically qualified subordinate
staff. Construction workers, cooks, drivers, and mechanics form the majority of the
skilled workers (SLBFE 2007). In 2005 a total of 231,290 workers left for overseas
employment, of whom 85,251, or 36.9 percent, were between the ages of 20 to 29
years.
As Table 3.14 shows, women constitute more than half of the total numbers in each age
group. In 2005, almost 42,000 Sri Lankans left to do unskilled work overseas. Of this
number, more than half of the jobs were filled by migrants in the 20–29 years age
groups. While the overall percentage of migration in the professional and middle-level
categories was low, the percentage of young people seeking employment in these
categories was even lower. Lack of qualifications and experience may be one of the
more obvious reasons. It would be important, however, to investigate this phenomenon
before migration is actively promoted among youth.
32
Table 3.15: Departure for Foreign Employment by Age Group and Sex (2005)
Age Groups Total Percentage No. of Percentage No. of Percentage

Departures of Total Male of Age Female of Age
(%) Group (%) Group (%)
19 and below 1,311 0.6 416 31.7 895 68.3
20–29 85,251 36.9 38,843 45.6 46,408 54.4
30–39 74,548 32.2 22,638 30.4 51,910 69.6
40–49 49,843 21.6 14,516 29.1 35,327 70.9
50 and above 8,511 3.7 3,943 46.3 4,568 53.7
Not identified 11,826 5.1 7,757 65.6 4,069 34.4
Total 231,290 100 88,113 38.1 143,177 61.9
The number of female migrants in the other job categories is significantly lower.
Moreover, females who migrate to do housework make up nearly 32 percent of the
total departures in this age group. Women account for 25 percent of the skilled workers
in this age group leaving for overseas employment, but only 5 percent of female
migrants in this age group fall into this category.
3.5.3 Reasons for Migration
Several studies indicate that marital status is intimately tied to the motivation to
migrate, especially for women who seek temporary overseas employment mainly for
family survival and a way out of poverty. It is usually married women who migrate with
the hope of improving their family’s economic situation (Kottegoda, 2004; Gamburd,
2005). While some migrants achieve a certain level of socio-economic security through
savings, many others find themselves in a cycle of remigration where they return home
only to migrate within a couple of years (Kottegoda, 2004).
In Sri Lanka it is the population considered to be economically inactive that seeks jobs
overseas, usually for a limited period of time. As many as two fifths of migrants are from
poor households, which helps explain the decision to migrate (Central Bank 2003). The
sparse research on youth mobility and migration makes it difficult to understand in
depth the motivations for migration and whether overseas employment has met and
can meet the aspirations of youth.
However, some existing studies suggest that young people are willing to migrate mainly
for economic gain for themselves and their families. The National Youth Survey
conducted in 2000 reported that almost half of those surveyed wanted to migrate
because they felt the situation in the country was getting worse (Hettige, 2002). While
many women find it necessary to migrate to ensure better marriage prospects or a
better standard of living, some also migrate to escape discrimination, domestic violence,
33
and problematic relationships (Kottegoda, 2003). Higher salaries and greater distances
mean that domestic work abroad carries less social stigma (Gamburd, 2005).
3.5.4 Government Initiatives for International Migration
The Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment was established in 1985 within the
Ministry of Labor. Its main objectives are the promotion, development, and
standardization of migrant labor rules, as well as providing protection for employees
and their families. While the SLBFE has played an important role in implementing
policies that protect migrant workers, especially housemaids, it has done little to
explore and diversify overseas employment opportunities. Neither the ministry nor the
bureau have formally studied the international labor market with the intention of
determining what categories of available jobs could be filled by Sri Lanka’s export labor
force.
The government and some nongovernmental organizations have set up self-

employment and entrepreneurship programmes for returning migrants. The Bank of
Ceylon, for example, has two credit programmes for self employment projects. Such
programmes are not complemented by a skills development programme, nor do they
have a monitoring arm to at least record the challenges faced by loan recipients. Since
migrants may not have entrepreneurial skills, a loan scheme without an accompanying
programme to develop those skills may not be useful to a large segment of the migrant
returnee population.
Further, the SLBFE has a compulsory registration scheme that includes an insurance
scheme that covers contingencies like medical or other emergencies that may compel a
worker to return home; 70 percent of all migrants register before departure. Workers
who migrate without registering are not eligible for protection under the Act (Dias and
Jayasundere, 2004). The amount of insurance paid to migrant workers in 2004 was LKR
52,562,832. The SLBFE also provides self-employment loans, scholarship schemes for
migrant workers’ children, and distribution of school equipment (SLBFE, 2005). Other
interventions include the establishment of safe houses in certain Middle Eastern
countries and loan schemes by state banks to prevent exploitation by money lenders.
However, the government does not regulate or monitor the fees levied by employment
agencies on migrant hopefuls, who spend close to LKR 100,000 to obtain a job.
34
CHAPTER FOUR
SWOT Analysis
By H.M.S.J.M. Hitihamu
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, strengths, weaknesses of youth, opportunities and threats for youth will
be discussed in detail. SWOT is an acronym for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities
and threats. By definition strengths (S) and weaknesses (W) are considered to be
internal factors over which there are some measures of control. Also by definition,
opportunities (O) and threats (T) are considered to be external factors over which
essentially there are no controls (http://www.investopedia.com). The information
needed for SWOT analysis was gathered from a comprehensive literature review, focus
group discussions and key performance interviews. Interviews were held with 30
graduates and 35 A/L qualified employees of the Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian
Research and Training institute.
4.2 Strengths (S)
1. Sri Lanka has a separate Ministry for youth, the Ministry of Youth Affairs and
Skills Development.
2. Free Education system from year one to university level provides many other
benefits such as free text books and uniforms.
3. Higher literacy rate (2010 male and female literacy rate 92.6 percent and 90
percent respectively)
4. Sixteen universities controlled by the University Grant Commission.
5. Availability of vocational training centers
6. Utilizing children below 18 years as child labour is prohibited
7. Laws to reduce smoking
8. Prohibition of selling narcotic drugs such as heroin and cocaine
9. Selling alcohol to individuals below 18 years is prohibited
10. Rehabilitation programmes for vulnerable youth
11. Increase of the marriageable age up to 18 years.
12. Establishing youth clubs
13. Free immunization programmes to every new born child for a healthy youth.
14. Nutritional level enhancement programmes among kids eg. “Thriposa”
distributing programme
15. Free health service.
16. Better international relationships.
35
17. Chance to vote after 18 years for selecting members to the parliament and other
representative bodies.
18. Quota system for youth in all elections nomination list.
4.3 Weaknesses (W)
1. University entrance has remained a ‘bottle neck’ limiting access to higher

education
2. Most young people find it difficult to obtain suitable jobs because of prevailing
class room education system up to graduation level.
3. Political interferences in all sectors e.g.; education (selecting schools), finding
job, promotions, government subsidy programmes and etc.
4. Urban rural disparities in distributing the human and physical resources in all
sectors.
5. Available vocational training centre programmes do not always cater to the
current job market in the world and Sri Lanka.
6. No proper programmes to attract youth to the agriculture sector with modern
farming techniques.
7. Provide cheap labour to the Middle East countries due to lack of proper skills
development programmes.
8. Lack of proper English Knowledge leaves out most of the youth from the
expanding private sector and it act as a barrier in climbing the ladder at the work
place.
9. Majority of the youth expect white colour jobs.
10. Lack of counseling programmes in every sector including youth’s education, job
selection, other social and cultural religious matters.
11. Disparities among rich and poor youth. Rich youth has immense opportunities to
attend several sectors such as education, finding better schools, learning English,
social relations and aesthetic activities.
12. Unplanned urbanization: most youth come from Colombo metropolitan area for
several activities such as finding jobs and education purposes, but there is no
proper plan to have comfortable accommodation facilities in the city.
13. Problems in ethnic integration, Thirty years of continuous war in the country has
created unfavorable environment among ethnic groups.
14. Certain level of class and caste differences in marriages.
15. Lack of programmes to educate youth on social issues.
16. High rate of suicide among youth
17. Northern and eastern province youth have been war affected. For example due
to war, majority of youth did not get a better education; therefore it takes more
time to become normal in those provinces.
18. Even though laws remain to protect youth from alcohol and drugs, some youth
are addicted to these and prevailing situation create loopholes.
36
4.4 Opportunities (O)
1. Being biodiversity hot spot tourist attractions which create job opportunities.
2. Better and unpolluted environment to spend life peacefully.
3. Opportunities to send skilled labour to foreign countries at higher wage
rates.
4. Increase of chances to get advance technological degrees and diploma
programmes from international universities.
5. Due to cheap labour in the country foreign investors invest in the country
and create job opportunities for rural female youth e.g.: textile and garment
industry.
6. Reality shows in mass media to identify the best individuals in the aesthetic
sector.
4.5 Threats (T)
1. Environment changers and natural disasters in the South Asian region. For
example due to the last tsunami the country lost huge human and physical
capital.
2. Violence and conflict have left large numbers of youth critically disadvantaged in
terms of human capital development.
3. Sri Lanka is one of the fastest ageing population in the world. Its’ share of youth
is decreasing, the adult share is rising, and it has been estimated that Sri Lanka’s
labour force may begin to shrink around 2030, if the labour force participation
rates of 2006 remain unchanged (Vodopivic and Arunathilaka, 2006 cited by
Carder and Remnant, 2007).
4. Brain drain: Considerable amount of Sri Lankan professionals leave the country
due to low sales of salaries in the local job market, especially in the government
sector.
5. Sexually transmitted diseases like Aids. As at the end of 2012, 1597 patients
were reported and 275 of them died.
6. Youth unrest. For example the dominant political role of Tamil youth in the
North and East created 30 years of ethnic conflict and destroyed human capital
and other assets. Furthermore, 1971 and 1988/89 insurrections in the south did
the same.
4.6 Discussion
The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills development is the predominant ministry of Sri
Lanka which bear the responsibilities for the youth development. It performs functions
with the vision of “skilled youth generation” and mission of “to build up a Sri Lankan
youth community who can actively participate in national development through the
37
development of personality and skills”. The objectives of the Ministry of Youth Affairs
and Skills Development are to improve quality and relevance of the vocational Technical
Training sector for creating a globally employable workforce, to enhance opportunities
for youth for a sustainable livelihood by creating entrepreneurial culture among youth,
to promote equal access for training, employment and development opportunities for
socially and economically disadvantaged groups (Vulnerable groups), to ensure
availability of upward mobility path to secure higher qualifications in the field of
vocational and technical education and formulate and implementations of national
Youth Policy that would provide guidance for youth development (Ministry of Youth
Affairs and Skill Development, 2012).
Free education from grade one to university level is one of the advantages for being Sri
Lankans. This free education policy permits all Sri Lankans to enjoy, public education.
The prevailing education policy provides several incentives to students such as free text
books, free uniforms. Great majority of the university students too are covered by the
government scholarships that reduce the direct cost of education. As a policy, it is
compulsory to educate pupils until G.C.E. O/L exam.
In Sri Lanka, the university education was strictly controlled by the government until
recently. All the degree-granting universities and most degree-granting institutes are
still government owned or funded. However autonomous in theory, only a very few
institutes are truly autonomous. Sri Lanka’s Higher Education Ministry last year
launched a special programme to upgrade six local universities, allocating some US$ 6
million for improving teaching, research and infrastructure up to ‘international’ levels
within the next few years to become among the top 1,000 universities in the world, as
part of Sri Lanka’s aim to become a knowledge hub for Asia (www.wikipedia.org) .
Therefore, literacy rate in the country is higher compared to the other South Asian
countries. The total literacy rate in the year 2010 was 91.6 percent. The Female and
male ratio was 90 percent and 92.6 percent respectively. Even though the country has a
free education policy it is necessary to reform the education systems. On entering the
job market young university graduates face difficulties in the working environment,
because the skills mismatch between what they have learned and kinds of jobs
available. There is a lack of emphasis in education and training institutions on
employable skills such as problem solving learning and communication. Other than
that, the available jobs are unattractive to young persons although there it is a
mismatch with the people aspirations. Therefore, the quality improvement,
development of attributes desired by the employers in university graduates and the
provision of a more relevant and practical education are essential to focus on
strengthening the post secondary education and tertiary education sectors by
expanding opportunities for relevant courses of study and by improving quality of the
technical education.
38
The country has pursued better relations with all major powers and seeks to strengthen
its diplomatic, economic and military ties with India, Bangladesh, Russia, United States,
China, Pakistan, Japan, Malaysia, South Korea and European Union. Sri Lanka has also
forged close ties with the member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN), African Union and the Arab League.
Sri Lanka participates in multilateral diplomacy, particularly at the United Nations,

