Geometry
Geometry
Geometry
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© 1973 by Wadsworth Publishing Company,
Inc., Belmont, CaUfomia 94002. All rights
reserved. No part of 'this book may be In recent years, the traditional course in college geometry often
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system. or has been dropped, only to be replaced by other courses no more
transcribed, in any foml or by any means~ of
satisfactory. In some cases, the mistake has been made of throwing out
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, record- ty,
all of Euclidean geometry, both traditional and modern, whether it is of
ing, o'r otherwise-without the prior written of
permission of the publisher: Brooks/Cole continuing significance or not. The even worse mistake is sometillles
of
Publishing Company, Monterey, California. a made of assuming that students understand geometry simply because
ate
division of Wadsworth Publishing C-Ompany, '<:..
. they have taken some nongeometric course such as linear algebra.
:lIly
Inc. T believe that the traditional course in college geometry should
Ive-
ISBN: 0-81 85-005J-4 be replaced by an extensive course in modern geometry that includes
L.C. Catalog Card No: 72-79015 significant topics from modern Euclidean geometry. This text provides
Printed in the United States of America adequate material for such a two-semester or three-quarter course at the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-77 76 75 74 73 ' upper-division college level. The scope is broad but nol all-inclusive.
Material is presented from foundations of geometry. finite geq.metry. the The various chapters of the text are largely independent. This
modern Euclidean geoOletl:y -~f '~on~ex'ity~ modern ~~Il~ge geometry and the arrangement of topics within each chapter allow for great
(inch.iding constructions), and transformations. There are separate flexibility in their use, according to the needs of lhe class and the
chapters on projective geo.111etry, 1l0n-Euc1idea.n geometry, inver.~!ve desires of the instructor. The teacher who wishes only minimal coverage
geometry•. and "geo'metric topology. Within the various chapters ~-;.~ such may use just the first sections of. a chapter. The taler sections may
new and Intriguing topics as caroms and Morley's theorem, as well:;as be used for a more complete and rigorous course if time allows.
fascinating geometry stemming from consideration of the g91den ratio. While the entire text pro.vides adequate material for a two-
Throughout, the text emphasizes practical and .up-ta-date applications semester or three-quarter course itl modern geometry. sections of it are
I
of modern geometry. The student should be aware 'that many of these app~?priate for use in shorter courses. Some suggestions for such use
topics are discussed in current professional journals and that con- are .given below.
temporary research mathematicians are seriously involved in. the extension
l. Two-quarter course in survey of modern geometry:
of geometric ideas.
All of text except for Chapters 4. and 5; also possibly omit
Most of the geometry included in this text is s.Yflth~Ji_c ..r£l.!tter Sections 3.6 and 7.8-7.10 in Chapters 3 and 7.
t~.1an. al~~!r.t~t;. but many important ideas from analytic geometry ,are
2. One-semester course in Euclidean geometry:
used as needed. An introduction to the analytic appr9ach is provided
All sections through Section 5.3.
for transformations and for projective and inversive geometry.
J. One-semester course in survey of modern geometry:
The text is not 1:1 sweeping survey. Instead, each major topic is
Finite geometries, Chapters 2,3,7,8.
developed so that the student can become quite knowledgeable about
4. One-semester course in modern geometry, not induding Euclidean
the procedures, concepts, and proofs involved in the various geometries.
geometry:
The chapters actually present concise courses on each kind of geometry,
Finite geometries, Chapters '6, 7, 8, 9.
not just summaries of what each type is about.
5. One-quarter course in Euclidean geometry:
The text is written for students who range widely in their
All sections through 5.3, p6ssibiy omitting Sections 1.5, 1.6, 2.6.
mathematical abilities. Much of the material is appropriate for those
3.6, and 4.6.
who have average or weak backgrounds in geometry. an the other hand,
6. One-quarter course in survey of modern geometry:
students with strong backgrounds wilJ also find much to interest them.
Finite geometries, Chapters 2, 3, 7. 8, possibly omitting Sections 2.6,
The text is planned for both majors and minors in mathematics. It is
3.6, and 7.8-7.10.
appropriate for students interested in mathematics from the liberal arts
7. One-quarter cqurse in modern geometry, not including Euclidean
standpoint and for those planning to be teachers of mathematics.
geometry:
M~ny 0"[ the first exercises in each set can be used orally: as
Finite geometries, Chapters 7, 8, 9.
the basis for classroom discussion; in that way the instructor can n1~ke
certain that fundamental concepts are unctC;;.t&lQod. Later exercises allow I would like to express my appreciation to James Moser, of
extensive practice in providing independent proofs. i i: the University of Wisconsin, Bruce Partner, of Ball State University.
.. The~texi'encourages independent investigation so that the stuaent John Peterson. of Brigham Young University. Demitrios Prekeges, of
will have experience in using geometric intuition, makIng conject#res, Eastern Washington State College, Curtis Shaw, of the University of
~lIld then p,+oving fonnni theorems. Advanced theorems are sometjmes Southwestern Louisiana, and Marvin Winzenread, of California State
inserted without proofifthey contribute to the development of a topic. University, Hayward, for reviewing the manuscript, and to the many
Because good teachers often prefer to bring in necessary re~iew serious college students who made worthwhile suggestions for improve-
topics when they are needed rather than in a single introductory ments while the material was being used in preliminary form.
chapter, the text incl-udes review at appropriate intervals. Students should
find a high school geometry text useful when a reference is needed.
CONTENTS
~
.I Introduction I
TI"Sets of Axioms for Euclidean Geometry 5
1.3 Introduction to Finite Geomelries II
1.4 Four-Line and Four-Point Geometries 14
Finite Geometries of Fano ami Pappus 19
i7Other Finite Geometdes 25
2 GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS 33 6 THE GEOMETRY OF INVERSION 197
2.1 Introduction to Transformations 33 6.1 Basic Concepts 197
2,2 Groups of Transformations 39 6.2 Additional Properties and Invariants under
2.3 Euclidean Molions of a Plane 45 Inversion 204
2.4 Sets of Equations for Motions of the Plane 51 6.3 The Analytic Geometry of Inversion 209
2.5 PropcI1ies of the Euclidean Group 58 6.4 Some Applications of Inversion 216
2.6 Motions of Threc·Space 66
2.7 Similarity Transformations 70
7 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 225
1 1 INTRODUCTION
2 CHAPTER 1
The ancient Greeks of the period 500 D.C. to 100 A.D. receive
much of the credit for the development of demonstrative geometry of
the sort studied at the high school level. TIley recognize(r-l1re~beauty
of geometry as a discipline with a structure and, understood that the
proof of a theorem could be even more exciting than the discovery
of a practical application. The geometry of Chapters 2 through 5 is
essentially based on these early Greek contributions, though most of it
FIGURE 11
was developed much later.
Greek geometry, called Euclidean geom,etry because of the
. dence of earth measure beca~e monumental work of Euclid (300 B.C.), includes undefined terms, defined
During the Greek pertod, the s made a remarkably preCIse terms, axioms or postulates. and theorems. Almost every geometry studied
refined. About 230 D... C , Eratosthenes .d' .. I
to the famlhar s ory, in this text has the same sort of structure. Tn Euclidean geometry,
more . f th earth AcCOI tng . I undefined terms, which are arbitrary and could easily be replaced by
measurement of the SIze 0 e . solstice the sun shone direct y
t t the summer . ' other terms, normally include points, Jines, and planes; it would be
Eratosthenes knew th a a H r nd that at the same time, 10
into a well at Syene at noon .. 1 e d~~ north of Syene, the rays of the possible to develop Euclidean geometry using such concepts as distance
Alexandria, approximately 4~9r ml e: vertical (Figure 1.2). With! these and angle as undefined. Definitions of new words involve use of the
he undefined terms, The fact that definitions usually contain undefined terms
sun were inclined about 7.2 rom bl t find the diameter of the ,earth.
measurements, Eratosthenes w~s a .~h_:easurement aspect of geometry is standard in mathematics.
Interestingly enough. t le eal f h . portance of measurements Today, the words Qxi.QIt!. and postulate are used interchangeably.
. t because 0 t e 1m h
has been of recent mteres In by instruments placed on ~ e In the development of geometry, however, the 'word postulate was used
r great precision made by sate 1 es, G d tic Survey in producmg for an assumption confined to one particular subject (such as geometry),
o U S Coast and eo e
moon and by the .. while axiom denoted a "universal truth," a more general assumption
nauti~al and aeronautical charts, that applied to all of" mathematics. The axioms and postulates of Euclid
are stated in Section 1.2. The truth of axioms or postulates is ,not at
issue, These statements are beginning assumptior,s from which logical
consequences follow. They are analogous to the rules for a game. Since
the anathema,tical system to be developed depends on the axioms,
changing the axioms can greatly change the system, just as changing
the rules for a game would change the game.
T.llilarems are statements to be proved by using the axioms,
definitions, and previous theorems as reasons for the logical steps in the
proof. The theorems of geometry are valid conclusions based on the
axioms, A simple theorem typically is stated in the form of an jf~then
statement such as "If the sum of the measures o~r the opposite angles
of a quadrilateral is 180 (in degrees), then the ,'quadrilateral can be
inscribed in a circle," In logic, this theorem is, an ~mplicatiorl. The
hypothesis (the "if" part) is often identified as the statement p and the
Alexandria
conclusion (the "then" part) may be identified as the statement q. The
implication is "if p, then q," or p ~ q (p implies q). The proof of a
4B9 miles theorem means a proof of the entire implication, not just proof of
FIGURE 1.2
4 CHAPTER 1 SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOMETRIES 5
the conclusion. A deductive proof begins with the hypothesis and leads Even this brief sketch of some of the major steps in the his lory
through a series of logical steps to the conclusion. Up to this point, of geometry should have cOllvinced YOlt that a discussion of modern
the proof has shown that the conclusion q is always true if the geometries must deal with many different kinds of geometry. It is the
hypothesis p is true. F Qf this reason, it is important to realize that acknowledgement of the diversity of mathematical systems deserving the
the deduction theorem from logic is involved whether or not it is title of geometry that distinguishes a book on 1110dern geometries from a
stated explicitly in the steps of the proof. traditional college geometry text of a quarter of a century ago, which
concentrated only on a (Jirecl extension of the Euclidean geometry of the
high school.
DEDUCTION THEOREM. If, under a given true premise p. the
conclusion q. is always trlle. then the entire statement p implies q is true.
EXERCISES 1.1
Since many examples of theorems and proofs will be given in
later sections, the concepts will become more meaningful with experience. (Answers to selected exerciseJ nre given at the back of the text.)
The "discussion above has provided a description of some of the 1. 3. Verify that the Pytllagorean theorem, liZ + b2 = c2 , holds for the sides of
basic premises and methods of synthetic geometry. Really significant the triangle ill Fig. 1.1. (." t"c.\..".lr~;""3k ~Q'i'b·I·C. \, .. ,,,~.: .f:; M<!Jej ')
advances over the synthetic geometry of the Greeks were made only with b. How many knots in the rope would be necessary to produce ll. trill.ngle
with shorter sides measuring 5 and 12 units?
the invention of analytic geometry (about 1637) and its subsequent use
as a tool in modern analysis. While analytic geometry is not the :\ 2. Use the measurements of Eratosthenes to find the approximate dinmeter of the
earth.
dominant theme of this text, coordinates of points are used as an
alternative to the synthetic approach when convenient. for Exercises 3-8, answer true or false; then ex.plain wh~\t is wrong with each
As 'the title Modern Geometries implies, the major emphasis is false statement.
on newer geometries that have been developed since 1800. The emergence 3. High school geometry owes more to the ancient Egyptians than to the
of modern algebra, with its theory of groups, and the introduction of ancient Greeks.
axiomatics into algebra paved the way for Felix Klein's classification 4. Euclid used the word posiulw/:, for all assumption confined to aue p,U"licuiar
of geometries in 1872. The basic concept of transformations needed to subject. .
understand this classification is discussed in Chapter 2. The latter part 5. The deduction theorem is useo because a conclusion, not an implication,
of the nineteenth century witnessed a revival of interest in the classical is to be proved.
geometry of the circle and the triangle, with the result that the Greek 6.. Analytic geometry was invented before the development of finite geometries.
geometry was extended by many signific..'\nt additions (Chapters 4 and 5). 7. The latter part of the nineteenth century witnessed ll. revival of interest
Projective geometry (Chapter 7) was invented about 1822; material on in the classical geometry of the circle and the triangle.
non-Euclidean geometry (Chapter 9) was in print by about 1830. 8. Traditional college geometry' of a quarter of a cenhll'y Ilgo included the
Inversive geometry (Chapter 6) was developed about the same time. study of more different geometries than are included today.
During the twentielh century, studies in the axiomatic founda-
tions of geometry and the finite geometries (Chapter 1), the geometry of··
convexity (Chapter 3), and geometric topology (Chapter 8) have all been 1.2 SETS OF AXIOMS FOR EUCLIDEAN
added to the great body of geometry that is relatively independent of GEOMETRY
analysis. ~1though they are outside the scope of this text, differential
geometry and vector analysis, to name but two areas of investigation, The importance of a wise choice of axioms was implied in the
could also: be covered in the study of modern geometry. prev~ous section, but the selection of axioms is no simple matter. A
SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOMETRIES 7
6 CHAPTER 1
. for some 2000 years was how to provide an c. The need to state the fact that if a straight line enters a
major problem m geometry . E lidean geometry. Several such triangle at a vertex, it must intersect the opposite side.
adequate set of axioms for ?rdl~ary ,ue d. The need for statements about the order of points on a line.
" 1 sed lfl thiS sectIOn. d
: sets of axioms are d l~C1. S ve a famous set of five axioms an e. The need for a statement about the concept of betweenness.
Euclid, about 300 B.C., ga f. The need for a statement guaranteeing the uniqueness of a
five postulates as fonows: line joining two distinct points.
g. The need for a more logical approach. such as that of trans-
. Axioms (or common notions) formations (Chapter 21 which does not depend on the concept
. I equal to one
t to the same thmg are a so
1. Things that are equa of superposition. Euclid assumed that a triangle can be picked
another. . I the wholes are equal. up and put down in another place with all the properties
2. If equals are added to equa 5, 1 the remainders are equal. 'remaining invariant, yet no statement to this effect was made.
S
3 If equals are subtracted from equa h' equal to one·another. h. The need for a list of undefined temis.
. . 'd 'th one anot erare - Many modern sets of axioms for Euclidean geometry have been
. : 4. Things that comel e WI
s. T he whole is greater than the part. introduced to r~~<?dy the defec~s in Euclid. In a course on the
foundations of geometry. or on the foundations of mathematics, these
postulates are studied extensively. In general. these newer sets of axioms were
f ny point to any point.
1. A straight lin~ c~n ,be draw~ r~;o~uced continuously. in a straight mOl'e comprehensive than that of Euclid, but for this reason they appear
2. A .finite stralght hue can e more complex. it has been difficult to develop the beginning high
school geometry course without resorting to the device of introducing
line. ' . with any point as center and any
3. A circle may be described still more axioms to avoid. the proof of very . difficult theorems at the
distance as radius. beginning of the course.
4. All right angles are equal to one anl?ther.. such a way that the One of the first modern sets of axioms for Euclidean geometry
. 1 falls on two mes m was devised by Moritz Pasch in 1882. He is given credit for what is
5. If a transversa . f the transversal are less than two
interior angles on one. SIde 0 th t side on which the angles called Pascll's axiom: A line .entering a triangle at a vertex intersects
right angles. then the hnes meet on a the opposite side. Guiseppi Peano provided ~nother new approach in
are less than two right angles. 1889. Probably the most famous set of axioms for Euclidean geometry
'. nee that a segment can be extended was given by David Hilbert and was published in English in 1902.
postulate 2 means tn esse I. f Euclid (the parallel These axioms are given in Appendix 1. Hilbert used six undefined terms:
· The fiifith postu ate 0
indefinitely to form a Ime. . er 9 in the discussion of pOint, line, plane, between, congruent, and on. He gave his axioms in
postulate) will be considered further tn Ch~Pt five groups, and the grouping helps show how the logical difficulties
non-Euclidean geometry. . particular I mathematicians of Euclid were overcome, For example. note ·that Hilbert's first three
tu
Within the past hundred ye~rs h i ointed 'but various flaws axioms clarify Euclid's postulate about drawing a straight line from
· s of mathematics ave p
studying the foun d a t ton 'd II used other tacit, assump- any point to any point and that his axioms of congruence take care of
. f Euclid Euch actua y '. d
in the assmnpttons 0 . r 'tt ) Logical problems pomte out the logical defect of superposition.
tions {assumptions nbt stated exp lCI y, . Since the timeofHilbel't there have been many other sets of modern
have included: fi. t t ment about :the continuity of postuJates for Euclidean geometry. Some of these are by Oswald Veblen
a. T he need for a de 1l1te 5 a e (in 1904 and 19l!), Huntington (1913), Henry Forder (1927), G. D.
lines and circles. h . fini~e extent of a straight Birkholf (1932), and others. The axian1s of Birkholf (Appendix 2) are
b. The need for a statement about t e 10
of special signi"ticance because they emphasize the connections between
line.
8 CHAPTE~ 1 SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOMETRIES 9
geometry al1d the rea! numbers, because they include c/istOllce and angle that associates the numbel.· I with il certain polygonal region
as undefined terms, and because they have been modified for incorporation and a unique positive real number with every convex
in most rec~nt experimental geometry courses, such as that of the School pOlygonal region; a statement that if two triangles arc con-
Mathematitfi Study Grotlp, a[ the secondary school leveL gruent, the respective triangular regions have the same urea;
One of the main reasons why BirkholT's system is so brief is the and the assumption that the measure of area of [I rectangular
power of tt,le first postulale. Since this assumption has the eITect of region is the product _of the measures of the lengths of its
assuming aU the properties of the real numbers, the order relations base and altitude.
for points depend only on theorems and definitions rather than on An example of a modern set of axioms for secondary school
additional postulates. geometry appears in Appendix 3.
Because modern geometry programs depend on the coordination Sets of axioms for Euclidean geometry, as well as for any
of analytic geometry with synthetic geometry lUore than was the case mathematical system, should have two important properties.
even at the time of Hilbert, axioms fox the real numbers and the
logical ass.umptions of algebra for relations are needed in geoflletry. L The set should be consistent. In a consistent set ofax.ioms, it is not
Se~s of aXIOms for modern geometry texts ordinarily contain specific possible to use tllemto···prove a theorem that contradicts any
aXIOms needed for each of the following purposes not readily apparent axiom or other theorem that has already been proved. All of the sets
as a result of the axioms of Hilbert: of axioms in this text are examples of consistent systems. The
a. To show the existence of a correspondence thnt associates a concept of consistency becomes more significant after the discllssion
unique number with every pair of distinct points. in Chapter 9 of the consistency of non-Euclidean geometry. An
b. To establish the measure of the distance between any two example of an inconsistent system could be one that inclUded both
points in the line as the absolute value of the dilference of of these axioms: a. 'Two distinct points determine exactly one line;
their corresponding numbers. b. Two distinct pojnts determine'ex<1ct1y two lines.
c. To stat~ the existence of a unique coordinate system for a 2. The set should be, COIm?!!!..te. It should be impossible to add a
line that assigns to two dislinct points two given distinct consistent, independet{t (see definition below) axiom to the set withOUl
i'eal numbers. introducing new undefined terms.
d. To formulate the ,logical assumption necessary for the
development of the theory of convexity (Chapter 3) by stating In the study of foundations of mathematics, it is· often important
that a line in a plane partitions the points of the plane not that the set of axioms have at least one additional property so that
on the ,line into two convex sets such that every segment none of the axioms can be proved from the remaining set of axioms.
~hut joins a point of one set to a point of the other Sels of axioms having this property are calle.d independent sets of
_intersects the line. axioms. All of the sets of axioms in the remaining sections of this
e. To include additional assumptions about congruence of chapter are examples of independent sets of axioms. The requirement
triangles-assumptions that eliminate the need for lengthy of independence is not always desirable at a more elementary level.
prools at an early stage in the text. The two most common Therefore, secondary geometry texts ordinarily have additional axioms
additional axioms are the assumptions that (1) congruence of that could be proved fro III the others. These axioms are included
'triangles follows from (.,"Ongruence of tw~ angles and the in- because they are convenient to -stale and use early in the course or
cluded side and that (2) congruence of triangles follows from because the proofs are too difficult for that level. The assumptions of
congruence of the three sides. Euclidean geometry, along with some theorems proved in an introductory
f. To postulate additional assumptions about fundamental con- course, are the basic· assumptions used in Chapters 2 through 5 of
cepts of area. These include the existence of a correspondence this text. However, you won't be expected to remember eHcll theorem.
