Late Eocene onset of the Proto-Antarctic

Circumpolar Current
 Sudipta Sarkar,
 Chandranath Basak,
 Martin Frank,
 Christian Berndt,
 Mads Huuse,
 Shray Badhani&
 Joerg Bialas

Scientific Reportsvolume 9,
Article number: 10125 (2019) | Download Citation

Abstract

The formation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is critical for the
evolution of the global climate, but the timing of its onset is not well
constrained. Here, we present new seismic evidence of widespread Late
Eocene to Oligocene marine diagenetic chert in sedimentary drift deposits
east of New Zealand indicating prolonged periods of blooms of siliceous
microorganisms starting ~36 million years ago (Ma). These major blooms
reflect the initiation of the arrival and upwelling of northern-sourced,
nutrient-rich deep equatorial Pacific waters at the high latitudes of the South
Pacific. We show that this change in circulation was linked to the initiation
of a proto-ACC, which occurred ~6 Ma earlier than the currently estimated
onset of the ACC at 30 Ma. We propose that the associated increased primary
productivity and carbon burial facilitated atmospheric carbon dioxide
reduction contributing to the expansion of Antarctic Ice Sheet at the Eocene-
Oligocene Transition.

Introduction

Today, the westerlies-driven Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is the

volumetrically largest geostrophic current, which connects the Atlantic,
Indian and Pacific Oceans (Fig. 1a). It plays an important role in the global
distribution of heat 1, nutrients, salt, carbon, as well as in the gas exchange
between the atmosphere and the ocean and has thus exerted a strong
influence on Earth’s climate 2,3. The isopycnal tilt of water masses within the
ACC prevents substantial subtropical surface heat from reaching Antarctica
facilitating its thermal isolation, cooling, and stabilization of the Antarctic
glaciers4. The complex interaction between the westerlies, the ACC and the
bottom topography supports upwelling of nutrient-rich Circumpolar Deep
Water at the Antarctic Divergence Zone (Fig. 1b), making it one of the
biologically most productive regions of the world ocean 5,6. The ongoing
rapid climate change 7 may strengthen the southern hemisphere westerlies8,9,
which would influence the strength of upwelling, heat and carbon transport,
and diminish the stability of the ice shelves around Antarctica 10. Although
the ACC has been a key component of present-day and past ocean circulation
and climate, the timing of its onset and progressive development are poorly
constrained. Moreover, the accurate reconstruction of the onset of the ACC is
fundamental for our understanding of the long-term paleoceanographic
evolution and climatic repercussions including major cooling during the
Middle and Late Eocene 11 and the development of continental-scale
Antarctic glaciation 12.

Figure 1

Southern Ocean circulation and circumpolar oceanic fronts. (a) The

Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) marked by blue arrows and main
oceanic fronts from north to south are represented by the sub-Tropical
Front (STF), Subantarctic Front (SAF), the Polar Front (PF), and the
Southern ACC Front (SACC). Figure adapted from ref. 71. (b) Simplified
schematic representation of the present-day Southern Ocean
overturning circulation 3,5. Ekman transport (ET) resulting from the
Antarctic Coastal Current flowing counter-clockwise around Antarctica
under the influence of the Polar easterlies causes waters to move
towards Antarctica, while a northbound Ekman transport resulting from
an eastbound ACC drives the waters away from Antarctica. It creates an
area of divergence called the Antarctic Divergence Zone, where the
Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) upwells to the surface south of the
Polar Front (PF). Northward advection of nutrient-rich upwelled water
takes place by Ekman transport 71 and references therein. Its subsequent
subduction to intermediate depths forms the Antarctic Intermediate
Water (AAIW). Part of the upwelled waters moves southwards forming
the Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW). During the northward advection,
some part of the Antarctic surface water mixes with subtropical surface
water to form Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW).

