School climate has recently received increased national attention among

researchers and educators as schools continue to refine practices to be more safe and engaging
(Freiberg, 1999; Thapa, Cohen, Guffey, & Higgins-D’Alessandro, 2013; Gordon, 2018).

Perry (1908) was the first researcher to explicitly write about school climate, and he noted that the
culture of a school affects both students’ abilities to learn and their overall

functioning. (Cohen et al, 2009; Gordon, 2018)

Thapa et al. (2013) stated that school climate is how students experience life at school.

School climate surveys administered to individuals working and learning within a school have become an
increasingly popular way of measuring school climate (Gordon, 2018)

Students, parents, educators and community members quickly begin to form judgments about the
experience of living and working in a school when they walk into one (School Climate Council, 2017).
This said experience is referred to as the school climate. The review of the related literature showed
how much the study on school climate has been given great importance; from the attempt to create a
universally accepted definiton for it, to the efforts exerted in order for educators from the different
sides of the world to start using the study on school climate for school improvement.

Cohen, Pickeral, and McCloskey (2009) suggested that this is likely the best way to assess school climate
perceptions of students or staff.

According to Thapa et al.

(2013) the concept of school climate appeared in the education literature as early as 1908, while the
theories about its relationship to academic and social outcomes for students have been tested since the
1970s. Simmilarly, Cimorelli (2017) wrote that research into school climate began in the early 1900's,
with Perry and Dewey in 1908 and 1916, while in the 1960's, Durkheim also began to study the concept
(Cimorelli, 2017 pg. 2). The researchers Haplin and Croft (1963) suggested the idea of systematically
studying about the impact of school climate on the students' learning and development.

Practitioners and researchers use different terms to describe school climate, for instance: personality,
learning atmosphere, relationships, atmosphere, feelings, and the most widely used definition today
'quality and character of school life' (Halpin and Croft, 1963; Moos, 1979; Freiburg, 1998; Heiberg, 1999;
Homana, 2006; Cohen et al., 2009). In the literature review of school climate by Cohen, McCabe,
Michelli, and Pickeral (2009) they wrote that “There is not one universally agreed-upon definition of
school climate”. However, the National School Climate Center (NSCC)

defines school climate as based on patterns of students', parents' and school personnel's experience of
school life and reflects norms, goals, values, interpersonal relationships, teaching and learning practices,
and organizational structures.

Second, a review of school climate research found that definitions of school climate “encompass just
about every feature of the school environment that impacts cognitive, behavioral, and psychological
development” Wang & Degol (2016) wrote in their study that the review of school climate research
showed that school climate encompass just about every feature of the school environment that impacts
the “cognitive, behavioral, and psychological development”. Meanwhile, the U.S. Department of
Education (2013) described school climate as “a multi-faceted concept that describes the extent to
which a school community creates and maintains a safe school campus, a supportive academic,
disciplinary, and physical environment, and respectful, trusting, and caring relationships throughout the
school community.”

According to Wheelock (2005) “individuals can perceive climate in their own unique way...the
perception of climate may be the climate for each individual in the school setting”.

Measuring perceptions of school climate of all individuals involved in the school is important (Kane et
al., 2016). The collective perceptions of the participants can be used to determine the whole climate of a
school. The gender, ethnicity, and age also affect an individual's perception of school climate (Mitchell &
Bradshaw, 2013). Therefore, when measuring perceptions of school climate, individual factors and
diversity should be considered (Kane et al., 2016).

According to Forster and Lopez (2013), the assessment of school climate has become an increasingly
important and valued aspect of district, state, and federal policy today. Initially, school climate was
conceived as a broad term for the perceptions of teachers to their general work environment (Hoy,
1990). Therefore, questionnaire for teachers was first developed. When the researchers recognized that
the teachers' perceptions are not enough to mirror the school climate, the began to develop
questionnaires for the parents, principals abd students. Gersser and Wolf Jr. (1983) noted that no study
on school life could be considered complete without the information that can be supplied directly from
one of the best data sources available, the recipients of educational process. This was supported by
Preble and Gordon (2011) by suggesting that without the diverse perspectives of students, adults will
not fully understand the school climate and learning issues.

In the review of the related studies, the researchers found little amoun of study of school climate in the
Philippines. One study that they found was the work of John Paul R. Gorgonio (2017). For Gorgonio,
school climate reflects the quality of life in an educational institution that is experienced not only by the
students but also by the parents, teachers and administrators. He conducted a study of school climate in
the University of San Carlos–North Campus. The title of his study is 'School Climate Determinants:
Perception and Implications'. Gorgonio concluded that attaining the best quality of school climate is a
collective effort between the stakeholders such as the school leaders, teachers, staff, parents, students,
and those in the top management. Gorgonio also added that the implementation of new education
program—which is the K-12 curriculum—provides a great reason for government to implement change
management in education in which all schools should adopt and embrace.

often people have troubles distinguishing school climate from other terms like school culture, school
environment, school personality and more. aside from the quality of school life, no other terms will be
used or mentioned in this research to avoid confusion.

As the study on school climate continues, new ideas arise, school climate is redefined, factors are
shaped over and over again, and more educators are becoming aware of its importance. Another field
of study was discovered as the researchers review the related literate. This field of study is known as the
Quality of School Life. School climate and the Quality of School life appeared to coincide in many areas;
with their definitions, determinants and questions included in the questionnaires. That is why in this
research, the researchers treated the two field of study the same. In addition, using the term Quality of
School Life and the existing studies with regards to it, the researchers can make it clear what they mean
about school climate, especially to the respondents.

