J Clin Exp Dent. 2011;3(3):e222-7.

Dental management and respiratory disorders.

Journal section: Oral Medicine and Pathology doi:10.4317/jced.i.e222

Publication Types: Review

Dental considerations in patients with respiratory problems

Ariadna Claramunt Lozano 1, Mª Gracia Sarrión Perez 2, Carmen Gavaldá Esteve 2.

1
Degree in Dental Surgery. Master in Oral Medicine and Surgery. University of Valencia. Valencia, Spain.
2
Valencia University, Department of Stomatology, University General Hospital, Valencia, Spain.

Correspondence:
C/ Serpis 66-81
46022 – Valencia (Spain)
E-mail: [email protected]

Received: 29/06/2010
Accepted: 12/03/2011
Claramunt Lozano A, Sarrión Perez MG, Gavaldá Esteve C. Dental
considerations in patients with respiratory problems. J Clin Exp Dent.
2011;3(3):e222-7.
http://www.medicinaoral.com/odo/volumenes/v3i3/jcedv3i3p222.pdf

Article Number: 50347 http://www.medicinaoral.com/odo/indice.htm

© Medicina Oral S. L. C.I.F. B 96689336 - eISSN: 1989-5488
eMail: [email protected]

Abstract
Many respiratory disorders can compromise routine dental care and require special treatment for the affected pa-
tients. Patients often visit the dental clinic with respiratory problems already diagnosed by other specialists. The
dental professional therefore must provide correct dental care in the context of such a diagnosis. The present study
offers a literature review of those respiratory disorders which can have implications for dental care. Chronic obs-
tructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma require special measures, such as working with the patient in the
vertical position, since some of these subjects do not tolerate decubitus. On the other hand, patients with COPD can
suffer infectious lung diseases secondary to the aspiration of microorganisms in the presence of deficient periodon-
tal conditions. The treatments received by patients with respiratory diseases can also influence their oral health. In
this sense, it has been shown that inhalatory medication used for asthma can cause oral disorders such as xerosto-
mia, oropharyngeal candidiasis and an increased presence of caries (due to the action of β-agonists), as well as gin-
givitis. In contrast, oral manifestations of tuberculosis are infrequent. The clinical appearance of the lesions is very
similar to that of squamous cell carcinoma; it is therefore important to establish a correct differential diagnosis in
such cases. Mention also will be made of patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS), characterized by
critical narrowing and occlusion of the upper airways during sleep. In this context, the dental professional is often
directly implicated in the management of such patients by preparing and fitting oral devices designed to advance the
mandible. Lastly, mention will be made of dental management in the event of foreign body aspiration, where rapid
intervention by the dental professional is critical. The basic approach in such cases is adequate prevention.

Key words: Dental treatment, COPD, asthma, tuberculosis, OSAS, foreign body aspiration.
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Introduction sleep. The dental professional is often directly implica-

The respiratory system is basically responsible for O2 ted in the management of such patients by preparing and
and CO2 exchange between the blood and the external fitting oral devices designed to advance the mandible,
environment. This gas exchange takes place passively applying anterior and inferior mandibular traction. On
across partial pressure gradients within the terminal res- the other hand, dentists often work with small objects or
piratory units (alveolar spaces). Figure 1 schematically elements, and when the patient is placed in the supine or
represents the structural and functional components of semi-raised position, such objects might be swallowed
the respiratory system. Maintenance of the mentioned or aspirated into the oropharynx. Prevention is clearly
partial pressure gradients is essential for ensuring ade- the best approach in such cases, though adequate and
quate pulmonary gas exchange (1). Chronic obstructive rapid intervention in the event of accidental aspiration is
pulmonary disease (COPD) is an irreversible and slowly essential for ensuring patient safety.
progressing disorder characterized by a limitation of
airway flow (in some cases partially reversible), resul- Objectives
ting from an abnormal pulmonary inflammatory reac- The objectives of this study were the following:
tion to harmful gases or particles – particularly tobacco • To conduct a literature review of those respiratory
smoke. Examples of COPD are chronic bronchitis and disorders which can have implications for dental
lung emphysema. Asthma in turn is a pulmonary disor- care.
der characterized by reversible stenosis or stricture of • To establish protocols for emergency dental mana-
the peripheral bronchi, and is most often seen in children gement in the context of asthma attacks or the aspi-
(2). The dental professional must know how to deal with ration of foreign bodies.
an asthma attack, and must know the drugs which are
to be avoided in such patients. Patients with an establis- Material and Methods
hed diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) can also be seen in A PubMed – Medline database search was made, and the
the dental clinic, and the dental professional in any case virtual library of the University of Valencia (Valencia,
must be familiarized with the main signs and symptoms Spain) and specialized texts in both general Medicine
of the disease: productive and persistent cough, blood and Odontology were consulted.
in sputum, nocturnal perspiration, weight loss, fever The PubMed – Medline search was carried out using the
or anorexia, or a combination of these manifestations. following key words: asthma, lung disease, chronic obs-
Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) results from tructive pulmonary disease, oral tuberculosis, obstructi-
intermittent and repeated upper airway occlusion during ve sleep apnea, foreign bodies, dental management.

