SECTION 2B

WHEEL ALIGNMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-1 Rear Toe Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-9
Wheel Alignment Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-1 General Description and System
Difference Between Left and Right . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-1 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-10
Fastener Tightening Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-1 Four Wheel Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-10
Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-2 Toe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-10
Tire Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-2 Caster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-10
Radial Tire Lead/Pull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-3 Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-10
Vibration Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-5 Steering Axis Inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-10
Preliminary Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-8 Included Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-10
Front Toe Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-8 Scrub Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-10
Front Camber and Caster Check . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-8 Setback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-10
Rear Camber Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-8 Turning Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2B-10

SPECIFICATIONS
WHEEL ALIGNMENT SPECIFICATIONS

Application Front Rear

Camber * 24i " 45i * 50i " 45i
Caster 3_ " 45i -
Toe-in (2-person load) 0_ " 10i 0_7i " 10i

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEFT AND RIGHT

Application Front Rear

Camber 1_ max 30i max.
Caster 1_ max -
Toe-in - 15i max.

FASTENER TIGHTENING SPECIFICATIONS

Application NSm Lb-Ft Lb-In

Rear Parallel Link-to-Crossmember Bolt 75 55 -

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2B - 2 WHEEL ALIGNMENT

DIAGNOSIS Tread Wear Indicators

The original equipment tires have built-in tread wear in-
dicators to show when the tires need replacement.
TIRE DIAGNOSIS These indicators appear as bands when the tire tread
Irregular and Premature Wear depth becomes shallow. Tire replacement is recom-
Irregular and premature tire wear has many causes. mended when the indicators appear in three or more
Some of them are incorrect inflation pressures, lack of grooves at six locations.
regular rotation, poor driving habits, or improper wheel
alignment. If the wheel alignment is reset because of tire
wear, always reset the toe as close to zero degrees as
the specification allows. Refer to ‘‘Rear Toe Adjustment’’
in this section.
Rotate the tires if:
D The front tire wear is different from the rear.
D The left and right front tire wear is unequal.
D The left and right rear tire wear is unequal.
Check wheel alignment if:
D The left and right front tire wear is unequal.
D The wear is uneven across the tread of either front
tire.
D The front tire treads are scuffed with ‘‘feather’’ edges
on the side of the tread ribs or blocks.

A106B002

Radial Tire Waddle

Waddle is side-to-side movement at the front or rear of
the vehicle. It is caused by the steel belt not being
straight within the tire, or by excessive lateral runout of
the tire or wheel. It is most noticeable at low speeds, 8 to
48 km/h (5 to 30 mph), but may appear as ride rough-
ness at 80 to 113 km/h (50 to 70 mph).
The vehicle must be road tested to determine which end
of the vehicle has the faulty tire. The rear end of the ve-
hicle will shake from side to side or ‘‘waddle’’ if the
waddle tire is on the rear of the vehicle. From the driver’s
seat, it feels as though someone is pushing on the side
of the vehicle. If the faulty tire is on the front of the ve-
hicle, the waddle is more visual. The front sheet metal
appears to be moving back and forth, and the driver’s
seat feels like the pivot point in the vehicle.
Waddle can be diagnosed using the method of substi-
tuting known good tire and wheel assemblies on the
problem vehicle.
1. Road test the vehicle to determine if the waddle is
coming from the front or the rear of the vehicle.
2. Install good tires and wheels from a similar vehicle in
place of those on the offending end of the problem ve-
A106B001
hicle. If the source of the waddle is not obvious,
change the rear tires.