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The initiation of the ACC depended on the tectonic opening of the Drake
Passage and Tasmanian Gateway (Fig. 1a). The onset age of the ACC is
highly debated, and there is a wide range of estimates between 41 Ma
refs13,14 and 23 Ma ref.15 due to an incomplete understanding of basin
evolution and paleoceanography. A fully-developed modern ACC likely
prevailed shortly after 30 Ma when the deep open Tasmanian Gateway
aligned with the westerlies 16. However, the development history of an
eastbound proto-ACC, an intermediate-depth precursor of the modern
configuration16 is unclear. Earliest estimates place it between 41 and 37 Ma
refs14,17,18,19 that coincides with deepening of the Drake Passage to
intermediate depths. Major subsidence of the Tasmanian Gateway at 35.5 Ma
refs20,21 probably facilitated proto-ACC development. However, the
eastbound Tasmanian throughflow likely to have initiated at 30 Ma ref. 16,
thereby, casting doubt on the existence of a proto-ACC. Here, we present
reflection seismic analyses of marine sedimentary successions in the
southwestern Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean to test the hypothesis that
a proto-ACC existed during the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene (35-30
Ma), thus preceding the modern ACC 16,22. We present evidence for spatial
and temporal variations of paleo-ocean circulation and marine bio-
productivity related to the establishment of the proto-ACC, which was driven
by the opening of the Tasmanian Gateway and had consequences for the
expansion of the Antarctic Ice Sheet during the Late Eocene-Early
Oligocene.

Results

Two-dimensional seismic lines (number = 111) (Materials and methods) over

the Great South Basin (GSB) and the Bounty Trough (BT) show an elongate,
slope-parallel sedimentary body at present water depths of 1–2 km that
developed in deep basins east of New Zealand’s South Island (Figs 2, 3a).
The internal structure of the sedimentary wedge can be laterally subdivided
into three zones: a landward moat, a central mound, and subsidiary mounds
in the deeper basin (Fig. 3a,b). The central sedimentary body shows
asymmetric external mounded (Fig. 3a) and lenticular shape (Fig. 4a). The
subsidiary mounds show a basal zone comprising small (<400 m thick,
~15 km wide) asymmetric mounded external shape and channel-like moats
on their landward sides, which developed close to the toe of a Paleocene
terrigenous wedge (Fig. 3b). A summary of biostratigraphic and lithologic
results of the sedimentary body obtained from the petroleum industry
borehole Pukaki-1 well is shown in Fig. 5a (additional details of the
sedimentary drift system are provided in Supplementary Text 1). The base of
the sedimentary wedge in the central GSB is marked by an erosional
unconformity and a prolonged hiatus (59-46 Ma) in the Pukaki-1 well.
Internal upslope prograding and downlapping reflections (Fig. 3a) indicate a
contourite drift system was deposited by along-slope flowing bottom currents
during the Middle-Eocene. From the shape, the orientation of the drift
bodies, and their location on the western margin of the basin, we infer that
the bottom currents were flowing in a northeasterly, contour-parallel
direction with the drift deposit growing on its left due to Coriolis forcing. In
the central GSB, the flow turned from northwest to north and then to
northeast forming a loop that decelerated the current and resulted in sediment
deposition at the outer rim of the loop. The loop is analogous to the modern
cyclonic circulation within the GSB and BT (Fig. 2).

Figure 2
Study area map. Map showing the South Island of New Zealand,
Campbell Plateau, sub-Tropical Front (STF) 72, Antarctic Circumpolar
Current (ACC), Pacific Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) 73,74 and
a modern cyclonic circulation (marked by blue arrows) in the Great
South Basin (GSB) and the Bounty Trough (BT). Canterbury drifts
(CD)59 and DWBC drifts28 are shown. Time thickness (two-way travel
time in seconds) map of the mid-Eocene to Late Eocene interval in the
GSB shows the NNE–SSW striking elongate sedimentary drift. Subsidiary
drifts were deposited on the eastern offshore side of the main mound.
Boreholes of ODP Leg 181 (1119, 1120 and 1122), IODP expedition 317
(U1352 and U1354), DSDP Leg 29 (275 and 276), Leg 90 (594) and oil
exploration wells (Pukaki-1 and Pakaha-1) are marked.