where it seeks to promote sovereignty, independence and development in the
developing world. Sri Lanka was a founding member of the Non-aligned Movement
(NAM). It is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, South Asian Development
Bank and the Colombo Plan. Sri Lanka continues its active participation in the NAM. Sri
Lanka uses these opportunities for entire development of the country.
Majority of youth in Sri Lanka have achieved technical skills or necessary academic
qualifications for a job but they lack the soft skills to convert knowledge in to practice. In
the past, many Sri Lankan youth grew in a war and conflict environment therefore to
change the attitude of youth it needs to train them with conflict management and work
place ethics to continue good jobs.
Even though Sri Lanka established several government and private sector vocational
training centres1 the awareness about these courses are lacking. These courses also
need to be modernized according to the requirements of the local and global job
market.
Even though laws are available to protect children from different abuses, still there is no
mechanism to identify the causes of abuses. Only the investigations of these cases
begin with the reporting in the media. The punishments for these abuses are not very
strict. Therefore it is essential to initiate programmes to identify vulnerable children at
Grama Niladhari level and proper mechanism to protect.
Drug selling and addiction to drug is highly restricted in the Sri Lankan context but
illegally some groups of drug sellers import and sell them secretly. Therefore, it is
required to further strengthen the rules and regulations to stop drug usage in the
country because it destroy the human, physical and financial capital of country.
1
Vocational Training Authority provides skill training to rural youth through a network of six National
Vocation Training Institutes, 21 District Vocational Training Centers and 238 Rural Vocational Training
Centers.
39
Rehabilitation programmes specially in the North and East for youth vulnerable to
initiation are needed. Mental satisfaction and social recognition of these groups should
be attended for their better survival in society.
Marriage age which was increased up to 18 years gives advantages to the youth that
provides certain level of education and physical fitness for everybody. Specially when
married a woman in a developing country, needs to attend production, reproduction
and maintain social relationships. Furthermore, this age limit provides certain level of
decision making ability.
Free health programmes provide immense benefits to everybody in the country. There
is some free immunization programmes for every new born child and nutrition level
enhancement programmes are implemented all over the country (Threeposha
distributing programme) among kids to maintain proper weight gain. This will be a huge
advantage for the development of a country.
4.7 Conclusion
Education policies in Sri Lanka facilitate every individual to receive free education but
this system is very competitive and does not help to find good jobs for everybody.
Therefore it is essential to reform the prevailing education system to job oriented
programme with the international standards. There is a need to implement programmes
to minimize youth unrest regarding job issues, social status, rich and poor differences.
Furthermore, rules and regulations need to be revised and strengthened to protect and
utilize youth effectively to the development of the country.
40
CHAPTER FIVE
A Way Forward
5.1. Introduction
This chapter focuses on way forward for the youth in development in Sri Lanka. The,
chapter discusses the role played by youth in sustainable development, the problems
faced by them in the development process including education and labour market,
science and technology, agriculture and fisheries, social and religious activities, violence
and crime, peace and harmony and governance and politics etc. Further, the chapter
analyses emerging constraints due to climate change and other natural calamities such
as loss of lives, income earning opportunities, shelter and infrastructure and the way to
involve youth with the adoption and mitigation of strategies.
5.2 Youth as Key Players in Sustainable Development
In this section, a way forward for youth involvement in sustainable development is

discussed with special reference to economics, ecology, culture and politics.
Government of Sri Lanka has projected following economic and human development
targets by 2016 (Table 5.1).
Table 5.1: Development Targets by 2016
Item Unit 2010 Estimate 2016 Projection

GDP US$ billion 49.1 98.0
Per capita income US$ 2,375 4,470
Inflation-GDP deflator % 7.0 4.0
Exports US$ billion 8.0 18.0
Earnings from tourism US$ billion 0.5 2.5
International trade turnover US$ billion 21.3 44.1
International service net income US$ billion 0.6 2.6
Remittance US$ billion 2.0 7.0
Computer literacy rate % 20.3 75.0
Poverty % 7.6 4.2
Access to electricity % 88.0 100.0
Access to telecommunication % 85.0 100.0
Unemployment % 5.3 3.2
Infant mortality Per 1000 10.9 4.2
Maternal mortality Per 1000 0.39 0.2
Source: Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2010
41
To achieve the above targets youth have a vital role to play in different economic, social,
cultural and environmental sectors. Unemployment rate has been reduced over the
years but of the total unemployment in Sri Lanka, youth have been 70 percent to 80
percent during the period 1990/2011 (Damayanthi and Rambodagedara, 2013). By
providing income opportunities and social recognitions for each type of job, this could
be significantly reduced. One of the major foreign earnings in Sri Lanka is private
remittances and it was reported as 47 percent of the total export earnings in 2009.
Further, of the total number of departures for foreign employments in 2009, 36.7
percent were youths. However, Sri Lanka is not able to supply the required proportion
of foreign employment demands (Table 5.2). On the other hand, a greater number of
the total departures is related to unskilled and semi skilled labour. Therefore, by
improving skills, providing necessary information and expanding bi-lateral agreement
with developed countries, government can provide a wide range of opportunities to
youth to contribute to the economy and development.
Table 5.2: Demand and Supply of Foreign Employment (2008-2009)
Employment 2008 2009

Demand Supply Demand Supply
Professional level 6935 639 (9.2%) 4798 403 (8.4%)
Middle level 11466 1333 (11.6%) 7043 849 (12%)
Clerical and 25361 2502 (9.9%) 16237 2331 (14.3%)
related level
Skilled level 34349 37537 (10.9%) 265453 37241 (14%)
Semi skilled level 15787 3103 (19.6%) 12501 3662 (29.3%)
Unskilled level 154223 32723 (21.3%) 120034 24715 (20.5%)
House maids 457489 83139 (18.2%) 356157 87519 (24.6%)
Grand total 104610 160973(15.9%) 782223 156720 (20%)
Source: www.statistic.gov.lk
Regarding the agriculture sector, the data shows that there is a mismatch between
labour force participation (32 percent of the labour force in agriculture) and GDP
contribution (around 11%). On the other hand, youth participation in agriculture as a
full-time occupation has been decreasing in various crops including paddy. However,
there are many opportunities for youth engaged in the agriculture sector not as just
farmers but also as entrepreneurs. Since local as well as world markets are largely
opened for organic products which have a high demand as well as a high value, youth
can earn high incomes from farming while protecting environment. Further, instead of
producing raw material they can earn better income from food processing. By, using
post harvest loss reducing practices, they also can contribute to protect resources,
improve nutrition level and food supply. Fisheries and aquatic resources are another
field which youth can obtain a good income with the modern technologies and skills.
42
Though, 33 percent of the national milk requirement is met through local production at
present, there is a greater possibility to develop this sector through youth participation
because those who are engaged in dairy farming earn more income than traditional
agricultural farmers. And also, there is a trend towards youth engagement in the
livestock sector, specially dairy and poultry using modern technologies.
Tourism is one of major components which government attempts to promote and earn
more income. Since the majority of the youths are from rural agricultural areas there is
a possibility to develop eco tourism and agro tourism. These types of tourism will help
to achieve sustainable development targets protecting environment and culture rather
than conventional tourism. Since the elder generation is not much attracted to these
fields, youth can play prominent roles in these fields.
Though the majority of the youth are engaged in social work at different levels of civil
society organizations, only 8 percent of the youth were involved as officers or
committee members while 11 percent of the youth had held responsibility for finance
(National Youth Service Council, 2009). Therefore, giving opportunity to hold
responsibilities in social works, the nation can get high level of youth contribution for
development. Regarding youth participation in politics, participation in voting is high but
at the decision making level youth participation is negligible. Providing opportunities
through political parties, election system and trade unions can increase youth
participation in decision making levels in politics.
According to available data, corruption rate and perception about corruption is high in
Sri Lanka and they directly affect economy and development. According to Global
Corruption Perception Index -2012, Sri Lanka was placed 79th out of 179 countries and
scored 40 points. Among the South Asian counterparts, Sri Lanka is second to Bhutan
while in the Asia Pacific region Sri Lanka ranked in 11th position (www.transparency.org).
However, since the country has scored below 50, it shows that Sri Lanka is unable to
minimize the level of corruption in the public sector. Therefore, youth have to play
important roles against corruption which directly affect development and economy.
5.3 Problems of Youth
5.3.1 Education, Vocational Training and Labour Market
Educated Sri Lankan youth is one of major resources of the country which can be used
for achieving the development targets. They gain high level of achievements in the
education sector but still some problems can be identified such as sectorial disparities in
resources distribution, differentiation of school enrollments and level of achievements.
For example, though net enrollment ratio in primary education was 97.5 percent in 2006
for the island, it was 94.6 percent for estate sector. Literacy rate of 15-24 years old Sri
43
Lankan was 95.8 percent in 2006 but it varied from 83.9 percent in the estate sector to
96.6 percent in the rural sector. For the estate sector male, it was reported as 80.6
percent (www.census.gov.lk). These Figures illustrate that though Sri Lankan youth
achieve much in education, marginalized groups such as the estate sector males already
are far behind the government expectation. Therefore, such groups cannot access
better employment with high level of salary and other benefits.
According to the National Survey on Needs of Youth (2008/09), 75 percent of male