The elements that comprise a school’s climate are diverse, ranging

from the quality of teacher–student interactions to characteristics

of the school’s physical and organizational structure, as well as perceived safety, and teaching and
learning practices (Cohen et al., 2009)

The first scholar to study this concept was Perry (1908), who examined the specific problems
confronting principals in city schools and

their effects on student learning; however, a systematic analysis of school climate did not begin

until the 1980s when organized research on school effectiveness began (Center for Social and

Emotional Education, 2010). (Kwong, no date)

Over the past three decades, researchers and educators have increasingly recognized the importance of
K–12 school climate. (Thapa et al, 2013)

Although early educational reformers such as Perry (1908), Dewey (1916), and Durkheim (1961)
recognized that the distinctive culture of a school affects the life and learning of its students, the rise of
systematic, empirical study of school climate grew out of industrial/organizational research coupled with
the observation that school-specific processes accounted for a great deal of variation in student
achievement (Anderson, 1982; Kreft, 1993; Purkey & Smith, 1983). (Thapa et al, 2013)

Following definition emerged from a collaborative "consensus" during discussionamong members o f

the National School Climate Council (NSCC no date) regarding healthy school climate. ‘When a school
climate is healthy, people feel socially,emotionally, and physically safe; they are engaged and respected;
students, families,and educators work together to develop and contribute to a shared school
vision;educators model and nurture an attitude that emphasizes the benefits and satisfactionfrom
learning; and everyone contributes to the operations o f the school and the care ofthe physical
environment.’

There are different terms used to refer to the domains that make up school climate, such as factors,
areas, dimension and determinants. There is no widespread agreement on a single set of domains that
make up overall school climate, nor is there

a common set of survey questions to measure it (Bradshaw et al. 2014)

However, to produce a valid measure of overall school climate, many researchers advocate including
multiple indicators from a range of domains that influence students’ overall school experience

Other research has emphasized how the climate of the classroom colors and shapes school climate
(Koth, Bradshaw, & Leaf, 2008). School climate and classrom climate are connected but are different
from each other. If a school climate is derived from the overall measurement of climate of a school,
classroom climate is focused in a classroom's climate. A school may be found as having a positive
climate but this does not mean that there are no teachers or no students who feel unsafe or unengaged.
Conversely, it is possible to find one classroom having a positive climate and the whole school having
negative climate.

“School climate is much like the air we breathe-it tends to go unnoticed until something is seriously

wrong.” Jerome Freiberg (1999:1)

Findings reveal that physical infrastructure, classroom management and scale of learning

measurement are details that contribute to improve learning satisfaction. In addition, it

was found that the syllabus and teachers’ communication skills contribute significantly to

learning satisfaction of the students. (Tamayo, no date)

Freiberg (1998) gives more weight on the participation of students in the process of developing a school
climate.

Welsh (2000) cautioned that neglect of school climate leads to eruption of violence and disorder in
schools.

Feeling safe—socially, emotionally, intellectually, and physically—is a fundamental human need

(Maslow, 1943). Feeling safe in school powerfully promotes student learning and healthy development
(Devine & Cohen, 2007). However, there is a great deal of research that has shown that many students
do not feel physically and emotionally safe in schools, largely as a result of breakdowns in the
interpersonal and contextual variables that define a school’s climate. (Thapa et al., 2013)

A study by Sticher showed that hypothesized that one way to investigate the complex relationships
suggested by broadly state school district goals is through the use of district-wide school climate data
generated from student perceptions

In fact, these persons that experience our educational system are the future leaders, the future of
tomorrow that will set the goals for the upcoming years and will be the protectors of the heritage from
yesteryear. In the early school climate studies, the environment was assessed through the Needs Press
Theory. This theory was developed by Lewin in 1936 through the field theory and was enhanced by
Murray in 1938 and Stern, Stein and Bloom in 1956. In this theory, it assumes that as human beings we
have needs. Our needs often influence our behaviour. The theory assesses the Press of the environment
which can exert some influence on the individual. The press however, can either satisfy or dissatisfy our
needs. (Baynes, 2009)

Positive school climates achieve two goals. First, a positive

school climate motivates and engages students in learning, and

staff in teaching. Second, a positive school climate creates condi-

tions that reduce or eliminate the barriers to learning confronting

a great number of students. Schools with positive school climates

provide “learning supports,” a term used to refer to the resources,

strategies, and practices that foster students’ physical, social, emo-

tional, and intellectual development (Austin et al., 2011)

When asked what physical factors would make their learning environments more effective, teachers
cited more natural light, more storage space, writable surfaces and regulated temperature. Teachers are
also voicing concerns about school design (Smarter Spaces, 2016)

To conduct this literature review we adopted the following method. First, we consulted a group of
experts in the field2 of school climate research and gathered their feedback on dimensions and
subdimensions on which this review should be grounded. As a result, we finalized five dimensions of
school climate listed previously. Second, with helpful feedback from those experts, we collected all
papers, books, and reports they recommended that relate to school climate research from 1970 to date.
Once we had a list of these resources, we examined all the citations used in those studies and then
compiled a list of studies that were relevant to school climate research. In addition, we also focused on
literature reviews and meta-analyses on school climate research and cross-examined them for relevant
citations. Third, we conducted a comprehensive search for papers, articles, and reports on school
climate on Google Scholar. This search was conducted for (a) school climate in general, (b) each of the
five major dimensions of school climate listed previously, and (c) other related areas of school climate.
To conclude, we then finalized a list of more than 200 references relevant for this review. Out of these
citations, approximately 5% are experimental studies, 45% are correlational studies, 25% are literature
reviews, and 25% are other descriptive studies, including qualitative studies, mostly published in peer-
reviewed journals.