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 WHEEL ALIGNMENT 2B -- 3
3. Road test the vehicle. If there is improvement, install RADIAL TIRE LEAD/PULL
the original tires to find the offending tire. If there is no
Lead/pull is the deviation of the vehicle from a straight
improvement, install good tires in place of all four of-
path on a level road with no pressure on the steering
fending tires.
wheel. Lead is usually caused by:
4. Install original tires one at a time to find the offending
D Incorrect alignment.
tire.
D Uneven brake adjustment.
D Tire construction.
The way in which a tire is built can produce lead/pull in
the vehicle. Off-center belts on radial tires can cause the
tire to develop a side force while the vehicle rolls straight
down the road. If one side of the tire has even a little
larger diameter than the diameter of the other side, the
tire will tend to roll to one side. Unequal diameters will
cause the tire to develop a side force which can produce
vehicle lead/pull.
The radial lead/pull diagnosis chart should be used to
determine whether the problem originates from an align-
ment problem or from the tires. Part of the lead diagno-
sis procedure calls for tire rotation that is different from
the proper tire rotation pattern. If a medium- to high-
mileage tire is moved to the other side of the vehicle, be
sure to check for ride roughness. Rear tires will not
cause lead/pull.
A106B003

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Radial Tire Lead/Pull Diagnosis Chart

Step Action Value(s) Yes No
1. Perform wheel alignment preliminary inspection.
2. Check the brakes for dragging.
1 -
3. Road test the vehicle.
Does the vehicle lead/pull? Go to Step 2 System OK
1. Cross switch the front tire and wheel assemblies.
2 2. Road test the vehicle. -
Does the vehicle lead/pull? Go to Step 3 System OK
Check the front wheel alignment. Adjust
3 - Go to Step 4 alignment
Is the alignment within specifications?
Compare the front camber and front caster to
4 specifications. _
Are they within specifications? Go to Step 7 Go to Step 5
Check the vehicle frame.
5
Is the frame bent? - Go to Step 6 Go to Step 1
Straighten the frame.
6
Is the repair complete? - Go to Step 3 -
1. The probable cause is the tires.
2. Switch the left front tire and wheel assembly with
7 the left rear tire and wheel assembly. -
3. Road test the vehicle.
Does the vehicle still lead/pull? Go to Step 9 Go to Step 8
Switch the left front tire and wheel assembly with the
left rear tire and wheel assembly and replace the left
8 front tire. -
Is the repair complete? System OK Go to Step 1
1. Switch the right front tire and wheel assembly
with the right rear tire and wheel assembly.
9 -
2. Road test the vehicle.
Does the vehicle still lead/pull? Go to Step 1 Go to Step 10
Switch the right front tire and wheel assembly with
the right rear tire and wheel assembly and replace
10 the right front tire. -
Is the repair complete? System OK Go to Step 1

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 WHEEL ALIGNMENT 2B -- 5

VIBRATION DIAGNOSIS Preliminary Checks

Wheel imbalance causes most highway speed vibration Prior to performing any work, always road test the car
problems. A vibration can remain after dynamic balanc- and perform a careful visual inspection for:
ing because: D Obvious tire and wheel runout.
D A tire is out of round. D Obvious drive axle runout.
D A rim is out of round. D Improper tire inflation.
D A tire stiffness variation exists. D Incorrect trim height.
Measuring tire and wheel free runout will uncover only D Bent or damaged wheels.
part of the problem. All three causes, known as loaded D Debris build-up on the tire or the wheel.
radial runout, must be checked using method of substi-
tuting known good tire and wheel assemblies on the D Irregular or excessive tire wear.
problem vehicle. D Improper tire bead seating on the rim.
Low-speed vibrations, which occur below 64 km/h D Imperfections in the tires, including: tread deforma-
(40 mph), are usually caused by runout. High-speed tions, separations, or bulges from impact damage.
vibrations, which occur above 64 km/h (40 mph), can be Slight sidewall indentations are normal and will not af-
caused by either imbalance or runout. fect ride quality.