Full size image

Figure 3
Seismic characteristics of late Paleogene sedimentary drifts. (a) A
seismic line shows a central mound between markers ME and TE with
internal upslope prograding configuration. High amplitude reflections
(HARS) occur towards the top of the mound. A moderate to strong
positive amplitude reflection is identified as the opal-A to opal-CT
reaction front (yellow dotted horizon). We correlated seismic horizons
in the drift to Pukaki-1 (Fig. 5a). (b) Subsidiary mound developed
offshore of the central mound (Location marked by a box in Fig. 3a). It
shows internal convex reflection pattern and a landward moat. High
amplitude reflections are seen above the marker that is assigned an age
of 36 Ma.

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Figure 4
Late Paleogene sedimentary drifts and opal-A/opal-CT reflector. (a) A
lenticular shaped unit between markers ME and TE is identified as a
buried plastered drift south of the Bounty Trough. Strong positive
amplitude reflections are seen towards the top of the drift in the BT. (b)
The opal-A/opal-CT reaction front shows negligible or smaller offset
(blue arrow) than the offset of the host Late Eocene unit (cf. ref. 75). The
diagenetic transformation could have post-dated the displacement
across the faults, or the displacement rate of the faults was greater than
the upward advancement of the diagenetic front. Some faults extending
into the Oligocene and Miocene sequence also affected the diagenetic
front, probably post-dating diagenetic transformation.
 Full size image

Figure 5

Results from the borehole Pukaki-1 and the spatial extent of an opal-
A/opal-CT reflector. (a) On the seismic panel, bright reflections within
Late Eocene and Early Oligocene strata are correlated with diagenetic
chert as determined from recovered rock samples (ages calibrated to
ref.60). The top of cherty limestone clearly defines the opal-A/opal-CT
conversion boundary and correlates with a sharp drop in sonic log
response. (b) Variation of the depth of the opal-A/opal-CT reflector
below the seabed.

Full size image

A prominent zone of bright reflections between Late Eocene and Oligocene

strata (36-30 Ma) within the drift represents chert that overlies shaley
limestones devoid of chert at the Pukaki-1 well (Figs 3a,band 5a). A positive
polarity reflection at the top of the chert can be traced regionally and shows
both discordant (such as cross-cutting reflection, Figs S1a,b,d and 4b), and
concordant (Fig. S1c) relationships with the host strata. The reflection is a
typical example of opal-A (biogenic silica) to Cristobalite and Tridymite
(opal-CT) diagenetic transformation boundary23, which is widespread in the
deep waters of the GSB and BT (Fig. 5b). The transformation involves the
dissolution of biogenic opal-A, and the precipitation of the microcrystalline,
pore-filling opal-CT24,25. The transformation causes a reduction in porosity,
an increase in sediment bulk density and seismic velocity resulting in an
increase in acoustic impedance (product of density and seismic velocity) that
causes a high amplitude reflection (Supplementary Text 2). A discordant
reflector, cross-cutting stratal reflections indicates post-depositional
diagenetic changes rather than inorganic precipitation of chert. The base of
the diagenetic transformation zone in the GSB (Fig. 5a) is marked by a
substantial reduction in reflection amplitude that correlates with decreasing
chert concentration indicating the absence of initially deposited siliceous
microfossils within the late Middle Eocene sequence. Using regional seismic
lines, we were able to trace the diagenetic transformation zone of silica from
the GSB to the Canterbury Basin (CB). The occurrence of Late Eocene and
Oligocene chert is a consequence of basin-wide diagenetic transformation
(Supplementary Text 3) of originally deposited abundant biogenic opal,
indicating a remarkable and prolonged episode of biogenic silica
productivity.