Most studies support the view that school climate is multi-dimensional. (Greenberg, 2004)

The gender and year level have major influences on the social development of young people, this is
shown in the research of Ainley (2004) which is entitled "Individual and school influences on
interdependence". In this study, students were asked to respond to a set of items about the
environment of their school. The result showed that the responses of the students were affected by
their year level, gender and school plans (intention to complete secondary school), and that in all cases,
the differences between year levels are statistically significant. Moreover, Ainley added that school
environments that are supportive, challenging and stimulating exist where students feel that they
belong and where there are multiple points of engagement. According to the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2012), boys in most cases have an advantage with
regard to access to education over girls; but girls often outperform boys once they make it into
schooling, both in terms of educational progression and academic performance.

While some principals in this study were more intentional in promoting

positive school climate than others, staff and students in all schools identified the principal as the

fundamental agent of change in school climate. Consistency and Sense of Fairness is Important.
Principals/Administrators are pivotal to defining, promoting, and sustaining a
positive school climate. In a study conducted by Smith, Connolly & Ptyseki (2014)

For the present study, school

climate is defined to reflect the individual and subjective nature of this concept. Organizational variables
are viewed for this study from the students’ perspectives, such as their perceptions of safety, teaching
and learning, and the expectations in their school.

Feeling safe in school powerfully promotes student learning and healthy development (Devine & Cohen,
2007)

complex variety of factors

and forces shape the quality and character of school. However, it is clear that one of the single most
important “forces” is the school leader: theprincipal. (Cohen at al, 2009)

The authoritative school climate theory is gaining support as an emerging model of school climate (Bear,
Yang, Mantz, et al., 2014; Cornell et al., 2015). Authoritative school climate theory suggests that school
environments are most positive when schools provide both structure and support (Bear, Yang, Mantz, et
al., 2014; Gregory & Cornell, 2009; Gregory, Cornell, & Fan, 2012). This means that students would
ideally perceive that fair rules and procedures are in place, but also that they feel connected to and
supported by adults. (Gordon, 2018)

In the review of the related literature, the researchers found studies that mentions both the school
climate and the quality of school life.

The patterns of norms, goals, values, and interactions that shape relationships in schools provide an
essential area of school climate.comparing teachers’ perceptions to students’ perceptions is also an
important aspect to consider with regard to teaching and learning. School climate—by definition—
reflects students’, school personnel’s, and parents’ experiences of school life socially, emotionally,
civically, and ethically as well as academically. (Thapa et al, 2013)

Additionally, previous work has found significant differences in school climate perceptions by gender

(Mitchell et al., 2010) and by race (Bear, Yang, Mantz, & Harris, 2017). [Gordon, 2018]
Discipline problems also can contribute to a poor school climate.Although school climate has been
studied for a long time, researchers have yet to develop a common definition. Most often cited,
however, is a definition developed by the National School Climate Center NSCC: “School climate refers
to the quality and character of school life. School climate is based on patterns of students', parents' and
school personnel's experience of school life and reflects norms, goals, values, interpersonal
relationships, teaching and learning practices, and

organizational structures. A sustainable, positive school climate fosters youth development and

learning necessary for a productive, contributing and satisfying life in a democratic society” (retrieved
from the NSCC website November 26, 2013) (see Appendix A for Full Framework). (Smith, Connolly &
Ptyseki (2014)

Investing their time and effort in creating an encouraging environment can be a proactive approach that
will result in effective and positive outcomes for all (Lee & Piscatelli,

2011; and NSCC, 2013).

Students play a key role in setting the climate of a school. When students are full partners in the
development of policies and practices that directly affect them, they are afforded a

real-life opportunity to practice their leadership skills (Freiberg, 1998; The NSCC, 2013).

These findings highlight the fact that school climate is challenging to

define, and one reason is that there are many interrelated elements of climate that are difficult to
isolate and manipulate. This also implies, however, that improving one dimension of school climate can
strongly affect all others. (Durham et al, 2014) pg12

Howard, Howell, and Brainard

(1987) simply describe a school with positive climate as “… a good place to be.”

The culture influences the way teachers, students, and administrators think, feel, and act (Peterson &
Deal, 2002).

The physical conditions of a learning environment have a direct impact on the quality of education, and
on the wellbeing and health of students and staff. The physical space and equipment must correspond
to the requirements of educational policies and programs, including availability of textbooks, stationery
and other teaching materials (Unte for education)
Most interesting in what we observed in the schools was that many strategies to improve school climate
had no cost or were of a minimal cost. (Smith,Connoly, & Pryseki, 2014)

Use of alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drugs in theschool-aged population:Use of these substances affects
the health ofstudents and students who are unhealthy do not learn well. High levels of use can also be
an indicator of anti-social and illegal behaviour.

EQAO’s StudentQuestionnaires, which are administered as part ofthe assessments, for example, include
a number ofattitudinal items. Students must believe that schoolis a safe and welcoming place if they are
to learnthere.