candidates who sat for the University entrance examination (G.C.E. A/L) could not get at
least minimum passes (normal pass of three subjects). Likewise, of those who sat for
the GCE A/L examination only 28.9 percent passed. Since they are not eligible for higher
education, the only way to absorb them into the development process is vocational and
skills development trainings. However, only 47 percent of the youth are expected to be
involved in vocational training. Negative attitudes on present vocational trainings mostly
contribute for the situation (National Youth Service Council, 2008/09). Of those followed
vocational trainings, the majority had followed short term courses; e.g.: 30.3 percent of
the vocational training followers were enrolled in 3-6 months courses. In addition,
according to their view, training was not useful to find employment or livelihood
opportunity for the majority of the trainees.
Foreign earnings largely contribute for the country’s economy as well as development.
In 2009, the total sum of private remittances and export earnings were LKR 1, 403,109
million and of them 49.6 percent or LKR 382,801 million was private remittance
(www.statistics.gov.lk). Earning from foreign employments has increased during the
period of 1990-2009. For example, in 1990 private remittances were 20.2 percent of
total export earnings while it has increased to 47.03 percent in 2009. However, most of
the departures went for unskilled or semi skilled jobs. Of those departures in 2009, 46.0
percent, 20.3 percent and 2.4 percent were house maids, unskilled labourers and semi
skilled labourers respectively. Of the total departures for employment in 2009, 24.8
percent were skilled labourers while 1.1 percent and 2.6 percent were for professional
and middle level employment respectively (www.Census.gov.lk). On the other hand, the
country cannot cater to the foreign demands in all categories of employment. For
example country could supply only 20.03 percent (156,720 persons) of the total demand
(782,223) in 2009. Another problem in foreign employment is great majority of the job
seekers depart to middle-east countries as house-maids or unskilled labourers.
Therefore, government should pay attention to supply skilled labour for foreign demand
which has possibility for high level of earnings when compare to unskilled or semi-skilled
labour. Further, government must regulate and implement enough rules and regulations
and systematic way to protect labour rights.
44
5.3.2 Agriculture and Fisheries
For essential food commodities, which could be produced in country, Sri Lanka spends
large amount of money annually. Agriculture sector including fisheries, livestock and
forestry is one of major area which has potential for development and absorb the young
generation as professional cultivators or entrepreneurs into agro based industries and
businesses. Though 70.4 percent of the youths are involved in agriculture in different
ways (full- time farmers, part-time farmers and non wage family labourers) only 27.8
percent of the youth are involved in full- time farming. This ratio has increased 85-90
percent in cash crop cultivating areas. Of those contributing for farming 24 percent are
involved as non wage family labourers. In contrast, 7.3 percent of the youths are
involved in agro based industries and businesses (Damayanthi and Rambodagedara,
2013). Number of reasons contributing to the reduction of youth participation in full-
time farming or agro based industries are: marketing problems including lack of
accessibility and availability of market facilities; uncertainty of price; tax removal for
imports at the harvesting seasons; increasing of cost of production and less profitability
and lack of social recognition; and lack of resources such as land, irrigation water and
problems on trainings and extension services. Since there is a trend towards high level
of youth participation in smallholder agriculture in commercial crop cultivation and
livestock, government can encourage youth for farming with the introduction of high
technology, facilities like land and water for group farming and agro based industries,
market facilities, entrepreneurial skills development and giving some incentives for full
time farmers to enhance their social recognition. Though, there is potential to create
income opportunities and employments, developing home based industries and
medium scale industries related to agriculture, relevant parties such as NGOs,
Government and society do not pay much attention to these yet.
5.3.3 Science and Technology
The Ministry of Science and Technology and its affiliated institutions have been taking
steps to assist and give recognitions to young innovators to develop and popularize their
products by organizing competitions, award ceremonies and fairs on new products. The
Ministry has their own network island-wide to help new producers and small scale
industrial community in many ways such as introducing new technologies, organizing
training facilities to selected producers and giving know-how about financial and other
facilities. However, it seems that these attempts are not much popular among the rural
youth due to lack of information. Therefore, governments need to take action to deliver
all information to grass-root levels through village level officers such as Grama
Niladhari, Samurdhi Officer and Agriculture Research and Production Assistant. Further,
government needs to give clear instructions to those officers to identify, encourage and
bring forward people with interest and possibilities to adopt technologies.
45
Successive governments have taken many steps towards popularizing e-government and
e-governance systems. De-regulation of telecommunication system was a most
important attempt for spreading the e-facilities. As a result, telephone density has been
increasing over the years. For example, telephone density of fixed lines was reported as
17.3 per 100 persons while telephone density including mobile phones was reported as
105.1 per 100 persons in 2011. However, internet and email density was low as 4.4 per
1,000 persons in 2011 (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2011). Although there had been many
attempts to introduce e-facilities to Sri Lankan youth2, computer awareness3 and
computer literacy4 rate has not reached a satisfactory level. For example, though
computer awareness rate was high as 43.8 percent, computer literacy rate was reported
as 20.3 percent in 2009. Further, there are higher variation in computer awareness as
well as literacy among residential sectors and provinces. The highest computer
awareness (60 percent) and literacy rate (31.1 percent) was reported from urban areas
while lowest (15.8 percent and 8.4 percent respectively) was reported from the estate
sector (Department of Census and Statistics, 2009). Among persons of 5-69 years age,
15-19 years youth had highest computer literacy rate (47.6 percent) while 20-24 years
and 25-29 years youth had 40.6 percent and 27.7 percent of computer literacy rate in
2009. Further, people literate in the English language have higher computer literacy
(56.3 percent) than Sinhala (24.3 percent) and Tamil (20.8 percent) literate people.
Regarding information technology, youths have been facing problems such as lack of
ownership and accessibility of computers and internet facilities, regional/sectorial
disparities of facilities and lack of English language skills to use computers. Therefore,
government as well as private sector organizations involved in software engineering
needs to take action to develop software and application instructions in Sinhala and
Tamil languages. In addition, government needs to revise available laws and enact new
laws and regulations relating to e-crimes and abuses.
5.3.4 Savings and Investments
Savings and investments are another important field in the development process.
However, saving habits are not much satisfactory among youth in Sri Lanka. For
example, around 1/3 of the youth even do not have accounts in any bank. However, of
2
Establishment of school computer labs, recruitment of IT teachers for schools, tax free computer
facilities for university students and low interest rate loan facilities for university students to purchase
computers and monthly 5GB free broadband package for public servants etc.
3
If a person has heard at least of one of computers applications (from playing games to complicated
aeronautic applications), then he/she is considered as a person in computer awareness (Department of
Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka, 2009).
4
A person is considered as a computer literate if he/she could use computer on his/her own
(Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka, 2009)
46
the total youth, 12 percent had borrowed loans from various sources. As data given by
the National Survey on Needs of Youth in Sri Lanka (2008/09), 71 percent of the youth
do not have any stable or moveable properties while 54 percent of them depend on
external income sources. Therefore, government needs to pay attention on improving
saving habits among youth.
5.3.5 Governance and Politics
Sri Lanka government has introduced a policy to encourage the youth participation in
politics. Accordingly, all parties which contest local government institutions must
include 40 percent of youth candidates (age between 18-35 years) in their nomination
list. If, any party or independent group fails to fulfill this requirement, their nomination
list is subject to cancellation. Since this policy is not applicable to provincial and national
level elections, it is difficult for youth to get a chance to even contest these elections. On
the other hand, though all parties and independent groups may include 40 percent of
the young candidates, most of them are unable to get selected as members of local
government entities due to proportional electoral system. Therefore, considerable
proportion of youth does not participate in decision making process even at local
government level.
To increase youth representation in politics, the Presidential Commission on Youth

(1990) has recommended some steps such as separate electoral register for youth (18-
30 years) for provincial council elections, obligatory 40 percent of the youth (below 30
years) nomination for the provincial councils elections and at least 40 percent of the
membership of the local government bodies to be below 30 years. Since most of them
are not implemented, youth representation in decision making process is less in Sri
Lanka.
Voting participation among youth is high as 81 percent but trust on legislative

institutions such as parliament, provincial councils and local government entities are
less. According to the National Youth Service Council (2009) only 29.1 percent, 25.8
percent, 25 percent and 31 percent have trusted in the parliament, provincial councils,
town councils and Pradeshiya sabhas while 54.4 percent of the youth do not have any
trust at all on their parliamentarians and provincial councilors. Further, only 6 percent of
the youth believed that government bodies pay enough attention on youths’ problems
while 26 percent believed that they do not pay enough attention. Sixty two percent
believed that government paid minimum attention on youths’ problems. As illustrated
by the above data and information, Sri Lankan society has been highly politicized and it
has been so over the decades.
One of the main reasons behind the two youth insurgencies in 1971 and 1988/89 and
ethnic conflict was politics and governance issues in Sri Lanka. As Ratnapala (1982) has
47
described, salient feature of the first insurgency was lack of opportunities for youth to
participate in the process of political decision making. The majority of the youth who
participated in the first insurgency came from rural, poor and middle income families.
They were driven by a sense of social injustice and lack of opportunities for youth,
specially for employment (Ratnapala, 1982). The argument was further proved by the
report of the Presidential Commission on Youth (1990) saying that, winners takes all and
“ this attitude served and continues to serve to polarize civil society at all levels, giving
rise to the belief that members of the ruling party and their supporters have the
exclusive right to all the rewards and benefits that society has to offer………..although
they (youth) may share different political ideologies, they are substantially united in the
belief that the system does not give them the opportunity to represent and act upon
their views ”. Compared with the past situations, attitudes and perceptions of youths
towards political system of the country cannot be neglected and the government and
other stakeholders such as political parties and trade unions need to pay much attention
to such issues.
5.3.6 Caste System and Its Impacts
In Sri Lanka, three slightly different caste systems exist among Sinhalese, Indian Tamils
(Estate workers) and Sri Lankan Tamils. These caste systems have led to caste
discrimination in different ways affecting human dignity, access to education, water,
livelihood and income, work and employment, social welfare and political participation
(Silva etal, 2009). According to Silva etal (2009), 20 percent-30 percent of the Sri Lankan
population is affected by caste discriminations in different ways. These caste systems
and their impacts are another (hidden) problem in Sri Lankan society in economic, social
and political process. As mentioned in the report of the Presidential Commission on
Youth (1990), caste has played a vital role in past youth unrests. Further, they expressed
their views on caste and its impact on youth as follows,
“We are convinced that certain castes still suffer from a great deal of
social and politics oppression and tend to remain in pocket or enclaves.
Rebellion comes easy to the youth who are often victims of this
discrimination” (Sessional Paper, No.1, 1990)
Though many of the underprivileged Sinhala caste groups uplift their status and living
conditions using government welfare policy such as free education and health, land
distribution policy, market mechanisms and political patronage system all such groups
and members of the specific caste groups still suffer from poverty, landlessness, lack of
physical capital, low recognition, unemployment and poor living conditions (Silva etal,
2009, Damayanthi, 2005). Regarding Sri Lankan Tamils’ caste systems, some scholars
noted that caste system went to be silent and mute due to Eelam struggle in the North-
East areas, but some new forms of caste discrimination had emerged in the Jaffna
48
society (Silva etal, 2009). As a result of hidden factor of caste, proper absorption of
youth of underprivileged groups is difficult in the development process.
5.3.7 Widows and Child Labour
Child labour has declined over the years due to government policies and programmes.
However, 12.9 percent (557,599 children) are engaged in work such as agriculture and
related activities, street vending and services, construction, mining, transportation and
its’ related work and domestic work. Majority of them are from rural areas and work as
non wage family labourers. According to the Department of Census and Statistics [2011
(a)] most of the rural working children5 are engaged in work whilst attending school. In
contrast, working child in urban areas generally leave school, when they are engaged in
work. Of the working child, only 2.5 percent (107,259 children) provide child labour6. Of
the total child labourers, 78.7 percent (84,430 children) and 17.6 percent (18,869
children) are from rural and urban areas respectively while the rest were from the
estate sector. Of the total child labourers, 1.5 percent (63,916 children) provides
hazardous child labour.
Of them 30.8 percent live without the care of father or mother. Great majority (79.5
percent) of the hazardous child labourers are from rural areas while 15.4 percent and 5
percent are from urban and estate sectors respectively (Department of Census and
Statistics, 2011a). School attending among working children was 80.4 percent. Of the
total child labourers approximately 20 percent never attended schools while the rest
had previously attended. The main reasons for not attending the school was weakness
for learning (35.1 percent), financial difficulties (19.6 percent) and disability/illness (10.8
percent).
Though proportion of child labour is small, the number is considerable. They are getting
a low payment and work in poor working conditions. For example, the average monthly
income for child workers (both cash and materials) was LKR 3,820. Of the child
5
According to Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka (2009) a working child defines as a child who
involves in any form of economic activity for a payment, profit or family-gain.
6
Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka (2009) define child labour as follows,
For 5-11 years age group: all children engaged in some form of economic activity excluding
(1) those who work less than 5hrs per week as contributing family workers in non agriculture sector in non
hazardous activity
(2) those who work less than 15 hours per week as contributing family workers in agriculture sector in non
hazardous activities
For 12-14 years age group: all children engaged in some form of economic activity excluding
(1) those who engage in less than 15hours per week in non agricultural sector in non-hazardous activity
(2) those who engage in less than 25 hours per week as family workers in agriculture sector in non-hazardous
activities
For 15-17 years age group: all children engaged in some form of economic activity excluding those who work less
than 44 hours per week in non-hazardous activity
49
labourers, 37.8 percent earned less than LKR 2,000 per month and 34 percent of the
child labourers received their payments on daily basis (Department of Census and
Statistics, 2011). Further, since they do not have enough education or vocational
training it is difficult for them to get rid of the current status. Therefore, government
needs to pay much attention to them.
Another vulnerable group is young widows in terms of poverty, income generating

