Solid State Physics

Prof. Amal Kumar Das

Lecture – 01
Atom to Solid Structure

Welcome to Solid State Physics; a course for undergraduate students of science and
engineering.

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So, this course is suitable for the degree B.Sc degree in Physics, Chemistry, Electronics,
Material Science, also for B.E and B.Tech for metallurgy, material, Electronics,
Cryogenic Engineering. So, I am Doctor Amal Kumar Das from Department of Physics
IIT, Kharagpur.
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And we have 2 Tutors for this course Doctor Tapan Maity and Mister Prasanta Mishra
from Department of Physics IIT Kharagpur. Course Plan Details are the following. So,
this is 12 week course and we will try to cover the following contents.

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Say in first week we will discuss about Atom and from atom to how solid state structures
are formed. So, that we will discuss and then Crystal Symmetry, unit cell crystal planes,
Real space reciprocal space of crystal, and then we will discuss how crystal structures are
determined experimentally using the X-ray diffraction, then after that we will discuss
different properties of solids such as this thermal properties of solids, electrical
properties of solids, magnetic properties of solids, and dielectric properties of solids.

In electrical properties of solids there we will cover the Free electron theory of solids,
then structure of solid, Super conducting property of the solids, also Semi Conductivity
property of solids in magnetic property we will cover this Diamagnetism and
paramagnetism, Ferromagnetism and anti-ferromagnetism and then we will discuss
Dielectric and ferroelectric properties of solids.

Basically 5 lectures per week and 30 minutes duration for each lecture assignment of 10
to 20 problems in each week will be given.

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So, 1 can follow the Reference Books the Elementary Solid State Physics by Charles
Kittel and also another book main book of Charles Kittel of the Solid State Physics,
Solid State Physics by A.J. Dekker and for crystal diffraction. So, you 1 can follow the
books Elementary of X-ray Diffraction by B. D. Cullity mainly first 2 3 chapters will be
useful for this course of this book elements of X-ray diffraction.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:23)

Let us come to our subject that we will start from Atoms and see how solid structure is
formed. So, Atom have electronic structures say atom have basically 2 parts 1 is nucleus
and other 1 is orbits all electrons are revolving see you know that nucleus is having
photon and Neutron Photon have positive charge and nuclear number of electrons are
surrounded the nucleus. So, number of electrons and number of photons are same in a
atoms. So, thus atom is a Neutral.

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So, this n equal to 1 is basically K-Shell or K orbit right and then 2 K that is the a land
then this t M n etcetera right. Now for each principal quantum number for each n now it
has sub shell or orbitals so that is represented by another quantum number. So, all
basically Azimuthal Quantum Number so that is represented by l for angular quantum
number also we tell. So, that is l so l can take values 0, 1, 2 up to n minus 1 so for a
particular n value so we have n number of Azimuthal Quantum Number.

So, it so for each Principal Quantum Number we have n number of Azimuthal Quantum
Number so this l equal to 0 it represents an orbital that is called S-orbital or S sub shell.
So, 1 it is basically P 2 basically d then f etcetera that way we represent these orbitals.
Now for again for each orbital again there are again we can split using the another
quantum number that is called magnetic quantum number.

So, this basically Angular Magnetic Quantum Number and Spin Magnetic Quantum
Number say Angular Magnetic Quantum Number and Spin Magnetic Quantum Number.
So, this 1 will represent by m l and this 1 will be represented by m s, basically m l if we
take value from minus l to l to 0 to plus l and this m s that I will come later on
introducing another quantum number that is spin quantum number. So, that is
represented by S so is S can take only 1 value that is half and corresponding this spin
magnetic contrary image? So, it can take value plus half and minus half.

So, these are the quantum number and this will tell us that in each cell or in each orbit
how many electron we can put and in which way basically electron will be distributed
among the energy levels. So, these are basically orbits represent the energy levels then
again this orbits are splited into orbitals sub shells. So, their energy will be different
when it will be different it depends on the situation. So, each cell basically or each orbit
can accommodate 2 n square number of electrons. So, total number of in a orbit or shell
it will be 2 n square.
So, when n equal to 1 when n equal to 1 so; that means, K-Shell or K orbit it can have
plus n equal to 1. So, it can have 2 number of electrons l shell n equal to 2, it will have 8
number of electrons then M-Shell it will have 18 number of electrons. So, from quantum
number itself we can we can distribute electrons in different orbits and then in sub orbit
or sub shells how the electron are distributed that also we can find out like say when l
equal to 0 when l equal to 0 .

So, basically that is S-orbital so it can have basically 2 l plus 1 number of electrons 2 l
plus 1 number of electrons; that means, it will for l equal to 0 it will be 1, but that is not
correct because each electron have again spin each electron have spin and that 2 l plus 1
at it has come basically from that magnetic quantum number, that is from angular
magnetic quantum number, and this for spin magnetic quantum number for each spin
each electron can have 2 2 orientation either spin or spin down.

So, for that for each electron it will have 2 steps so you have to multiply with 2. So, then
it will be for l equal to 0 it will be 2. So, S-orbital can have 2 electrons similarly you can
see for l equal to 1 it is P-orbitals. So, it can it can have l equal to 1 so it can have P can
have 6 electrons P can 6 electron d can have 10 electron d is for S equal to 2 so 4510
electron for b l equal to 2 d-orbital.