The dissolved neodymium (Nd) isotopic composition of open ocean deep

waters behaves conservatively, and Nd isotopes have thus been widely
applied as tracers of present and past water mass mixing (see Methods for
details). Here, we use published Paleocene–Early Oligocene seawater Nd
isotope records obtained from fossil fish teeth/bones (henceforth ‘fish
debris’) to reconstruct the presence and mixture of southern sourced vs.
northern sourced Pacific water masses (Fig. S2a,b). Previously published
fossil fish debris Nd isotope signatures ( 143Nd/144Nd, expressed as ε Nd(t)) for
the Paleocene–Eocene (Fig. S2a,b) show that the southern Pacific was bathed
by less radiogenic (ε Nd(t) = −6.5 to −5.0) deep waters of southern origin while
northern Pacific deep waters were more radiogenic (ε Nd(t) = −3 to −4.0)
refs26,27. The εNd range of Equatorial Pacific Water is intermediate between
these two end members. During the Late Paleocene, the equator-bound proto-
Deep Western Boundary Current flowed over the eastern flank of
Zealandia28and the Hikurangi Plateau 29 and transported southern sourced
proto-Ross Sea bottom waters 26. The available Nd isotope data from ODP
Sites 1172 between 52-47 Ma (εNd = −5.3 to −7) ref.30 and from the Hikurangi
Plateau (ODP Site 1124) at 36.5 Ma (ε Nd = −5.13 ref.16) clearly show the
influence of South Pacific deep waters (Figs S2a,b, S3 and 6). The southern
sourced less radiogenic waters flowed northward and mixed with radiogenic
deep waters in the Equatorial and North Pacific regions. However, more
radiogenic signatures (ε Nd = −4 to −4.5) at southern Pacific Site 1124 (water
depth = ~3 km) between 36 and 30 Ma are more akin to northern sourced
Equatorial Pacific waters 31 (Fig. S2b). The continuous presence of more
radiogenic Equatorial Pacific waters between 36 and 30 Ma is prominent in
the Nd isotope records of ODP sites 1124 and 1172 ref. 16 from the southwest
Pacific (Fig. 6).

Figure 6
Neodymium isotopic sections for different geologic time bins
interpolated using natural neighbor interpolation (Table S1) and
schematic late Paleogene southwest Pacific circulation showing the
progressive development of a proto-ACC. (Top) The 38-36.5 Ma Nd
isotopic section (left) reveals the extent and mixing of North and South
Pacific deep waters (Fig. S2b)16,26. At Site 1124 northbound flow of less
radiogenic South Pacific deep waters is indicated by an arrow.
Contourites in the GSB and BT are deposited by northbound bottom
currents (centre). A westbound Antarctic Slope Current (ASC) existed
north of Antarctica. At Site 1124, surface currents were influenced by the
proto-East Australian Current (EAC) 36; while deep northbound currents
transported southern sourced deep waters. Cross-section (right) shows
the northbound flow of South Pacific deep water
(SPDW). (Middle) Equatorial/sub-equatorial deep waters with more
radiogenic Nd isotopic signature arrive south of 30° S (36-34 Ma) and
indicated by an arrow. A proto-ACC started to develop across the STR
(centre) causing entrainment and upwelling (U) of proto-equatorial
Pacific deep water (Proto-EPW) and subsequent northbound Ekman
transport (right). The submerged Chatham Rise deflected the proto-EPW
towards east. (Bottom) The 34-33 Ma Nd isotopic section (left) is similar
to the 36-34 Ma section. A stronger proto-ACC caused upwelling (centre)
and pronounced entrainment of proto-EPW (right). Colour codes for the
paleogeographic maps76 in the middle column: black = land, dark
grey = shelf, light grey = slope or submarine rise, white = deep ocean.