Tráquea
Trachea

Bronchi
Bronquios

Vías aéreas
Conduction
de
airways
conducción
NoNon
respiratorios
respiratory
Bronchioles
Bronquiolos

Respiratory
Respiratorios

Unidades
Terminal
Respiratorias
respiratory Terminal
Unidades
terminales alveolar
alveolares
units
units
terminales

Fig.1. Schematically represents the structural and functional components of the respiratory system.
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The search was limited to articles in English and Spanish, direct or indirect association between the two conditions
published in dental journals within the last 10 years. (4).
ASTHMA
Results Asthma is a respiratory disease characterized by rever-
CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE sible, diffuse stenosis or stricture of the peripheral bron-
(COPD) chi, increased responsiveness or sensitivity to different
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a ge- stimuli, and frequently also signs or laboratory test evi-
neral term used in reference to respiratory disorders cha- dence of an allergic alteration. Asthma is a common con-
racterized by not totally reversible chronic pulmonary dition, typically affecting children and with a prevalen-
airway obstruction. Representative examples of COPD ce of 5-6% (2). Over half of all affected individuals are
are chronic bronchitis and lung emphysema (3). between 5-15 years of age. A distinction is to be made
COPD is an important public health problem. The pre- between allergic and non-allergic asthma.
valence of the disease in the Spanish adult population is Allergic (or extrinsic) asthma is characterized by a fa-
9%, and it constitutes the fourth most common cause of mily history of asthma, together with an increase in
death in Spain and in the rest of the world (3). serum IgE titers. These antibodies participate in type I
Patients with COPD may experience worsening of res- hypersensitivity or immediate sensitivity reactions, and
piratory function during dental treatment; a number of are produced in response to exposure to antigens that
precautions are therefore recommended. Specifically, it access the body through the oral or parenteral route, or
is advisable to treat the patient in the vertical position. in aerosol form.
The way in which rubber dams are used should also be Non-allergic, idiosyncratic or intrinsic asthma in turn
modified in some cases, since the patients may complain constitutes a respiratory disorder manifesting in a hete-
that they produce a suffocating sensation. Specialized rogeneous group of patients with reversible and recu-
clinics are able to offer oxygen equipment and person- rrent bronchospasm in response to different stimuli such
nel trained in its use. Hypnotics, narcotics, antihistami- as physical exercise, the inhalation of cold air, emotions,
nes and anticholinergic agents are to be avoided. If the exposure to smoke, hypoxemia, stress, gastroesophageal
patient is receiving corticosteroids, supplements may be reflux, etc. (2). Patients with this type of asthma can be
needed. In the case of individuals receiving theophylli- sensitive to aspirin and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory
ne, macrolide antibiotics (erythromycin, clarithromycin) drugs (NSAIDs).
are to be avoided. Ambulatory general anesthesia is tota- The drugs used to treat asthma have been related to
lly contraindicated. certain oral disorders such as xerostomia (dry mouth),
On the other hand, patients with COPD, particularly tho- oropharyngeal candidiasis and an increased prevalence
se admitted to hospital, can suffer infectious lung disea- of caries (due to the use of inhalatory β-agonists)(6-8).
ses secondary to the aspiration of microorganisms in the The use of oral rinses after medication has been found to
presence of deficient periodontal conditions. The teeth be of great help in preventing oral mucosal alterations.
and periodontium can serve as a reservoir for respiratory Asthmatic patients can also suffer gingivitis, since they
infections. In this sense, loss of alveolar bone has been are often oral breathers, and this condition together with
associated to an increased risk of COPD (4,5). Smoking a number of immunological factors can contribute to in-
is an important risk factor for both periodontitis and crease gingival inflammation (8).
COPD. Children with chronic medical problems requiring long-
Regarding the impact of respiratory infection upon pe- term medication are at an increased risk of developing
riodontal health, no studies to date have established a caries as a side effect of the treatment received. A pos-