SETS OF AXIOMS ANQ FINITE GEOMETRIES 11
10 CHAPTER 1
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO FINITE
I order to begin the study of the appiic~tion of specific
GEOMETRIES
n . etries it is helpful to mtroduce a type
sets of axioms to ~Ulld geom. Ie' a structure as possible. In the rest
.,I of geometry that dIsplays as sl.mp 1 for this purpose are finite From the standpoint of structure, Euclidean geometry is complex .
of this chapter, the geometries c l~sen The Euc1idean plane has an infinite number of points and lines in it,
t geometries, explained in the next sections. and a rich collection of theorems continue~ to increase over the years.
I By contrast, "miniature" geometr:ies have just a few axioms and theorems
I' EXERCISES 1.2
and a definite number of elements that can be named by a counting
number. These geometries are finite geometries. and they provide excellent
L Draw a figure to explain the wording of Euclid'S. fifth postulate. opportunities for .study of geometries with a simple structure.
All of the geometries studied in this text have a finite number of
Draw a figure to exp1am
. tl1e following axiomfi of Hilbert.
axioms and a finite number of undefined terms. Thus those features
2. Order Axiom 2\ do not make a geometry finite. Instead, a finite geometry has a finite
3. Order Axiom 4. number of elements-that is, points or lines or "things to work with."
For the geometries studied in this chapter, these elements can be
4" Order Axiom 5.
considered points and lines. It would seem that finite geometries are
5. Congruence Axiom 3.
thus inherently simpler than geometries with an infinite number of
6. Congruence Axiom 4.
points and lines, although that may not be your opinion when you first
1. The axiom of continuity. encounter them.
. 8- to, name the axioms of Hilbert that:
For ExerCises Historically, the first finite geometry to be considered was a
three-dimensional geometry. each plane of which contained seven points
8. State Pasch's axiom. .
9. Guarantee the uniqueness of a line joining two ~istinct pomts. and seven lines. The modernity of finite geometries is emphasized by
the fact that Fano explored this first finite geometry in 1892. It was
10. Deal with betweenness for points on a line. .
not until 1906 that finite projective geometries were studied by Veblen
For Exercises 11-16, state which axioms from Appendix 3 : . . and Bussey. Since that time, a great many finite geometries have been
It. Show the existence of a correspondence that associates a uOlque number wtth (ir-a"re being studied. Many sets of points- and lines that were already
every pair of distinct points. . . familiar figures in Euclidean geometry were investigated from this new
. b t en any two points III a hne. point of view. However, at the present time it is quite possible for a
12. Establish the measure of the dls\ance e we
13. State the existence of a coordinate system for a line. mathematics major to graduare without ever encountering finite geo-
metries, although it is also true that finite geometries are being used
14. Introduce the concept of convexity.
increasingly as enrichment topics and extension units at the high school
l5. Provide assumptions about congruence of triangles.
level. Finite geometries also find a practical application in statistics.
16. Provide assumptions about the area of plane regions. All of the finite geometries in this chapter have point and line
For Exercises l7-20, state wh~ther a set of axioms could be: as undefined terms. The connotation of line is not the same in finite
geometry as in ordinary Euclidean geometry,. however, since a line in
17. Complete but not independent?
finite geometry canoot have an infinite numbe!' or points on it.
18. Independent but not complete?
The first simple finite geometry to be investigated, called a
19. Independent but not consistent'l three-poilll geometry here for identification, has only four axioms:
20. C onsistent but not independent?
12 CHAPTER 1 SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOMETRIES 13
Axioms for Three-PolM! Geometry THEOREM 1. L Two distinct lines are on exactly one point.
I, There exist exactly three distinct points in the geometry.
2. Two distinct points are,on exactly one line. By Axiom 4, two distinct lines are.on al least one point. Assume
3. Not all the points of the geometry are on the sfl,me line. that two lines. are on more than one point. If tW? dist~nct lines I anu JlI.
4. Two dislinct lines are on at least oue point. lie on poinls P and Q. then Axiom 2 is c01)tradicted, because points
P and Q would be on two distinct lines ..
Some immediate questions to consider intuitively before reading Theoren1 1.1 is proved by what is called an i,/dirt'ct lirgwlIt'lIf.
farther are the following: The theorem could be rewritten" in the form of an implication. If twO
a. What kinds of figures or models could be drawn to represent lines are distinct, then they are on exactly 0lne potrit. The assumption
the geornetry? was made that the conclusion was not true, and a contradiction _was
i
b. Ho'd rnany lines are in the geometry?
c. Can. any theorems be proved for the geometry?
i, reached, showing that the negative assumption was nol tenable. Thus,
the conclusion is valid, and, by the deduction theorem, Theorem L 1
d. What representations are possible for the geometry, other than is established. Indirect proofs, which are probably more elTective in
tho~e with points and lines? geometry than in algebra, will be used many times in this text.
e. Which properties of Euclidean geometry continue to hold in The ex-act number of lines in the three-point geometry can now be
the .three-point geometry, and which do not? determined.
Not all of these questions can be answered completely for each
finite geometry studied, but the questions do illustrate the nature of
THEOREM l.2. The three-point geometry has exaclly three
inquiry about a geom,etry based on an axiomatic system. It will be
itml1'ediately helpfu ( to give 11 partial answer to question a. lines.
The n~ite geometry of three points can be represented by many
drawings, four of which are shown in Figure 1.3. Verify the fact that all From Axiom 2, each pair of poipts is on exactly one line.
rour axioms hold for each figure. Each possible pair of points "is on a dis_tinct line, so lhe geolllet.r y has
at least three lines. Suppose there is it fourth line. From AXIOm I,
there are only the three points in the geometry, This fourth line
must also be" on two of the three points, but this contraciicts Axiom 2
and Theorem 1.1. There can be no more than three lines in the
geometry. .
While point and line have been used l:lS the undefined terms
in this first finite geometry, other words: could be substituted to give an
equally meaningful interpretation of tI~e structure. For example, fJ:~e
FIGURE 1 3 could be substituted for poillt, and row for line, so that the postulates
would reau as follows:
While the sets of points and lines in Figure 1.3 are such that u. There exist exactly three dislinct trees.
all the axioms of the three-point geometry hold, there is still the b. Two distinct trees are on exactly one row,
possibility that the geometry might have additional lines not shown. c. Not all trees are on the same row.
This matter is settled by proving two theorems. First, a compmisotl of d. Two distinct rows have at least one tree in common.
the wording of Axioms 2 and 4 leads to the need to determine Other interpretations could be found by lIsing pairs of .worl~s such <\s
whether two distinct lines might be on mOre than one point. beads and wires, students and committees, or books and IIbranes.
SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOMETRIES 15
14 CHAPTER 1
The next finite geometry to be c '
In the finite geometry under consideration. it should be evident lines as undefined terms Th 'II .onsldered also has points and
. e ,0 owmg thr .
from an examination of the axioms and Figure 1.3 that such Euclidean characterize the geometry called f i ' ee aXIOms completely
tion. ' a our-lrne geometry here for identifica-
concepts as length of a segment, measure of an .ngle, and area-in
f.ct all concepts concerning measurement-no longer apply. In this
geometry, if a triangle is defined .s three distinct lines meeting by pairs Axioms for FOUI"- Line Geometry
in ,three distinct points, not all collinear, then on'e and only one
1. The total number of lines is four
triangle exists. The concept of parallel lines does not apply, if parallel
2.
3 Eachh pair
E . of. lines has exactly o' . In
ne pomt . common
lines are defined as two lines with no points in common, since each
. ac pomt IS on exactly two lines. .
two lines meet in a point. The fami.liar ideas of congruence also have
no meaning in this geometry. Even though you are far more familiar
Axiom "I is an existel1ce axiom b .
with Euclidean geometry than with finite geometry, thi's consideration of geometry is not the en t • .ecause J{ guarantees that the
. lp Y set of pomls Th tI .
whether the Euclidean properties hold in a new geometry will neverthe- mcidence axioms deaII'n 'Ih' , e 0 'ler
, g WI pomts on r . aXIOms are
less give added meaning to the familiar concepts. The introduction of Before reading on try to dra d' mes and hnes on points.
more significant finite geometries in the next sections wi1l provide satisfy all of the three axiol wAIlagrams of points and lines that wiH
of points. TIS, so, try to determine the total number
additional opportunities for the same kind of consideration.
.,,
THEOREM I ,.
3 TIle four-line geometry has exactly six points.
EXERCISES 1.3
For the Ihree-point geometry: By Axiom 1. there are six pairs of l'
I. Draw a pictorial representation differenl from those in Figure 1.3. obtained as the combination f f . h' meso The number six is
t ['" 0 om.t HlgS taken two at a tlllle. Thl'ee
2. Rewrite the ax.ioms, using the words bool, for IJoillt and library for line. no a 100S used for combinations are
3. Rewrite the axioms, using the words student for point al~d committee for line.
1'\.=) 4. Through a point not on a given line, there are how soan), lines parallel to C4 •2 • 4 C 2' or '4)
(2'
the given tine'1
~'5. Exactly hoW many points are on each linei The general formula for the combination of
time is 11 things taken r at a
"".,6. Must lines be straight in the Euclidean sense?,
,;:. 7. Could three lines all contain the same poiql? i, n!
(n - r)!'-!
fl..~ -:.!:J 8. Do an)' squares ,;xist'l I
~.. ~9. Prove that a Ii~e cannot contain three distinct points.
[ '1 ~BYuppose
Axiom 2," each pair of rmes Ilas
£
By Axiom 2, each line of the geometry has a distinct point in Axioms for Fow'-Poil1t Geometry
common with each of the other three lines, and all three of these
1. The total number pf points in this geometry is four.
points are on the ,given line. Suppose there were a fourth point on the
2. Each pair of points has exactlv one line in common.
given line. Then by Axiom 3, it must also be on one of th(; Qther line.~.
3. Each line is on exactly two points.
But this is impossible. because the other three lines already determine
exactly one point with the given line, and by Axiom 2, they can only
Two possible representations for this geometry are shown lJ1
determine one. Thus, each line of the geometry has exactly three points
Figure 1.5.
ouit.
Figure 1.4 shows two diagrams thal can be used to represent
tbis finite geometry of four lines and six points. An examination of
Figure 1.4 will lead to further inquiries about the four-line geometry.
For example, the following questions nre typical of those that should be
answered: ,I
FIGURE 1.5
One thing that should be noted in Figure 1.5 is that the lines
meet only where points are indicated, not just where tl1t~Y appear to
cross in the picture,. because these are not ordinary Euclidean lines. If
it is assumed that the four-point geometry and the four-line geometry
an: related in such a way that the plane dual of any vat1d theorem
in one geometry becomes a valid theorem in the other, then it is possible
FIGURE 1.4 to gain m.ore inrormation about lhe new geometry rather easily. Thus,
the plane duals of Theol:ems 1.3 and 1.4 become theorems ror the four-
a. Do en.ch lwo points of the geometry lie on a line? point geometry.
b. How 'many triangles exist in the geometry (all three sides
must be lines of the geometry)? THEOREM 1.5. The four-point geometry has exactly six tines.
c. Doesthe geometry have examples of parallel Hues (lines wilh
no point in common)?
These questions are considered in the exercises at the end of the section. THEOREM 1..6. Each point of -the rour-point geometry has
eXflclly lhree lines on it
The general concept of dualitv is c'onsidered in Chapter 7) but a
specific example is needed here in order to explain how the next set of .
axioms is formulated. The plane dual QL~_.it_atern~~. forrned by Lines exist in the four-point geometry that do not h ..lVC one of
exchanging the wordsnp.~i~.t.~:!..~~.tiug oth~J!E..~...s;a~=~h-~ges the four points in common, so these lines may be considered parallel.
ulfhe English as req~lired. :Writing the plane dual of each axiom for the Other properties of the four-point geometry are investigated in the
prevIoUs four-line geometry results in a four-point geometry. exercises.
SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOMETRIES 19
,
I
,
I.
EXERCISES 1.4
Write the plane dual o[ the axioms [or the three-point geometry o[
5. Each two lines have at least one point in common,'
I six. tines.
Prove, without using the idea of duality. that each point o[ the geometry
is on ex.actly three lines.
20 CHAPTER 1
SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOMETR!ES 21
From Axioms land 2, there are at least three points in the THEOREM 1.8. Fano's geomelry consists of exactly seven points
geometry, while from Axiom 3 there is at least a fourth point, as and seven lines.
symbolized in Figure 1.6a. By Axiom 4, there must be lines joining
this rourth point and each or the existing points (Figure 1.6b), and
Note in Figures 1.6c and t.7 that lines in finite geometry may
by Axjoms 4 and 5, there must be lines joining points I, 6, 1, painls
appear to cross without actually having a point in common. They are not
J, 6, 5, and points 5, 2, 7 (Figure 1.6c). Thus the geometry or 'Fana
contains at leasl seven points and seven lines. Euclidean iines, and the distinct points 011 them need (0 be clearly
shown in drawings to avoid confusion.
4 4 Consider a rewriting of the set of axioms for Fano's geometry
• 4
with the word point replaced ~y student and the word lille by
committee. A table may be used to represent this finite system. For
example, Table 1.1 shows committees in vertical columns. Substitution
of numbers for the student names would show that Fano's geometry
~-~---~
2 3 itself could be represented by the same sort of table. You should be able
t') tb) to set up a correspondence between each column in this table and
(e)
FIGURE 1.6
each line in Figure 1.6c, noting that the students can b~ matched in
alphabetical order with the points in numerical order.
The fact that there are exactly seven points in Fano's geometry
can be established by an indirect argument, since the a<;slll11ption of an TABLE 1.1
eighth point leads to n contradiction, as will now be shown. Assume
that there is an eighth point, and consider for example, as in Figure 1.7, Cnml/lifter 1 C(Jlllllliffer 2 Commure) 3 Cmllmirree 4"""'
Alice Alice Alice Brad .'
the intersection of the line through points I, 8 and the line 3, 7, 4. Brad '1 O'I'~ Frank .- Dille .;
(The notation «line 3, 7, 4" means the line containing points 3, 7, and 4.) Cathy~l Ellief:) Greg Frank
Axiom 5 requires that lines I, 8 and 3, 7, 4 have a point of inter- CO/lfmi(lf!e 5 Committee 6 C(III""itlet! 7
section. The point of intersection required by Axiom 5 cannot be point Cathy Brad ~ Cathy
3, 7, or 4, since that would violate Axiom 4. Thus, it must be a ninth
Ellie .- Ellie .;.- Dl'lle -
Frank Greg . .-::. Greg
point, but that violates Axiom 2. The assumption of an eighth point
has led to a contradiction and must be rejected. The result is the
rallowing theorem: The connections between the theory of combinations and lhe
number of points and lines in finite geometries are profltabl~ to explore.
For example. it might appear at first glance that a qUick way to
determine the number of lines in .Fano's geometry would be to count
all possible combinations of seven things taken three at a time, since
each line has three points. But there are 35 combinations of seven
things taken three at a time. and there are only sevel~ lines. in the
geometry. A study of Figure 1.7 (or L6c) will make It po~slble to
reconcile this difference. Consider poinls 1 and 5 and the line lhey
2 3 determine for example. There are five other possible points, 2, 3, 4, 6,7,
FIGURE 1.7 that could be. matched with the two given points (0 rOfm lines, and all
SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOMETRIES 23
22 CHAPTER 1
of these possibilities are counted in the 35. But only one of these points and lines that have long been familiar to mathematicians. This
points, point 4, is actually on the line through poinfs 1 and 5; hence, only familiarity is especially evident in the finite geometry arising from a
1 of the actual number of possibilities result in lines. Since ¥ = 7, there Euclidean-geometry theorem called the Theorem of Pappus. Figure 1.8
~re a total of sevel~ lines. Further insight can be gained by asking illustrates the theorem, which was discovered and proved by Pappus of
why the other four points, 2, 3, 6, 7, are not matched with points 1 Alexandria about 340 AD. The theorem is stated here without proof. The
and 5 to determine lines of the geometry. for any point such as I, lines in this theorem are considered to be the same as lines in ordinary
there are three Hnes of the geometry on it. These contain the other six Euclidean geometry.
points of the geometry {two on each line}. None of the pairs of points
on one of these lines can be matched with a point on another line
THEOREM 1.9. TI!eorem of Pappus: If A, B, and C are three
without contradicting Axiom 4. distinct points on one line and if A', R', and C' are three different
The concept of parallelism is not in evidence in Fano's geometry,
since each pair of lines has a point in common. .on the other hand, it
distinct points on a second line. then the intersections of
1'--1- -+-+ +--4 +--+
1
rc
and C7t\
All' and BAt, and Be' and CB' are collinear.
would be quite possible to give a new interpretation of paraliel for this .~='"
(\
finite geometry so that the concept could be I considered. in' a way
quite different from that used in Euclidean. geometry. For example,
suppose (using Figure 1.6c) that any two lines intersecting on:line 4. 7, 3 cr."
-
The notation AC' means "the line containing points A and
(A summary of the technical notation us~d here and throughout
\ \... are called parallel in Fano's geometry. Then lines 5, 2, 7 and 1. 6, 7, this text may be found in Appendix 4.) Poi~ts are called collinear if they
o
for example, are parallel in this interpretation l since they have point 7 lie on the same line. There are exceptions to the theorem if some of the
on line 4, 7, 3 in common. This example helps to emphasize the lines are parallel (in the ordinary Euclidean s.-::nse). but it is assumed
important role of arbitrary defini!ions in determining the structu~·e· of a here that the Hnes intersect as required in real points. The theorem of
geometry. Pappus is seen to involve nine distinct points, lying by threes on three
Some finite geometries, though quite modem, relate to sets of lines. There are nine points and nine lines in F~gure 1.8, and these may
be studied as a finite geometry with the familiar'Euclidean properties no
longer evident and with only the following axioms.
I,";. '.
24 CHAPTER 1 SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOM ETAIES 25
"
does not cOll.stitute a proof. Axiom 4 is the familiar parallel axiom of TABLE 1.2
Euclidean geometry, in a somewhat different setting.
]
F F n I
The next theorem gives an additional property that can be A lB' D A A
I
proved from the axioms. B lA' E D B' C B II'
I C
I
iC F C' E B' e E
!
THEOREM l.lO. Each point in the geometry of Pappus lies on l
exactly three lines.
check~(t directly to
By Axioms 1 and 2. there exists a line with three points
..
:
I
cases in the table. For example, the ta.ble C<.'ln be
see that each poidt lies on exactly three hnes.
I
I,
1
A, B, C On it (Figure 1.9). By Axiom 3, there is a fourth pOint I
(point X in Figure 1.9) not 011 this Hne. Consider the total number of
EXERCI~ES 1.5
lines on X. which represents any point of the geometry. By Axiom 5,
X lies on lines meeting two of the points on the given line, say i
1. Rewrite the sqt\ ofax.ioms ~or the geometry of Fnno. using book for point
Band C. By, Axiom 4, there is exactly one line through X parallel to and libmry forpine.
Dc, so that there are at least three lines on X. But there cannot be a f\-<---)~ 2. °
Which ax.ioJl1~, in the geometry f f at10 are also true statements in
fourth line through X. By Axiom 5, there is no line connecting X and Euclidean geo!"netr y ?
A, and by Axiom 4, there is no other line through X not meeting ?) 3. Using Figure 1.6c, name all I he tnang . . the geometry of Fano having
Ies III
Bc. point 4 as oneiverlex. . '
7.
1,2,3 as a lnimber of the pan's).
for Fano's gqomelry, prove that each point lies on exactly three lines.
Rewrite the
f_~~~_~_
Which axion~s in the geometry of Pnpptls are also tnle statements III
Euclidean ge~t1letrY'1 . .
.