Full size image

Earliest evidence of intermediate-depth circulation in the southwest
Pacific
Proto-Deep Western Boundary Current had been active since 65 Ma driving
drift deposition at greater depths (>2 km) ref.28, however, it was not until the
mid-Eocene (~45 Ma) that the first evidence of a persistent southern Pacific
intermediate-depth circulation became prominent. We argue that the onset of
contourite deposition in the GSB and BT was a result of cyclonic flow path
initiated by circulation changes at intermediate depth. Enhanced basin
subsidence (~1 km) between 55 and 45 Ma refs 32,33 lead southern-sourced
bottom-currents to be channelized into the GSB across the Pukaki Saddle
(Fig. 2) and circulated along a clockwise path (Supplementary Text 1).
Evidence of a cyclonic circulation within the BT (Fig. 2) emerging from the
northern edge of a fully-developed ACC has only been reported since the
Early Miocene34. Our finding of a similar cyclonic flow path in the same
region thus pre-dates the earlier known cyclonic circulation 35 by as much as
20 million years.

In order to explain the origin of mid-Eocene and Oligocene (45-30 Ma) drift

deposits (Fig. 3), we invoke a persistent northbound intermediate-depth flow
between the topographically constrained deep boundary current 28 and the
proto-Ross Sea gyre34,36. The Pacific εNd(t) compilation for 45–47 Ma (Fig. S3)
suggests that deep-water masses with distinct Nd isotopic signatures
(Fig. S2a) formed in the high South and North Pacific latitudes, representing
a situation similar to the Early Eocene (~53 Ma) ref. 26. The proto-Deep
Western Boundary Current transported the southern-sourced waters further
north and a branch of that current circulating the Campbell Plateau was able
to enter the GSB during a period of anomalous basin subsidence (55-45 Ma,
Supplementary Text 1). The onset of deposition of the southwest Pacific
drifts in the GSB at ~45 Ma provides strong evidence for an active
equatorward flow of Southern Pacific deep and intermediate waters when the
Tasmanian Gateway was still closed.

Critical paleoceanographic changes during Late Eocene to Oligocene

The mid-Eocene–Oligocene section within the drift deposits allows us to
evaluate the time of the establishment of the early ACC and consequent
overturning circulation that has played a central role for Southern Ocean
upwelling. Diagenetic chert is confined to Late Eocene and Early Oligocene
strata within the sedimentary drifts of the GSB and BT but is rare in deeper
levels, indicating the original scarcity of biogenic opal deposition. During
55-47 Ma silica productivity was mostly restricted in shallow marine
continental margins of the Australo-Antarctic Gulf and the southwestern
Pacific where nutrients were primarily supplied from local terrigenous
sources37,38,39. The open ocean deep silica deposition in South Pacific has
been reported from 47-35 Ma. The open marine silica deposition was a result
of an increase in ocean-wide surface productivity in the tropical and southern
high-latitudes38,40. In spite of wide-scale silica deposition in a deep marine
setting, chert is still absent in the GSB deposits between 45-36 Ma (Fig. 5a).
During this period transport of silicic acid from the tropical/sub-tropical
regions to the surface waters of the southern high-latitudes was controlled by
the proto-Ross gyre36. Bio-utilization of silica during long transport along
the proto-Ross gyre limited the amount of silicic acid eventually reaching the
surface waters of the GSB and BT. The prominent transition from calcareous
to siliceous limestone in the Pukaki-1 well in the GSB occurred after ~36 Ma
indicating an increase in the nutrient content of the surface ocean at this
location. Silica-rich sub-equatorial waters must have bypassed the proto-
Ross gyre and probably used a more efficient upwelling pathway to arrive at
the high-latitude South Pacific (Supplementary Text 3).