DRUGS TO BE AVOIDED IN ASTHMATIC PATIENTS

Drugs containing aspirin (10-28% of all asthmatics may not tolerate the latter)(2).
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (patients with intrinsic asthma).
Macrolide antibiotics in patients treated with theophylline. The serum methylxanthines levels (theophylli-
ne) may be increased.
Opiates: these can cause respiratory depression and histamine release.
Local anesthetics: use solutions without adrenalin or levonordefrin, due to the sulfite preservative con-
tents.
If the patient is receiving prolonged systemic corticosteroid treatment, supplements may be needed (prior
to dental procedures that might cause stress).
Table 1. Drugs to be avoided in asthmatic patients.
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sible mechanism implicated in the development of ca- involve oral manifestations. These lesions may be pri-
ries could be the intervention of β-agonists, exerting an mary or (more often) secondary to pulmonary tubercu-
effect also upon the salivary glands. The impairment of losis (12,13), reflecting reactivation of the infection at a
salivary secretion is in direct relation to the drug dose, given moment, since the bacteria remain latent even af-
and the composition of saliva is also affected. Different ter clinical healing of the initial infection (12). The oral
studies have reported an increase in dental caries in chil- lesions manifest as an irregular ulceration with polygo-
dren treated with inhalatory salbutamol, followed by sal- nal margins, possible peripheral induration and a dirty-
butamol in tablets, as a result of prolonged exposure to appearing base. The clinical appearance of the lesions is
such β2-agonists, which reduce salivary secretion (7,8). very similar to that of squamous cell carcinoma (11); it
Caries also result from an increased presence of lactoba- is therefore important to establish a correct differential
cilli and Streptococcus mutans. Periodic dental exami- diagnosis in such cases, based on a biopsy and bacterial
nations and the application of fluor are advised in these culture. Oral TB has been reported in mandibular bone,
individuals. Elective treatment should be carried out in the tongue and, less frequently, affecting the lips, palati-
asymptomatic or controlled asthmatic patients (8). Table ne tonsils and posterior pharyngeal wall (13) and parotid
1 shows a number of drugs used in dental care and which glands (11,12). There have also been reports of cases in
have specific implications when dealing with asthmatic other soft tissue locations such as the cheek.
patients (6). When TB is suspected, it is advisable to postpone all
Management of asthma attacks: non-emergency dental treatment until the patient has
Breathing effort becomes audible in the presence of mild been cured or is no longer infectious (9,11).
or moderate obstruction. The typical symptoms of asth- If emergency dental treatment proves necessary in pa-
ma are breathing difficulty (e.g., wheezing, dyspnea) and tients with suspected TB or active disease, the adoption
cough (2,8). On the other hand, the simple establishment of respiratory protection measures helps reduce the risk
of an optimum patient-professional relationship contri- of exposure. The dental professional must avoid inha-
butes to minimize the stress and nervousness associa- ling the infectious droplets by wearing a protective face
ted to dental treatment. The critical moments of dental mask.
treatment in which an asthma attack can be triggered are OBSTRUCTIVE SLEEP APNEA SYNDROME (OSAS)
immediately after local anesthetic injection and those Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) results from
maneuvers that cause stress – such as extractions, sur- intermittent and repeated upper airway occlusion during
gery, or dental pulp removal in endodontic procedures sleep. Such occlusion results from inspiratory collapse
(8). Table 2 presents the recommended guidelines during of the pharyngeal walls, with complete (apnea) or par-
an asthma attack. tial interruption of the airflow (hypopnea). Such apneic
PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS or hypopneic episodes are of variable duration and have
Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the main causes of death a different effect upon cardiorespiratory homeostasis
throughout the world. Approximately one-third of the (14).
world population is infected with Mycobacterium tuber- Recent studies carried out in Spain have reported pre-
culosis (9-11). Tuberculosis can affect any body organ, valences of OSAS of between 4-6% in adult males and
though the lungs are the most common location. At first about 2% in women (15).
exposure to the bacterium (primary infection with the Regarding the physiopathology of OSAS, critical upper
Koch bacillus), the latter induces a characteristic granu- airway narrowing during sleep results in occlusion.
lomatous reaction (tuberculous follicle or granuloma). This phenomenon in turn is intensified in obese people
Oral tuberculosis: or individuals with other respiratory disorders such as
Oral mucosal lesions of TB are more common in young asthma or COPD. Following obstruction, the sleeping
patients (10). Only 0.05-5% of all cases of tuberculosis patient may attempt to increase the air inflow rate in or-