A106B004

Tire Balancing Runout

Balance is the easiest procedure to perform and should Runout can be caused by the tire, the wheel, or the way
be done first if the vibration occurs at high speeds. Do the wheel is attached to the vehicle. To investigate the
an off-vehicle, two-plane dynamic balance first to correct possibility of wheel runout, refer to the following proce-
any imbalance in the tire and wheel assembly. dures as well as the wheel runout diagnosis chart in this
An on-vehicle finish balance will correct any brake drum, section:
rotor, or wheel cover imbalance. If balancing does not 1. If runout is suspected, measure the on-vehicle free
correct the high-speed vibration, or if the vibration oc- lateral and free radial runout of the tire and wheel as-
curs at low speeds, runout is the probable cause. sembly. Refer to Section 2E, Tires and Wheels. Both

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2B - 6 WHEEL ALIGNMENT
the free lateral and the free radial runout should be the vehicle, yet exceeds 1.3 mm (0.05 inch) when
less than 1.5 mm (0.06 inch). If either measurement measured on the vehicle, the attachment of the tire
exceeds this number, proceed to Step 2. and wheel assembly to the hub is the probable cause
2. Mount the tire and the wheel on a dynamic balancing of the vibration. Rotate the assembly’s two wheel
machine and remeasure the free lateral and the free studs and recheck the runout. Refer to Section 2E,
radial runout. Record the amount of the free lateral Tires and Wheels. Several positions may have to be
and the free radial runout and the location of the tried to find the best location for the studs.
highest measurement. Refer to Section 2E, Tires and 6. If the tire and wheel assembly free runout cannot be
Wheels. If the free radial or the free lateral runout ex- reduced to 1.3 mm (0.05 inch) or less, remove the as-
ceeds 1.3 mm (0.05 inch) at the tire tread, proceed to sembly.
Step 4. 6.1 Measure the wheel stud runout using a dial in-
3. Measure the wheel runout. Refer to Section 2E, Tires dicator set with a magnetic base.
and Wheels. If the wheel exceeds specifications, re- 6.2 Zero the dial indicator set button on one stud.
place it.
6.3 Gently lift the set button off the stud. Rotate
4. Deflate the tire and match-mount the high radial run- the flange to position the next stud against the
out point of the tire to the low radial runout point of the dial indicator set.
wheel. Reinflate the tire and mount it on the dynamic
6.4 Record the runout of all the studs. The dial in-
balancing machine. Measure and record the free ra-
dicator should read zero when it is reposi-
dial and the free lateral runout and their locations. In
tioned on the first stud that was checked.
many cases, match mounting the tire on the wheel
will bring the tire and wheel assembly’s free runout 6.5 If the runout exceeds 0.76 mm (0.03 inch), the
into an acceptable range of 1.3 mm (0.05 inch) or hub or the hub and bearing assembly should
less. be replaced.
5. If the free runout of the tire and wheel assembly is Whenever a tire is rotated on the wheel, or whenever a
1.3 mm (0.05 inch) or less when it was measured off tire or wheel is replaced, rebalance the assembly.