activities and social attitudes. Lack of accurate data, trainings and continuous
monitoring are the some of difficulties to empower them (www. nhrep.gov.lk)
5.3.8 Differently Abled Youth
Though exact figures on differently abled people are not available in Sri Lanka, according
to the pilot project of the Department of Census and Statistics (2001), 7 percent of the
country’s population consisted of disabled people. Of the total differently abled people,
18.6 percent (50,993 persons) are youth aged between 15-29 years. Of them around
one third [35.04 percent (17,870 persons)] are mentally disabled youths. Figures on
differently abled youth may have increased during the period 2001-2009 due to civil
war. Since most of the differently abled youths are poor they have problems regarding
access to suitable education system, income generating activities and wage
employment.
As a policy, government has accepted and enacted regulation to accept the right
persons with disabilities to work. Further, government introduced the 3 percent quota
system for the disabled persons in the public sector in 1988 while it has been extended
to private and semi government sectors in 2004 (www.nhrep.gov.lk). Though, there is a
possibility to use physically disabled youth’s skills and abilities for the development
process in many ways it could not be used properly due to negative social attitude on
differently abled youths, lack of required entry requirements, non availability of friendly
working environments and transport difficulties. On the other hand, they do not have
widely spread facilities and opportunities for education, vocational training and job
opportunities. Therefore, it is needed to develop positive social attitudes and more
opportunities for differently able youths for education, vocational trainings and income
generating activities.
5.3.9 Peace and Social Harmony
After thirty years of war, to achieve the development targets of the nation it is very
essential to build mutual trust and integration among different ethnic groups.
Government has taken many steps to build mutual trust among different ethnic groups
adopting bi-lingual policy, rehabilitation of former terrorist members and creating
livelihood opportunities. Though the Government has regulated bi- lingual policies due
50
to implementation problems it cannot achieve success as expected. Ultimate result is
difficulties to build mutual trust and absorption for the youth in the development
process. Youth population with ability to speak, write and understand the national
languages other than mother language is low among the Sinhalese youth when
compared with Tamils and Muslims. For example, though 74.8 percent, 73.2 percent,
72.7 percent the Sinhalese youths do not have ability to speak, write and understand
the Tamil language. The situation is worse because of considerable proportion of the
youths in both races do not have ability to speak in English which is a link language. Only
15 percent of the total youth population can understand English language properly
(National Youth Service Council, 2009). However, preferences to follow the language
course or attempts to develop language skills are very low among youth. Only one
percent of the Sinhalese youth followed a Tamil language courses, while 4.8 percent and
5.7 percent of the Tamil and Muslim youths followed Sinhala language courses.
5.3.10 Self Employment and Income Earning
Self employment is one of income generating methods which can be popularized among
youth to absorb them for development process. However, youth are facing some
problems related to self employment. First, self employment is not of interest to most
of the youth due to lack of security, skills and training, social recognition and long delay
for gaining results. According to the National Youth Service Council (2009), only 4.7
percent of youth had obtained the training related to self employment. Second, most of
them do not have enough facilities such as finance, market and transportation facilities.
Third, though some of the youth had initiated some kind of self employment, some of
them failed mainly due to lack of managerial skills.
To mitigate above mentioned problems, government and non-governmental

organizations need to conduct training programmes and evaluate them frequently, link
up with training programmes, banks and other financial providers, technology and
markets. In addition, government and non-governmental organizations which are
involved in youth and rural development need to take action to change the thinking
pattern of youth and society by using electronic media and school curricular.
5.3.11 Suicide
As shown in Table 5.3, suicide rate is high among young people in Sri Lanka. The ratio
varies from 32.5 percent of total suicides in 2000 to 27.7 percent in 2011. Though the
rate has decreased compared to 1990s, the situation is worst compared with global
data. In addition to suicides, attempts at suicide are high among Sri Lankan youth. The
common reasons for suicide are poverty, frustration, failures in love affairs and
examinations, employment problems and family disputes (www.police.gov.lk). Non-
availability of personal consultation, broken family ties and social setup and physical and
51
mental distance among parents, elders and children are further associated factors with
the suicide among youth.
Table 5.3: Suicide Rate among Youth (2000-2011)
Year Total Number of Number among Youth Percentage

Suicide 15 - 29 Years Person of Total Suicides
2000 5,252 1,711 32.5
2001 4,590 1,390 30.3
2002 4,382 1,292 29.5
2003 4,467 1,274 28.5
2004 4,336 1,198 27.6
2005 4,349 1,222 28.1
2006 4,015 1,201 29.9
2011 3,770 1,046 27.7
Source: Registrar Generals Dept.,2011
5.4 Emerging Constraints Due to Climate Change and Other Natural Calamities
In Sri Lanka, rise in temperature continues but slowly as 0.01-0.03ºC per year while
frequencies of extreme weather incidents such as droughts and floods, high intensity
rains, tornado type winds, intense lightning strikes, sea level rising have been increasing.
Sri Lanka has been facing increasing number of natural hazards during the decades. For
example, for 50 years after the independence (1951-2000) the number of major
landslides was 98 resulting 255 deaths. But over the recent 10 years (2001-2010) the
number of major landslides was 603 resulting 164 deaths (Chandrapala, 2012). Climate
change and natural calamities affect country’s food security, nutrition and health, lives
and livelihoods of people as well as economic development including food production,
forestry, tourism, traditional medicine, manufacturing industries as well as external
trade. Furthermore, climate change negatively affect natural resources and biodiversity
including land degradation, quality and quantity of inland fresh water, degradation of
vegetation in watershed, inland wetlands, coastal systems and growth rates,
reproduction of species and plants (www.climatechange.lk).
High intensity rainfall causes floods, landslides, accelerated soil erosion, less ground
water recharge, siltation of reservoirs, reduced capacity of downstream tanks, less
water for irrigated lands and production and productivity of the agricultural crops.
Increasing temperature causes drying out of tanks and reservoirs, reduced crop
production, increased losses, pest, disease, weed pandemics and rise in cost of
production. For example if, temperature increased at 350C at anthesis for one hour it
will cause high spike sterility of rice. If, diurnal range increases more than 80C,
productivity of potato will go down from 20/t/ha to 12/t/ha (Punyawardena, 2012). A
52
study finding on impact of climate change on agriculture sector shows that if
temperature increased by 2˚ Celsius, country will lose 27 percent of the net income
from paddy, tea, rubber and coconut while if, temperature increased by 3.5˚C, country
will lose 46 percent of the net income from above mentioned crops (Seo, Mendelsohn
and Munasinghe, 2005). Above situation directly affect food stocks, nutrition levels,
farm family, and expenditure of the consumers as well as country’s GDP.
Increase of global warming directly causes increase of sea level and make sea coast
vulnerable in many ways. Destruction of coastal road network and other infrastructure
facilities, salination of river water and ground water, salt water intrusion to cultivated
lands, encroachment of arable lands by coastal communities, decrease of per capita
availability of land, decrease of living conditions of coastal communities are some of the
results emerging due to rising sea level. Sri Lanka has experienced severe droughts
during the last decade and it has directly affected agricultural and livestock food
production, livelihood and income of people, import expenditure of the country as well
GDP.
Due to natural disasters, country has lost huge sums of income and investment. For
example, tourism sector lost LKR 1,200 crore while around 480,000 persons lost their
direct and indirect income form tourism sector. Further, due to the tsunami in 2004
9,000 ha. of paddy lands and 23,449 ha of other agricultural lands were damaged and 10
out of 12 fisheries loses were damaged in various extents and estimated cost of these
harbours was LKR 11,810,000. In addition, due to other damages such as boats, fishing
crafts and cooling centers the government has lost around LKR 3,800,000.
In addition to the above mentioned issues and constraints, most of the natural disasters
negatively affect human beings. For example due to 2004 tsunami, Sri Lanka lost 30,893
(officially recorded figure) lives. Further, the number of deaths by natural disasters in
2010 were 56 while the number of affected people were 1,251,563 [Department of
Census and Statistics, 2011 (b)]. After each and every natural disaster government has
to spend a large amount of money for welfare activities such as relief funds and
compensation. These loses are burden to the country’s economy as well as
development.
5.5 Way to Involve Youth in Adaptation and Mitigation Strategy
As mentioned in section 5.3, there are a number of problems and issues relating to
youth in development in Sri Lanka as her South Asian counterparts. Some of those have
been highlighted in previous commission reports and research reports such as the
Presidential Commission on Youth in 1989, Lesson Learnt Commission in 2012 and
National Youth Need Survey in 2008/09. These commissions specially highlighted social
injustices, political discrimination, politicization of public sector including judicial and
made plethora of recommendation as remedies. Though, some of them have been
53
implemented however, some of the important recommendations were not
implemented. Therefore, relevant authorities and agencies need to take action to
implement at least most important recommendations.
To increase youth participation in agricultural sector, government and other