MANAGEMENT OF ASTHMA ATTACKS

1. Suspend the dental procedure and raise the patient to a comfortable position.
2. Establish and keep the airways free, and administer an inhalatory β2 agonist.
3. Administer oxygen with a mask. If no improvement is observed or the symptoms worsen, administer
subcutaneous epinephrine (1:1000 in solution, 0.01 mg/kg body weight, with a maximum dose of 0.3
mg).
4. Notify the emergency medical service.
5. Maintain adequate oxygen levels until the patient breathes regularly and/or medical help arrives (8).
Table 2. Management of asthma attacks.
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APPROACH TO FOREIGN BODY ASPIRATION

1. Raise the patient and instruct him or her to cough forcefully.
2. If breathing is affected (asphyxia, inspiratory stridor and the need to breathe with accessory muscle
support) and vigorous coughing proves ineffective, perform the Heimlich maneuver.
3. If this likewise proves ineffective, notify the emergency medical service immediately. While waiting
for patient transfer, apply vital support measures, including airway permeation by means of a crico-
thyroidotomy, where necessary.
4. If the airway is not affected, the swallowed object should be recovered to calm the patient.
Table 3. Approach to foreign body aspiration.

der to maintain the required oxygen supply, resulting in pending on the size, shape and flexibility of the object,
noisy, intense and increasing snoring that causes partial swallowing may pose only minimum risk or potentially
or complete awakening. This in turn leads to tiredness can prove fatal. Prevention is clearly the best approach
and drowsiness in the daytime (14), together with a se- in such cases, though adequate and rapid intervention in
ries of psychomotor effects that depend on the severity the event of accidental aspiration is essential for ensu-
of hypoxemia and the duration of drowsiness. ring patient safety.
At dental exploration, palpation of the muscles of the When a foreign body is aspirated into the oropharynx,
head and neck is indicated in order to identify possible the patient should sit up and be instructed to cough
masses or tumors that might be the cause of airway obs- forcefully. The immediate priority is to ensure that the
truction. Other possible contributing conditions are de- airways remain free. If breathing is affected, clearly
viation of the nasal septum (16), class II malocclusion, recognizable symptoms quickly develop, such as as-
large gonial angles, the size of the tongue and its base, phyxia, inspiratory stridor and the need to breathe with
and the oropharynx (size of the uvula, size and characte- accessory muscle support. If vigorous coughing is not
ristics of the soft palate tissues). effective, the Heimlich maneuver should be used: with
The dental professional is often directly implicated in the patient in the standing position, we grasp him or her
the management of patients with OSAS by preparing from behind with both arms. In this position we apply
and fitting oral devices designed to advance the mandi- pressure with one closed fist and the other hand cove-
ble, applying anterior and inferior mandibular traction ring the fist. The fist is positioned with the thumb over
(17). The basic purpose of these devices is to prevent the the abdomen, and we press firmly towards the center
base of the tongue from coming too close to the posterior of the stomach, immediately below the ribcage. If this
oropharyngeal region, where obstruction can result. maneuver likewise proves ineffective, the patient must
• Tongue retainer: this device positions the tongue in a be moved to the nearest emergency medical center as
cup or bubble located between the anterior teeth. The quickly as possible. While waiting for patient transfer,
tongue is not maintained in this position for long du- the dental professional should apply vital support mea-
ring sleep; as a result, this type of device is indicated sures, including airway permeation by means of a crico-
in patients with brief periods of apnea. thyroidotomy, where necessary.
• Mandibular advancing device: this element stabi- If the airway is not affected, the swallowed object should
lizes the mandible both vertically and horizontally. be recovered to thus calm the patient. If retrieval of the
It also keeps the tongue away from the pharyngeal object is not possible, the situation should be explained
wall, since mandibular protrusion induces relative to the patient, and due chest and abdominal X-rays and
advancement of the tongue (due to the insertion of clinical evaluation in the hospital will help identify the
the genioglossal muscle)(14,18). location of the object (19)(Table 3).
Given the relevance of respiratory disorders such as
OSAS, dental professionals should be able to promptly Conclusion
identify and treat the condition, thereby contributing to The main disease states that can give rise to respiratory
the integral management of these patients. problems during dental treatment procedures are COPD,
FOREIGN BODY ASPIRATION asthma, tuberculosis, OSAS and foreign body aspira-
Many dental materials and elements are of small size, tion. The dental professional must know these diseases
and when exposed to saliva it may be difficult to ma- in order to be able to offer effective and safe treatment,
nipulate them correctly. When the patient is placed in and must be able to recognize the oral and/or dental ma-
the supine or semi-raised position, such objects might nifestations that might arise.
be swallowed or aspirated into the oropharynx. De- Asthma attacks and foreign body aspiration are the two
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emergency situations that can be seen when treating pa-

tients of this kind. The intervention protocols applicable
to such situations are summarized in Tables 2 and 3.

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