The results suggest schools that

provide orderly social environments may lead to betterclassroom learning and higher levels of both
student satisfaction and academic performance. (pg. 19)

School facilities play a significant role in shaping students’ learning processes (Chan, 1996).

Baltimore City Public Schools

Baltimore uses the School Climate Walk tool to conduct observational

assessments of the school environment. the observations include Student/Staff Interaction, Physical
Environment, and school entrance. ((co-authored by the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
(LDF).

Taken together, these analyses underscore the role of

teacher and peer support, opportunities for student auton-

omy, and clarity and consistency in school rules and

regulations in the psychological and behavioral health of

students during the middle school years. We must take

students’ perceptions of school seriously as they consis-

tently appear to be significantly associated with students’

health and wellbeing. (Way, Reddy, Rhodes 2007)

The information from a school climate assessment can be analyzed and translated into an improvement
plan or action template.
A positive school climate can also have a positive impact on teachers and their working lives just as a
positive organisational climate can benefit employees, increase their job satisfaction and affect their
productivity (Lazear, 2000).

Since school climate is composed of multiple dimensions, it could be

argued that many people are responsible for establishing or changing it. However, a consensus has
emerged among researchers that the person most influential in determining or altering the climate of a
school is the principal (Ellis, 1988; cited in Wheelock, 2005).

This study affirms the importance of school climate for both teachers’ and students’ experiences.
(Hennessey, 2017)

School climate is a holistic concept which encompasses four domains: safety, interpersonal
relationships, teaching and learning, and the school environment. Improvement across these domains
positively impacts student academic outcomes, and the mental health and wellbeing of

the whole school community. (The Association of Independent Schools of New South Wales Limited,
2017)

Feeling safe at school, whether physically, socially or emotionally, is recognised as a powerful factor in
student development, wellbeing and learning. (The Association of Independent Schools of New South
Wales Limited, 2017)

Because climate is subjective, collective, contextual, and dynamic, no two school climates are the same
and no school’s climate remains the same over time. This suggests the need to measure school climate
regularly. (The Association of Independent Schools of New South Wales Limited, 2017)

Creating positive school conditions and climates ensures that all students attend schools where they feel
cared for, valued, safe, connected, and have access to proper facilities and

resources California Department of Education 2017

Teachers play an important role in providing learning experiences and opportunities that develop and
shape the character and wellbeing of children and young people (NSW Department of Education and
Communities, 2015) the quality of school life is also influenced by various factors: in particular, student’s
characteristics, academic success, age, sex, family characteristics, relations with friends,socioeconomic
status, school expectations and academic motivation (Leonard, 2002; Mok & Flynn, 2002; Ghotra et al.,
2016, cited in Ereş& Bilasa, 2016).

School climate is a term that has been used for many decades. Its early use

denoted the ethos, or spirit, of an

organization. Steve Gruenert, 2008

The students who establish positive relations with their peers at school and are respected by their
friends are happier at school (Smith & Sandhu, 2004).

Loukas, Suzuki and Horton (2006), define climate as “the quality and frequency of interpersonal
interactions, school climate is a multidimensional construct

encompassing interpersonal, organizational and instructional dimensions” (p. 491)

The word climate magically evokes the question, “How does it feel?” (Spicer, 2016)

School climate reflects the physical and psychological aspects of the school that are more susceptible to
change and that provide the preconditions necessary for teaching and learning to take place. (Tableman,
2004)

Research has shown that in order to ensure students’ success and resilience, it is essential to develop a
positive school climate. (Hierck & Peterson, 2017).

School provides the opportunities for children to learn and grow academically and socially, and lays
critical foundations for a productive and healthy adult life (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
2015).

On a basic level, there are two approaches to assessing climate: indirect and direct measures. Indirect
measures include existing information such as student attendance, frequency of discipline, and
documentation of the physical school grounds. On the other hand, direct measures involve information
gathered from other sources such as surveys, interviews, and focus groups. The information obtained
through the direct measures taken from various stakeholders (students, teachers, support staff,
administrators, parents, and community) will provide the most insight. (walters)

There is not one universally agreed upon definition of school climate (Dernowska, 2017)

A plethora of research cites ways in which men and women differ in wants, perceptions, and views on
love, sex, and relationships. But how do men and women perceive the relationships portrayed on
television? Do they scrutinize one gender

differently than another?

The degree to which students feel accepted by and a part of their school community is another
important indicator of school climate and is related to a number of educational outcomes (Kosciw, 2012)

If a student does not have good communication with his or her teachers, other students and managers,
and feels no value at school, or thinks that the school would not create any future chance in academic
and social fields, and feels no attraction towards the social activities at school, such student would have
negative perception about the quality of school life (Sarı, Ötünç, & Erceylan, 2007)

School managements and school leaders effect on school achievement (Tunç & Beşaltı, 2014)

There is no successful school

climate improvement initiatives, and there will be no schools with honoring, respectful, positive climate
without mutual understanding and commitment both sides: teachers and students. (Dernowska, 2017)

The studies on school climate emphasize that school climate enhances the quality of students’ school
life (Freiberg, 2003).

Sociodemographically, the studies identify that characteristics such as age, gender and ethnicity are
factors that shape the student’s school climate perception. (Solis et al, 2016)

The more students feel that school rules and policies are handled fairly and consistently among all
members of the school community, the lower the rate of behavioral problems in school.
 Feeling of safety is essential.