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 WHEEL ALIGNMENT 2B -- 7

Wheel Runout Diagnosis Chart

Step Action Value(s) Yes No
Road test the vehicle to verify the vibration
1 complaint. -
Are the customer’s concerns verified? Go to Step 2 System OK
1. Perform a vibration diagnosis preliminary check.
2 2. Repair any of the problems found. -
Is the vibration still present? Go to Step 3 System OK
Determine at what speed the vibration is present.
3
Is the vibration over 64 km/h (40 mph)? - Go to Step 4 Go to Step 6
Perform off-vehicle dynamic wheel balance.
4
Is the vibration still present? - Go to Step 5 System OK
Perform on-vehicle finish balance.
5
Is the vibration still present? - Go to Step 6 System OK
Perform free lateral and radial on-vehicle runout
6 check. 1.5 mm
Does the runout match the value specified? (0.06 in.) Go to Step 4 Go to Step 7
Perform free lateral and free radial off-vehicle runout
7 check. 1.3 mm
Does the runout match the value specified? (0.05 in.) Go to Step 8 Go to Step 12
1. Index the tire and wheel assembly on the wheel
studs.
8
2. Obtain the least amount of runout possible. 0.76 mm
Does the runout match the value specified? (0.03 in.) Go to Step 9 Go to Step 14
Perform off-vehicle dynamic wheel balance.
9
Is the vibration still present? - Go to Step 10 System OK
Perform on-vehicle finish balance.
10
Is the vibration still present? - Go to Step 11 System OK
1. Check for any engine driveline imbalance.
2. Thoroughly inspect the drive axles and the
11 constant velocity joints. - -
3. Repair any problems found.
Are the repairs complete? Go to Step 1
1. Match-mount the tire on the wheel.
2. Perform free lateral and free radial off-vehicle
12
runout check. 1.5mm
Does the runout match the value specified? (0.06 in.) Go to Step 9 Go to Step 13
1. Dismount the tire from the wheel of the suspected
assembly.
13
2. Measure the runout of the wheel. 0.8 mm
Does the runout match the value specified? (0.03 in.) Go to Step 15 Go to Step 16
Measure the hub flange runout. 0.76 mm
14
Does the runout match the value specified? (0.03 in.) Go to Step 9 Go to Step 17
Replace the tire.
15
Is the repair complete? - Go to Step 1 -
Replace the wheel.
16
Is the repair complete? - Go to Step 1 -
Replace the hub.
17
Is the repair complete? - Go to Step 1 -

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2B - 8 WHEEL ALIGNMENT

PRELIMINARY INSPECTION

Checks Action
Check the tires for proper inflation pressures and nor- Inflate the tires to the proper tire pressure. Replace
mal tread wear. the tires as needed.
Check the wheel bearings for looseness. Tighten the axle nut to the proper specification. Re-
place the strut wheel bearing as needed.
Check for loose ball joints and tie rod ends. Tighten the ball joints and the tie rods.
Check the runout of the wheels and the tires. Measure and correct the tire runout.
Check the vehicle trim heights. Correct the trim heights. Make the correction before
adjusting the toe.
Check for loose rack and pinion mounting. Tighten the mounting brackets for the rack and pinion
assembly.
Check for improperly operating struts. Replace the strut assembly.
Check for loose control arms. Tighten the control arm attachment bolts. Replace the
control arm bushings as needed.

FRONT TOE ADJUSTMENT FRONT CAMBER AND CASTER

Adjustment Procedure CHECK
1. Disconnect the outer tie rods from the knuckle assem- The front camber and caster are not adjustable. Refer
blies. Refer to Section 6C, Power Steering Gear. to ‘‘Wheel Alignment Specifications’’ in this section.
2. Turn the right and the left outer tie rods and the ad- Jounce the bumper three times before measuring the
juster nuts to align the toe to 0 degrees - 10 to +10 camber or the caster in order to prevent an incorrect
minutes. reading. If the front camber or caster measurements
deviate from the specifications, locate and replace or re-
3. Reconnect the outer tie rods to the knuckle assem- pair any damaged, loose, bent, dented, or worn suspen-
blies. Refer to Section 6C, Power Steering Gear. sion part. If the problem is body related, repair the body.
Notice: In this adjustment, the right and the left tie rods
must be equal in length, or the tires will wear unevenly. REAR CAMBER CHECK
The rear camber is not adjustable. Refer to ‘‘Wheel
Alignment Specifications’’ in this section. If the rear
camber deviates from the specification, locate the cause
and correct it. If damaged, loose, bent, dented, or worn
suspension parts are found, they should be repaired or
replaced. If the problem is body related, repair the body.

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 WHEEL ALIGNMENT 2B -- 9

REAR TOE ADJUSTMENT 4. Hold the parallel link adjustment cams and tighten the
parallel link-to-crossmember nuts.
Adjustment Procedure
1. Perform a preliminary inspection before any attempt Tighten
is made to change or correct the wheel alignment
factors. Refer to “Preliminary Inspection” in this Tighten the parallel link-to-crossmember bolts to
section. 75 NSm (55 lb-ft).
2. Loosen the nuts on the parallel link-to-crossmember
bolts.