It is important to understand that a table such as Table 1.2 1.6 @THER FINITE GEOMETRIES
could be used, rather than a set of axioms, to give the initial I .
representation of a geometry. Note, however, that in this case Illost A o~ example of a modern finite geornetry lhat. is actt~a~ly
proofs are very simple, since they depend just On checking all possible a study of ;~ar'0US set of points from Euclidean geometry rs the .fi""e
,
:r
"'i
, SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOMETRIES 27
I
26 CHAPTER 1 I
the polar of the point. In the finite geometry of Desargues, no Hne joins a
I
" conce ts must be introduced so that they
geometry of Desargues. Several h' P geometry Triangles ABC and pole and a point on a polar. This fact leads to the formal definitions,
can be used in the study of t IS ~ew . ; P This means that Wl1ich do not use the concepts of point or line of perspectivity.
AIB'C' of Figure 1.10 are perspectwe from pam . ) of the three
. t (the point of concurrency , ~
point P is the common pom I' Afil jjjf and CC. The line I in the finite geometry of Desargues is a polar of the
!~
d' g vertices Thus P ,es on , point P if there is no line connecting P and a point on I.
lines joining correspon m 't d' din lUore detail in Chapter 7,
· t Desargues' theorem, s U Ie /.
ACCOf.d mg 0 " oint are aJso perspective from a me. Tlle point P in tbe finite geometry of pesargues is a pole of the
two trtangJes perspectIve. [10m a P I' corresponding sides of the line I if t11ere is no point common to I and any line on P.
. I
If tnang es are p .
erspechve [rom a me,
. r
.' .
TI e fine of perspectJvlty JU I
. I t at pomts all th,s me. 1 . AlB The intuitive development has led to the axioms, but now the
tnang es mee. . S T For example, corresponding SIdes
Figure 1. 10 contams pomts R, , .. . axioms become the beginning ideas; nothing" can be proved from
and 7n' meet at T, a point on thIS Ime, Figure 1.10--proof must come fi'om the axioms themselves.
See if you can identify various poles and polars in Figure 1.10.
For example, if point T is taken as the pole, where are the polars?
This question can be answered by considering the lines through T
and noting that there is exactly one line in the figure that has no points
~ ~
in common with these lines. That line is PC', hence PC' is the polar.
q'" I _ I
guaranlees the existence of at least one. By definition, no line through ~.
-----.
q -
P contains anyone of the points (at least three) on p. But this also
says that there is no point common to p and any line on P. so
that P satisfies the definition of a pole of p. This information, along For the geometry of Fano.
with Axioms 2 and 3, leads to the following theorems.
q" + I - ~ = 1 -' - ~ = 7.
q - I I
THBOREM l.11. Every line of the geometry of Desargues has
exactly one pole. If lJ = 3. then PG(2.3) is a new finite geometry that is self-d~Hl1. fr~111
Theorem 1.13, the total number of points is 13. PGt2.3) IS a tillite
THt20REM 1.12. Every point of the geometry of Desargucs has geometry of 13 points and 13 lines. This geometry has the same. axioms
exactly one polar. as Fano's geometry, except that there are four points rather than three
on every line. .
Parallel lines exist in the geometry of Ocsargues, but their A dill"erent finite geometry, no longer self-d\1aI, can be obtallled
properties are dilTerent frol11 ordinary Euclidean parallels. For example, ~rom Fano's geometry by a modification of the last a~iom. Th: ne~v
note in Figure 1.10 that three ditTerent lines can be' drawn parallel to geometry, called r OlIllY'S geomefry. has the first four axIOms of hlilo s
line R. C. B through point A' but thut only one line can be drawn geometry along with the following substitute ttxioll1 for Axiom S.
parallel to line A, B, T.
It is worthwhile to study the axioms and the drawings for a 5. There is exactly one line on a point 1:1I1d not 011 <Illy point on a
geometry to make additional conjectures. Proofs of additional theorems line not containing the point.
for the finite geometry of Desargues appear as exerCises.
Several other finite geometries are discussed briefly in the rest Axiom 5 shows that the ordinary Euclidean concept of parallel
of this section so that the interested reader can develop some of their lines applies, since it means that exactly one parall~1 to :' given Hn,e
theorems on his own. The starting place for each could be a set of can be found passing through each point not on the gtv.en tllle. Youngs
axioms, although that approach may not always be the most productive geometry is a finite geometry of nine points and twelve Im~s. .
when intuition is involved. The interested student can make up finite geometnes of hiS own,
• fl. Fano's finite geometry has the special properly of being selF-clugl. although some of them may be of limited significrtl1ce. Various examples
" In other words, the plane dual of each true statement is a true statement
for the geometry. Actually, Fano discussed a particular set 0'[ Ilnite
geometries, each of which was self-dual. The general symbol for
geometries of this special type is PG(Il, q). The letters PG stand for
projective geometry. to be discussed in Chapter 7. The letter 11 is t1;e
number of dimensions, and q is the positive integral power of a prilne
, number. The geometry has q + 1 points on each line. Thus, Fano's
, \'
,
geometry of the plane is PG(2,2), since there are three points 0\1 each
line. The theory of projective geometry can be used to establish the
following useful theorem, assumed here.
Ih) lei
(a)
THEOREM 1.13. The general formula for the total number of FIGURE 1.12
points in PG(n, q) is
SETS OF AXIOMS AND FINITE GEOMETRIES 31
30 CHAPTER 1
16, The geometry
. consists of how many points and 1"0 w many I'llles 1
of simple drawings that can be used for a finite geometry are shown in
17. Each hne has how many other lilles parallel to it?
Figure 1.12. A few of the interesting properties are mentioned in the
For the geometry of Figure Lt2b:
exercises that follow.
18. Each Hne has how many points on it?
19. The geometry consists of how many points and how many lines?
EXERCISES 1.6 20. Each line bas how many other lines parallel to it?
GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS
"t
"" .
. :/
..I" ' .•
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO
TRANSFORMATIONS
. 'ased understanding of
finite sets of transformations contributes to mere
the concept. , d fi '( n of transformation. it is necessary
Before giving a precise e 111 10
to explain the idea of mapping.
FIGURE 2.2
A a set B is a pairing
t
DEFINITION. A mapping of a set an a f A ' p' ired with
d B 0 that each element 0 tS.l RecalJ that a function is a set of ordered pairs with no two
of elements of A an s h element of B is paired with at least different pairs having the same first element. It can be seen that the
exactly olle element of B. and eac ,
definition of mapping is equivalent to a typi'cal definition of function,
one element of A.
since in a mapping. having two pairs with the same first element
f ing whose ordered would mean that an element of A is paired with more than one
Figure 2.1 shows an example 0 a ~app t B element of B. It is customary to use mapping rather than function
. d ( b) A mappmg of set A onto se
pairs are (a,.b,). (G,.b,). an a3' ': b _ /(a) Here an . element b in geometry. however, when the sets being considered are sets of points.
may also b~ indicated by the notation u~der ~he m~ppi~g f. For a One of the essential differences between a mapping and a transformation
of B is the Image of an element a of A , d that each element of B is that reversing the elements in the pairs of a mapping does not
'{ . t B it is not reqUIre
mapping of set A lOCO s . e . . d be ma )ed onto a necessarily result in a mapping., while reversing'-'the elements in the pairs
be involved in the pairing. In this case A co;\ has a :~owledge of
h
proper subset of B. It is assumed that t e rea e
of a transformation also results in a transformation. Make sure you
understand why this is so.
;i:~~!i~;:': elementary concepts of set theory. Here are other examples of transformations to help make the
;i;r:::}:" concept clear.
a. A pairing of points on a number line indicated by x -i- 2x + 3.
~
For example, points with coordinates 1 and .5 or Z- and 7
would be paired. The arrow notation simply designates that
the second element is the image of the first under the
A B transformation. A summary of notation used in this text is
FIGURE 2.1
found in Appendix 4.
. IS
. 0 f par t'lCular importance in y
, I k' d of onto mappmg .
A speClft 111 • tails/ormatIOn
mathematics; this is a one-to,,:one onto mapplOg, or a r ...'
'ii)l( .'
;
ping / of A onto B
1 (x. v)
D~FINlll0N. A transformatIOn IS a map
such
that each element of ~ is the image of exactly one element of A~B
A. (x+2,y-l)
".,-
36 CHAPTER 2 GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS 37
(1.~
notice close relationships between modern algebra and modern geometry.
Readers who have not yet studied abstract algebra will find necessary
concepts ex-plained in this text. (4.4)
'-'-;--'"
Iffis a transformation from A onto Band 9 is a transformation
(2.~
'., .t.
-:i.·~;:~ .
from B onto C. the product IT = gf is defined as the transformation
from A onto C such that hlP) = g[J(P)] for each point of A. NOle (5,1)
that the product fJi is defined in such a way that the transformation
x
on the right is performed first. 0
In Figure 2.4, the pairs in It are (a t. e3 ). (° 2 , ('2)' (03' (
1
),.
FIGURE 2.5
a,
b,---::-"
r
'- ---.:::.......---
a ,......."- _
J
\
,......... ....... ~--
------ - ----.::;---~'----
h
a, a,
FIGURE 2.4
(b) The first of the properties above guarantees that the inverse for
(a)
each transformation is also an element in the set of transformations.
~ The second of the properties is the closure property. This means the
~
product of any two transformations in the set is also a transformatipn-
in the set. Stated another way, the operation of multiplication can
(e)
always be performed within a group of transformations without going
FIGURE 2.7 outside the group. The last of the properties is the associative property.
It is assumed here that, regardless of the grouping by parentheses, the
3.
. • .•
For the transformatIon mdlcated by x.y
( ) _ (x
.
+ 5.y - 3). give the image
definition of multiplication of transformations results in one transforma-
of these points: tion followed by another, and .f(g") and (fg)" imply the product of
a. (2.1) b. (0,0) e. (-3, -2) the same three transformations in the same order. for example, consider
For Exercises 4-7. let f f) (c,d). (e,h)} and g
= { (a, 1.
= {(h,i). (d,j). (h.klJ be the three transformations which have been defined as follows:
transformations.
4. Find the product gJ. J: x ..... x + 3.
5. Find the produet/q. g: x ...... x - 2,
6.. FindF'·
h:x - 2x,
7. findg-: J •
. r be the transformation such that (x.y) has :the image /(gll): x ~ (2.>; - 2) + 3 = 2x + I,
For ExerCises 8-11. let. . eh that (x y) has the image
(x -,5,), + 2) and g be the transronnatIon su . (/g)h:x ~ 2x + L
.
"": (x + 2,.1' - 3).
.,'
i,:
GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS 41
40 CHAPTER 2
A fourth<propeUy that needs to be established for every group R, Rel1ection about the axis through verlex I.
of transformations is the existence of the identity element as an element R, Reflection about' the axis through vertex 2.
R, Reflection about the axis through vertex 3. .
of the group. This is left as an exercise. In general. the commutative Rotation through an angle of 120<' counterclockw~se.
property fg = gf does not hold for transformations. For example. the R( 120)
Rotation through an angle of 240'" counterclock \VIse.
finite group to be introduced shortly is not a commutative group. If R(240)
the commutative property does hold for a group. that group is called a I Identity,
commutative or Abelian group (after the Norwegian mathematician N. H. To verify that the set of symmetries of an equilat~ral .triangle
Abel, 1802-1829), . .' ssary to verify that f E.S Hnpites that
constitutes a group, It IS nece ' . .
Many of the groups of transformations in geometry· are infinite f - 1 E S and that f E Sand 9 E S implies fg E S: The II1verse element fOl
groups-that is, groups with an infinite number of members. On the
each transformation is listed below.
other hand, examples of ~nite groups will help in developing the concept
of a group of transformations. It is important to remember that the f r'
elements of a group of transformations are transfonnations, not points. -'---
Consider the set of all symmetries of an equilateral triangle, as R, R,
shown in Figure 2.8. "Symmetries of the triangle" designates the reflections R, R2
R, R,
R(120) R(240)
3 R(240) R(120)
I I
666
2 R,
(d)
3
R(20)
(e)
2 R(240)
(f)
3
1
..1"
1
R,
R,
TABLE 2.1
RJ
Rl ,
R,
R,
R(qO)
R(120)
I{l240)
R(240)
R(120) R(240) R, R,
\ FIGURE 2.8 R, 1
fl'
R(240) 1 R(120) ['~l~~'.~\ a,
a, , R' .--
about rhe axes of symmetry or rotation such that the new figure a(240) 1 R, a,
R, R, R(120)
coincides with the old. The result of each symmetry can be represented
by a renaming of the three vertices. Check each of the figures in Rll~O). a(120) a, (~:~.!!.l ' R, 1«240) 1
R, 1 n(t20)
Figure 2.8 to see that it corresponds to the following definitions of , a (240) R(240) R, R,
--
.,
the elements of the set of symmetries of an eqJ]ilateral triangle:
GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMA nONS 43
42 CHAPTER 2
The notation means that R 2 is first • TI' IS .In d'lcated by
115 .
Introduction of the permutation group symbols will ilIuslrate a
conunon agreement that ties the work on transformation groups more
closely to that found in modern algebra texts. Two roWS of numbers
are _used to define a transformation. The first row shows the original
G: ~: ~).
vertices and the second row shows the new position of those vertices.
Then the result on the bottom r
one of the equivalent rorms for R
,. JOe becomes the top line of
R, = I. c· 2.
3. D
Explanation for R t • Vertex 1 remains fixed,
vertex 2 moves to the place where vertex 3 was
originally. and vertex 3 moves 10 the place
G: ~: :).
The product has the top row frOi
~~. =~d asnth~2d:;:it::~ :;~~I;O;'oW
where vertex 2 was originally.
form of can be identified from the
R2 =. c·
3.
2.
2. ~) m tng the product of the tw
illustrated as in Figure 2,9.
.
0 transformations can also be
~)
2.
R,
=C' 2. 1.
= G: ~)
2. Explanation for R(120). Vertex 1. moves t.o the
R(120) 3. place where vertex 2 was originally. vertex 2
moves to the place where 3 was originally. and
1 was
vertex 3 moves to the place where
originally.
C· ~)
6=6
2.
R(240) = 3. I.
There are five other equivalent forms for each of the permuta-
tion group symbols. This is true because the elements on ·the first' 1 2 3 1
row can be arranged in any of six ways. For example. two other
equivalent forms for R 1 are FIGURE 2.9
3. 3. 1,
and ( 2, . Note the important convention b · '
( 2. 1,
FIgure 2.9. The second trans'o t' . 0 Sel ved 10 the first row of
• • {I rma 1011 IS perform d ' . .
Either the permutation symbols. or a series of pictures, can posItIons for the vertices TI h e usmg the ongmal
. , • lUS, t e vertex that I
be used to check the entries in the multiplication table. Three -examples was ongmally (1' is d - was w lere vertex 3
• h move to where vert 2 . .
vertex that was where t 2 ' . . ex . was onginally. The
follow to illustrate both methods. ver ex was ongmall (2)'
vertex 3 was originall d I y. ,IS moved to where
. . y, an t le vertex that - h
onglnally. (3), remains unch d B was were vertex I was
EXAMPLE I . ange. ecause of th'
mterpretation, the reader will robabl .IS somewhat tedious
~: ~) G: ~: 3)I
symbols a valuable shortcut. P y find the. use of permutation
DC: =
= R(l20)
.
'I.. .
];h.:.
44 CHAPTER 2
GEOMETRIC TRANSFQRM,6,TIONS 45
EXAMPLE 2
vertical 'order, the multiplication table is not symmetric ..tbOllt the
R(120)R,-= (3.l. 2.
J. 2
1)(1.3. 2.
2. ~) = C: ~: ~) R,
diagonal frol11 upper left to lower right.
Withi.n a group of transformations may be subgroups of trans-
fOrm.,ltions. A sul1gn!y.ILis a subset of ,\ group thal is itself H group.
For examp'le, 'o'~~'-such subgroup of the symmetries of an equilateral
EXAMPLE 3
triangle has element~J. R{ 120). and R(240). Verify frorn the multiplication
I'
,·6~6=6
EXERCISES 2.2
1 23 2-1 3 2. Write an explanation for the permutation group symbols for R 2 • R 3 • nnd
R, R(2401·
For Exercises 3-6, nnd the products from the multiplicUlion table for the sym-
.A
(b~~~-L~
R(120) A R(240) A ~
metries of an equilateral triangle, then use the pernnHnti01l notulil;n to verify each
answer.
3. R(240)R, ";:) 4. R j R(240)
::::) 5. R j RJ =)6. R)Hl
1 2 3 1 1 2 ;::-) 7. 1s the set II, R j , R1 .R 3 1 of symmetries for the equilateral tri<l1lgle <l sub-
group'!
FIGURE 2 10 :::"\ H: Prepure a multiplication tt\ble for the symmetries '01' nil h;osceles triangle.
:::) 9. Verify the facl that the symmetries of an isosceles triangle form.t group.
The conclusion from the discussion of the symmetries of the ~.\ 10. List all the subgroups of the symmetries of all isosceles triangle."? ,
equilateral triangle is stated as a theorem. ~.01 L Prepare a multiplication table for the symmetries of n squme.· 1
12. Verify the fact thaI the symmetries of a square form a group.
. THEOREM 2. L The set of symmetries of the equilateral triangle ! 3. List ali the subgroups of the S)lnllnetries of t\ sqlHU'e. -\
IS a group of tra.nsformations.
The group of symmetries of an equilateral triangle is not a 2.3 EUCLIDEAN MOTIONS OF A PLANE
commutative group. As a specific example, R 1 R(240) = R 3 • but
The examples of tran~formations that are most ran~iJiar are those
~(240)R 1 = R/ Note that a consequence of this hi'ck of commutativity
used in high school geometry. Unlike the finite groups of transformations
Is that, when the elements are listed in the same horizontal and
studied in the previous sectio~, the sets of transformations in this section
t·
i,
GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS 47
46 CHAPTER 2
.' er of members. The detailed study in this secti?n In 1872, Felix Klein classified geometries by applying this
have an mfimte numb . E lidean geometry from a pomt definition: A geometry is the study of invariant properties of a set of
. Ives lookmg at uc
and the next two mvo . dar school approach. points under a group of transformations. Thus, Euclidean geometry is
of view different from the typlc~l s~c::fth~ transformations ofEudidean the study of invariant properties, such as angle measure and area, of
The essential chara~tenzatto d Th t is distance must be an sets of points under the group of Euclidean transformations,
·
geometry is that d.fstanCe IS preserve. a •
The .reader should ask himself) before continuing, what are the
invariant property. different kinds of Euclidean motions. The same question can be stated
differently by asking what types of transformations can be applied to a set
.
DEFINITION. A transformation I IS an -;c-;--
isometry of A onto B
of points in the plane so the distance between any two points is
,
if it preserves dIstances. F or an Y two points P,. P 2 of A. . always preserved. This question is answered in this section, but the
answer for the same question applied to analytic geometry is reserved for
I/(P ,)/(p,)1 = IP, P ,I, the next section. l' 0\
P,
\
I(P,)
Check each of these observations about a translation.
B'
FIGURE 2.11
,J,[ 48 CHAPTER 2
GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS 49
'",'
( ('21
The second basic type of motion of the plane is a .~_~ The set of all translations and rotations is called the set of
The symbol R(O,o:) indicates a rotation through an angle of ex about rigid motions or displacements. Using a cardboard model of a triangular
the point 0, as in Figure 2.14. By cOl1vention, a cQuntercio(:kwise region makes it possible to illustrate rigid motions by sliding the model
rotation is associated with a positive angle. from one position to another in a rigid way without changing its size
or shape. . . .,._.. .{:t..'
The third basic example of motion of a plane is a0'eflectjo~9 A
reflection R, utilizes a fixed line 1. as in Figure 2.16. A poinl.l.nCns it~
P'
own image. Any other point P" is mapped into a point P' sucb that 1
«
), is the perpendicular bisec.tor of P P'. (The notation Pr means the
segment with P and P' as endpoints.) As the name reflection implies,
a sel of points and thei·r "images are reflections of each other; it is as if
line I were a mirror. Note that a set of points having 1 as a line of
a symmetry is mapped onto itself by a reflection about I. One half of the
figure is the image of the other half.
FIGURE 2.14
,'p~
J.
the set. The fourth type of motion of a plane is a:~;de . re~~~:ti9 general point of view. a motIons of the plane from a more
(ot. e:::::=-___
(0) ,A (a,.8 2 )
FIGURE 2 . 19
x
point of the piane, the transformation I:, stich that T... (X) = X + A is a for a and b nny real numbers. The inverse of this transformation has
translation in the direction of 0 A. In Figure 2.20, the point TA{X) is the equations
l
I.r
:r:
i{
: i.