stakeholders need to provide sufficient extension services, market facilities,
infrastructure, finance and land while introducing new technologies and eco friendly
agricultural practices. Further, government can get involved in enhancing social
recognition for farming as a job and ultimate result will be increased number and extent
of young generation in the farming sector. For example, special marks (at least 5 marks)
system for children from farm families for the school entrance should be encouraged.
To select suitable occupation after school leaving, career guidance needs to be

implemented from the primary school level. Further, to prevent or minimize crime and
violence it is needed to establish counseling centers locally and tighten social
relationship such as family, kinship and religions.
Though foreign employment is one of the major foreign income sources, Sri Lanka is far
behind in supplying for demand. Therefore, by providing necessary facilities to study for
vocational degrees or diplomas for the school leavers, government can get involve for
the need based labour supply. Further, government needs to take action to protect
them in foreign countries.
As shown by recent researches, society is experiencing discriminations in many ways in

terms of caste, ethnicity, politics and religion as well. Further, the national youth survey
(2009) has pointed out dissatisfaction of youth in the political system. Therefore,
government needs to take action to provide development benefits and supports
throughout country without any differentiation but based on merit. To increase political
participation it is better to make 40 percent quota system for youth representatives in
political institutions including political parties, local government institutions, provincial
councils and the parliament. Further, same quota system for committee in trade unions
and welfare organizations would help to increase youth participation in decision making
level in each institution.
5.6 Conclusion
Sri Lankan youth achieve a fairly good in education. But, they suffer from number of
issues and problem related to them. Therefore, to get their fullest contribution for the
country, government and other stakeholders have to do much for youth. Country has
enough human and natural resources needed for development. Youth are searching for
continuous, enough and sustainable income opportunities. Therefore, all the
stakeholders need to guide them correctly and giving opportunities without concerning
any other matters except merits and skills.
54
CHAPTER SIX
Regional Collaboration for Youth Development

By Subashini Perera
6.1 Introduction
This chapter consists information related to multilateral and bi lateral negotiations for
development of youth in Sri Lanka. Strategies on regional collaboration towards youth in
development also are discussed to formulate a regional action plan.
6.2 Efforts of Regional Collaboration in the Developed World
The programmes, projects, workshops and agreements to create opportunities for

youth participation at global level are discussed in this section. Except in a few cases,
generally the events listed here have taken place during the year 2010 and 2011.
6.2.1 Multinational Negotiations
6.2.1.1 Commonwealth Youth Programme (CYP)
CYP works to engage and empower young people (age 15-29 years) to enhance their
contribution to development through partnerships with young people, governments
and other key stakeholders. The CYP Asia Centre is responsible for developing and
running programmes and activities in the Asia region. This was set up in 1975 and is
based in Chandigarh, India. Eight countries in the Asia region work in partnership with
young people, youth ministries, the non-governmental sector and other stakeholders.
Collaborative Programmes
i. Professionalizing Youth Work Sector

Under this programme, the four day workshop for Consultation on Professionalizing the
Youth Work Sector was held from 22nd – 25th November 2011 in Colombo, Sri Lanka by
CYP in collaboration with the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development in Sri
Lanka.
Output of the workshop
During the consultation, stakeholders recognized the critical role of youth work in
enhancing young people's participation in the nation building process and in steering
youth energy towards positive outcomes for themselves and their communities. They
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identified the urgent need to professionalize the sector and agreed to establish a
professional association for youth workers. Stakeholders also set up a Youth Work
Action Group in order to take forward the initiatives in collaboration with the Ministry
of Youth Affairs and Skills Development, the Open University of Sri Lanka (which runs
the CYP's Diploma in Youth Development), and the Commonwealth Youth Programme.
ii. Sri Lankan Participation on Young Entrepreneurs’ Network
A two-day envisioning workshop was held in New Delhi, India, from November 15th to
16th, 2011 in collaboration with the Commonwealth-Asia Alliance of Young
Entrepreneurs (CAAYE), and the Indian non-governmental organization; Young Indians
of the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII). The purpose of the workshop was to
develop mechanisms to foster youth enterprise development to mitigate
unemployment among young people in the Commonwealth.
Representatives agreed on a charter, governance structure and rules of business and

identified the importance of long term engagement for the Alliance as a catalyst of
economic growth, job creation, innovation and social change in the Commonwealth Asia
region. This will be implemented through engagement of all stakeholders championing
the cause of young entrepreneurs at the local, national, regional and international level.
iii. Youth Enterprise and Sustainable Livelihood Programme (YESL)
YESL programmes are directed to empower young people and provide opportunities to
achieve sustainable livelihoods. Under this programme, YESL, in collaboration with the
Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, Government of India, organized a two-day Regional
Consultation on Financial Inclusion of Youth in New Delhi from February 8 th to 9th 2011.
The purpose of the workshop was to advocate a consensus on a youth focus in national
financial inclusion policies.
The workshop made recommendations towards use friendly financial services and
structures for minimizing credit risk. Further, to greater information provision and
simplified legal and regulatory frameworks and provision of incentives to banks to
encourage lending to young entrepreneurs were recommended by the workshop.
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iv. Commonwealth Diploma in Youth Development
This programme is offered by the Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL) in collaboration
with the Commonwealth Youth Programme (CYP). This Diploma intends to empower
young people to maximize their human potential and help in the transformation of
youth as partners of development. The Diploma is run by the OUSL as a fully-owned
programme in English, as well as the two local languages of Sinhala and Tamil.
The key objectives of the programme are;
- Enabling youth workers to gain professional credentials to practice this

vocation nationally and internationally
- Equipping practitioners with generic and core competencies, knowledge,
values and skills needed for this field
- Enabling youth workers to facilitate the national development process
with enlightened youth policy development, implementation and
evaluation.
-
v. Regional Youth Caucus
The Regional Youth Caucus (RYC) is a dynamic network of youth from Commonwealth
Asia who represent young people in their countries in national, regional and
international Commonwealth and other forums. RYCs facilitate meaningful engagement
of young people at various levels of planning and decision-making within governments,
the CYP and other bodies.
vi. MoU between the Sri Lanka Federation of Youth Clubs and UK-based Youth
Organization
The Sri Lanka Federation of Youth Clubs and a UK-based youth organization have signed
a Memorandum of Understanding for a youth exchange programme between UK and Sri
Lanka.
vii. Youth Exchange Programme
The programme is meant to raise awareness on commonwealth values and to enhance

relations among young people in the two countries acting on youth rights and
encourage reflection on 2013's Commonwealth Youth Forum to be held in Sri Lanka. It
was decided that eight young persons from each country will participate in this
programme.
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6.2.1.2 International Youth Foundation (IYF)
The International Youth Foundation (IYF) founded in 1990 currently operates in 78

countries and territories. The IYF builds and maintains a worldwide community of
businesses, governments, and civil society organizations committed to empowering
youth to be healthy, productive, and engaged citizens. The IYF programmes are focused
on young people and helps to obtain a quality education, gain employability skills, make
healthy choices, and improve their communities.
Programmes/ Projects Focused on to Sri Lanka

i. Planning for Life
The Planning for Life project aims to integrate reproductive health and family planning
into youth development programmes to improve the health of young women and men.
The programme was launched in 2007 with support from (USAID) and World of
Learning. The Planning for Life model strengthens the capacity of IYF’s global partner
network and IYF staff to integrate reproductive health and family planning as critical
elements within youth development programmes.
ii. Tsunami Reconstruction Initiative
The Tsunami Reconstruction Initiative promoted long-term recovery efforts by helping

youth in affected areas to access training, jobs, apprenticeships, micro credit, and
livelihood support services.
6.2.1.3 Beyond Boarders
Beyond Borders is a voluntary, youth-led, youth-run initiative active in Sri Lanka, India,
Bangladesh and (formerly) in Pakistan and the UK.
Beyond Borders provides a space for young people to actively express themselves and
take action on development issues affecting them. Currently the group is working on
issues related to peace, governance, citizenship and sustainable development.
Beyond Borders Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, Beyond Borders core group was established in August 2005, and have been
engaged in action projects related to peace and governance issues. These activities are
implementing citizenship, sexual health education and sustainable development issues
through organizing workshops, seminars, open forums, and the use of forum theatre.
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They have conducted projects on citizenship education for children in underprivileged
communities, a training of trainers programme for young school leaders on sexual
health education and HIV/AIDS. In April 2006, they hosted an international youth
festival attended by about 1000 young people in Sri Lanka and partner countries.
6.2.1.4 International Labour Organization (ILO)
i. National Conference on Youth Employment
The National Conference on Youth Employment in Sri Lanka took place on 26 th April
2012 in Colombo. This was jointly organized by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills
Development, Government of Sri Lanka and the ILO country office, Sri Lanka.
During the conference ILO formulated a roadmap to ensure enhanced youth

employment in Sri Lanka. As a result of the conference, the Ministry of Youth Affairs and
Skills Development is agreeing to organize a National Consultation on Youth
Entrepreneurship.
ii. Vocational Educational Training Plan (VET)
Under the program on development of vocational educational and training (VET)

Plan for Provinces, the Eastern Province VET Plan was developed and disseminated. It
was funded by the International Labour Organization Country Office.
6.2.1.5 World Bank
Three training programmes for officers were arranged in Malaysia to gain experience on
Vocational Training Institutions in Malaysia with the assistance of the World Bank in
order to develop the institutions under the purview of the Ministry. With the aim of
exchanging the knowledge and technology and obtaining direct contribution for the
development of human resources through international relationship, three courses of
studies at Technical College, Vavuniya are being developed.
6.2.1.6 Asian Development Bank
i. Support for Technical, Education and Training
Asian Development Bank (ADB) has been giving support to the Department of Technical
Education and Training in order to assist the government’s strategy to close the gap
between supply and demand for technicians and technologists by expanding the
capacity for technical and technological education. ADB is expected to provide a loan of
SDR 13,605,000 ($ 20 Million) equivalent from its special resources to upgrade six
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Technical Colleges into Colleges of Technology in six provinces to conduct National
Vocational Qualification (NVQ) level 5, 6 programmes. These Colleges of Technology will
train the industry technicians and appropriate candidates from the secondary education
to acquire National Vocational Qualification and other acceptable qualifications
recognized by the global industry at provincial level.
ADB provide services and facilities to Colleges of Technologies in following areas;