So, it can have 10 electron similarly for f orbitals it can have 14 electrons right. So, from
this quantum number we can easily distributed the electrons in different orbits orbitals
and this orbit orbitals basically it is represent that is that the energy levels. So, generally
energy levels we draw using the straight line. So, this way we also represent the energy
levels other way also 1 can represent the energy levels.

So, in atoms how electrons are distributed in which orbit they are sitting or they are
revolving; how many number of electrons are in outer most shell or orbitals or orbits. So,
these are very important because this arrangement of electron decide the properties of
atom and aggregation of these atoms is basically forms the matter. So, depending on
these on the electronic distribution it decide the properties of the matter. So, that is way it
is a it is very important to know how electrons are distributed in the atom, and also you
see this when electrons are revolving they are they have the angular momentum you
know, they have the angular momentum and when charge particals are revolving in a
closed path. So, 1 can tell that current is flowing in a closed path.
So, as if current is flowing in orbit now when current is flowing in a closed path. So, it is
it is equivalent to a magnetic moment. So, it shows the magnetic property. So, due to the
electron revolving in an orbit in a closed path so it will help the magnetic property also.
So, that will tell the magnetic moment so as you know the magnetic moment for the
current in a closed path that 1 can 1 can write say magnetic moment mu it is basically i A
i is the current flowing in a closed path and A is the area of the of the of the closed path
not closed path area covered by this closed path.

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So, if you know the radius of the closed path circular path. So, this area will be pi r
square and electronic charge of electron is e, now it is revolving if you know the
frequency of this of this rotation then e that frequency is nu, then that will be basically
current. So, nu is nothing, but this in per second how many times it is revolving. So, if
you just look at the point then how many times these electrons are passing through the
point in 1 seconds. So, that is basically current charge passing through a point or unit
time per second so that is current.

So, basically you can find out the magnetic moment of these electrons in a particular
orbit. So, magnetic moment of electron in different orbits will be the different will be
different because it depends on the radius of the orbit. So, due to the orbital motion of the
electron you will get the magnetic moment also, you will get the magnetic moment for
spin angular momentum also, what about the angular momentum is there you will get
magnetic moment. So, for spin angular momentum also you will get magnetic moment.
So, for orbital motion as well as spinning motion you will electron will have the
magnetic moment. So, total magnetic moment will be the sum of these 2 n angular
momentum or 2 magnetic moment.

So, electron have angular magnetic moment for angular motion as well as is it has
spinning motion. So, that we represent by l and S. So, both are angular momentum. So,
whether this 2 angular momentum are independent they do not bother each other or they
have some they talk to each other or they are means they are coupled. Actually they are
coupled they are coupled. So, that is called l S coupling that is called l S coupling and
that l S coupling because of l S coupling 1 can get resultant angular momentum total
angular momentum.

So, that is represented by J that is represented by J. So, for a electron the J is can take
value l plus minus S and S is half for a single electron in a atom a c is half. So, J will for
a particular electron whether it is at S orbit or it is P orbit or d orbit depending on that it
will have total angular momentum J.

So, when l equal to 0 when l equal to 0 J is half it cannot be minus half. So, J is half
when l equal to 1; that means, electron in is in p orbitals. So, this J value will be J value
will be half and 3 by 2. So, 1 can find out the angular momentum 1 can find out the
angular total angular momentum for each electron, now in a atom there are not 1 electron
there may be there must be more than 1 of electrons.

So, only in case of hydrogen atom it has 1 electron it has 1 electron. So, where it will
stay you know in the hydrogen atom 1 electron where it can stay principal quantum
number 1 and this S is the orbitals. So, 1 electron can stay here for helium atom for
helium atom 2 electron. So, S orbit can have can have can accommodate 2 electron. So,
we can write 1 S 2. So, similar way 1 can place electrons and 1 can find out the total
angular momentum for each electron for each electron, and now when more than 1
electrons in a atom now each electron have quantum number not quantum number
angular angular momentum. So, total angular momentum for that atom how 1 can find
out. So, 2 ways 1 can find out first 1 can find out the resultant angular momentum capital
L.
So, that is basically l 1 plus l 2 plus l 3 etcetera that way 1 can find out. So, for these
basically we use the vector model of atom to find out the total angular momentum and
then similarly total spin angular momentum 1 can find out S. So, that is S 1 plus S 2 plus
S 3. So, usually vector model so capital L it will not be 1 value it will be it will have
many values similarly S will have many values. So, after finding out total l and total S,
then l S coupling that will give total J so again using vector model 1 can find out l l plus
S again j will have many value using vector model.

So, this way 1 can find out other way 1 can find out J 1, J 2, J 3 for each electron and
then 1 can find out the total J for the atoms. So, that will again vector l addition. So, it
will have many values J will have many values. So, these are very important to find out
the find out the magnetic moment of that atoms and 1 can. So, whatever we told that that
electron will sit in that orbit which orbit. So, that basically we are telling that about the
ground state of the atom.

So, ground state of the atom electron can go to the higher level energy level also higher
orbits also, but that will be excited state. So, this is the arrangement of electrons in atom
and their quantum number of the of the atoms and these are very useful this will be very
useful for our this course. So, this is the; you are knowing things, but I just remind you
and then before going to the to the to the real topics.

Thank you very much.