.',-
,It'
the image of! point X under the translation. Its coordinates are the
sum of the coordinates of points X and A. (Xl + "1' Xl + G2 ). Thus,
the notation X + A is used to indicate the addition of the corresponding
coordinates of points X and A.
x =
y ~
Xl -
y' - b,
a,
y
P'(3,3)
In typical analytic geomettty textbooks, it is shown that the
de-fining equations for a rotation about the origin are as foHows.
LJ
P(1,2)
DEFINITION. A rotation about the
with equations of the form
origi~ is a transformation
"
;)
A
x' = xcosa - ysina.
y' = xsina + ycoso:.
FIGURE 2.21 EXAMPLE, Find the image of P(2, 3) under a rotation of 60·
~. . about the origin.
if P( 1. 2) has the image P'{3, 3). then the transl~tion may be represented The equations arc
by the equations
= xcos60° - ysin60°,
x' = x -I- 2, ,, X'
;;
;
,:
" GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS 55
54 CHAPTER 2
, EXAMPLE. Find the image oC (2
The equations of rotation about a point (11, k) are (me y = x. Since cos 20 = 0 and sin 20 =' ~~ under a reflection abollt the
y y
y=mx
P' y=mx
A
o
,P"
y = mx + b
FIGURE 2,22
rotation through an angle of 20 about the origin. This can be seen FIGURE 2,23
[rom Figure 2,22 because o[ the congruences L POH =
L p'OH and
LPOA = LP"OA. The equations [or this reflection are section, although the,,--,answer
S. ' can I be determined here I'C d '
lnee the transJation is in the dl' a.so m . d' . eSired
x' = xcos28 + ysin20, the e . recUon .I. '.,' n F'Igure 2.23,'
leated by 'I'
quatlOfls of the tr~Jlslation are
y' = xsin20 - ycos28,
x' = x + 2dcosq"
obtained by writing the equations for a rotation of 28 about the origin,
y' = Y + 2dsil1q"
then substituting - y for y.
56 CHAPTER 2 GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS 57
and the desired equations for the general reflection are THEOREM 2.3. If a transformation has equations of the form
y' ~ (.fi/2)x - (lf2)y - 2.fi EXAMPLE. Find the inverse of the transformation with
For x ~ 2, Y ~ 6, equations
The general equations for a glide reflection are derived from Multiply the members of the first equation by sin 30° and the
those for a reflection and those for a translation in a direction parallel members of the second by cos 30°.
to the line of reflection. The images can be found using t11e two sets of
equations given previously for these transformations. x' sin 30° = x sin 30° cos 30° +
y sin 2 30°
A study of the form of the sets of equations for the four motions y' cos 30° = x sin 30° cos 30° - Y cos 30
2 e
of the plane shows they may all be described in the same general way.
0
x' sin 30" - y' cos 30 = y
THEOREM 22. If a transformation is a plane motion, then it
has equations of the form Now mUltiply both members of the original first equation by
cos 30° and the members of the second by sin 30°.
x' = ax + by + c,
x' cos 30 e = X cos! 30e + y sin 30° cos 30 e
y' ~ ±(-bx + ay) + d,
y'sin30e = xsin 2 30° - ),sin30ecos30e
for a, b. c, dE Rand a 1 + b 1 = 1.
x' cos 30" + y' si~ 30 0
~ x
EXERCISES 2.4 The proof of Theorem 2.4 consists of showing that there exists an
inverse for each element and that the product of any two elements is
Let the vector for a t:"nslntion be (3, - 5) and give
Ih e image for each another element of the set.
f 1. point under the translation. It is easy enough to verify that each element of the four types
j;
I: a. (0,0) b. (5,7) of motions named has an inverse element. For example, the inverse of a
c. (-1,-8) d. (-2, -1) translation is another translation in the opposite direction. The check [or
(5,9) what points have these points as closure with respect to mUltiplication is somewhat more complex. A proof
2. In the translation with vector
images'? using analytic geometry could be given, using The:orems 2.2 and 2.3 of the
b. (5,9) previous section. The synthetic proof is normally faciJitated- by showing
a. (0,0) of 4'5" aboul the
What is the image of the Point (3,4) under a rotation that motions of the plane may be discussed as pr?ducts of reflections.
- ) 3. 'g,·ol f 450 about the
on . (-I, 2) under a rotation
::;94 What point has the Image 0
THEOREM 2.5. Every plane motion is the producl of three or
fewer retlections and conversely.
origin'1 Cor the inverse 0 f a transformation of rotation about a
::7 point (Ide).
.
5. Derive the equations
.
.
A. - 330 and (I = 5: . consisting 0. f a I. Every translation and rotation is the product :of two reflections and
'/' - . 7) dec the glide reflection .
image of (~, lUI 0 d by a translation of three uOlts 1n a conversely.
reflection a b ou t the y~axis fo owe . ..,
8. What is the
positive direction parallel to the .v-axIs. . whose The two cases depend on whether the two fines of reflection
'.". intersect or are para-Uel.
.
For ExerCises 9- 12, find the inverse transformation for the transfonnatJon
a. If I, and 12 are any two fines of the plane intersecting at 0,
equations are given:
X' := x cos 30" - ysin30"
and if the angle from I, to I, is 0, then R(O, 20) ~ R , R ,.
9. x' = x - 5
~'=.:~x 3~''
I I
to. sin 30" + }' cos In Figure 2.24, Ihe rotation that transforms l'Q into P" Q" can
, y'=y+2
~' , = x cos 60" + ysin60" be considered the product of two reflections about I, and 1 "
11. x'=x 12. oX 0" 2
y' ~ -y
y' = x sin 60" - ycos6 b. If I, and I, are parallel lines, and if they are perpendicular
to a transJation vector OP and at a distance 10plf2 apart,
then t = Ril RS1 "
2.5 PROPERTIES OF THE EUCLIDEAN
I,
GROUP
,I. f a lane introduced in Sections
The set of Euclidean motIOns 0 p. ftections and glide
J
Itt Figure 2.25, the motion that transforms points A and B inlo Tn Section 23, experimentation led to the ract that some
A" and B" may be considered the product of two reRections about It motions could be- represented by sliding a cardboard model in the piane,
and 12 . while others could not. This matter is now reconsidered in the light of
Theorem 2.5.
A A· A··
According to this definition, rotations and translations are direct
IOPI motions, whereas reflections and glide reflections are opposite tno,lions.
-2-
Intuitively. the difference between direct and opposite ulOtions can be seen
OP
by considering a triangular region cut out of cardboard, such ~s 6ABC
in Figure 2.26. This piece or cardboard can be moved in the plane
FIGURE 2.25
to represent any direct motion. For exarnpte, it can be translated to
the position of .6.A'B'C'. On the other hand. the paper must be turned
2. Every reflection or glide reflection is the product of three or fewer
over ir th~ movement is to represent an opposite motion. It is necess'HY.
reflections. This statement js trivial for a reflection itself. Since a glide for example, to turn the cardboard triangular region over for it to
reflection is the product of a reflection and a translation. and since a coincide with ,0,A"B·'C"'.
...
translation is the product of two reflections, a glide reflection is the
product of three reflections.
A A' A··
The proof of the converse of Theorem 2.5 is not completed.
The converse states that the product of three or fewer reflections is a ~ ~8"
motion of the plane. The type of motion depends on the relative 8 C 8' C' C"
position of the lines of reflection. The possibilities are summarized in FIGURE 2,26
Table 2.2.
The general equations for motions include a ± symbol. The
TABLE 2.2 plus sign indicates a direct motion, al1d the negative si'go' indicates an
opposite mo~i(:)fl. This may be verilled by a check or each individual
PmdUCl Ilf A. If the two lines of rei1ection are paral!e~ (hen the motion is
Two Reflectiolls a translation. type of equation for a motioll.
B. Hthe two lines of reflection are nonparallel, then the motion The product of direct and opposite motions is summarized in
is a rotation.
Table 2.3.
Product of A. If two of the lilles of reflection coincide, then the motion
Tllree Reflectio/ls is a reflection. TABLE 2.3
B. If the three lines of reflection are purallel, then the motion , - - - - r----,----·- .
is a reflection. _ Din:cr OI'I'!I$ill!
C. 1f two lines of reflection intersect at a point on the third.
then the motioll is a reflection. . . Din't"l Direc! Opposite
D. If two lines of reilection intersect at a point not On the [-----1.-.--- .----.
third, then the Illotion is a glide reflection. OPPI1Sih' Opposite Direct
---- 1.. _.... __ , . ___ •
62 CHAPTER 2
GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS
63
As one with sufficient algebraic background might suspect, the "
system of direct and opposite motions under multiplication is isomoqJhic . For each type of motion, the . '"
pOints Without being the I·de t·t POSSIbilIties for numbers of fixed
to the system of even and odd numbers under addition (or the integers n 1 y transform f
form of Table 2.5. a IOn are summarized in the
modulo 2). This call be seen by· <;omparing Table 2.3 with the addition
tables derived for the other two systems mentioned.
The use of Theorem 2.~ ilnd the concepts of direct and opposite TABLE 2.5
motions finally makes it possible to complete a table showing closure for
Theorem 2.4. Since yach entry in Table 2.4 shows two possibilities. more MotioIJ
Pflssibi/itiesjrJI" III1'a/'illlll Pllil!(.~
information about the beginning motions is necessary in order to classify translation
none
the product as a unique tyP'~ of motion. rotation
one point
reflection
•
d
glide reflection olle line
nOne
TABLE 2.4
- _.. .. - "'---""--"_' .
'GUt/e.'- . At most, one line of the plane . " .
R(;ftI(i"" TruIIslatiall Reflectioll Refte(·tillll that IS not the identity. In the light ~a~ ~em~m lnvan~nt in a motion
,. to ask about the minimum numb ~ t .IS dIScovery. It is significant
Rotf/Oon rotation rotation glide glide to uniqueJy determine a pJa . e.r 0 pOints and their images needed
0' or reflection
, reflection hr. ne motIon other th I ·d .
, tnlllsiation translation 0' P' t ~ 10JJowing theorem wjJJ establish that h an t .le 1 entlty. Proof of
reflection refiecli(lO pOlOtS. t e answer IS three noncoHinear
Trllllsi!Ir/(1/i rotation I"otatioll glide glide
0' 0' reflection reflection
tnUlslatiou translation or 0' THEOREM 2.6. A unique t·
determined by an isometry of one tria~Ogf~on t the plane is completely
reflection reflection Of
Rejlectioll
on 0 a second.
glide glide rotatiotf rotation
, reflection refiection 0' or
or or translation trauslntion Let bABe", 6A'B'C'· F·
reflection reflection there is exactly One m~tion of tl In I Igure 2.~7. It is necessary to show
le pane agreeing with tf)is isometry.
Glide glide glide rotation fotati<lU
Refie(·ti(J/I reflection reflection or or
~~
.. or or: translation translation
reflection reflection
-
Let PI and P 2 be two points of the p1ane in Figure 2.28. DAA'B' ~ 6B'BA. because pairs of corresponding sides are congruenl
6AP,P, ;;; 6A'P,'P,',since AP, = A'P,', AP, = A'P ',and LP AP Thus, LAB' A' ;;; L S' AB, and ;lti and A'S' are parallel.
_ LP 1'A'P'
= 2'
TIlUS, P1 P 2 = PI' P2', so that a motion" is determined,
because distance between two points is preserved. EXAMPLE. Prove analytically that a line and its image are
parallel under a translation.
Let the equation of the line be ax + by + c = 0 and the
equations of the translation be x' = x + cI, )" = y + e. The equations
of the inverse are x = x' - iI, Y = y' - e. so that the imuge of the line
is a(x' - el) + b(y' - e) + c = 0, or ax' + b.... + (- "d - be + c) = O.
lilis equation and the original equation have the same slope, so that the
8 C'
FIGURE 2.28
lines are parallel.
The location of the points is virtually the only property not
an invariant in a motion. The realization that the group of motions
Since, for any given point P, there is only one point of the
allows very few changes in properties leads to the need Io investigate
plane P' stich that PA = P'A', PB = P'B', and PC = p'e, P' is the
more g~neral types of transformations that do not leave as mHny
,mage of P, and the motion is the only one for which 6ABC has as
invariant properties. One. such group, the similarities. is introduced in the
tts nnage D. A'B' C'.
last section of this chapter, following the section on motions in three-
The properties studied in elementary geometry. such as con-
gru~nce of segments, triangles, and angles, area of regions, and intersection
space.
of hnes, are ~ll properties of sets of points that are invariant under the
group of motIons. EXERCISES 2.5
Th~ proof of the invariance of a property under a group of
tran.sformatlon.s can be either synthetic or analytic. Both types of proofs 1. Drnw a figure for each case in T~lble 2.2.
are Illustraf.ed In examples. . 2. Verify, as stlggested, Ihl.1t the eqmHions for direct motions have a +
symbol and the equations for opposite mOl ions huve a - symbol.
EXAMPLE. Prove that a segment and its image are parallel 3. Draw a specific example showing that the product of a reflection and tl
66 CHAPTER 2
DEFINITION. The rotation .
angle IX about a fixed line' . R{l. ex) III three-space thlOugh
10. Prove analytically Ihal the angle between IwO intersecling lines is an invarianl See F'Igure 2.31, 15 a rotatIOn in a plan .
e perpendIcular toanl.
under Ih. s" of all translations. '
/ ---71
.,
1-1--........ TA (Xl p'
I A I I
Corresponding sets of equations can be written for reHections about the The table makes it possible to indicate the product, of any two
xz- and yz-planes. motions, but the results cannot be determined t~niquely Without m~re
In addition to the three simple motions, it is necessary to. define information. For example. the product of a screw dls~lac.ement and a g~lde
three additional types of motions which are products of the basic ones reflection is an opposite transformation, hence it IS either a refleclton,
so that the set of motions of three-space wHl be closed. Table 2.6 a rotatory reflection, or a glide reflection. .
. shows the definitions of the additional motions as products of two The study of Table 2.7 shows lhat a refle.ctlOo has an invariant
simpler motions. plane and that no other motion h as as ex t ensl ve a' set of invariant
points. The foHowing theorem is analogous to Theorem 2.6.
TABLE 2.6
THEOREM 2.8. A motion in space is uniquely determined by a J,.
Mofim! Explalllltio/f tetrahedron and its image.'
•. screw displacement
b. glide reflection
rotation and translation along axis of rotation
reflection and translation parallel to plane of reflection
c. rotatory reflection reflection and rotation with axis perpendicular to plane The proof is left as an exercise.
of reflection
EXERCISES 2.6
A complete analysis of the motions of three~space is not given
here. but the theorems are analogous to the theorems in two dimensions. ·
Let the vector for a trans 1atlOo
be (_ ,_, 1,7), and give thl.: linage for each
I.
point under the translation,
THEOREM 2.7. The motions of three-space constitute a group b. (2, 5,3)
a. (O, 0, 0)
d. (O, -4, 1)
of transformations. c. (-2, -3, -5)
;
!,
GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS 71
70 CHAPTER 2
geometry, however, the idea of ~f!!iJ~J... l?ut noncon~ruent figures is
3 4) what points have t hese images? introduced. Similarity is an example of a type of transformation in which
In the translation with vector (-1, - • •
2. b. (2, - I, 3) distance between points is not preserved. But distance between points is
L ~~~ . modified in a consistent way throughout the plane.
h type of O1otton 0 [ space.
3 Describe the inverse for eae d rotation of 450 in the
. ·t(2,45)un era ,
What is the image of the. pOlO I
DEFINITION. A plane similarity is a translonnation of the I:
4. = 4 about the y_a:us'l .
plane y • . e of the point under a reflection about the given plane onto itself such that I/(A)/(B)I = rIABI. r
where is some positive
For Exercises 5-8, give the Imag real number. See Figure 2.33.
plane. 6. ( _ 2. 4, 3), xz plane
5. (3,S,I),xyplane S. (_I,4,-2),x=3
7. (2, 3. 9), yz plane r the last three types of motions of space.
For this example, ,. = 2, so that AS is stretched by the :.1
9. Sketch an example of each 0 . r space remain invariant under a similarity transformation into a segment twice its length. For r = 1/3, i, l
p that if four noncoplanar pomts 0 it would have been shrunk into a segment one third of its length. For
10. rove , . . h identity.
r = I, the similarity transformation is an isometry. The number r is caIIed
motion, the motton 15 t e [ ' that is the product of:
. T' r r the type 0 mouon the ratio of similarity. ...." ... j
ll. Nalne the posslbl lUes 0
. d a translation. ,. .I
,. I
a. A rotatory reflection an .
b A rotation and a glide reflection. 2 THEOREM 2.9. The set of all similarities of the plane is a
. ft tion about the plane z = .
Derive the equations for a re ec transformation group.
12.
13. Prove Theorem 2.8.
,
Make a sketch showing a tetrahedron and its image for a: The inverse of a similarity with ratio r has the ratio l/r. TIle
l4. Translation.
ratio of a product of two similarities i~ the product of the. ratjps of the
two similarities. For example. if the first ratio of similarity is two and
15. Rotation.
the second ratio of similarity is three, then the ratio of similarity for the
16. ReHection. product transformation is six. Theorem 2.9 makes it possible to think of
the motions of a plane as a subgroup with r = 1 of the group of
SIMILARITY TRANSFORMATIONS . similarities of the plane.
2.7 In the previous section, it was proved that a unique motion is
d' d in the last three sections of
In the Euclidean moti~,nSdslpu Ie erties such as length, area, anQ._ determined if three non collinear points and their images are known.
. was preset ve. .
rop ' The same proof can be modified to apply to the more general group of
this chapter, QI§tance Even . m ' I 1
hIgh SC lOO
reserved under ISOInetnes. - similarities.
volume are a 11 P
(Al
THEOREM 2. 10. A plane similarity is uniquely determined when
a triangle and its image are given.
P' P'
/1'\
"<0
/! \
// ( \
/ / \
A' / I
! \ ',~\. / \
\
Q'
\
\
FIGURE 2.35
\
·d
responding segments under a homothety should be p.araHeL .That ~he '-;'j
"'.
8' ':1
property of parallelism is an invariant under a homo the tic transfortnal1OI1 -,.J.
FIGURE 2.34
is proved as the next theorem. ,i
An i~tuitive exploration of how to explain similarities as a series
of simple steps leading from a figure to its image indicates that there THEOREM 2.11. Th~ image of a segment under a hOlllOthety is a
must be both a c~ange in position and a uniform change in size (but parallel segment.
not a change in shape).
For example, in Figure 2.34, changes of position can result in
In Figure 2,35, OP'/OQ' = OP/OQ, and 60P'Q' - 60PQ,
trIarigle ABC being situated so that A and A' coincide, so tha~ AB
lies along iB', and so that AC lies along A'C". A change in size is then hence PQ 1Il'72, , ,
It is sometimes said that homothetic figures are both sImilar
necessary irB and B' are to coincide. Since motions of the plane can
accomplish the change-in position, the new transf~rmation needed is one
and similarly placed, since their corresponding sides are parallel. For ,.\
example, in Figure 2.36, 6ABC and 6A'B'C' are similar but not
to accomplish the .Ul'iiform change in size. The new type of transformation
IWIDothetic, whereas 6ABC and 6A"B"C" are homothettc, Also,
must be a special similarity in which the image of a set of points is a
LJA'B'C' and 6,A"B"C" are similar but not homothettc.
similar figure with corresponding sides parallel.
t;7'
B U
~
any point P, OP' = rOP where 0 is the center of the homothety and r 8
is its ratio.
A
/"'>.C AU C"
A'
The center of homothety is an invariant point, according to this FIGURE 2.36
definition. The ratio of the distances from the center to the image
point and to the original point is a constant, the ratio for the The property of parallelism is preserved under a hornolhety.
homothety, For example, Figure 2.35 shows a homothety with Another invariant property is the property of he.iUg Il cir~l~.
OP'/OP = 3/2, Remember that the ratio of similarity always compares
the image with the original.
The exploration of the need for a homothety showed that motions THEOREM 2.12. The image of a circle under a homothety is a
could result in an image in the correct relative _position; thus cor- circle. See Figure 2.37.
GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS 75
74 CHAPTER 2
P' I(A)
B B'
FIGURE 2,37
FIGURE 2.38
Let 0 be the center of homothety and P' and Q'. the images formations begins with the b '
homothety 'th 0 servatlOn
that the equations for a
of a point on the given circle and its center. respectively. Since WI center at the origin are
PQ 111"([ by Theorem 2,11, P'Q'IPQ = OQ'IOQ, or
X' = rx,
P'Q' = PQ'OQ' y' = ry,
OQ
But each segment in the expression on the right has a fixed length, S,ince a similarity is the product of ' "
the equatIOns for a similarity are of the form a molion and a homothety.
hence P'QI is a constant. For any position of point p, P' lies on a
circle with Q' as center.
So far it has been determined that a similarity !can be con-
x' = le(ax + by + c)
sidered the product of a homothety and a motion. Because. a hornothety y' = ±le[(-bx + ay) + d]
also can accomplish a translation, the foHowing stronger s~atement can fo r a, b c', d .~ Rand a 2 + b 2 = 1.
J
homothety in a somewhat more general way by allowing the ratio r to be 6. In figure 2.37, compare the ratio of the radii of the two circles with the
either positive Ol: negative. The p}1Ysical interpretation of a negative ratio ratio of similarity.
7. Find the image of (3,5) under a homothety with center at (0,0) and with
is that a point and its image are on opposite sides of the center. of
homothety. ratio 3/4.
1 Consider, because of Theorem 2.14, any tetrahedron OABe 8. Find the image of (4, 3) under the similarity with equotions
J with the fixed point 0 as one vertex. It is assumed here, as for two x' = 2{3x - .I' + 5).
I dimensions, that a fixed point exists for any similarity. Let r be the
J" = 2(x + 3)' + 2),
ratio of similarity. Then the image of DABe under the homothcty
H(O,r). OA"B"C', is congruent to the image OA'BtC· under tht: Prove analytically that if two lines illtersect, their images under a sim\iarily
9.
similarity. If the motion connecting OA"B"e" and OA'B'C' is direct, also intersect.
then the similarity is the product of H(O. r), for r positive, and a to. 1s the set of homothelies with a given invariant point a group of lrHns-
rotation about some line through O. If the similarity is opposite, then formations?
r is negative. 1L Prove analytically that the property of being a parabola is an invariant
This chapter has enlarged the idea of Euclidean geometry by for the group of homotheties with a given invariant point.
showing how it can be considered the study of those properties that
are invariant under the group of -motions (or under the group of
similarities). Through this new approach, additional significance is
attached to the study of congruent and similar triangles. Even more
important, however, is the anticipation that more general transformations
exist (such as those given in Chapter 7, for example), with Euclidean
geometry as a special case.
The study of Euclidean geometry has been revitalized during
the present century. In addition to the approach through transformations,
a classification and detailed study of sets of points in Euclidean
geometry utilizing the modern concept of convexity is a subject of current
research. The geometry of convexity is the subject of Chapter 3.
EXERCISES 2.7
l. Find the length of the image of a 3-inch segment under a similarity with
ratio 4/3.
CONVEXITY
the basic difference between convex sets of points and those that are measure less than n) and its interior, and a spherical region. The empty sel
nonconvex. and a set consisting or a single point are both convex by agreement.
To show that a particular set is convex by definition is not
always easy. In addition to Theorem 3.1 below, analytic geometry is often
~ employed. You should assume here and elsew:here in this chapter. unles~
stated to the contrary, lhat the variables for coordinates of points are
~ elements of the set of real numbers.
~
The postulational system for a secondary school geometry
(a) Examples of
convex sets includes the assumption that a hair-plane is a convex set. For example,
see Appendix 3, Postulate 14. The determination of whether a set is
con~ex or not is facilitated by the following theorem,
(b) Examples of
non Convex sets
FIGURE 3.1
·",
CONVEXllY 83
82 CHAPTER 3
v
(a) (b)
FIGURE 3.5
For Tlwee Dilnensions: The ope/1 spherical neighborhood with The symbol ",S means "not S" or the complement of. S: A
radius r of a point P is the set of points ill space inside a sphere df point is an exterior point of a set if every point sutnciently. ne.ar 1t .IS a
radjus r with P as center. (See Figure 3.7b.} This definition can be member of the complement of the set. For lhe set of points Xl + yl. < t.
written in symbols as the exterior is x 2 + y2 > 1. Point B is an exterior point in Figure 3.8b.
A point that is neither an interior nor an exterior point. of a sel
N(P.r) ~ {A: IPAI < rl. is called n botllldqry pOint. The set of boundary pOints for a set IS called
lhe boulld£llJ~-'~"r" the set. Note that if P is a boundary point of S. then
A clQ~ed neighborhood in two or three dimensions includes the il is also a boundary point of the complement of S.
points on the circle Or sphere as well as those inside. The definition
of closed neighborhood, using set symbolism, is DEFINITION. P is a boundary point of set S if every neighbor-
N[P.r] ~ {A: IPAI ;;; r}. hood of P contains both points of S and of ..... S.
Both open and closed nejghborhoods are convex sets of points. F or the set x 2 + l < t. the boundary is x +- y2 = 1. Point ~
2
to decide whether a point is an interior, an exterior. or a boundary Some bounded sets are .
cannot extend indefinitely F shown In Figure 3.1 I. Bou d d
. or example, the para~ I n e sets
point, it is necessary to consider the number of dimensions. For example, o a y = x 2 is not a
in figure 3.9, ((x,y,O): x' + y' ;;; l} has no interior points in three-
space. Each point of the set is a boundary point, since every spherical
neighborhood for a point of the set contains both points of the set and
points of its complement.
The classification of points as interior, exterior, or boundary
points for a set leads to useful classifications of the sets themselves.
FIGURE 311
DEFINITION. An open set has only interior points. bounded set beca use no cJrci
.
concept of a b e can enclose the
set ollnded set should not be co' d set of points. The
. nluse with Ihe boundary of a
An open neighborhood is an open set. as is the interior of any
simple closed curve.
y(.$2j..~1ERCISES 3.1
DEFINITION. A closed set contains all its boundary points.
(, 1.! WhicIl of these sets are convex?
these pairs is that including the contrapositive and the inverse. FIGURE 3.16
A E 8 F
c/6.\,D
'!VII\~'
FIGURE 3.13
FIGURE 3.14
proof: If I is not a supporting line, Proof: Suppose I contains bound- (a) (b)
as it is not in Figure 3.13, then FIGURE 3.16
ary point A and interior point B,
points A and B of set K can be as in Figure 3.14. There exists a
found in different half-planes
neighborhood of B, N(B, e), con- ..... F'Igure 3.16 shows two t
formed by f. The intersection of and AD are the boundaries oftl angent cones. For Figure 3.160, A-C
taining interior points. But this ray AC) . In general th b lC tangent cone. (Th e notation AC -
AB and I is not empty. But C is an
interior point of set K, since K is
neighborhood includes points in tal1g~nt bo~nd:rie:~;daries
cone. The are not themselves rays ~;e;17;
convex and A and B are interior
both of the half-planes formed by I; In FJgure 3.16b, BE and BF . the ~angel1t cone are called semira
al e semJtangents and are colhnear.
. ngenls.
hence, I is not a supporting line.
points. See Exercise 14, Exercise
Set 3.2. DEFINITION . ,The umon . of tw ' .
The concept of supporting line is closely related to the more tangent to a convex set at a point. a collinear semi tangents is the
familiar idea of a tangent. from calculus, the intuitive idea of a tangent
to a curve is that of a line intersecting lhe curve at a' point and
t From Figure 3. 16,or from a c 'd
having the same slope as the curve at that point. As Figure 3.15 . angent, it should be clear h anSi eration of the definition of
t at there are tangents at ~ome boundary
shows, supporting lines and tangents are not necessarily the-same thing.
I'
,
I CONVEXITY 93
92 CHAPTER 3
is greater than re. then the original set is nol convex, contr<-lry to the
points of a convex set and not at others. It is possible to classil}' beginning /;lssumplion. See Exercise 12. Exercise Set 3.1.
boundary points of a convex set as regular or corner points on the
basis of whether there is or is not a tangent to the curve passing
A
through that boundary point. There is a tangent at every regular point.
In Figure 3.16, II is a corner point, whereas B is a regular point.
Other examples of corner points are the vertices of a convex polygonal
region. On lhe other hand. all of the points on a circle are regular
points on lhe boundary of the circular region.
One of the main reasons for introducing the concept of sup~
porting line is that it can be used to dislinguish a convex set frO!H one
FIGURE 3,18
," that is nonconvex.
I
set if and only if through each point of the curve there passes at least line at every boundary point.
This statement is the inver'se of the implication in In), so
one supporting line for the interior. proving it will complete the proof of Theorem 3.3. (See Figure J,19.)
Since S' is not convex, an interior point C and a boundary
- ~ point B can
be found such that a boundary point A lies on Be. Be is not n
supporting line, since it contains interior points, Any other line through
A has D and C in opposite half-planes; hence il cannot be a supporting
line. There is no supporting line to St through A.
<al (bl
FIGURE 3.17
For Exercises 5-8, describe the regular points and cornt;:r points for each of these
sels.
5. Circular region.
6. Square region.
FIGURE 3.20 7. Angle and its interior-measure less than 180".
8. Convex polygonal region.
of points in the corlvex set is 9. Use Theorem 3.4 to give a definition of:
4 tates that t Ile se t . fting
Theorem 3. S ~ • I 'te 'section of the suppa a. A triangular. region. h. A convex polygonall'egion.
f points m t le 10 I , :. I' to
identical to the set 0 tl at two sets are Identlca IS 10. Draw three nOtlconvex sets and show one point au the boundary of each
'ent way to prove 1 : t then
half-planes. A convem ' r I other since the sets '111US through which no supporting line passes.
1 . a subset 0 t le 1 K d the
prove that eae 1 IS " L 1 the convex set be an I L State the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the second implication in
I ave exactly the same elements. e b K' By definition of sup- Theorem 3.2.
1 orting half-planes e .
intersection of the supp f K'
. ha If-p I',\fie,
sKis a subset 0 . 12. Prove that the interior angles of a convex. polygon have measurements less
portlllg than tr.
A IJ. Prove that a tangent cone to a convex set at a boundary point is itself a
• convex set.
14. Prove that if A is an interior point of convex set K and B is any other
point of K. then every point in ASIAB except for point 8) is an interior
point of K. Hint: Use Theorem 3.3.
15. Prove that if A and B are boundary points of a convex set K as well as
points of K. then either A1J(AB without the endpoints) is entirely in the
O~
DEFINITION. A convex body is a convex set of points that is The contrapositive states that if K is nonconvex, then some line 'through
closed, bounded, and nonempty. an interior point of K does not intersect the boundary S in exactly
two points.)
In Figure 3.23, if K is nonconvex, interior points A and B
Many comlnon convex sets are convex bodies. Examples include
can be found such that C on AB is an exterior point. Then it can be
convex polygonal regions and Ijne segments. On the other hand, the
assumed that boundary points D and E for K exist on AB. The ray
interior of a parabola and the entire plane are convex sets that are not <->
convex bodies. Convex bodies always have interior points for the number
VA also has a third boundary point F, so AB intersects S in at least
98 CHAPTER 3
inscribed quadrilateral that is not the boundary of a convex region. Such a
. f'gure 324b however, some
1
lsedcurvem 1 •• quadrilateral is pictured as ABeD in Figure 3.26, but the details of the
will be convex. For t lC co. I the one shown are nonconvex.
orthe inscribed polygona I reglons • sue 1 as ' proof are left as Exercise to of Exercise Set 3.3.
(b)
(aJ
FIGURE 326
FIGURE 3.24
BCD EF is paired with B' C' D' E' F'. Since each polygon S 1 of K 1 is con-
tained in the corresponding polygon Sz of K 2 • from Theorem 3.8, the
length of S 1 is less than or equal to the length of S2' The least upper
bounds of these sets of lengths are finite, with
'l
". least upper bound of S 1 ~ least upper bound of S2'
.'.,
•
102 CHAPTER 3
CONVEXITY 103
· d 0 f item for a
duce the seeon d k 1D
machine for two hours. In ~rder to p~~ used for one hour and the second For the example, the function giving the profit is! = 50x + 40y.
and the vaJues at the vertices of the polygon are:
~:~chine [or one·haU hour. Each Iflla:l~~nei;em
. fit of $40. the first maclune must . annot be operated more than
should be manufactured
12 hours a d ay. How many .e
0 at A (0,0), f= 0;
each day for a maximum profit? er of the first kind of item per day and at B (0, 12), f = 480;
If x represents the numb d k' d of item per day for a
II represents the number of the secen In at C (4,8), f= 520;
;naximum profit. tht'm at D (6,0), f= 300.
x ~ 0,
For a maxin-HIm profit, the company should make four of the
y ~ O. first item and eight of Ihe second. The profil will be $520 per day.
9. Sketch two examples to show Ihilt 111eorem 3.7 does not necessarily hold
if the points PI are not successive.
to. Complele the proof of Theorem 3.7.
11. Sketch two examples to show thnt Theorem 3.8 does not necessarily hold
if the regions are nOllconvex.
J2. Describe all possible one-dimensional convex bodies.
13. Show that a plane convex body has a tangent at boundary point A if and
only if there is exactly one supporting line for the body al A.
14. Rework the example given for finear programming with the following
conditions: for the first item, the first machine must be nUl two hours
and the second machine three hours; the profit on Ihe first item is $90 per
FIGURE 3.29 item.
CONVEXITY 105
104 CHAPTER 3
as shown in figure 3.31a. The lines meeting at the pole are lines of
IS. A HIncher hils space for 300 cows. He wants no more Ilum 200 or one longitude and the circles are lines of latitude (Figure 3.31 b).
breed,. If he makes a profit of $40 Oil a Hereford and $50 on a Bluck For three-space, a tangent cone is actually the interior of a cone,
Angus, how many or each should he raise for <lll1axill1t11l1 profil'!
as in Figure 3.32. There is no direct analogue in three-space to semi-
tangents) since the boundary of the tangent is the cone ilself. l.r the
boundary cone of the tangent cone for a point A is a plane n, then 1t
3.4 CONVEX BODIES IN THREE-SPACE
is called the tangent pla1le at A.
. ," . Many of rile concepts and theorems for convex bodies in three
d~menslOns .are th~ san~e as. or closely analogous to those already
dIscussed fOI two d~menslOns III the last section.
106 CHAPTER 3
The next theorem relates two-dimensIOnal
convex bodies. . . and three-dimensional
if K has a tangent plane at the point. The vertices of a convex
polyhedral region are examples of corner points, whereas each point 011 a
sphere, is a regular point for the spherical region. THEOREM 313
The next theorem is the three-space analogue of Theorem 3.3. d" . . Let / be a SUppOI ting I
ImenslOnai convex body K a t ' ine of the three-
Before stating the theorem, the concept of surface must be introduced.
A ,ur/llCe is the graph of a set of equations of the (..11'111 x = lIt) ..
!'
d~termined by I and an interior p~~~n~ and let " be the plane
dimensIOnal convex body that I I r K . Then 7C (\ K is a two-
.I' = flU), : = h(t). for./: g. and Ii continuous functions and the dOlnain of las as a supporting line.
t un interval of real numbers. A simple closed SUI/tIC!! has a single
interior. It partitions every spherical neighborhood into two disjoint ' . A is also a n Intenor
. . point of
ImenslOnal convex b d B 7C n K, so 7C n K is a two-
dK ' 0 y. ut suppose I i
sets jf the center is a point of the surface. II~. Smce B lies on I and B . s not a supporting line of
contams an interior point C of K IS a. boundary point of K II 7r I
THEOREM 3.12. A simple closed surface S is the boundary of a D of K
. . n 7C such that C lies b t .~. lere is a point
n 1[. as In Figure 3 35 TI .
convex set K if and only if through each. point of S there passes at Illtenor point of K d D . e ween A and D. Since A .
f' an E K. It follow h . . IS an
least one supporting plane of K. o K. ThIS means that I is not .s t ~t C JS an mterior point
assumption. a supportmg hne of K. contrary to the
Proc?l:
a. Proof of the inverse of the only if statement.
Points A and B can be found with A an interior pginl such
that A B contains a boundary point C if set f( is nonconvex, as in
Figure 3.34. No plane through A and B can be a supportil.lg plane,
K FIGURE 3.35
i
FIGURE 3.34 The last theorem of this section I'S a three~spa ce counterpart
of Theorem 3.4. :1
EXERCISES 3.4
•
1. Give other examples from the physical world representing supporting planes
Set
and three-dimensional sets.
2. Describe the tangent cone for a vertex of a cubical solid. • •
3. Is every line in a supporting plane for a convex set a supporting line
for the set? Why?
DEFINITION. The cOllvex hull (sometimes called the convex such that A is a point DrOp 1 p 2~
covel') of a set of-points S is the smallest convex set containing S.
In Figure 3.37, A. B, C, D, E are extreme points, whereas F and
Examples of convex hulls are shown in Figure 3.36. The. G are not. Every point all the boundary of a circular region is an
concepts of convex set and convex hull are fluther related by the
fonowing theorem, whose proof is left as an exercise.
,
0
A F
THEOREM 3.15. A set is convex if and only if it is its own
convex hull.
C B
In many problems that involve packing objects in convex con- E
tainers, the convex hull must fit within the container, so the convex FIGURE 3.37
CONVEXITY 111
110 CHAPTER 3
extreme point. The connection between extreme points and convex hulls notation . Let U be t he mtersection
. f .
half-planes_of_S wh ose boundanes
. c0t ' the filllte number of suppo r t'lllg
for some sets is made clear in the following two theorems. ~ple. P 1 P 2 and PP det .on am at least two points of S. For
pp ~
1 3 and P 6 P 7 do not.
24 ernunesuppor t"mg h alf-planes. whereas
THEOREM 3.16. A convex polygonal region S is the convex
Since U is convex and S c U I
hull K orits extreme points. proof involves showing that U c K ,t len K .c U. The rest of the
FIGURE 3.40
FIGURE 3.41
. "keeping• po'In t A In
. the same half- .
P, •. IS contamed in I. The h If- I
.
pl~ne until a second point P f S
a pane OpposIte point A "II 2 0
P,
. half-planes of U Th' WI then be one of the
. U . 18 means that A I' .
FIGURE 3.39
In . The conclusion is that K is ' w uch JS not in K. is
a subset of U and, finally, that
CONVEXITY 113
112 CHAPTER 3
THEQREM 3. L8. Let S be an arbitrary finite set of points on a THEOREM 3.19. Let S be a finite set of point~ on a simple
simple closed curve T. T is the boundary of a convex set K if and only closed surface T. T is the boundary of a convex set if and only if" no·
if no point of S is an interior point of the convex cover ](' of S for all point of S is an interior point of the convex huH U of S for al.1 such
such sets S. sets S.
L Describe or sketch in two dimensions the convex cover for each set listed
beloW:
Circle.
::t.
b. Tri<U1gle.
c. Two intersecting lines. d. Two noninlersectillg circles.
e. Parabola, f. Hyperbola. .
h. FOll!" distint;t points. no three of which are
D g, Angle.
collinear.
(a) (b)
2. Give examples involving practical applications of packing oNects in convex
FIGURE 3.42
containers,
3. prove Theorem 3.15.
of points, such as B, C, D, does not contain any other points On the
4. Can an exlreme poinl be:
boundary. For Figure 3.42b, however, the convex hull for EGHI contains
a. A regular poin11 b. A corner point1
boundary point F.
5. Complete the proof of Theorem 3.ts..
6. Give an example of a set of poinls thaI is dosed, hut whose t.:tl!lvex hull
hoof:
is not dosed.
a. If T bounds a convex set K, then. by definition of convex 7. Prove that a convex body is the convex huH of its extreme points..
hull, K' s; K. Therefore, all interior points of K' are also interior point:; of
8. Describe the convex cover of:
K. b. Two ske\'{ lines.
b. The proof of the converse consists of showing that if K is a. A dihedral angle.
d. Four distinct nOllcoplanar points.
not convex, then some member of S is an interior point of the convex hull c. A sphere.
9. Can the convex cover of any two~dimens.ion.nl set be three dimensional'!
of S (Exercise 5, Exercise Set 3.5).