Perceptions of positive relationships with others in the school,

including student-student support and teacher- student support is

consistently significant. (Manning & Booth)

While positive school climate is clearly beneficial for all individuals involved in schools, having a negative
school climate, naturally, has adverse effects (Kane et al 2016)

Schools are also hierarchical organizations. The board of education is usually placed at the top of the

hierarchy, followed by the superintendent, the principals and the teachers. In terms of the
responsibility, students are responsible to teachers; principals are responsible to the superintendent,
and the superintendent responsible to the board of education (Gunbayi, 2007)

Some schools assess the school climate as often as four

times a year. (Tubbs & Garner, 2008)

According to C. Christensen and

colleagues (2006, p. 74), the following factors influence school’s climate:

(1) school vision and mission statement, (2) faculty and staff work relationships,

(3) type of communication, (4) principal’s behavior and leadership style,

(5) faculty and staff ’s feeling of trust and respect for leadership.

For the gender variable, the females report better school climate that their classmates, specifically in
aspects related to consistency and fairness of the school rules. (Solis et al, 2016)

School climate is an important construct for the development of the students and the rest of the
members of the school community. (Solis et al. 2016)

STUDENT LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT- The keystone of a positive school climate is a motivating and engaging student learning
environment wherein adults expect and support students’ optimal achievement, regardless of race,
ethnicity, or gender.(Austin et al., 2011)

MOTIVATION AND CONNECTEDNESS-

In order to achieve rigorous academic goals, students need not only a challenging and engaging
curriculum, but they need to be emotionally connected to their learning. Schools

also need to engage students by promoting a sense of belonging or connectedness to the school.
(austin)

More specifically, the NSCC believes there are four essential dimensions of focus when exploringpositive
school climate6: 1. Safety (e.g. rules and norms; physical safety; social-emotional safety);

2. Relationships (e.g. respect for diversity; school connectedness/engagement; social support;

leadership);

3. Teaching and Learning (e.g. social, emotional, ethical and civic learning; support for academic

learning; support for professional relationships);

4. Institutional Environment (e.g. physical surrounding)

Austin et al., 2011

1. Student Learning Environment (p. 6)

2. Motivation & Connectedness (p. 8)

3. Developmental Supports & Opportunities (p. 9)

4. Respect for Diversity, Instructional Equity, & Cultural Sensi-

tivity (p. 13)

5. Student Safety & Problem Behaviors (p. 15)

6. Organizational Supports (p. 20)

7. Physical Environment & Wellness (p. 23)

8. Staff Working Environment (p. 24)

For each of these eight topics, we introduce the research around

the topic and provide the Cal–SCHLS items that correspond with it
from each survey.

NEW JERSEY SCHOOL CLIMATE SURVEY

provided by the New

Jersey Department of Education (NJDOE)

Cerf, Gantwerk, Martz, and Vermeire 2012

• Physical Environment;

• Emotional Environment;

• Teaching and Learning Capability;

• Relationships;

• Community Engagement; and

• Morale in the School Community.

Modified-Delaware School

Climate Survey-Student (M-DSCS-S) The originalDSCS-S (Bear et al., 2011) consisted of 23items and five
subscales: Teacher–Student Relations (8 items), Student–Student Relations (4 items), Liking of School (4
items), Fairness ofRules (4 items), and School Safety (3 items).Students responded to the items using a
4-itemLikert scale, with 1 -Strongly Disagree, 2 -Disagree, 3 -

Agree, and 4 -Strongly Agree (cited in Yang, 2013)

Components of school climate (Ohio Department of Education)

Physical, social, affective, academic

Given that young people spend the majority of their day at school, the tone within the school walls has a
major impact on shaping students’ lives. The school climate can either reinforce the negative outside

world or help students grow and learn to shape their own world. School can be a place where student
voices are heard and respected, or an oppressive reflection of harsh social conditions. (Center for
School, Health and Education, 2011)

Bullying affects everyone in a school; teachers and administrators need to address bullying so that all
students are comfortable attending school (American Federation of Teachers, n date)
Dimensions of School Climate

Different dimensions or aspects o f school climate are listed by different researchers.Although numerous
lists appear in the literature there is significant amount o f overlap as can be seen from the following
descriptions by different researchers.Jonathan Cohen (2007) states that virtually all researchers suggest
that there are fourmajor areas that need attention, when we speak about school climate:
safety;relationships; teaching and learning; and, the environment. He gives sub dimensionsand
indicators for each one o f them.

School-level E nvironm ent Q uestionnaire by Rentoul & Fraser has eight dimensions:Affiliation, student
supportiveness, professional interest, achievement orientation formalization, centralization,
innovativeness, and resource adequacy. Thus usefulinformation regarding school climate can be
obtained through scientific measurement.

Focus on school-wide climate not just bullying. Effective approaches to addressing bullying focus on
improving school climate as a key approach to prevent bullying in addition to teaching adults and
students skills to appropriately respond to bullying when it occurs. Given the importance of school
climate in bullying prevention, we recommend that districts and schools focus on measuring school
climate rather than narrowly focusing on measuring bullying. Studies show that students are more likely
to be bullied based on perceived race/ethnicity,

sexual orientation, gender expression, and disability. (Colorado Bullying Prevention Working Group,
2012)

In a study conducted by Jess Hennessey (2017), where in 5 dimensions of school climate were used
namely leadership, expec-

tations, collaboration, and safety, the school safety dimension of school climate had the strongest
relationship with student achievement.