B106D022

B106D022

3. Rotate the parallel link adjustment cams until the

preferred rear toe specification is obtained. Refer to
“Wheel Alignment Specifications” in this section for
preferred specifications.

B106B003

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2B -- 10 WHEEL ALIGNMENT

GENERAL DESCRIPTION CAMBER

Camber is the tilting of the top of the tire from the vertical
AND SYSTEM OPERATION when viewed from the front of the vehicle. When the
tires tilt outward, the camber is positive. When the tires
FOUR WHEEL ALIGNMENT tilt inward, the camber is negative. The camber angle
The first responsibility of engineering is to design safe is measured in degrees from the vertical. Camber in-
steering and suspension systems. Each component fluences both directional control and tire wear.
must be strong enough to withstand and absorb extreme If the vehicle has too much positive camber, the outside
punishment. Both the steering system and the front and shoulder of the tire will wear. If the vehicle has too much
the rear suspension must function geometrically with the negative camber, the inside shoulder of the tire will wear.
body mass. Camber is not adjustable.
The steering and the suspension systems require that
the front wheels self-return and that the tire rolling effort STEERING AXIS INCLINATION
and the road friction be held to a negligible force in order
to allow the customer to direct the vehicle with the least Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) is the tilt at the top of the
effort and the most comfort. steering knuckle from the vertical. Measure the SAI
angle from the true vertical to a line through the center of
A complete wheel alignment check should include the strut and the lower ball joint as viewed from the front
measurements of the rear toe and camber. of the vehicle.
Four-wheel alignment assures that all four wheels will be SAI helps the vehicle track straight down the road and
running in precisely the same direction. assists the wheel back into the straight ahead position.
When the vehicle is geometrically aligned, fuel economy SAI on front wheel drive vehicles should be negative.
and tire life are at their peak, and steering and perfor-
mance are maximized. INCLUDED ANGLE
The included angle is the angle measured from the
TOE camber angle to the line through the center of the strut
Toe-in is the turning in of the tires, while toe-out is the and the lower ball joint as viewed from the front of the
turning out of the tires from the geometric centerline or vehicle.
thrust line. The toe ensures parallel rolling of the wheels. The included angle is calculated in degrees. Most align-
The toe serves to offset the small deflections of the ment racks will not measure the included angle directly.
wheel support system which occur when the vehicle is To determine the included angle, subtract the negative
rolling forward. The specified toe angle is the setting or add the positive camber readings to the Steering Axis
which achieves 0 degrees of toe when the vehicle is Inclination (SAI).
moving.
Incorrect toe-in or toe-out will cause tire wear and re- SCRUB RADIUS
duced fuel economy. As the individual steering and sus- The scrub radius is the distance between true vertical
pension components wear from vehicle mileage,
and the line through the center of the strut and lower ball
additional toe will be needed to compensate for the
joint to the road surface. Scrub radius is built into the de-
wear.
sign of the vehicle. Scrub radius is not adjustable.
Always correct the toe dimension last.
SETBACK
CASTER The setback is the distance in which one front hub and
Caster is the tilting of the uppermost point of the steering bearing assembly may be rearward of the other front
axis either forward or backward from the vertical when hub and bearing assembly. Setback is primarily caused
viewed from the side of the vehicle. A backward tilt is by a road hazard or vehicle collision.
positive, and a forward tilt is negative. Caster influences
directional control of the steering but does not affect tire
wear. Weak springs or overloading a vehicle will affect
TURNING ANGLE
caster. One wheel with more positive caster will pull to- The turning angle is the angle of each front wheel to the
ward the center of the car. This condition will cause the vertical when the vehicle is making a turn.
car to move or lean toward the side with the least
amount of positive caster. Caster is measured in de-
grees and is not adjustable.

DAEWOO J-100 BL2 / BL3