Support in favour of this observation and probable mechanism comes from

meridional composite sections of ε Nd(t) records16,26 (Fig. 6). At ODP site 1124,
relatively less radiogenic waters (ε Nd(t) = −5.13 at 36.5 Ma) at ~2.5 km water
depth (Supplementary Table S1) were replaced by an enhanced incursion of
more radiogenic sub-equatorial Pacific deep waters (ε Nd(t) = −4 to −4.5)
between 36 and 33 Ma (Fig. 6). During 36-30 Ma more radiogenic waters
circulated in the high-latitude South Pacific Site 1172 compared to the waters
during early Middle Eocene (Fig. S2) refs16,30. While these radiogenic values
in high-latitude southwest Pacific can be due to terrigenous input from east
Antarctic terrains41, the candidate bedrocks are of lower Paleozoic origin
with extreme negative Nd isotopic signatures (ɛNd = −11.2 to −19.8), hence do
not support the observation. The McMurdo volcanics (ɛNd > 0) is another
potential source capable of altering the deep water signal in the southwest
Pacific; however, volcanic activity and dispersal of volcanic materials are not
reported around the Ross Sea until Oligocene/Miocene (~24 Ma) ref. 42.
Presence of Ferrar Group sediments (ɛNd = −3.5 to −6.9) is only known in the
Cape Roberts cores in the Ross Sea since Early Oligocene (~31 Ma) ref. 43.
Thus, all probable terrigenous sources are either not radiogenic enough or
their presence in the Ross sector postdates the observed Late Eocene Nd
isotopic change to radiogenic values in the southwest Pacific. Therefore, the
Late Eocene presence of a more radiogenic water mass at ~2.5–3 km at Sites
1124 and 1172 indicates advection of waters from a northern source. This
contention is also supported by the contemporaneous occurrence of
temperate to sub-tropical diatom species, and absence of sub-
Antarctic/Antarctic foraminifera at Site 1124 ref. 44.

Thus, it is fair to say that the mechanism that led up to enhanced biosiliceous
deposition in the GSB at ~35 Ma was controlled by upwelling of sub-
equatorial Pacific deep waters in the high-latitude South Pacific (Proto-EPW,
Fig. 6). The deep, old sub-equatorial North Pacific waters were enriched in
silicic-acid and nutrients45, which are reflected in light benthic foraminiferal
δ13C values46. The proto-EPW outcropped near high-latitude southwestern
Pacific, which would require an emerging proto-ACC and the combined
effect of isopycnal tilt and Ekman driven pull (Fig. 6). Part of the upwelled
waters was transported northward due to Ekman divergence. Local cooling
around Antarctica linked to early ephemeral ice sheets 11,47 likely facilitated
surface ocean cooling and sinking of those upwelled waters to intermediate
depths towards the East Tasman Plateau (Site 1172) and the deep basins east
of New Zealand’s South Island. The sinking of the proto-EPW to
intermediate depths at the East Tasman Plateau is also indicated by improved
ventilation at site 1172 after 36 Ma ref. 20. Further evidence of silicic acid-
rich water masses came from widespread diatom proliferation and enhanced
biogenic opal deposition in the contemporaneous deep-marine sedimentary
record east of New Zealand after 36 Ma (Figs 5b and 6).

Tasmanian throughflow and onset of proto-ACC

The onset of the proto-ACC requires (i) submergence of the land bridge
between the South Tasman Rise (STR) and Antarctica, (ii) westerlies-driven
eastbound Tasmanian through-flow, and (iii) deepening of the Tasmanian
Gateway to intermediate depth. A shallow marine connection between the
Australo-Antarctic Gulf and the southwest Pacific across the southwestern
STR existed since ~38 Ma refs 21,48. Evidence of contourite deposition (~38
Ma) in the southwestern STR indicates bottom-currents flowing from the
Australo-Antarctic Gulf to the southwest Pacific (Fig. S4, Supplementary
Text 4). Under a globally warm Eocene climate, the zone of the westerly
winds likely lay close to the Polar high-latitudes (approximately 60–65°S
refs39,49,50), and would have influenced much of southern Australia,
southwestern STR and facilitated the eastbound Tasmanian throughflow
(Fig. 6). The major tectonic deepening of the Tasmanian Gateway together
with strong westerlies at ~35.5 Ma ref.21 had set the boundary conditions for
the development of a proto-ACC. Modeling results show that advection of
deep subtropical waters into the southern Pacific via an intermediate-depth
proto-ACC was possible51. An already open Drake Passage 14 likely provided
strong zonal support to the newly-established eastbound Tasmanian
throughflow.