The South Carolina School Climate Score (SC-SCS) provides a school-level description of several factors
that areknown to influence student safety and learning success in schools. South Carolina Education
Oversight Committee (EOC) surveys for students and school-level discipline referral

incidence data. SC-SCS values can potentially range from 0 to 100, with higher scores representing more

positive learning environments. The SCS is calculated by computing the average of three domains: (1)

Engagement (33.3%); (2) Safety (33.3%) and (3) Environment (33.4%). These domains are themselves
each
measured by two to three subdomains, as listed below.

1. Engagement (33.3%)

o Relationship Quality (3 survey items)

o Home-School Relationships (7 survey items)

o Low Truancy (3 truancy incidence indicators)

2. Safety (33.3%)

o Perceived Safety (3 survey items)

o Physical Safety (16 incidence indicators)

Low Crime Incidence Rate (12 incidence indicators)

Low Fighting Incidence Rate (2 incidence indicators)

Low Bullying Incidence Rate (2 incidence indicators)

3. Environment (33.4%)

o Physical Environment (4 survey items)

o Learning Environment (5 survey items)

o Disciplinary Environment (5 survey items/2 incidence indicators)

Positive Student Behavior (2 survey items)

Rule Clarity/Fairness (3 survey items)

Low Suspension Incidence Rate (1 incidence indicator)

Low Expulsion Incidence Rate (1 incidence indicator)

The subdomains and underlying indicators are weighted such that the survey and referral incidence
measuresaccount for 85 and 15 percent, respectfully, of the total SCS. Scores were not calculated if the
student surveyresponse rate was less than 50 percent in theschool.

School climate was represented using four measures: safety at school, connectedness to teachers,
connectedness to school, and peer support. (Lester & Cross, 2015)

School climate includes elements of safety, engagement,

relationships, teaching and learning, and environment, and can be measured at the school

and classroom levels. (Osher, 2017)

a supportive, caring approach from teachers is a core central

component of climate that should be included in future research and practice definitions and
measurements. (Berkowitz et al., 2016)

Areas that have recently been studied within the larger construct of school climate include supportive

relationships and behavioral norms in school (Hopson, Schiller, and Lawson 2014); school connectedness

(LaSalle et al. 2016); school leadership, accountability, safety, and respect (McCormick et al. 2015); and

security, discipline, disorder, student–teacher relationships, and procedural justice (Peguero and Bracy
2014). These areas identified within the larger construct of school climate are often referred to as
“domains.” There is no widespread agreement on a single set of domains that make up overall school
climate, nor is there

a common set of survey questions to measure it (Bradshaw et al. 2014). However, to produce a valid
measure of overall school climate, many researchers advocate including multiple indicators from a range
of domains that influence students’ overall school experience. The National Center on Safe Supportive
Learning Environments’ (NCSSLE) Safe and Supportive Schools Model displayed in figure 1, outlines a
three–domain model of school climate in which each domain is assessed as a scale comprising measures
from three or more topics (NCES 2015). In this model positive school climate involves the following
three topics; Safety—students are safe from violence, bullying harassment, and substance use during
school and school related activities;

Environment – appropriate facilities, well-managed classrooms, available school-based health supports

and a

clear, fair disciplinary policy; and Engagement—strong relationships between students, teachers,
families, and schools as well as strong connections between schools and the community. When listing
validated survey tools to aid in the assessment of school climate, NCSSLE included the National Center
for Education Statistics’ (NCES) School Crime Supplement (SCS) as a source that can be used to assess
multiple school climate topics.While the creation of a three-domain school climate score is viable, it is
important to note that because the focus of the SCS is on

school crime, it does not have items that assess the topics Cultural and Linguistic Competence,
Emotional

Safety, Emergency Readiness/Management, Physical Environment, and Physical and Mental Health. The
SCS has been administered 11 times since 1989 to youth ages 12 through 18 attending grades 6 through

12( all Lessne et al., 2018)

M oos (1979) has divided school climate as a social atmosphere into three categories:

• R elationship, which includes involvement, affiliation with others in theclassroom, and teacher
support.
• Personal grow th or goal orientation, which includes the personal

development and self-enhancement o f all members o f the environment.

• System m aintenance and system change, which includes the orderliness of theenvironment, the
clarity o f the rules, and the strictness o f the teacher inenforcing the rules.

Fear of victimization in schools also influences students’ attendance, such that students are more likely
to avoid school activities or places, or even school itself, due to fear of attack or harm (Hutzell and
Payne, 2016).

The U.S. ED’s Safe and Supportive

Schools model presents three

interrelated domains: Safety, Student Engagement, and School Environment (Bradshaw et al., 2014).

As with the overall definition, there is no consensus surrounding what elements are essential to
defining, measuring, and improving school climate.

Following definition emerged from a collaborative "consensus" during discussionamong members o f

the National School Climate Council (NSCC no date) regardinghealthy school climate. ‘When a school
climate is healthy, people feel socially,emotionally, and physically safe; they are engaged and respected;
students, families,and educators work together to develop and contribute to a shared school
vision;educators model and nurture an attitude that emphasizes the benefits and satisfactionfrom
learning; and everyone contributes to the operations o f the school and the care ofthe physical
environment.’

Therefore it is essential to record comprehensive meaningful information regardingschool climate

elements accurately and make it available to the educators. So that it canbe used to promote
meaningful interactions among staff, family, and students. It is alsouseful to enhance the
social,emotional, ethical, civic, and intellectual skills anddispositions that contribute to success in school
and in life.