- Procurement
- Financing goods, related services and civil works
- Consulting
- A team of consultants will provide services in a range of specialization, with
estimated international inputs. These services will be provided by a consulting
firm and will be selected according to the ADB guidelines.
The Technical Colleges at Rathnapura, Badulla, Kurunegala, Anuradhapura, Kandy and

Maradana will be upgraded. The aim of the programme is reducing unemployment by
developing an effective and efficient skilled technical workforce.
Technical Education Development Project (TEDP)
The goal of this project was to establish a unified Technical & Vocational Education and
Training (TVET) system that is accessible, market driven and linked with tertiary
education for lateral and vertical mobility for unemployment and poverty reduction.
Total cost of the project was LKR 2,667 and millions of them LKR 1,998 million was
granted by foreign Aid.
The objectives of this project were to improve access to alternative forms of tertiary
education and vertical mobility of TVET system and to strengthen the Ministry of Youth
Affairs and relevant institutions under its purview. Further it was aiming to upgrade the
capacity of selected public sector TVET institutions to expand the needs of industry for
technicians.
Main activities included strengthening the Colleges of Technology in technician

education, strengthening the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Institutions which are coming
under its purview, establishing a University of Vocational Technology.
6.2.1.7 World Health Organization
An awareness programme was held to make the young leaders aware on prevention of
non-communicable diseases. This was done by in collaboration with the Ministry of
Health and World Health Organization.
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6.2.1.8 United Nations (UN)
Two young girls participated in UN Youth Delegate programme in the United States of
America (USA). These two are the first UN youth delegates participated from the Asia
Region. Further, Sri Lanka represented at the UN High Level Meeting on youth and the
International Coordination Meeting of Youth Organizations (ICMYO) in New York City,
USA and proposed to host a UN World Youth Conference in 2014 in Sri Lanka.
6.2.1.9 United Nations International Children’s’ Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
With the assistance of UNICEF the Multi Tech Vocational Training Center at Mullativu
district was renovated. In addition, a new training centre at Mannar district was
established with the assistance of UNICEF.
6.2.1.10 ILO, ADB and World University Service: Canada
The Regional Conference on Human Resource Development was conducted through

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) as a development strategy in
Asia. This conference was organized by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills
Development together with the ILO, ADB and World University Services Canada.
The conference objectives were to showcase the establishment and implementation of

National Vocational Qualifications Framework (NVQF) and to share the experiences of
Sri Lanka with countries in South Asia and South East Asian region. Further, objectives
were to analyze the key implementation issues of NVQ system and the benefits of NVQF
to Sri Lankan industry. Furthermore, the Conference aimed and to take examples of
advancements in qualification systems and best practices in TVET in high income and
middle income countries for further improvement.
6.2.2 Bi-lateral Negotiation
Korea - With the assistance of the Korean Government the facilities of the Technical
College at Jaffna were improved. Aid was granted by the Korea International
Cooperation Agency (KOICA). Duration of the project was three years (2004 – 2007).
Total cost of the project was LKR 296.1 million.
Under the assistance of EX-IM Bank in Korea, the Technical College at Gampaha was
developed and facilities of the Vocational Training Center at Orugodawatta were
improved. Further, under the aid of the Korean government, the Technical College in
Gampaha was modernized with an investment expense of US 15.5 Million US Dollars
and starting eight new Diplomas for eight fields. With the contribution of volunteer
officers from Korea (KOICA) facilities to networking the computer laboratories in the
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Technical Colleges in Kegalle, Ratmalana, Embilipitiya and Hasalaka and the College of
Technology in Ampara were provided.
Ten motor mechanical workshops also have been conducted under KOICA. Further, the
Korean government has supported technical, education and training sectors with the
aim of improving the quality of the technical education in Sri Lanka. Total amount of
LKR. 233 million has been allocated by this Agency to complete upgrading the existing
infrastructure facilities in Jaffna and Kurunegala Technical Colleges. In addition, in order
to strengthen the information and communication technology unit at Kurunegala,
Technical collage provided multimedia facility, a van and a hoist to the automobile
engineering workshop. Furthermore, it provided new buildings to Jaffna Technical
College including a library, canteen, hostels and quarters. With the aim of human
resource development KOICA assisted to conduct workshops on refrigeration and air
conditioning, mechatronics, information technology, jewellary design and manufacture,
gem cutting and manufacture and aluminum fabricator. Also it provided study tours to
the senior administrative officers at the Department of Technical Education and Training
(DTET) and Technical College in Jaffna to upgrade their Managerial capabilities.
Furthermore, it provided Voluntary Officers to Technical Colleges to help instructors
with practical work and to introduce new technology methods to the students and up
grading of Colleges.
Canada- With the financial contribution of the World University Service of Canada
(WUSC) arrangements were made to establish three Rural Vocational Training Centers in
war affected areas in Mullaitivu and Killinochchi districts. At present, a Rural Vocational
Training Center has been established in Killinochchi District.
German- Under the assistance of the German government a fully-fledged training centre
in Killinochchi district was established, and facilitated proposed projects at Kilinochchi
district. Two training programmes have been conducted there.
The German Technical Cooperation also assists for the development of the areas of
construction, technical service and maintenance and communication and transport.
After the tsunami in December 2004, the German Development cooperation supported
to reconstruct and rehabilitate the Technical Collages in the tsunami affected areas.
Japan - Implementation of 24th“ Global Youth Ships” programme under the Japan Sri
Lanka Youth Exchange programme. For this programme the (Japan ship of friendship)
National Youth Services Council has recognized as the official Sri Lankan partner in the
ship. The ship arrived in Sri Lanka in February, 2012.
The Japan - Sri Lanka College of Technology (JSCOT) was established through a technical
cooperation by the Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET) and the
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Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). This Agency has been developing
diploma level training courses in the area of information technology and metal work
(welding) and mechatronics and implements them to train technicians to meet the
increasing demands in the labour market. The training facilities consist of workshops,
laboratories and classrooms installed with equipment and machinery in order to impart
relevant knowledge and skills. Those who have successfully completed this course
acquire a certificate of completion at the institutional training at Japan-Sri Lanka Collage
of Technology and are eligible to follow the in plant training approximately six months in
relevant industries conducted by the National Apprentice and Industrial Training
Authority (NAITA) to obtain Higher Diploma (NVQ level 6) in the concerned trade.
JICA has further provided human resource facilities to Technical Collages including
recruiting counterpart officers for Technical Colleges to conduct courses on
mechatronics, information and communication technology. In addition to that provided
short term Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers to Technical Colleges if required to
help instructors in practical work for students, to configure network systems and to
provide computer maintenance.
United Kingdom- - Eight members of the Youth Club Federation participated in the
youth exchange programme between Sri Lanka and the United Kingdom. Further, the
National Institute of Business Management commenced degree courses in Management
jointly with the Plymouth University in the United Kingdom. The National Institute of
Fisheries and Nautical Engineering has signed an MoU with University of Durham,
United Kingdom to develop the sector need.
United States of America - A group of American volunteers conducted a five-day

training programme at the Technical College, Matara to improve English knowledge of
the lecturers, instructors and students. The second stage of this programme is due to be
held at Anuradhapura and Ampara Technical Colleges.
Australia- the National Institute of Business Management created opportunity to

conduct degree courses in Management together with the Victoria University in
Australia.
Sweden- National Institute of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering held discussions with
the President of World Maritime University, Malmo, Sweden in May, 2012 to initiate
academic cooperation.
Singapore – A staff development programme in the Technical Vocational Education and

Training (TVET) sector in Sri Lanka was conducted with the collaboration of Nanyang
Politechnic International and Temasek Foundation of Singapore. It was concluded with
an outcome of 725 trained academics in the foremost technical trade fields such as
electronics, mechatronics and precision engineering. The purpose of the programme
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was to empower the instructors in public technical training institutes, to enhance the
capabilities to train the youth of the country by delivering quality training in diploma
and certificate levels under the NVQF by enabling to gain productive employment.
The programme commenced in the month of August, 2011 and ended in February,
2012. The duration of trainings ranged from 1 to 6 weeks with field visits to the leading
industries in Singapore. Each group of training consisted of 15 to 20 participants from
the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development and identified training centers of
seven (07) organizations under the purview of this Ministry.
Accordingly, 145 staff of the TEVT sector had received overseas training opportunities
up to now. Foreign exposure and latest knowledge gained through this programme is
expected to improve young Sri Lankan instructors' enthusiasm to make significant
changes in all aspects, including preparing lessons, delivering course contents and
motivating the students, in addition to the changes in their management styles.
In fact, the specialists training was an intensive training with the scope of obtaining
advanced knowledge and skills in the fields of electronics and mechatronics which are
fast growing sectors in line with the rapid change of technology. Know-how of
technology, problem-solving skills, talents and curriculum development, teaching
factory concept, experiential learning knowledge and quality management, and
manpower development are some of the key areas where the trainings were provided
in order to equip the technical teachers to upgrade and refresh their knowledge in the
respective fields of industries which are emerging in the new trend of economic
development of the country.
This programme has not only benefited the TVET sector of Sri Lanka in the sense of
knowledge sharing and transformation of modern technology. But also has helped both
countries to strengthen the long lasting bilateral relationship and technical corporation
in the Asian region of the south sphere of the world.
Ireland- In collaboration with the Dublin University of Ireland, the National Institute of
Business Management started MSc in Information Technology and Management.
Further, a memorandum of understanding with the Dublin University to offer BSc
Degree in Computer Science was signed.
6.3 Efforts of Regional Collaboration in CIRDAP Member Countries
India- Under the assistance of the Indian Government facilities of two vocational
training centers in Batticaloa District were developed and facilities were upgraded in
three training Centers. These training centers are district vocational training centre at
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Batticaloa, vocational training centre at Dachchimadam and the district vocational
training Centre at Nuwara Eliya.
Philippines - Training Program on training need analysis was conducted to identify the
training needs of the Academic and Non-Academic staff of the Department of Technical
Education & Training with the sponsorship of Colombo Plan Staff College, Philippines.
Malaysia - Modernization of three courses of Vavuniya Technical Collage (welding

technicians, ICT technician, industrial electrical technician) provision of equipment and
referring relevant officers for the foreign training with the support of a joint venture
sponsored by Rotary Club, Federation of Malaysian Sri Lankan Organization (FOMSO)
and DTET.
Pakistan - National Youth Services Council is conducting two International Youth

Exchange programmes with Pakistan.
6.4 Impacts of Collaboration
Study of overseas training for development of Technical, Vocational and Educational