10. Prove Theorem 3.19.
I L Prove thal every supporting plane of the (..""t.lIlvex l."over of a closed bounded
The concept of convex hull is easily extended to sets in three
set contains al least one point of the seL
dime~si~ns. A convex polyhedral solid is the convexhull of its extreme
CONVEXITY 1 T5
114 CHAPTER 3
in a ·directio n 0 [ maXImum
. width If A
3.6 WIDTH OF A SET tlle. IWe I ti". 1 . is any p~i~t of n () S. then
. oug 1 A perpendicular 11: II1tersects 1£;' in a
pDm! B that lS a point of S. to 1£ and
A significant property of sets of points that leads to some
modern applications of convexity is the concept of width of a se.t.
circular region.
The proof of the next theore .
Exercise Set 3.6). . m IS left as an exercise (E xerclse
. I J.
11
FIGURE 3.50
FIGURE 3.49
Some sets of constant width that are not circular regions also
do not have corner points. Let~ ABC be an equilateral triangle with
FIGURE 3.47 edge d. and ex lend each side <l distance 11 past the vertices, as in
Figure 3.51. With each vertex as center and with radius II. construct
An interesting difference between the Reuleaux triangle and a the arcs A'A", B'B", and ce". Then with each vertex. as center f!nd
circular region is that a Reuleaux triangle has corner points at A. B, with radius d + h, construct the arcs fl"B', B"C', and e" A'. The six arcs
and C. In recent years, the malhematical properties of the Reuleaux are the boundary of a set of constant width d + 2ft.
triangle have led to some extremely important applications. One such
application is in the cylinder of a Wankel engine. as shown in Figure 3A8. 8' B"
The Reuleaux tliangle inside the double elliptical chamber allows more
than one phase 'of operation of the engine to take place simultaneously.
This type engine is being used increasingly in modern automobiles. The
same type of efficient engine has been used in snowmobiles. For further
information, consult Scientific American, February, 1969.
FIGURE 3.51
118 CHAPTER 3
FIGURE 3.p
FIGURE 3.52
THEOREM 323 B . . The perimeter of a plane
convex body of con t . t '. arbler s theorem.
Sets of constant width are still being studied 'intensively by s an Width w is nw.
leading research mathematicians. Several of the simpler _properties are
given here, but the interested reader may pursue the topic in recent Certainly, aU convex sets .th
h.ave the same measure of area ;I
the same constant width do not
professional journals. ~~cular region. 11le set with mi~im~~, set w~th maximum earea is the
corem. 'II owmg
alea IS named in th 10 .
THEOREM 3.22. If K is a convex body of constant width and if
A ~ K, then the diameter of K u
(Al is greater than the- diameter of K.
THEOREM3 .24. Blaschke L b
th with the least area is the Reu~e e esq~e theorem. The set of constant
'd
WI
aux tnangJe.
The intuitive meaning of this theorem is that other outside
points cannot be joined to a convex body of constant width without
increasing the width. The theorem probably seems self-evident, at least for but it dThe Reuleaux tdangle has some prop t'
oes not have a er les of a circul .
constant width h' center. In fact, the only c ar regIOn,
dimensi:~es
h avmg a center' Ollvex bodies f
a circular region.
sp erical regions in three clfcular regions in the plane anod
Proof: In Figure 3.54, suppose K has consta.nt width wand
~
C. One of the current areas - f. . .
A K. Let B be a point of K closest to II and let 1t be the plane' ". oncept of universal cover A .0 InvestIgation -.in convexity is the
space.
CONVEXITY 121
120 CHAPTER 3
A set that will cover every convex set of diameter one will cover theorem and the wealth of related material constitute a su bstantinl
every set of diameter one. The smallest square universal cover is a unit portion of the recent discoveries in the geometry of convexity.
square. The smallest equilateral triangle that is a universal cover has an
indIde of diameter one. The general problem of the smallest universal THEOREM 3.25. rIelly's tlteorellI. Ld K = {K,. K1 .·:·.' KN } be
cover of any g;;ven shape has not been completely solved. N convex sets of points, N ~ It + 1. lying in 'u-space, 11- = 1. 2, or 3, so
that every J1 + 1 sets have a nonempty intersection. Then the intersection
of all the sets is not empty.
EXERCISES 3.6
Figure 3.55 is an illustration of Helly's theorem for fOlif convex.
, Find the minimum width and the diameter of each set in Exercises 1-4.
sets in a plane.
I' L Square region with edge 1 inch.
l' ! .,
l, .. 2, Rectangular region 2 inches by 3 inches.
3, Reuleaux triangle constructed on equilateral triangle with edge 1 inch.
4. Isosceles lfiangie with edges 7 inches and noncongruenl edge 3 inches.
5. Picture other nonconvex sets of constant width.
.. " 6. Draw a Reuleaux polygon of seven sides.
7. Construct a set of constant width ns in Figure 3.51, but begin with a
pentagon instead of a triangle.
8. Show that lhe perimeter of a Reuleaux triangle is 1tW. FIGURE 355
9, Find the maximum and minimum areas of plane sets of constant width
four, The proof is given for lhree dimensions. For N = 4. the
10, Find the length of the edge of the smallest equilateral triangle that is a theorem is trivially true. The proof can be completed by induction on N.
universal cover. If necessary, the reader should review the idea of mathematical induction
11. Prove Theorem 3.21. before continuing the proof. Assume the theorem true for ailY 4, ... , III
12. Give an example to show that Theorem 3.22 is not necessarily true for a convex sets of points and let K 1 •.• " Kill' K",+ 1 be convex sets, any four
nonconvex body of constant width. of which have a common point. Let K = Km ( j Km+ l' Since the theorem
13. Give an example to show [hat Theorem 3.22 is not necessarily true for a is assumed to be true for N = 5. K"" K",.t l' and any other three sets
convex body lIor of constant width. K j • K). K" have a point in common. Therefore, {K l' [(2'·.·. Km _ l • I<}
is a set of m convex sets, each four of which have a point in common.
By the induction assumption, the intersection of all these sets is not
3.7 HELLY'S THEOREM AND empty. This common point is also common to K I , .... K",. K",+l' since
APPLICATIONS each point of K is a point of both K", and Km+ I' The theorem holds
for 111 + 1 sets when it holds for up through 111 sets, and the theorem
The central theorem of this section is named for the Austrian is proved by induction.
,,"!
, mathematician Eduard Helly (1884-1943). Helly studied at the University Many applications of Helly's theorem depend on a more general
of Vienna and nt Gottillgen. His theorem was discovered in 1913 and form for a nondenumerable infinity of sets, stated here without proof.
published in 1923. Interestingly enough, I-Ielly, like Poncelet, who dis-
, , covered prqjective geometry, spent several years as a prisoner of the
Russians. If; 1938, 11e and his family moved to the United States. The THEOREM 3.26. For any collection of convex bodies in II-space,
CONVEXITY 123
122 CHAPTER 3
plane parallel to passing th
~e closed half-space H' with :::::a;he ,poi~ts
1[
of. S n Ii closest to 1[
if every Il + 1 of them have a common point, then all the ,convex
lOn 311/4 points of S but H' d Y 1[ an lying in H contains mor~
bodies have a common point. tradiction, since A was ,assumed
o eto sbenot . contain A. Th'IS IS . a con-
spaces containing more than 311/4 m t~e intersection or an half-
that the theorem does not explain h:: ~II~: po~nts. ~t should be obvious
One of the interesting applications of Helly's.theorem shows the
existence of points that behave somewhat like the center of symmetry The applications of Helly' th pOint A ,~ actually found.
of a set of points even when the set of points is not symmetric. ~nlY a few are listed here. A th:Ol'e~~rem ~re surprisingly numerous;
nvo1vmg volume, is the following t sl~l1Iar to Theorem 3.27 but
, sated WIthout proof. '
THEOREM 3.27. Let S = {P" ... ,P,} be any finite set of points.
in. space. Then there ·is a point A sud, that every closed half-space
THEOREM
having vo 328
Iume V. Then Let S be a bounded t
. . there f pomts
.
formed by a plane through A contains at least n/4 points of S. is . se 0 in space
;h~ 'l:s~~I~!e~o::lIal~~~Ct~i::~:Ittonal
Attemptin~ t:'::::f: ~~~r:s t~
it contains more than one. It is also important to point out that A does
not have to be a member of S. illustrate
understanding.
Proof: Since S is a finite set of points, there exists a spherical
I THEOREM 3.29. If each thre f .
enchosed In a circle of radius one th e ~I n POints in a plane can be
region B containing all the points P,. Consider the set of all closed
half-spaces containing more than 3n/4 points of S. Let H" H", H" H. sue a Circle. . en a n POlllts can be encfosed in
be any four of these closed half-spaces. In the study of set theory, it is
. The proof consists of sho wmg. .
proved that de~lred circle) exists that is not m that a point (the center of the
POlDtS. A typical figure' h _. o:e than one unit from each of tI,e
(H, n fl, n H, n H.), = H,' u H,' u fl,' v H;, JS sown 111 FIgure 3.56.
where H,' is the complement of H,. Since each Hi contains less than n/4
points of S, H,' v H,' v H; v H; does not contain all n of tlie points of
s. Then H1 n H 2 ("'\ Ii) {"\ H4 must contain at least one point of S.
By I-Ielly's theorem, since any three of the unit circles with the given EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY OF THE
points as center have a nonempty intersection, all of the circles have a
nonempty intersection. A point in this common intersection will serve as
POLYGON AND CIRCLE
the center of a unit circle enclosing all the points.
EXERCISES 3.7
1. Draw a picture with six convex sets in a plane to illustrate Helly's theorem.
2. Give an example in one dimension to show that Helly's theorem does llOt 4_1 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND
hold for nonconvex sets. THEOREMS
3. Give an example in two dimensions to show that Helly's theorem does not
hold for nonconvex sets. In Chapters 2 and 3, much of the material of Euclidean geometry
4. Prove I-lelly's theorem for one dimension. was studied from two ditl'erent points of view. Chapter 2 emphasized
5. Prove Helly's theorem for two dimensions. the idea of Euclidean geometry as a study of t~:.i.X::':~~!!l~.Lp.r.Qp~[ties
6. For the eight vertices of a cube, does Theorem 3.27 apply for A thl~ of sets oIY~~~:~g!:.r Etichdean ~ similari!L.t.!...~~f.QLI!lru.i9~S. Chapter 3
'conc;ent'rated on the concept of convexity, one of the properties preserved
center of the cube?
by similarity transformations (as well as by somewhat more gen~ral
7. Stale and prove a theorem for the plane that is analogolls to 111eorem 3.27.
transformations). The present chapter begins with a survey of some
8. Verify Theorem 3.31 for a Reuleaux triangle of constant width one. fundamental concepts and theorems conc~rning polygons (particularly
9. Draw a picture to verify Theorem 3.32. triangles) and circles-concepts and theorems that have long been a part
125
to. Prove Theorem 3.28.
EUCLIDEAN G EOMETAY
- OF THE
126 CHAPTER 4 . POLYGON AND THE CIRCLE
of traditional Euclidean geometry. Then it progresses rapidly to Ithe vel:!lces, it is called th . 127
~.CJr~umcenter to show that °t '
circilnidi'di-tlic.'u -.
wealth of modern material that has been discovered since 1800 a~out In F'. mque circle containing all th' I IS the center of the
these basic figures of syntl]et).c Euclidean geometry (geometry thai does fl' 2 trl' angIe A'B'G" ,
tgure 4., lee vertices 0 f a Inangl
. '
o t le SIdes of the ad . . IS lormed by joinin . e.
not use coordinates). The last seclion includes three -;;;gtiificant ·';PP!"i;;··
~f E~c1idean
points of two s'd gmal tnangle. Since the segn .g the midpoints
tic",;s ihe geometry of the polygon and cirHe-the go'idell I es of a tri f lents Joinin g th e
perpendicular bisectors oflb a;g e are parallel to the third 'd mid·
ratio, tessellations. and caroms. tothesidesoftriauge I eSJ esoftriangleABC 'I 51 e, the
It is essential that the student of modern college geon~etry
I
ABIC'. Th'IS means that ;po areasoperpe
. n d'lcular.
understand several useful key concepts and theorems from elemelltary IS perpendicular to
. THEOREM42 T .
pomt called the orthocente,..
.. he altitudes of a triangle are concurrent at a
Figure 43 h
. sows triangle ABC a .
od Its orthocenter H . Th e lOur
'
FIGURE 4.1
A
rather than a single one. TIle proof of Theo~em 4.1 depends on s!lowing
~ the point of intersection of two of the perpendicular bisect~rs. say
B'O and 1':'0 in Figure 4.1, also lies on the perpendicular bisecto~ of the
third side. Point 0 is equidistant from A and C because it is on
Eo; . it is also equidistant from A and B because it is ·on Co.
Therefore. 0 is equidistant from Band C on the perpendicular bisector C~--..r;JtL.._::::1
o B
--_..
of SC. Since 0 is the point in a triangle equidistant.. from the--- three .
FIGURE 4.3
,I
128 CHAPTER 4 EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY OF THE POLYGON AND THE CIRCLE 129
points A. B. C, and H constitute an orrhocenlric set of four points, so So far, four points of concurrency have been introduced. It is
named because each of the four points is the ortiW-center of the triangle natural to wonder whether the four new points constitute a significant
formed by the other three. set of points in their own right. The matter will be discussed in
Two additional theorems about concurrency involve the internal Section 4.3, but you may proHt from conjecturing about the location of
angle bisectors and the medians of a triangle. these points now.
lvfuch of the study of the triangle in Euclidean geometry involves
work with proportions, and ordinarily this concept is related to similar
THEOREM.4.3. The internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle
triangles. A basic proportion used as a tool in college geometry is the
meet at a point called the i~.~cent:T'
property that is connected with internal angle bisectors of the a~gles of a .
triangle, stated as Theorem 4.5.
The proof of Theorem 4.3 (the details are left as Exercise 7,
Exercise Set 4.1) depends on the fact that every point on the internal
THEOREM 4.5. ·The internal bise~tors of all angle of a triangle
bisector of an angle is equidistant from the adjacent sides of the angle.
divide the opposite side into two segments proportional to the adjacent
For example, in Figure 4.4a, if 1 is on the angle bisector of angle B.
sides of the triangle.
then lY =: lX. Since 1 is equidistant from all three sides of the triangle,
it is the center of the it/circle. a circle inscribed in the triangle. This
means thif1he three s{des -~(ii~e triangle are tangent to the incircle. In Figure 4.5, assume that AD is the internal angle bisector
,.:. ---==-.... of angle A of triangle ABC and thut CE is parallel to AD. Because
;
of the parallelism, L EC A ;;;:: L CAD;;;;; L C EA. This means that triangle
, \' A
EC A is iS0sceles and that EA ;;;; AC. Now think of lhe figure as formed
~- ~+.;:.-\- A ~
x
CD DB CD DB
-~-
£;1 AB or CA ~ AB
so that
C~----~----~B
A' .
(,) (b)
FIGURE 4.4 as was to be established. Note lh<lt directed segments are nol employed
in this development.
THEOREM 4.4. The medians of • triangle meet at a point
called the centroid. E
~,
\ "
\ ' ..... A
\~B
The centr~!(tis.Jh.~. cel1~~': of gravity for a triangle. Recall that
Qledians join '"th;- vertex. and the· midpoi-;;r" of the opposite side of a
triangle. In Figure' 4.4b, .t"i:ia-ngles C BG··"'and GC' B' aFe similar with a
,.! ratio of similarity bf two to one. The completion of the details of the CD'
FIGURE 4.5
proof is left as an exercise. . . /[1:,
' ..
!. . ::---.p r\ _.
EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY OF THE POLYGON AND THE CIRCLE 131
130 CHAPTER 4 I lift
for/externql bisectors
Ias a su rprlse etoIrs sections prior to 200 B.C. Assume. using the notation of Figure 4.7a. that
The proof of t he an alogous 1 theorem -
metimes comes PAIPB = c, a given constant. It must be shown that the set of aU
. Set 4 1 t so ! 1 f a tnang e
a:u!:~~:i:~ ~~~!:;:yCI;~at 'e~te:~:~:i~~C:~;si::e:~:1 e~i~ectorsi
locations for point P is a circle. There are two points on AB whose
~
the Cor- distances from A and B are the correct ratio without regard to directed
5 .
have properttes COlTespondmg •
to .
t r for example, IS the concept
_:
0f distances. These are indicated by points C and D in the figure. Then. in
h concept of mcen e t triangle APB, PC and PD are internaJ and external angle .bisectors of the
responding to t e t of Theorem 4.6.
excenter given in the statemcn ! angle at P. This can be shown for point C. for exampJe. since
-
fact that they are pel p . AB is parallel (perpendicular) to CD. that expressioll is understood (0
! mean that lB. of which AB is a subset. is parallel (perpendicular) to
foHowing theorem. -
CD. of which CD is a subset.
a oint P to two fixed Two final theorems about the segments related to a circle are
THEOREM 4. 7. . If I the distancesr from P s for the point P
\I location somewhat connected to the previous theorem and also are useful in
. I gIven ratio, t le n the set 0 a proving more advanced theorems.
pOll1lS lave a . I ,cApolloni"s.
is a circle. ca IIe d the eire e OJ___
. ~ __ _.
the Greek mathe- THEOREM 4.8. Ifa quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle. then the
. ollonius is named a~ter
The circle of Ap t comprehensive treatment on conic, ',OI'p(lSJI.e angles are supplementary.
matician Apo llonius. who WfO e a
.~.
EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY OF THE POLYGON AND THE CIRCLE 133
132 CHAPTE R 4
AC' A.D = (AB)2. Recall again thal the notation Ae indicates a number,
The term cyclic quadrilateral is also used for a quadrilateral the m(~asure of AC. Triangles ABC and ADB cue similar because
inscribed in a circle. Study F;g;;r~ 4.8. You should recall that the corresponding angles are congruent; therefore, AC/AB = AB/AD. from
measure of an inscribed angle in a circle is half that of its int~rcepted
which the theorem follows.
a~c. For example, the measure of angle B is half that of arc ADC.
Since angles Band D together intercept arcs with a total measurement
of 2u degrees, the angles are supplementary since the sum of their EXERCISES 4.1
measures is 1£.
A 1. Use the notation of Figure 4.3 to name all of the triangles wh~se
verlices are three or the given points and whose orthocenter is the fourth
point.
2. Where is the orthocenter of a righllriangle?
3. Under what conditions would the orthocenter of a triangle lie outside the
triangular region?
c 4. How many excenlers does a triangle have'!
5. Could antiparnllel segments also be parallel?
o 6. Prove that the segment joining t~e midpoints of twO sides of a triangle is
FIGURE 4.8
parallel to the third side.
7. Complete the proof of Theorem 4.3.
Opposite 'iides of an inscribed quadrilateral are sometimes called
8. Prove tlUlt the angle between the segments from the incenter to two
GlIlil'arallei with respect to the remaining pair of sides. The prefix Vi,rtices of a triangle has a measure equal to 90 plus one~half the
I "anti" suggests across from or opposite. In Figure 4.8, if angles D and A measure of the angle of the triangle a't the third vertex.
were supplementary. then DC and AS would be parallel. But instead, it is
9. Complete the proof of Theorem 4.4.
\ the angle opposite or across from A that is supplementary to D. hence the
,
I
segments are antiparallel instead of parallel.
to. Prove that the exlernal bisector of an angle or a triangle divides the
opposite side (externally) into two segments proportional to the adjacent sides
of the triangle.
THEOREM 4.9.111e product of the lengths of the segments from I L Prove Theorem 4.6.
an exterior point to the points of intersection of a secant with a \ 12. Prove that the internal and external angle bisectors at a vertex of a triangle
circle is equal to the square of the length of the tangent from the are perpendicular.
point to the circle. n. Prove the converse of 111eorem 4.8.
14. Prove lhat two vertices of a triangle and the feet of the allitudes to the
Using the notation of Figure 4.9, the theorem says that sides adjacent to the third vertex can be inscribed in a circle. {The feet are
the points of intersection of the altitude with the opposite side of lhe
lriangle.)
EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
134 CHAPTER 4 OF THE POLYGON AND THE CIRCLE
135
.
theorems are more important than others in leading 1
'
to. later develop- CI CF (considered negative
ments. Several of these still-significant ideas are discussed in this section. IB = BE because I divides BH BE
Two theorems usually studied together, though proved in dHif~rent CB externally) HA = AD
ages, have great significance because they concern only collinearitiyiand Then
concurrence and hence are of value in the study of projective geometry
when distance is no longer an invariant. The first of these. Menelaus' _ AD CF BE
theorem, is credited to the Greek mathematician Menelaus, who lived in CF . BE' AD = :- I.
considered negative. i
. I
; AE.CF BD
A AC FB'DA =-1.
o
E
A
c··L-______________JL ____~t'
8 C~ _ _~_~:::::::".
B F
FIGURE 4.10 FIGURE 4.11
three points on each side of the triangle and that the product of the THEOREM 4.13. Ceva's theorem and irs converse. Three lilles
~
ratios of division is negative one. Suppose, furthermore, that EF meets that join three points, one on each side of a triangle, to the opposite
An at a distinct point D'. It must be shown that D' = D. Using vertices are concurrent if and only if the product of the ratios of
Menelaus' theorem for E. F. and V', division of the sides is one.
AE CF BD'
l. The proof of the direct theorem is given here. The form of the
AC'FB'D'A=
theorem can be written with equal products rather than ra~ios lo avoid
But this means zero in the denominator if one of the three points coincides with a
vertex. Using the notation of Figure 4.12, Menelaus' theorem applied to "
!l
AE CF BD' AE CF BD <->
triangle ABD and CF shows that .
AG DC BF
or GD·CD··FA=-1. ,.
"
Since BA = BD' + D' A or BD + DA,
BD' + D'A BD + DA
D'A DA
and
D'A= DA; ~
For triangle ACD and BE,
therefore, D and D' are the same point, which means that D, E. Fare
collinear. " AE CB DG
EC' BD' GA =-1.
Theorem 4.11 can be used to prove several other theorems, one
of which is stated below but proved as an exercise.
MUltiplying left and right members of these equations results in
AG DC BF AE CB DG~
THEOREfv14. 12. The internal bisectors of two angles of a triangle -'-'-'-'-'-= I
GD CB FA EC BD GA
and the external bisector of the third angle intersect the opposite sides of
the triangle in three collinear points, or
AE CD BF
The theorem often paired with the theorem of Menelaus, Ceva's EC . DB . FA = t.
theorem, was discovered about 1678 by the Italian mathematician Ceva.
Menelaus' theorem deals with three collinear points, whereas the theorem Note thtlt the three ratios can be written quickly by following
of Ceva concerns three concurrent lines. the same pattern described for the theorem of Menelaus: start <It a vertex,
EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY OF THE POLYGON AND THE CIRCLE 139
138 CHAPTER 4
example, credited to the E r
. , so on. It should
go to the point of division, then the next vertex, anb 1768), refers to a triangle an~g ~Sh ~athe~atician Robert Simson
pomt on Its circumcircle. (1687-
also be noted that similar triangles may be used to prove' Ceva's
theorem directly. without using the theorem of Menelaus (EXrrdSe 8,
. THEOREM 4.15. The three .
Exercise Set 4.2). . ' clfc.umcircle to. the sides of a ive p~rpend~culars from a point on the
The converse of Ceva's theorem, proved indirectly in a way colhnear points The r g n tflangle mtersect the sid . I
similar to Theorem 4.11, is a useful tool for provibg three lines con- Simson line. . me On which the three pomts
. " IS es
he 10 t 1ree
called the
current. For example, it can now be· used to give1very simpte proofs
that the medians and the internal bisectors of the angles of a trHmgle afe
. Use the notation of Fi
concurrent (see Exercises 9-11, Exercise Set 4.2). CIrcumcircle and'D" th ,eet
' gure
A more modern application of the converse of Ceva's theorem in f E Fe of t1 4.14, with P the p 010. t on the
o Theorem 4 8 poi t P Ie perpendiculars By th
ordinary Euclidean geometry is in the proof of the foHowing theorem: Similarly P A . , n 5 • D, A. E are c c l ' : n e converse
I~ (~e
third circle.' . C. Bare 011 another circle, and YP • . . Foare aoncircle).
yet a
THEOREM 4.14. The segments from the vertices of a vriangle to
the points of tangency of the incircle afe concurrent: In circle P, D, A, E LPDE ~ LPAE
LPAE ~ LPAC
This theorem was proved in the early nineteenth -century by
In circle p. A, C, B LPAC ~ LPBC
J. D. Gergo , a French mathematician, and the ,point of ooncurrency
nne
is called the Gergonne point. : I LPBC ~ LPBF
Using the notation of Figure 4. t3, since the two tangdnts from a
. In circle P ' D.B, F LPBF ~ LPDF
point to a circle are congruent, AE = AF, CE = CD, BD = 'BF, and
;OIOII~e this establishes the fact that L P DE ~ LPDF, points D• E, F are
lOear.
AE CD BF
EC·DB·FA=1.
FIGURE 4.14
FIGURE 4.13
For a given point P
determined . TIIe speCial
. case onh the circumcircleI one S'Imson Ii
Many other theorems about concurrency and coll~nearity have
. .
sJdered in the e '
XerCJses. w en P. coincides WJt con~
. h a vertex is ne IS
EXERCISES 4,2 point of concurrency of three segments from the vertices. Use Ceva's
theorem to write three ratios whose product is equal !t.l one.
For Exercises I and 2, lise figure 4.15. For the triangle and the transversal 8. Prove Ceva's theorem directly, without using the theorem of Mel1ehlllS.
named in the excl-cise, write the product of the three ratios equal to negative one
by the theorem of Menelaus. 9. Use Theorem 4.13 to prove that the medians of a lriangle are concurrent.
o 10. Use Theorem 4.13 to prove that the internal bisectors of the angh!s of a
I
J F triangle are concurrent.
I,
Use Theorem 4.13 to prove that the external bisectors of two angles of II
triangle and the internal bisectors of the third angle are concurrenL
E
l2. Describe the location of the Simson line if the point on the circumcircle
is a vertex of the triangle.
,.;, t.'f'
'1'\-' _.
./..'
!
fJ
C~~--------~----~F C~--~~~~----~B c
8 .D !:4'
FIGURE 4.16 FIGURE 4.17
.,;
"
J
~..--" _. -
11)9" ~<,-j!'!-1i-r-fc 7/
142 CHAPTER 4
. f ,1:'/
.£' i§'.{· \
k:_1
F
.,),
11' fI'
'- c Fn d7f/1. t:, 2
EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY OF T.HE POLYGON AND . THE
CIRCLE 143
~llO~s thi~'at;er~: ~
G \ )
This information depends 011 a theorem established by the G~rman Of 08 paraHelogram bisect each athe; ~tara elogram. and the diagonals
o H. . liS means Ihal 0' is Ihe fil·d POUlt
.
mathematician Euler in 1765.
The line containing [he three points is called the Euler line.
"Trisect" as used here means that the distance along the line frbm the
circUlUcenter to the centroid is one~third of the distance along the same
line from the circumcenter to the orthocenter.
In Figure 4.18, let 0 be the circumcenter, G the centroid. and H
the orthocenter. The measure of AH is twice that of OA'. This is true
because tdangles ClJI and COA' are similar with a ratio of simjlarity of
2 to l, and IB = AH because ARB! is a parallelogram. Now ~riangles FIGURE 4.19
GH
GOA' and GHA are similar with a ratio of 1 to 2; therefore OG 1= 1 ,
AU the theorems about concur' .
and G trisects 0 H. . t~e .concurrence of three lines M' I~nce conSIdered so far relate to
It may be surprising to find that the Euler line also contains slgmficant in part beca use it . . Iquei s theorem, proved in 1838 '
eifel conSIders the • IS
the center of the nine-point circle, as indica led in the following es associated with any triangle. concurrence of sets of three
theorem.
EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY OF THE POLYGON AND THE CIRCLE 145
144 CHAPTER 4 3. Prove that the segment connecting the vertex of the righl angle of a right
triangle wilh the midpoint of the hypntenuse has a measure half Ihat of the
i
.I THEOREM 4.19. If three points are chosen, one on each side
hypotenuse.
of a triangle, then the three circles determined by a vertex and the two
4. Prove that IB' A' is a right angle,
\,. points on the adjacent sides meet at a point called the M iquef point. 5. Complete the details of the proof ofTheorem 4.17 not included in the text.
\ 6. Prove that the radius of the nine-point circle is half that of the circum-
Using the notation of Figure 4.20, let D. E. F be the arbitrary
circh~.
points on the sides of triangle ABC. Suppose that circles with centers 7. Prove that the four triapgles formed by the points of an orthocentric
grm,p of points have the same nine-point circle. .
A 8. a. Draw a fignre showing an example in which the Miquel point is ontside
b. the triangle.
Modify the proof as necessary so that the three circles are conennent.
9. Show that, on the Euler line, the centroid and the orthocenter divide
internally and externally in the same ratiO the segment whose endpoints are
the cirCUOlcenter and the center of the nine-point circle.
to. Prove that the Miquel point is a point on the circumcircle if Ihe three points
on the sides of the triangle are collinear. s
J 11. Prove that if the Miqoel point is on the circnmcircle, then the three poinl
FIGURE 4.20
Oil the sides of the tdangl e (Ire collinear.
180 _ 1l1LC + 180 - mLB + mLEGF ~ 360, with the concept of syrnmedians.
Consider Figure 4.21. If AE is Ihe bisector of angle A and if
\
mLEGF ~ nlLC + 1l1LB = 180 - mLA. LDAE", LFAE, then AD and AF are called isogoliO / (illes and one is
the Miquel point could be outside lhe triangle, in which case the proof must
be modified slightly.
EXERCISES 4.3
FIGURE 4.21
l. A lriangle has how many: c. Mique! points? called the isogo"O/ conjugate of the other. 111e bisector of the angle is the
li. Nine.point circles? b. Euler lines?
bisector of the angle between twO isogonal conjugates. Nole that,
In the proof of Theorem 4. t 6 (for Exercises 2-4),
2. Prove that DB'C'A' is an isosceles trapezoid.
150 CHAPTER 4 EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY OF THE POLYGON AND THE CIRCLE 151
. I iv'th one side ofdera THEOREM 4.25. The Brocard points are on the Brocard circle.
THEOREM 4.24. The three Circles, eaCl .I l
. e I 'd and tangent to the adjacent sJde, taken lfl or
tnallgdl ahs fiagCU;~' me~t in a point called a Bl'ocard poillt. DEFINITION. The Bmcard circle is a circle whose diameter
aroun t e ,
has as endpoints the circumcenter and the symmedian point of a triangle.
·
In F 19ure 425
. , circle 1_ is tangent to Ac. drcle 2 is tangent to
Be. and circle 3 is tangent to AB. Tn Figure 4.26, let 0 and S be the circumcenter and the
symmedian point, -and Jet the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the
c·=-'-----'!'-__-=~ 8
o
FIGURE 4,26
FIGURE 4.25
. triangle meet the Brocard circle again at Di. E', and P. It can be shown
Assume that circles I and 2 meet at D. L ABD ;l; LeAD that the lines AF'. BE', and CD' are concurrent at a Brocard point
.J like
_ L BCD, since Ihe angle between a tangent and a chord 1'1. Because right angles are inscribed in a semicircJe, SD' is
!,
153
EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY OF THE POLYGON AND THE CIRCLE
152 CHAPTER 4
A
DD' EE' FF'
CD EB FA
A comparison with Figure 4.25 shows that the three sides of the angles B
meet at a Braeard polnt G. Also, since LAF'F;,; LGF'O ;,; GD'O,
c (b)
_,1 (,)
,.' points F', D'. 0, G all lie on a circle, the Brocard circle, as was to be FIGURE 4.27
proved. For an equilateral triangle, the circumcenter and symmedi.an
"
point coincide so that the Brocard circle reduces to a single point. The measures of other angles at points D. E. F. . 'can be
The second major topic in this section is a theorem discovered de t .
. 'mformatton.
ed from the given . A ccording to ExerCise 8 0 f
about 1899 by Frank Morley. father of the author Christopher Morley_ er~m S t 4 1 the angle formed by the lines containing the segments
Its significance is based on the fact that it concerns trisectors of E~xerClse e ., 1 If J sure of
. t t two vertices is 90 plus one-la t le mea
from an mcen er 0
angles rather than bisectors. Angle bisectors of a triangle meet at a point,
the angle at the third vertex. In triangle C[ B"
but it seems that mathematicians have only recently considered what
happens to sets of three adjacent trisectors. "'LeIB = 180 - 2Z,
= 180 - Z
Before reading further, you will find it profitable to use a
protractor and carefully draw several triangles of various shapes to = 90 + ~(180 - 2Z)
verify lhe reasonableness of Morley's theorem.
From this discussion, along with Exercise 8 of Exercise S~l 4.1,
Since 1900, many different proofs have been given for this
theorem, but the one here is an indirect approach, starting with an point D is the incenter of 6CIB. Similarly. F:-is the incenter of 6(lG~
. I . t r of bAHB Thus the three angles at ale
elJuilalenll lriangle Hnt! ending with lhe original given triangle.
Figure 4.27a shows what is lTIeant by adjacent trisectors. For
and E 1S t le lan;:nt~e three at 'A
congruent as
and
at B. These angles have
r'
I'
f
EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY CF THE POLYGON AND THE CIRCLE 155
154 CHAPTER 4
The base angles of the isosceles triangle can be found in terms 9f the
~ LB
\
tri~ngle.
angles A. B. C of the original triangle; for example,. x = 60 - •
A 8 C
so that a triangle ABe can always be found similar to arty given
. I
FIGURE 4.28
1:
sl~own that the ratios of the (n + ute 1.62. Mathemat.icians have also
gruent angles and their interiors. Fibonacci numbers I I 2 3 5 8 13 ) 0 the nth lerm in the set of
. . • , , • , . ,21,. n appro h h
as a lrult. The reader should .. ac t e golden ratio
to I h express 3/2 5/3 8/5 d
see t at this statement is reasonabl ' , ,an so on as decimals
4.6 SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OF
EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
In Figure 4.29, ABeD is a g~lden rectangle, with AB = x the
golden ratio and Be the unit segment. If square AEFD is removed, the ,6ACF _ ,6DFE, so AFIFD = AC/ED. Bul ED;;;; Be and Be;;;; AT,
remaining rectangle EBe F is also a golden rectangle. since ABCF is a rhombus. Thus,
AF AD
It is necessary to show thal CBIEB = x. Since CB = 1 and or FD = AF'
BH = x-I,
so AFIFD is the golden ralio. NOle lhal if the sides of a regular
CB
pentagon are one unit, then the length of the diago.nals is the
x BH
numerical value of the golden raOo.
Or, since Ell = EB. the proportion may be written as
8
A~----------~C
From the equation x 2 - x - I = 0,
x - 1.
x
Then
The second application of synthetic Euclidean geometry to be
disl::ussed is that of tessellations.
(c)
The notation of Figure 4.30 is used to illustrate Theorem 4.27 la) (b)
FIGURE 4.31
by showing lhal AFIFD is the golden ratio. In isosceles trapezoid ACDE,
CHAPTER 5
If)2. CHAPTER 4
EXERCISES 4.6
CONSTRUCTIONS
i. find the approximate value of the golden ratio correct to four decinial
j
. '. 2.
places.
Use fibonacci numbers to give a series of appro,imations to tbe golden ratio
i
until one is reached that is correct to three places past the decimal point.
3. In figure 4.29, if Be = l, find the measure of segment ft.
4. In Figl.lfe 4.30, prove that ABCf is a rhombUS.
5. Draw a tessellation that is not Ii regular tessellation.
6. Show by a drawing and a numerical explanation why regular octagons
cannot be used for a regular tessellation.
7. Use Heron's theorem to prove that. given the length of one side and the
n;easure of area. the triangle for which the sum of the o,ther twO sides is
smallest is isosceles. .
! J.
Draw figures similar to Figure 4.37 for the following circumstances.
o B
i 0
Cc=JD'
,
.A
.8
C D
F ' £
F £
F E
FIGURE 4.37
8. Where should ball A hit side CD in figure 4.37a in ord~r to carom and hit
baH m i "
9, BaH A in figure 4.37b is to carom off DE. then IT. and then hit ball 8.i
10. Ball A in Figure 4.37c is to carom off side B5. then DE. then IT. and 5.1 THE PHILOSOPHY OF
CONSTRUCTIONS
finally hit ball B,
Ii. Using the notation of figure 4.33. prove th.Hhe shortest path from;A to B.
by way of I, and then I,. is lhe palh shown. ' i :- The concept of
. at least as far as t
. lived abollt a
.
constructIOns in geometr
he work of Plato. the great y can be traced back
12. Complete lhe proof oCTheo ren>: 4.30. ' , " given credit fa century before the time of EUcli~r;ek t philosopher who
13. Complete the proof of Theorem 4.3\. ~pe~lfytng the use of the straigh;ed was Plato who is
t~S constr:~and
, as the only tw:
Plato specified ruments for performing the compass
modern com
used t
e use of dividers. or a colla . c IOns. Technically.
pass we are accustomed to Wh psmg compass. not the
.'
;. ,. , a construct one circle , e n the instrument had
Instrument could not b e moved ' t'!.e_. l11easurement was 10 t b
to construct an th . s ecause been the
o er cIrcle with the same
163
CONSTRUCTIONS 165
164 CHAPTER 5
for the constructions of the Greeks. The first two of these postulates
radius. This characteristic and the limitations of the unmarked straight
make it possible to construct any portion of a straight line through two
edge account for the fact that the transfer of distance was not postulated
points, whereas the third makes it possible to construct a circle if the
by the Greeks. It will be shown, however, that the divider (collapsing
compass) is equivalent to the modern compass, so the straightedge and the center and the measure of the radius are given.
An example of a simple constntction problem solved with lhe
compass are still the only two instruments allowed in the classical
modern compass and then with --the collapsing . compass will illustrate·
mathematical constructions of Euclidean geometf'Y; Constructions that
the difference in the methods that must be used. Figure 5.la shows
are almost trivial with a modern compass become morc complicated
the familiar method of finding the midpoint of ~.segment by consfrucl.iqn.
with the original compass. Nevertheless, the reader should check the
great variety of construction problems specified in t"he books of Euclid
all of which are possible with t11e unmarked straightedge and th;
collapsing compa3S. c
The concept of mathematical construction is difficult to explain
because the word "construction" is used in at least three ways:
A--t--- B A'I----IB'
1. To describe the geometric problem to be solved.
2. To describe the process of solving the problem.
3. To describe lhe completed drawing that results from solving the
problem.
o
(al (bl
FIGURE 5.1
The result of a construction is a drawing that shows certain relationships
among lines and c;:ircles. Philosophically, constructions may be explained
as methods for sOI.ving certain geometrical problems according to a fixed Note that Ac and Be must be congruent, that AD and BD must
set of rules, This will become clearer when other basic ideas have been also be congruent, but that ic and AD are not necessarily congruent.
presented. Figure 5.1b shows the same problem solved with a collapsing compass.
The concept of a construction was basic to the axiomatic In this case, the measure of A'B' is used for the radius since its
system of Euclid. as can be seen by reviewing his axioms and length can be determined using either endpoint as the center of the are,
postulates stated in Chapter 1. On the other hand, modern postulates whereas the arbitrary radius AC in Figure 5.1a cannot be reproduced
for Euclidean geometry represented by the sets in Appendices 1-3
again with the second endpoint B as the center of the circle.
make no mention of constructions, and it may be stated. that con-
structions are outside the strict axiomatic development of modern
. Euclidean geometry. Yet the concept of a construction remains significant THEOREM 5.1. The compass and the collapsing compass
in geometric thought. Constructions are studied in various modern (dividers) are mathematically equivalent.
geometries not only because they are interesting in their own right but
also because they provide applicatIons of other geometric (;oncepts.
The proof of this theorem consists of showing that a circle can be.
The problem in a construction is not simply that of drawing a
constructed with the coiIapsing compass, given the center and two other
figure to satisfy certain conditions but whether, by using a compass and
point8 that determine the length of the radius. The steps in performing
straightedge only. a theoretically exact solution can be obtained. The
this construction are stated, using the notation of Figure 5.2. The
drawings in construction problems are approximations, but the theory is
problem is to construct a circle with .center A and with radius Be.
exact. The first three postulates of Euclid provide the axiomatic basis
166 CHAPTER 5
. , CONSTRUCTIONS 167
FIGURE 5.3
OfP::~;; i~ne
. as a gIven numerical v POlnt B on At; such tha
In the theory of harmonic sets use. of this construction i:
FIGURE 5.2 proJective geometry
( . F'19ure 5.4
,
The proof, using congruent triangles, that AF is congruent to Be
is left as an exercise.