Educationists and school authorities can use such school climate data as a

complementary form of assessment. There are three important ways in which educatorscan use school
climate data to support education. First is Guiding School ImprovementEfforts by providing information
about both the academic and the nonacademic aspectso f school life. Second is to understand school
climate findings, dig deeper, prioritizegoals, and create an action plan. Third is Promoting School-Family-
Community Partnerships by interpreting school climate data to recognize how families andcommunity
members see the school's strengths, weaknesses, and needs. Thuseducationists and school authorities
can sincerely appeal for enhanced help and supportfrom others to work together to make school
community even better.

Review o f multiple efforts for assessment of School Climate indicates that correctassessment o f school
climate can be obtained from the relatively enduring pattern ofshared perceptions about the
characteristics o f school as an organization from itsmembers.The shared perceptions o f climate
represent what most people believe, and not theindividual's personal reactions to the environment.
These shared perceptions tend to bepersistent and stable over time (Keefe, Kelley, & Miller, 1985).
School climate needs tobe regularly evaluated with measures developed in a scientific manner and
thatcomprehensively assess all o f the school climate dimensions or elements.

Jonathan Cohen (2007) states that school climate are best measured by polling allmembers o f the
school community about their perceptions o f school life. Therefore itmay be stated that measurement
o f school climate involves responses from a group ofpersons.

School Clim ate Q uestionnaire prepared by Vessels has different versions for middleschool and high
school level. Version for middle school has four subscales relating to

pro-social emotion, attitudes, skills and action, contains 80 items. Whereas version forhigh school has
eleven subscales, contains 155 items.

NASSP School Climate Survey developed by National Association o f SecondarySchool Principals includes
ten subscales on teacher-student relationships, security and

maintenance, administration, student academic orientation, student behavioral values,guidance,

student/peer relationships, parent and community-school relationships,

instructional management, student activities. It contains questions for Student, teacherand parent.

School-level E nvironm ent Q uestionnaire by Rentoul & Fraser has eight dimensions:

Affiliation, student supportiveness, professional interest, achievement orientation,formalization,

centralization, innovativeness, and resource adequacy. Thus useful

information regarding school climate can be obtained through scientific measurement.

As these theories explain, schools provide broader context or backdrop for development. They provide
the stage upon which development gets played out. Some times in the form of face to face interactions
in micro-system which refer to relationship dimension of school climate. They include important aspects
of the school climate like students and adults mutual support and ongoing communication; their morale,
parental involvement, teacher networks involving communication among teachers. And some times as a
part of socio-cultural systems and forces inside the school which refer to structural dimension of school
climate. They include many vital

parts of the school climate like physical aspects namely class size, building decor, furniture
arrangements, orderliness and cleanliness, displays of student work.

Existing nature of school climate dimensions decide to what extent students’ needs are satisfied. When
students’ basic psychological needs safety, belonging, autonomy, and
competence are satisfied, they are more likely to: • Become engaged in school. • Act in accord with
school goals and values. • Develop social skills and understanding.

• Contribute to the school and the community. When schools fail to meet these students’ needs
students are more likely to become: • Less motivated* More alienated

• Poorer academic performers. Thus positive outcomes of need satisfaction are engaged, contributing
students and other adults present in a positive school climate. This suggests the need for inviting school
climate with plenty of opportunities for active participation.

Schools provide such opportunities in the form of different co-curricular and extra-curricular activities.
Researchers have tried to analyse the effects of such activities offered in the school set-up. Eccles and
Templeton (2002) reviewed several studies and

identified the components of extracurricular and other out-of-school experiences that can facilitate the
cognitive, psychological, and social aspects of positive youth

development. They found amazing convergence in the findings and diversity of methods used to gather
the data. Researchers predict more beneficial outcomes for

participation in constructive leisure precisely because constructive leisure provides opportunities (a) to
acquire and practice specific social, physical, and intellectual skills

that may be useful in a wide variety of settings, including school; (b) to contribute to

the well-being of one's community and to develop a sense of agency as a member of that community;
(c) to belong to a socially recognized and valued group; (d) to establish supportive social networks of
both peers and adults that can help in the

present as well as the future; and (e) to experience and deal with challenges. When analyzing school
climate and its effect on students Garrido, Cobb, and Jackson (2004)

state that, several aspects of the academic environment need to be taken into account, including events
outside of the classroom. These extra curricular opportunities can

increase sociability, improving ties between students. Friendships made within the school can also lead
to a sense of school pride.

The adolescent years represent a critical period in human development during which young people work
toward establishing independence and during which contexts outside of the family become more
important. Primarily students of this age are part of secondary schools.

School climate is a widely studied concept. It is defined by many researchers. All thedefinitions suggest
that school climate is multi dimensional in nature and it is arelatively stable phenomenon which is
largely unaffected by changes in the student andteacher population.