Centers by the Department of Technical Education and Training (2011) has found that
South Korea was the most provider of foreign training for TEVC sector in Sri Lanka
during the last six years. Foreign training opportunities were given to males who were
more than 45 years old. This study also found that after having trained they have
improved their technical knowledge and new methodologies could be introduced to
students in TEVC sector.
According to the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development foreign exchange
programmes have had favorable impacts on the Sri Lankan youths. Through exchanging
cultural and societal behavior, youths and their soft skills have been improved. Youth in
sports sector has benefited favorably due to strong collaboration through regional
cooperation. Under the foreign funded projects infrastructure development, especially
in the Northern and Eastern provinces could be observed in recent years.
In the youth sector, large amount of funds has been allocated from the government and
foreign sources in order to develop youth and make them effective. However, still it is
questionable whether the projects, programmes and workshops conducted by foreign
agencies with collaboration of local government bodies have contributed to a useful
output. The main reason behind that is impacts of most of the programmes are
intangible. The weak follow ups, poor monitoring mechanism and reviewing progress
and recording are not successfully conducted.
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6.5 Strategies to be Adopted for Regional Collaboration
According to the Ministry of Finance and Planning in Sri Lanka, youths are categorized
into four groups based on their requirements (Department of National Planning,
Ministry of Finance and Planning, n. d.).
1. The youth group of school leavers who have not obtained any professional
qualification and skills.
2. The youth group of school leavers who have obtained considerable professional
qualifications and skills.
3. The youth group of school leavers who are already involved in self employment
for livelihood but have low income.
4. The youth group of school leavers who have already completed their higher
education in universities and technical colleges etc.
This section mainly will focus on developing strategies under these youth categories in
order to enable them to contribute to national economic development.
6.5.1 Youth Villages
SOS Children Villages in Sri Lanka
This is one of the world's largest non-governmental organizations caring for orphaned
and abandoned children. Sri Lanka has already established five SOS Children Villages to
facilitate children and young people in the country to give them a better future within
peaceful and favorable environment. Under this programme, they are providing four
SOS youth facilities including education, vocational training, health services and
emergency relief programmes.
However, up to now government led well established youth village programme has not
been experienced in Sri Lanka. At present, home based youth services are needed to
support youth from disadvantages, differently abled youth societies. There is also a
need temporary accommodation for children and youths, who are affected by natural
disasters and to prevent child labour and child marriages in rural areas. Young girls who
are vulnerable for sexual harassments exploitation especially within broken families and
in families mothers where have migrated to overseas jobs also need to be helped. In this
aspect, a comprehensive long-term strategic plan should be developed to establish
family-based in-home service youth supporting system.
Strategies:
1. Build international relationships and partnerships to implement youth villages by

sharing existing best practices and strategies across the region.
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2. Prepare in country data base on the above mentioned youth groups.
3. Prepare in country network to coordinate all stakeholders involved in youth related
matters.
6.5.2 Fully integrated continuum of Services
Most vulnerable young people should have access to the services, opportunities and
supports to make them productive citizens. Rural young women, who do not have
access to education, vocational training and employment opportunities and social
interaction, youths in post conflict areas, estate sector youths, young widows and
physically and mentally differently abled youths are required to be given priority. By
providing appropriate services they are needed to be engaged in development activities
in the country. In Sri Lanka, a National Youth Service Council has been established for
providing proper services for youth to make them actively participate in the
development of the country. However there is no strong regional collaboration in this
regard. It is high time to establish a regional youth services system to cooperate
internationally in order to identify different social, economic, cultural and political needs
of the region and share experiences for a better service.
Strategies:
1. Establishing regional youth service system

2. Identifying most vulnerable groups and high priority issues and their demands for
services within the region.
3. Promoting collaborative relationships among youth serving systems at the State
level and community level and enhance the joint initiatives to accomplish shared
results.
4. Developing joint strategies and sharing resources across the system to serving the
most vulnerable young populace in the region.
5. Implementing high quality research based services through the system.
6. Establishing well organized monitoring system.
6.5.3 Training and Capacity Building to Boost up Skills, Jobs and Career Development
Sri Lanka is one of the countries which have achieved quality level of education
compared with other developing countries. However, still Sri Lanka needs to go forward
for high quality achievement in education sector in line with social and economic
developments in the country. Education system of Sri Lanka has failed to provide an
output to match the demand in the job market. Other problems are lack of positive
attitudes for development and innovation along with a drop in ethical values (Ministry
of Human Resource Development, Education and Cultural Affairs, n. d.).
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Issues Arising in the Education Sector
Disparities among Schools: There are still many disparities related to administration and
management among schools. Accordingly, there is a problem of maintaining uniformity
of the distribution of infrastructure facilities and human resources among schools of
different categories. Therefore, certain schools are facing difficulties in competing with
other schools in preparing their students for highly competitive examinations (National
Education Commission, 2009).
Language skills: In the direction of catering to the job market in the private sector and
overseas, proficiency in foreign languages is essential. English is the entryway and
access to modern knowledge, which can be accessed through information technology.
Therefore it is important to further strengthen English language teaching in schools. At
the same time teaching other languages such as French, German, Chinese and Japanese
in schools should be encouraged.
Inadequate Support for Study in Foreign Universities: At present, opportunities

available for academic staff to obtain higher qualifications in foreign universities are
inadequate. This is more acute in the field of languages, social sciences and humanities.
Exposure to the structure of the foreign education systems and their culture could play
a vital role in developing human resources (National Education Commission, 2009).
Low Skill Labour Migration: The total labour force in Sri Lanka is approximately 7.5
million and it is estimated that approximately 1.5 million Sri Lankans’ work overseas at
any given time. The majority of these foreign employments are in low skills jobs and
thus remuneration is very low (National Education Commission, 2009). Availability of
workers with higher levels of skills will necessarily results in a higher earning potential in
foreign markets.
Career Counseling: The general education system in Sri Lanka does not provide
sufficient counseling and career guidance. With the situation of unemployment status in
Sri Lanka, it is very vital to guide youths for selecting their trust areas to study which is
directly catering the existing job market and to direct them to find appropriate jobs and
to reduce their stress endure both in home environment, school and in the community.
There is a negative perception of university students due to frequent violence in
universities, ragging, lack of social skills, inability to solve problems skillfully, lack of
presentation skills and speech, lack of writing skills and poor English knowledge skills.
These drawbacks make it more difficult for students to adjust to the work culture in the
engine of growth (Ministry of Human Resource Development, Education and Cultural
Affairs, n. d.)Hence, counseling regarding career options based on individual aptitudes
and performance is vital. Thus, it is very important to employ well experienced expertise
for counseling.
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Strategies:
1. To eliminate the disparities among schools, foreign assistance is needed from

the governments of the CIRDAP region to provide infrastructure facilities, human
resource development and information technology.
2. Improving knowledge, skills and abilities of professional staff and volunteers who
are directly involving teaching languages through foreign training and sharing
expertise and resources.
3. Negotiations among countries in the region to develop curricula for courses
which are related to the demand of overseas job markets and for enrollment of
students in local institutes as well as international institutes.
4. Reinforcement of linkages with foreign universities to improve opportunities for
academics and administrators. Students should be given opportunities to obtain
foreign exposure and experience all the way through establishing partnership
and affiliations with international higher education institutions avenues should
be open. To facilitate academic and non academic staff and students to visit
overseas universities for short period.
5. Generate up-to-date well maintained databases on vocational and technical
trainings and job opportunities available locally and internationally which any
country within the region could easily access to find appropriate courses and
opportunities for employment.
6. Develop a mechanism for dissemination of knowledge and information of
international skills labour market within the region.
7. School teachers should be given special foreign training in career guidance and
counseling with support of specialized foreign expertise and well experienced
counselors should be recruited for school carder.
8. Exchange foreign volunteers and expertise for career guidance to promote good
practices and sharing knowledge and providing assistance.
9. Negotiate with international agencies to generate foreign funds to establish
career guidance units in technical and vocational training sector and improve the
existing career guidance units within the University network.
10. Manage e-job fairs to provide information on employment opportunities
specially for skill labour.
6.5.4 Psychological Counseling
Most of the youth need solving their problems through correct psychological counseling.
The problems faced by this group often are related to love affairs and marriages, studies
and examinations, friends and peers, as well as family matters (Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Education and Cultural Affairs, n. d.). This replicated the
increasing domestic violence, the rising of divorce cases, criminal offenses, drug abuse
and high suicide rates etc. among youth group in recent past in Sri Lanka.
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The North and East civil war during the past two decades has led to the dreadful
psychological stress in people. The young people in the conflict affected areas
experience severe psychological and social problems that can dwarf the problems of lost
education, employment opportunities (Gunathilaka and Mayer and vodopivec, 2010).
Psychological counseling for vulnerable persons like youths affected by conflicts,
differently abled youths (mental and physical), disadvantaged youths (Schools drop
outs, child labour and child marriage in remote areas) should be directed towards
psychological counseling. In Sri Lanka, there is a scarcity of qualified counselors to
attend to these people in need of counseling services.
Strategies:
1. Negotiation to establish psycho – social counseling service system.

2. Exchange professional psychological counselors among the region.
3. Assistance to implementation counseling centers at village level.
4. Provide foreign training facilities for professional counselors to upgrade their
skills.
5. Facilitating international expertise assistance to develop a broad-based of
knowledge and skills in the area of counseling especially through out the schools
and university system and public and private psychological counseling institutes.
6.5.5 Participation at Grass Roots Levels
The National Youth Service Council, the largest centre for youth in Asia located in
Colombo is focusing more on creating the environment to make youth as productive
citizens and leaders at the grass root level. Their activities are decentralized at the
provincial level and the branch offices are established in nine Provinces of the Island.
Each Provincial office is headed by an Assistant Director under whom the district youth
services officers co-ordinate the activities at the district level. The youth services offices
and assistant youth services officers undertake the implementation of the projects and
organization of various programmes at the grassroots level under the guidance of their
superior officers.
Most of the activities of the National Youth Services Council are implemented through
the youth clubs network which has 10,000 youth clubs in all parts of the country at the
village level. The objectives of this youth club network are to provide opportunities for
the fruitful utilization of leisure time by the youth, provide vocational training
opportunities, extend assistance to various rural development programmes, cause
cultural efflorescence within youth, leadership development and obtain youth
participation in national development.
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Figure 6.1: Organizational Structure of the Youth Club Network
Source: Personal Communication with National Youth Service Council Officers
The Divisional Federations of youth clubs have been formed by bringing together the
youth clubs at Divisional Secretarial Level. District federations of youth clubs have been
formed with representatives from those divisional federations. The Sri Lanka federation
of youth clubs is composed of representatives from divisional federations of youth clubs
and representatives from the district federation of youth clubs. This organizational
structure generates youth representatives to actively participate in formulating the
public policy on youth.
However, the poor performances at the grass root level officers weaken the active
participation of rural younger. Poor monitoring, lack of sufficient technical skills,
personal attitudes and lack of motivation of the grass root level representatives have led
to deteriorate the relationship between policy makers and beneficiaries. In other words
there are poor top to bottom linkages.
Strategies:
1. Exchanging skills and knowledge to enhance the top bottom relationship.