Our results indicate a major upwelling of silica-rich sub-equatorial water at

the high-latitude South Pacific was related to the development of a proto-
ACC, which pre-dates the modern ACC by ~5–6 Ma16. Report of the Late
Eocene ‘opal pulse’ at ODP Site 1090 in the southern Atlantic was attributed
to enhanced productivity and opaline silica accumulation due to a
southbound extension of the proto-Indian Ocean Equatorial waters 52. The
timing of the southern Atlantic opal pulse coincided with the beginning of
intermediate depth flow through the Drake Passage (~37 Ma), that is
supported by Nd isotope data13. The Late Eocene silicon isotope gradient
between the Agulhas Ridge (ODP Site 1090) and the Maud Rise (Site 689)
has been interpreted as a result of substantial upwelling of silicic acid rich
deep waters associated with a nascent ACC and bio-utilization53. Evidence
supporting the development of a proto-ACC and meridional overturning in
the South Atlantic Ocean also emphasizes the role of early circumpolar
currents for southern hemisphere circulation starting at ~36 Ma ref. 54. Thus,
the South Atlantic record corroborates our findings in the southwestern
Pacific.

The emplacement of a proto-ACC at ~35.5 Ma likely paved the way for

oceanographic changes that facilitated the development of the Early
Oligocene Antarctic glaciation. The proto-ACC driven upwelling could
release CO2 from the deep ocean to the atmosphere (cf. ref. 55). At the same
time, however, upwelling related phytoplankton production increased in the
high-latitude Pacific region of the Southern Ocean 39, the sedimentary basins
east of New Zealand’s South Island as well as in other sectors of the
Southern Ocean56,57,58, making the high-latitude ocean a net sink of
atmospheric CO2 ref.53. If these conditions prevailed long enough,
atmospheric CO2 drawdown contributed to a global cooling trend culminating
in the glaciation and expansion of the Antarctic Ice Sheet ~33.7 million years
ago.

Materials and Methods

Seismic data and interpretation

We interpreted a regional set of two-dimensional seismic lines and analysed
information from petroleum industry boreholes and scientific drilling results
in the basins east of New Zealand’s South Island. A regional database
containing open file petroleum industry exploration wells, seismic data
across New Zealand was obtained from New Zealand Petroleum Exploration
(http://www.nzpam.govt.nz/). We added additional seismic lines from the
Bounty Trough region 34 and the Canterbury Basin 59 to this database in order
to aid stratigraphic correlation and interpretation. Seismic data were acquired
during the OMV10, OMV8 and DUN6 surveys in the Great South Basin
using airgun arrays (total volume ~66 l) with a shot interval of 25 m. The
TLBT survey was conducted with airgun arrays (total volume ~88 l) and the
shot interval was 37.5 m. The TLBT survey used a 10 km long streamer with
800 hydrophone groups at a spacing of 12.5 m, whereas OMV10, OMV08
and DUN06 surveys were conducted with a 6 km long streamer and 240
hydrophones (group interval 25 m). The record length during the TLBT
survey was 12 s (sample rate 2 ms), while record length during OMV10,
OMV8 and DUN6 surveys was 8 s (sample rate 2 ms). Data processing
comprised resampling from 2 ms to 4 ms, trace quality control, rejection of
bad traces, swell noise attenuation in shot and receiver domains, initial gain
recovery to compensate for amplitude decay (T squared compensation for
inelastic attenuation and spherical divergence losses), Common Mid-Point
binning (CMP bin size 12.5 m) and sorting into CMP domain, F-X
interpolation in CMP domain, frequency filtering (band pass filter for 0 to
1000 ms TWT with 6–90 Hz and for 1000 to 6000 ms with 4–50 Hz),
semblance velocity analysis (1 km interval), radon demultiple, migration
velocity analysis (1 km interval), prestack Kirchhoff time migration, residual
moveout correction and stack. True amplitudes were preserved during pre-
stack time migration.