According to Hargreaves (2000), professional behaviours refer to efforts for increasing the quality of
activities and setting high standards in a profession. Professional teacher behaviours enhance the quality
of instruction and student achievement (Barrett, 2008; Cohen & Hill, 2000; Guskey, 1986).
teachers' professional behaviours reduce the differences among students who have socioeconomic
disadvantages (OECD [Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development], 2016).

teachers' professional behaviours are positively related to the practices towards increasing the quality of
education (Cohen & Hill, 2000), classroom management (Guskey, 1986), and student learning (Hoque,
Alam & Abdullah, 2011; McDonald, Son, Hindman & Morrison, 2005; Poekert, 2012)

Professional learning communities have an important place in ensuring school effectiveness (Cansoy &
Parlar, 2017)

A healthy school culture, collaboration and professional

development in schools can enable teachers to focus on student achievement (Cohen & Brown, 2013)

The National School Climate Standards present a vision and framework for a positive and sustainable
school climate. They complement national standards for Content, Leadership, and Professional
Development and the Parent Teacher Association’s National Standards for Family School Partnerships
Standards.

This framework is comprised of five standards that support effective school climate improvement
efforts:

1. The school community has a shared vision and plan for promoting, en-

hancing and sustaining a positive school climate.

2. The school community sets policies specifically promoting (a) the devel-

opment and sustainability of social, emotional, ethical, civic and intellectual skills, knowledge,
dispositions and engagement, and (b) a comprehensive system to address barriers to learning and
teaching and reengage students

who have become disengaged.

3. The school community’s practices are identified, prioritized and supported to (a) promote the learning
and positive social, emotional, ethical and civic development of students, (b) enhance engagement in
teaching, learning, and school-wide activities; (c) address barriers to learning and teaching and re-
engage those who have become disengaged; and (d) develop and sustain an appropriate operational
infrastructure and capacity building mechanisms for meeting this standard.

4. The school community creates an environment where all members are welcomed, supported, and
feel safe in school: socially, emotionally, intellectually and physically.

5. The school community develops meaningful and engaging practices, activities and norms that
promote social and civic responsibilities and a commitment to social justice
from 251102pdf

There is abundant evidence that students have better social, behavioral, and emotional adjustment in
schools with a positive school climate (Bradshaw, Koth, Thornton, & Leaf, 2009; Gage, Larson, Sugai, &
Chafouleas, 2016;

Gottfredson, Gottfredson, Payne, & Gottfredson, 2005; Thapa, Cohen, Guffey, & Higgins-D’Alessandro,
2013). Students attending schools with a more positive climate engage in less bullying and other forms
of peer aggression (Gregory, Cornell, Fan, Sheras, Shih, & Huang, 2010; Wilson, 2004), are less likely to
participate in problem behaviors such as substance use and fighting (Fletcher, Bonell, & Hargreaves,
2008; Gottfredson et al., 2005; Loukas & Murphy, 2007; Wang & Dishion, 2011), and experience fewer
internalizing and externalizing problems (Hawkins, Oesterle, Brown, Abbott, & Catalano, 2014; Henrich,
Brookmeyer, & Shahar, 2005; Huang, Luebbe, & Flaspohler, 2015; Kuperminc, Leadbeater, & Blatt,
2001). Although most studies are correlational and cross-sectional, there are longitudinal studies and
intervention studies that provide stronger evidence of a causal link between school climate and student
adjustment (Bradshaw et al., 2009; Kidger, Araya, Donovan, & Gunnell, 2011; Sznitman & Romer, 2014).

Students held widely different views of their school climate, but the majority of students had

favorable perceptions of their school’s rules and disciplinary procedures. Students reported that their

school rules are fair (65%), that the punishment for breaking school rules is the same for all students

(60%), and that students are treated fairly regardless of their race or ethnicity (76%). Most students
(63%)

agreed that students get a chance to explain when they are accused of doing something wrong. A small
but noteworthy group of students felt that adults at their school were too strict (39%) and that students
were suspended without good reason (32%). Strong student engagement in school was reflected in the
high percentages of students who said

they liked school (83%), were proud to be a student at their school (81%), and felt like they belong at
their school (76%). Students overwhelmingly endorsed the idea that getting grades is important to them
(95%) and that they wanted to learn as much as they can (93%). When asked about their educational
aspirations, 98% of students expected to graduate from high school. The overwhelming majority (87%)
expected to obtain some form of post-secondary education, including two-year college (9%), four-year
college (38%) and post-graduate studies after graduating from a four-year college (40%).

Overall, students reported high academic expectations from their teachers. A large majority of students
said, “teachers expect me to work hard” (96%), “teachers want me to learn a lot” (91%), and “expect me
to attend college” (87%). A smaller proportion of students reported that teachers do not really care how
much they learn (24%). Most students (82%) reported that they feel safe in their school, but this appears
to be an area for improvement. One reason why some students might not feel safe is that 36% of all
students reported that bullying is a problem at their school and 35% reported being bullied once or
more per week at school during the current school year. A number of students reported that another
student stole something from them (33%), physically attacked, pushed, or hit them (18%), or threatened
to hurt them (23%) at school. Students were asked how they reacted to the worst time that they were
bullied or harmed at school. Only 28% of students told a teacher or another adult at school what
happened. Finally, it should be noted that the subjectivity of student perceptions of school climate
cannot be regarded as merely a source of error. Whether or not a student’s

perception is objectively accurate, his/her belief that teachers are unfair or unsupportive can have an
effect on the student’s academic performance and behavior in school. From this perspective, the
student’s

perception of school climate has validity even if it differs from some other more objective standard.
Surveys are administered on an anonymous basis in order to encourage broader participation and

more truthful responses.

(Cornell et al, 2016) pg 39-40

e U.S. Department of Education devised a Safe and Supportive Schools model of school climate model

with 13 components organized into domains of engagement, safety, and environment (Bradshaw,
Waasdorp, Debnam, & Johnson, 2014).