2. Strengthening the existing network among institutes which directly deal with
grassroots example, Youth Employment Network, Youth Corps, National Youth
Service Council, Student bodies, NGO’s and village level youth organizations.
3. Training facilities and awareness programme to develop a proper mechanism to
monitoring grassroots level officers.
4. Identifying international best practices and adopt them for local conditions to
formulate successful policy implementation and dissemination.
5. Providing technical support to relevant ministries and institutions in the
government and provincial councils to address the youth at grassroots level.
71
6. Providing financial assistance from foreign sources to develop infrastructure
facilities of village level community base institute especially in North and East.
6.6 Formulation of a Regional Action Plan among CIRDAP Member Countries
1. Organizing a regional conference to share experiences about what international

stakeholders are doing towards mitigating socio economic disparities and
poverty among youth within the States.
- Charting Youth issues throughout the region
- Exchange current and proposed projects and activities in
bilateral negotiation.
2. Establishing proper network and system covering governments, youth led
organizations, donor agencies, civil society organizations, multilateral
organizations which are addressing youth development.
This will improve information dissemination within CIRDAP member countries

through knowledge management initiatives and tools. Also it would help to
review the impact of youth programmes carried out in the region and create
forum for members to address their responses. This network also will serve a
platform for updating youth related work and to initiate dialogue on prospects
for collaboration.
3. Establish the CIRDAP Committee to improve coordination and follow-up of the
youth development programmes.
4. Organize periodical e- job fairs within the region.
6.7 Conclusion
The literature reveals that international collaboration on youth sector has increased
significantly in recent years. However, efforts for coordinating and follow-up are very
diminutive. There are large numbers of multilateral and bi lateral negotiations focusing
on youth development in Sri Lanka. Projects and programmes on infrastructure
development and for human resource developments were the key strategies toward
youth development that have been implemented through regional negotiation.
However, there is no proper network among international and national agencies who
are involved in youth sector development. Thus, programmes tend to overlap each.
Follow up and feed back assessments are not sufficient.
Representatives of the regional cooperation should congregate and share the

information about the ongoing and planned youth development programmes which are
been executed with multilateral and bilateral negotiations among the region to identify
the gap and prevent duplication of their works. Therefore, it is needed to develop a
proper coordination and monitoring mechanism to improve youth development in the
region. It is important to build up a partnership among CIRDAP member countries to
implement national youth priorities while respecting and harnessing the benefits of the
strength of individual States and hence to develop a unique approaches and mandates.
72
CHAPTER SEVEN
Recommendations
7.1 Introduction
This chapter provides policy recommendations in some specific areas related to youth in
development. The areas covered by the chapter are policy formulation and
implementation, peace and harmony, decision making and politics, employment,
vulnerable groups, agriculture and fisheries and counseling.
7.2 Policy Recommendations
7.2.1 Policy Formulation and Implementation
The most important activity towards the youth in development is formulation and
implementation of a national youth policy reflecting particular needs, aspirations and
culture of different ethnic and socio-cultural groups. Collecting ideas from all
stakeholders including youth, governmental and non-governmental activists involved in
youth and development and leaders of civil society organizations is necessary for this
task. This policy needs to specially address needs of marginalized and disadvantageous
groups such as youth in conflict affected areas, differently abled youths, aborigine youth
and young widows. Further, such policy must become guiding principle of provincial and
grass-root level youth policies also.
A large number of governmental and non-governmental organizations are involved in

youth development as well as rural development activities. However, it seems to be that
activities and programmes are conducted without inter connection. Therefore, most of
them overlap with each other. This weakness can be removed with the build up of
proper network among agencies involved in youth development programmes.
7.2.2 Education
Several studies have proved that there is a mismatch between present education
system and labour market. Therefore, entire education system needs to be reorganized
with the direction of labour market. Further, university education system needs to
include job oriented programmes such as internship for job trainings (including social
science undergraduates), and to introduce more courses focused on employment. The
Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development has implemented programmes to offer
vocational degrees to train those who are not eligible for university education. This
73
programme need to be strengthened and information should be disseminated on
available job opportunities for vocational degree holders.
7.2.3 Employment
Voluntary employment is high among Sri Lankan youth due to queuing up for “better-
jobs” and mismatch between the educational system and the labour market. Therefore,
relevant government and private sector institutions, specially institutions related to
education system, media and youth should implement awareness programmes to
change the mind-set of youth as well as society focusing above issues. For example,
government can do campaigns addressing work ethics, perceptions, attitudes and
aspirations about manual, technical and entrepreneurial works.
Dissemination of information related to employment opportunities and skills

development is another strategy to reduce unemployment among youth and cater to
the foreign demand for labour. The networking system on available current
employment opportunities in the country and overseas is the best approach to
disseminate information. In addition, strengthening career guidance programmes from
school level is another strategy to change mind-set of youth and reduce unemployment
among youth.
Another viable area to reduce unemployment among youth in Sri Lanka is the foreign
job market. However, government should pay attention to cater to the demand
providing skills development opportunities and information on vacancies to youth.
Further, government needs to sign bi-lateral agreements with appropriate countries to
secure labour rights.
7.2.4 Self Employment/Entrepreneurship
There are number of bottlenecks such as policy environment, access to finance,

managerial skills and access to business support in self employment. Therefore,
compulsory management trainings with the self employment training will be very useful
to achieve targets of the youth in self employment. Further, minimum conditions for
credits and widely spread information on training facilities and other services will be
useful for their success in businesses or enterprises.
7.2.5 Agriculture and Fisheries
Considerable proportion of youth is engaged in agriculture related activities, but a low

proportion is engaged in agriculture as full time employment. This is mainly due to less
profitability and uncertainty of the market, lack of availability and accessibility of
physical and financial resources, extension services and training, information, lack of
74
social recognition and social security system. To increase youth participation in
agriculture including farming as well as agri-business, government can enact rules and
regulations to give some incentives such as special marks system for school entry of
farm families’ children and quota system for youth in farm families for government
employments. Further, government needs to strengthen youth farmer organizations
giving trainings, field visits, financial and physical resources. There is a need to provide
all necessary information to grass-root level and support to stand up as a entrepreneur
instead of just crop cultivator.
7.2.6 Vulnerable Groups
All stakeholders need to pay enough attention to improve training facilities and skills
development to absorb the differently abled youths, young widows and youth in conflict
affected areas. To enhance their capacities, government and non-governmental
organizations should take steps towards strengthening and improving available training
centers with modern technologies and curriculum development by considering current
needs of the labour market. Further, stakeholders should take necessary action to
absorb them in to labour market sufficiently. For example, government needs to take
action to recruit differently abled youth for employment vacancies in accordance with
available quota system for them.
7.2.7 Decision Making and Politics
Previous research findings have proved that trust on political institutions (central
government, provincial councils, local government institutions and political parties), on
elected representatives and on some of government institutions (bureaucracy and
police) is very low among youth. Further, many research findings as well as commissions
have mentioned that politicization of society causes youth unrest and many other social
problems in Sri Lankan society. The Government should pay serious attention to the
situation and need to take action towards increasing trust on government institutions.
Therefore, implementation of merit based system and at least enough governance
practices in all sectors of the government will be the best remedy for the problem.
There are important recommendations given by the Presidential Commission on Youth

in 1989 to increase youth participation in decision making, in politics as well as to
remedy for social injustices and inequality. Since most of the recommendations are valid
the present context also, government and other stakeholders such as trade unions and
political parties should take necessary action to implement those to enhance youth
participation in politics, decision making, social and economic activities. The
Government can enact laws and rule for minimum quota system for youth in
nomination of each and every election, representation in political institutions as well as
75
decision making level in political parties, civil society organization except elderly
societies.
7.2.8 Peace and Social Harmony
Many parties including the government attempt to build up sustainable peace and
harmony in the country with the increasing mutual understanding and trust among
different ethnic groups. However, major barrier is the language problem. The Bi-lingual
policy need to be implemented in a more practical way by increasing way to learn a
second language and culture of each other ethnic groups.
7.2.9 Counseling
Since traditional social setup for social protection and counseling has been diminishing
over the years it is time to introduce and establish an alternative counseling system for
youth. The requirement is proved by suicide rates among youth. The alternative
counseling systems should be established at grass root levels with the help of civil
society organizations and religious leaders.
76
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Annex 1: Institutes under the Purview of Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills
Development
1. Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC)

2. Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET)
3. Vocational Training Authority (VTA)
4. University of Vocational Technology (UNIVOTEC)
5. National Apprenticeship and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA)
6. National Institute of Business Management (NIBM)
7. Skills Development Fund Ltd. (SDFL)
8. Ceylon German Technical Training Institute
9. National Youth Services Council
10. National Human Resources Development Council (NHRDC)
11. National Youth Award Authority (NYAA)
12. National Youth Corps
13. Youth Services Company Ltd
14. International Centre for Training of Rural Leaders (ICTRL)
15. Sri Lanka Institute of Printers (SLIOP)
16. National Institute of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering (Ocean University)
17. National Youth Services Cooperative Societies Union Ltd. (NYSCO)
81

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Youth in Development: Sri Lanka

M.K. Nadeeka Damayanthi

Research Report No: 161 October 2013

Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute

© 2013, Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute

Final typesetting and lay-out by: Dilanthi Hewavitharana

Coverpage Designed by: Udeni Karunaratne

M.K. Nadeeka Damayanthi

The objectives of the study were to conduct a situation analysis on youth in

ADB Asian Development Bank

1.1 Background and Overview

Year Youth Total Number Total

A number of government, private sector and non-governmental organizations have

As revealed by the literature contribution in the agriculture sector is low due to a

1.5 Organization of the Report

Strategies for Youth Development

2.2 Definition of Youth

2.3 Roles and Responsibilities of Ministries Dealing with Youth

Regarding youth development the Ministry is conducting programmes to empower and

2.4.1 National Youth Policy of Sri Lanka

2.4.2 Government Policy for Marriage

2.4.3 Government Policy for Motherhood

2.4.4 Government Policy for Education

The Ministry of Higher Education in collaboration with the University Grants

2.5 Specific Strategies for Enhancing Youth Development

2.6 Achievement of Strategies of Different Ministries

2.7 Best Examples of Activities for Youth Development

Talented undergraduates of the Sri Jayewardenepura University and qualified foreign

3.2 Youth Population

Table 3.1: Youth Proportionate to the Total Population

Percentage of Total Population

3.2.2 Age Distribution

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2012

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2012

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2012

Table 3.2: Estimated Mid-Year Total Population (‘000) by Age Group

Age group Year

3.2.5 Rural-Urban Youth Distribution

Table 3.3: Percentage of Youth Distribution by Sector

Year Rural Urban

3.3 Educational Attainment

Table 3.4: Literacy Rate by Sex, (2001)

Sex Literacy rate

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2012

Figure 3.4: Secondary Education of Pupils (1970 – 2010)

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2012

Table 3.5: Educational Attainment of Youth

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Figure 3.5: Education Attainment Percentage to Total Youth Population

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2012

Table 3.6: Employed Population by Industry Group

Year Total Employed Major Industry Group (% to the Total) Total

3.4.1 Mean Age during Engagement in Employment

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2012

Figure 3.6 b: Female Youth Engaged in Employment (2000, 2005, 2010)

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2012

3.4.2 Total Number of Youth in Employment

Male Female Total

3.4.3 Total Waged Employee/Worker

Table 3.8: Total Waged Employed Youth Population