The regional database contains an integrated mapping of key age based

horizons on a regional basis for 77 seismic lines. We performed additional
seismic well ties in the Great South Basin, the Canterbury Basin, and the
Bounty Trough and ages were assigned with the biostratigraphic records
from exploration wells Pukaki-1 and Pakaha-1 in the Great South Basin and
two scientific drill sites (Deep Sea Drilling Project site 594, Ocean Drilling
Program site 1119). Seismic stratigraphic correlation enabled us to trace
regional seismic horizons from the Great South Basin to the scientific
boreholes 1119, U1354 and U1352. The biostratigraphic (nannoplankton
zones) information obtained from the Pukaki-1 and Pakaha-1 wells were
correlated with the information from the borehole U1352 to validate
stratigraphic ages, which were calibrated to ref. 60. Additional seismic lines
from the South Tasman Rise south of Tasmania were obtained from the
Australian Geological Survey Organisation.

Neodymium (Nd) isotope data compilation

In the modern ocean, major deep ocean water masses such as North Atlantic
Deep Water (NADW, εNd = ~ −13.5) and North Pacific deep water (NPDW,
εNd = −4)61,62, and references therein are associated with distinct Nd isotope
compositions. Dissolved seawater Nd isotope studies indicate that water
masses below the thermocline and within the global overturning circulation
pathway closely reflect values predicted from mixing of these end members
at varying proportions. Thus, Nd isotopes in open ocean deep waters are a
robust water mass tracer despite their potential to be altered by inputs from
local sources close to the ocean margins (e.g., boundary exchange)(ref. 63 and
references therein). If seawater Nd isotopes are faithfully archived in
sediments, it is possible to apply them for reconstructing past ocean
circulation.
Among the many sedimentary archives used to extract pristine Nd isotopic
signature of past ocean bottom waters, fossilized fish teeth and bones (i.e.,
fish remains) are considered most reliable(e.g., 64,65). Fossil fish remains are
made up of hydroxy-fluorapatite and acquire their Nd signature during early
diagenesis while the biogenic-phosphates are still in contact with the bottom
water64. Thus, the Nd isotope composition of fossil fish remains represents a
bottom water signature (Nd isotopes expressed as
εNd(t) = [(143Nd/144Nd)sample/(143Nd/144Nd)CHUR(t) − 1] * 104), with
(143Nd/144Nd)CHUR = 0.512638 representing the Chondritic Uniform Reservoir
(CHUR)66 and CHUR(t) represents the age-corrected CHUR value).
Hydrogenetic ferromanganese crusts obtain their Nd isotope signature from
the ambient seawater during their growth and are also suitable for
reconstructing seawater tracer histories 67.

Here, we compiled published fossil fish teeth Nd isotope data from the
Pacific Ocean26,68,69) and Nd isotope data from the central Pacific
ferromanganese crusts 67,70) to produce paleo-latitudinal sections for four time
bins 47-45 Ma, 38-36.5 Ma, 36-34 Ma, and 33–34 Ma. Three additional sites
providing fish teeth Nd isotopic records and age models in the southwest
Pacific from Ocean Drilling Program sites 1124 (Hikurangi Plateau), 1168
(Western Tasmanian Margin) and 1172 (East Tasman Plateau) were adopted
from ref.16 in order to constrain the timing of the intrusion of water masses
from the Australo-Antarctic Gulf (AAG) into the South Pacific. The time
slice sections are interpolated on a paleo-latitude and depth grid using natural
neighbor interpolation. In addition, seismic data were used to determine
bottom water flow directions at the Tasmanian Gateway sites to support the
interpretations drawn from Nd isotopic compositions.