It is assumed that you are familiar with the basic constructions
of Euclidean geometry. These include transferring a segment, bisecting a
segment, constructing a perpendicular to a line at a certai~ point,
constructing an angle bisector, copying an angle, constructing a triangle
given an angle and the two adjacent sides, construct;n g a triari~le gi~en o
the three sides. and constructing a Hne through a point para~lel to a (.) (b)
given line. It is also quite possible that you have i encounterJd some
FIGURE 5.4
of the more difficult constructions to be introduced later in the!chapter.
Several additional basic constructions afe introduced or reviewed
is an analysis figure, showi~
here so that they may be used easily. that Band G divide AB inter!a~;le completed solutions. It is assumed
Partition of a segment into n congruent segments. for n a A~ and JJF are parallel, then 6~;;d externally in the desired ratio If
~ ~
positive integer greater than one, is the.'ilrsl of these constructions and is
illustrated in Figure 5.3, for n = 5. The problem is to partition All
into five congruent segments. A""C is constructed through A at any _.
ratlO of division. Then
and of AE t C
t~:or.
an. the ratios of similarit . 6CDB and 6AEG
the palfs of similar triangles are
gIven ratio is also the t"
II;; .
CFG,
gIVen
o F' this k ra 10 of AE t
convenient angle. Then an arbitrary unit AD is chosen to determine · Illustrated in Fi ' rna es possible the followi 0 CD
. rail I I' gure 5.4b for a ratio of 5/2 TI ng construction
five congruent segments along A(;. Next H B is constructed, and the e IDes U . . nough A' d '
· pa . Sing an arbitrary unit find Ef an C. construct
four segments [51. l!J. PK. and rrr. are 'constructed parallel to HD. · ' sothatA'E'-5 - . and find
CONSTRUCTIONS 169
168 CHAPTER 5.
Df and F' so that CD' = C'F' = 2. Connect E' , D' and E', F' to locate the EXERCISES 5.1
required points B' and G',
In the problem of partitioning a segment into a given ratio, the For E>.efcises 1 and 2, explain how a collapsing compass CHit be llsed to:
known information might be given entirely in the form of segments. I. Bisect an angle.
For example, AC could be given along with a unit segment and a third 2. Transfer a segmenl.
segment whose length, in terms of the unit •. represents the given ratio. 3. Complete the proof of Theorem 5.1.
In this case, the unit segment could be ~sed for CD', whereas the
third segment would determine the length AB. A specific ex.ample of this In Exercises 4-6, show how to perform these basic constructions in. Euclidean
type of construction is given in Figure 5.5. The problem is to partition geometry:
A:C internally and externally in the given ralio. . 4. Construct a perpendicular to a lin.e at a certain point.
5. Construct an angle congruent to a given angle.
6. Construct a line through a point and parallel to a given line.
Given: Construction:
For Exercises 7-10, carry out the construction indicated.
a+b
a .JAB = BD.
(e)
(b)
(a) Given The first four constructions of addition, subtraction, multiplica-
tion)nd division make it possible to construct a segment representing any
number in the field of rational numbers, given the unit .segment. The
construction of the square foot makes it possible to construct numbers in
~
extension fields having the field of rational numbers as a subset. Recall
that a field of numbers has the closure property for rational operations,
with division by zero excluded. Examples of extension fields of con-
J a + b.j'J..
;
;
-'
-' structible numbers are a + by'2. a + b.j3. for a and b
A 8 C rational numbers and the entire radicand positive in the third example.
A 1 8 C
~
a For example, the number 5 + J3 + J7 +../2 is a constructible
a b number, while ;y7 is not.: -
(e) (f)
(d) A somewhat more general approach to constructible numbers
FIGURE 5.6. can be studied from an algebraic viewpoint. Suppose that all of the
numbers in SOme number field F can be constructed.
. . 56b and c for addition and sub-
TIle diagrams III Ftgure
Id be self-explanatory. .
For multiplication. the proof of the
traction SIlOU d on the proportion THEOREM 5.2. TI,e use of a straightedge alone can never
construction in Figure 5.6d depen 5 yield segments for numbers outside the original number field.
1 a
b= AE
The equations for any two pairs of lines through distinct
pairs of points with coordinates (a. b). (c. d). (e,f). (g. h) in a field are
so that A E. = ab. . . .
f of the constructlOn ,'n Figure 5.6e also ,:1
For divisIOn, the plOO j',.
d-b
y - b = - - (x - a)
depends on a proportion. C - a
1 = -b, a and
_ Of AD = b'
AD a
h- J
. ual to Ja
in Figure S.6f likewise J' - J= - - (x - e).
The proof that B~h:t ~~ turn is derived from similar right g-e
depends on a proportIOn .
The point of intersection of these two lines has coordinates obtained
triangles in the figure.
'I 172 CHAPTER 5
CONSTRUCTIONS 173
C~8
circle oPfPosite side, and the ra:iu: of a
" p e 0 a datum. e Cllcum-
o A'
(b) , DEFINITION, A datum is
(a) whIch determine the rema"10mg
. one. a set of n elements • any n - I of
FIGURE 5.7
The second example-illustrates the important idea of locating one Figure 5.8b shows onl
~ one.Itpart
elements constitute a d a t urn, SInce mustof bthe hproof [hat the three
of the vertices of the required triangle as the intersection of two sets of e s Own that each -two
176 CHAPTER 5 CONSTRUCTIONS 177
,~
tri~lIlg!c can be fqund as one particular memher nf thb !:unily. The
required triangle is found hy laying nIT the ghen length pf 1he bisector
aitlilg. ,.I/)' to luc.lle point lJ anli then cnn~lruclill!.! tilt' l'an:dlcl III
("Ii through D, Therc is ;lIwilYs nilC 5\11111inll as hlllg (\5 lilt' .-tllll ~lf the
DE F A' 8
measures of the 1Wt1 given ang.les j<;: less than 1'(.
Cnnslructi\ln can innll\'c CI.Jm:cpts fn111l Euclitlean ~l:"'l1letry that FIGURE 5 11
arc more :'HhllI1CCt! than thusc u.<;ctl ~p rar in lhis ~(' tiPI!. One
cx:,ul1plc of this is 10 ('Oll:;;(rlfcl a lri(/II~lk. Ilinm fIll' Cin.:ltlll~('''(t'r. (II('
n'llft'r {{(lIe lIilll..'~f1ni"r circle. (l1Ifl til<' midl'uillf (!rOIlC sitlc.
The allal.ysis ilg.urc is ~dwwl1 in Fig.ure 5.10. Th;;- JllcHlitm of
170 CHAPTER 5 CONSTRUCTIONS 179
t I. Com;truct a triangle given the length of one side, the length of the median
C(mstrllct II triung/e. gi\"C1I the measure uf one angle, the measure of the
(lrrosite side. und the radius (If Ihe incit·c1e.
I
The only thing to be determined is the It.H.:utiul1 of llh! center 13. Construct a Iri'lIIgle, given the measure of one angle, the lenglh of the
of the required circle. One condition is that the center lie "'II a Iinc internal bisectllr nf thaI angle, and Ihe wdills of the illcircic.
parallel to I at a ghren perpendicuinr distance ..10 from lint: 1. The 1-1. Construct a lfinngle. given Ihe mellsure uf vne tingle nnd the length of the
second condition is thal the cenler lie a kno\\"n di,,! ..IIKC of allitudes to the I\\n ;uJjncent sides.
00' = J(OB)2 + (ii(j;)i from O' so that its position cun I.'e Uxctl. 15. Cllostrucl a triang.le. gi\"cn the length of one side. the length of the l11edhm
Because the location of 0 depends on the interscctitlll llf a ·.:irde with to Ihnt side, and t~e length ~l( vne other mclli.lIt.
two parallel lines, 11 complete tlh:;'cll$~jon (If the problem "'llltL! h;:l\"e to 16. Construct 11 tri<tll.glc, given the measure of 1\\"(1 <Ingles and the length of
consider from four down to z.ero possible solutions.
17.
Ihe mediun to (he thirtl side.
Construct a triangle. gil'en the measure of one tll1gle. the lcngth of the
altiWde to the opposite side. and the ratio of the two adjacenl sides.
I
EXERCISES 5.3 IS. COmilruct a triangle, gil'en the ortilocenter. the ninc-point center, and the
fool or one aitilude.
L Finish the proof thal the measure of one angle of a triangle. til: IllCrlsure 19. Construct a triangle; given the lengths or the altitude. median, and symmedian
of (he opposite side, and the wdius of the circumcirde COllslitUIt" a ualum. rrom one \·erlex.
.-.~
..,
';1 '. '
CONSTRUCTIONS 181
100 CHAPTER 5·
FIGURE 5.15
DEFINITION Al eb . .
t
If COS (0/3) = x, and cos 0 is a given constant (since 0 = 60°), then equation of the form . g rate numbers are solutions of an a IgebraIc
.
4x 3 - 3x - 1: = o.
• .
aI/x" + a
II-I"
,,1/-,1 + ... + Q o = 0
or >
with mtegnil coefficients, and with n=landan:;cO.
Sx' - 6x - 1 = O.
ll1is equation has no rational solutions, because, if alb is a 2. T. Lindemann proved in 1882 that th
rational solution, then a is a positive or negative factor :Of 1 and b number, so In
is not algebraic either. e number" is not an algebraic
is a positive or negative factor of 8; all possibilities can be checked
quickly by synthetic division to see that none is a solution.
If the equation has a solution of the form a + it hasbVc, THEOREM 5 6 Th
possible by Iileans of a ~t' . : ;nstruction of squaring a circle is im-
a _ b}C as another solution. Suppose these represent' the least- ralg te ge and compass alone.
inclusive extension field of which the solution is a member. The sum
of the three roots must be zero, the coefficient or" the Xl term, so that if As mentioned earlier h
r is the third solution.
thes~ three constructions by ;h~ :::~/:~at the Greeks could not perform
~ot eep them from finding solutio e straIghtedge and compass did
+ + (a + ~ 0,
~Ol;~~~i:! pro:a~~v:~~::
(a bJc) - bJc) r IIImathematics, inc1udin ns by other means. Man
2a + r = 0, as the result of attempts the theory of conics,
Two examples showing how the co solutl~ns for construction problems.
r = -2a. are .taken from the histo ry 0 f rnathemati
nstructlOns
de 0 can actually be perlormed
'
This contradicts the assumption that a + bJc
represented a number TI Vice or curve called the conchoid oj N' cs. ne of these is the use of a
5.16~1~~tlllg c:~~~:OdD.'.'.
le actual method of '. lcomedes. who lived ab
in the least-inclusive extension field of solutions. The conclusion is that illustrated in Figure an angle by using the
the solutions of 8x 3 _ 6x - 1 = 0 are not constructible numbers, so. e CUi ve through G is tJle conchOJd.
• For
1 IS
a
the ronowing theorem is established:
~ ~
fixed line CD and a fixed point 0 not on CD, the conchoid (which as shown, then the arc for any angle AOD has length kO. which is also
really consists of two branches, one 011 each side of CD) is the set of the length of r = OC. 11,e area of the circle is
points defined as follows: Consider the set of all lines through 0 and
intersecting CD. Take a fixed distance on the line beyond the point of
intersection. For example, let DB be one of the Hnes. with EX the
fixed distance. FOf a given ~int. line, and distance, the set of all points If OA and OB are perpendicular, then
X the fixed distance from CD along the rays from 0 is a branch of a
conchoid. I(
1: (4
AtB) .
= 21«OC).
If the cline (or rather the mechanical instrument) is placed as in
Figure 5,16, with CD perpendicular to OA and with X E ,= 2(EO), then
the given angle AOB can be trisected simply by locating point E on the line Tf a square of side x is to have the same size as the circle, then
on DB. drawing EV par~llel to DA. and connecting 0 to G, the point x' = 21r(OC),
011 the conchoid. oG is the trisector of the given angle. .
The reason why oG trisects the angle depends on the theory and x can be constructed.
explained in connection with Figure S.16b. GJ = 2EO by assumption.
If H is the midpoint of W, then EO, ill, GH, m are all congruent. In addition to the three famous problems, the equally interesting
Becaus6 of the isosceles triangles, mLEOH = mLEHO = mLHGE problem of constructing a regular polygon inscribed in a given circle
-\- mLHEG = 2mLHGE.But LFOI;; LHGEbecauseofparaliellines, has concerned mathematicians since the time of the Greeks. In this case,
so 2mLHGE = 2mLFOJ. The result is that LEOG has a measure the proof for the general problem was again algebraic and was provided
twice that of LFOJ. so 01 is the trisector. by the great mathematician Karl Gauss. At the age of 18, he solved the
previously unsolved problem of how to inscribe a regular polygon of 17
sides in a circle, using only a straightedge and compass. He also proved
the theorem that tells which regular polygons can and cannot be
c inscribed. This theorem is stated here without proof.
o
THEOREM 5.7. A regular polygon can be inscribed in a circle
by mean:; of a straightedge and compass alone if and only if the nUlnber
of sides, 11. can be expressed as 2-'=· PI' p.z .•. pJ.. for x a non-negative
A integer and each PI a distinct prime of the [orm 2:H ' + 1. for y ~ o.
spiral of Arcbimedes is the curve OeD shown in Figure 5.17, with Figure SolS shows the analysis for the regular decagon. The
polar equation,. = I<fJ, for f( a given constant. If a circle has a radius k central angle AOS has a measurement of 36", and angles OAB and
CONSTRUCTIONS 187
186 CHAPTER 5
2cos30 = 2(4cos'O - 3 cos 8) = x' 3x
2cos48 = 2(2cos'28 - I) = 4(2cos 2 8 - 1)2 - 2
= (x 2 - 2)' - 2
. X4 - x3 - 4x 2 + 3x + 2 = O.
FIGURE 5.18
x =
J5 2- 1 ' 7. Show that the spiral of Archimedes can also be used for trisecting an
angle.
8. Use Theorem 5.7 to list those regular polygons with between 24 and 30
. au should recognize x as: the golden sides that can be constructed in a circle.
which is a construcuble number. Y
. 9. In tbe Quartic equation for the regular heptagon. explain why the first
ratIO. . , . the regular decagon can be <.::'onstructed factor cannot be used to find a solution,
As Theorem 5.7 mdlcl;ltes, (even sides) cannot. The
the regular heptagon s . I . 10. In the quantc equation for the regular heptagon, explain why the second
in a circle, whereas . t heptagon in - a eIre e 15
factor cannot be used to find a solution.
Proof that it is impossible .to constr.uc
~W_I
t.aon of a general angle. The
U
similar to the proof concermng . a length x = 2 cos 2n/7.
.
prob Iem 15 e quivalent to constructmg
5.5 CONSTRUCTIONS BY PAPER
21</7 = 0, then
FOLDING
30 + 40 = 360o ",d cos30 = c0540.
As discussed earlier in this chapter. the Greeks specified that
. . I'dentities can be used to express these cosines in :.
Tngonometrlc geometric constructions should be performed by straightedge and
terms of x.
188 CHAPTER 5 CONSTRUCTIONS '189
~
11 This remarkable theorem is based on several assumptioIl!:> that
I: can be found in the excellent reference on paper folding, Papel" Folding
for the Mathematics Class. by Donovan A. Johnson. These include, for
8 example, the assumption that paper can be folded in such a way lhat one
FIGURE 5.20 line ,?an be superimposed on another line on the same sheet of paper
and that the crease formed is in fact a straight line. Even the brief
Folding a line through a given paint ami pamllel to a given line. analysis of paper folding in this section gives additional insight into the
First fold a crease for Co perpendicular to the given line in nature of the approximations involved in ordinary constructions. The
(Figure 5.21), then fold a crease through the given point G for a line theory of paper folding is just as mathematical and just as exact as the
~ • +--4 +-+
EF perpendIcular to CD. That line is parallel to AB and j,s the theory of constructions with straightedge and compass, but the methods
required line. differ widely.
CONSTRUCTIONS 191
190 CHAPTER 5
. be used for a somewhat different. type of to. Prove that the paper-folding method of constructing lines tangent to a
Paper foldmg can . . d' college geometry. that of parabola is valid.
II studIed In or mary .
construction not usua Y I F' 5 23a illustrates how a senes
t parabo a .gure . F
,constructing tangents 0 a b . determined by folding the focus
5.6 CONSTRUCTIONS WITH ONLY ONE
of tangents to the parabola can e
INSTRUMENT
instruments used in constructions to the straightedge alone was not 4. . 1e w ith center A' and radius A' A. intersecting the
Construct t 1le Clrc
totally successful, since a single circle and its center were needed. The circle of step 3 at the points E and F.
second alternative is to limit the instrument to the compass alone. 5. Construct the circles with centers E an d F and melitiS EA, These
Obviously, it is impossible to draw a straight line with the compass meet at A and the required point G.
alone, so it must be understood that a line is completely determined
if two points on it are found Or given. Constructions with the compass The roof that this rather elaborate construction .results in ~he·
alone are called Moh,.-Mascherolli constructions. C. Mohr published the , P 1S b ase d on the fact that A' and G nre TI
correct pomt flwel"se FOlllfS
t.
first known account of these constructions in 1672, although his book with respect to the circle with center A and radius AB. le geollle ty
was not well known to mathematicians until 1928 when it was re- of inverse points is discussed in the following chapter, but the proor
discovered. Meanwhile, the Italian mathematician Mascheroni, during the used here does not require a knowledge of that concept.
last half of. the eighteenth century, had independently discovered the Triangles ;I'EA and EGA are similar, so
following theorem:
AA' AE
or AA" AG - (AEl'.
AE ~ AG'
THEOREM 5.10. All constructions possible by use of the straight-
Because
edge and compass can also be made by use of the compass alone.'
AA' ~ 2AB ~ 2AE,
2AE' AG ~ (AEl',
For a discussion of this theorem, see H. Rademacher and
{. O. ToepIitz, The Elljoyment of Mathematics. 2AG = AE ~ AB,
The following example illustrates a construction performed
entirely with the compass. and G is the midpoint of AB, as was to be proved.
Find the midpOint of a given segment by use oj a compass alone. The proof of Theorem 5.10 consists of sl~owing how .to fi~ld th~
points of intersection of a straight line and a circle and the .pOl1lt.s ~
1. Consider AB. as in Figure 5.24. Construct the circle with B as center intersection of two straight lines with the compass alone, sl11c.e It IS
, " and BA as radius. obviously simple enough to draw a circle and to find the pomts 0 r
. t·o of two circles with the compass alone. The method of
mtersec t. n I . t ,{ '.I1·tersection or· a circle (IIu/ a line liar Ihrouglt
COllsrruct111g f le POl11 S OJ ') . ' t
the center .IS shown .111 F'tgme 25 Let Band C be the gwen pom s,
. 5...
with A lhe center of the given circle.
A'
FIGURE 5.24
B. .c
~ ~ ~
With AB as radius, mark off three arcs AC. CD. DA', locating
A' so that AA' is a diameter of the circle.
}, Construct the circle with center A and radius AB. FIGURE 5.25
CONSTRUCTIONS 195
194 CHAPTER 5
EXERCISES 5.6
i:
been expected, concerns the inverse c~Jrve f~r a straight line not pnssing
thoroughly that the inversive plane, because it includes the one ideal point
through the center of inversion in the mverSlVe plane.
that lies on each line through the center of inversion, has some
properties unlike the Euclidean plane with which you are familiar. 'The
transformation of inversion in the inversive plane is a new transformation THEOREM 6,3, The image of a straight line n?t through the
that can be studied in its own right. As usual, it is good to speculate . '
center 0 f mverSlOn, U
oder the transformation of inverSIOn, IS a circle
about these matt'ers before reading on. passing through the center of inversion.
it The invention of the transformation of inversion is sometimes
credited to L. 1., Magnus in 1831. But prior to this time, Vieta in the '
1n F19ure ., let P and P' and Q and Q' be pairs ofI inverse
63 .
sixteenth century and Robert Simson in the eighteenth century were points with respect to the cir~ of inversi.on with c~nter, O. T le given
aware of elements of the theory. Some mathematici~ns give the major lioe whose image is desired is PQ, and PO I:S perpendlculm to PQ,
credit to Steiner, but his work on the subject was not published. Many
mathematicians worked during the 1830s and 1840s to develop the general
theory further.
The basic properties of the transformation of inversion depend
on the peculiar properties of the inversive plane, a plane with one ideal
point. 1t should be understood that the inversive plane as used here
includes real points only and not the complex points that will be
introduced later.
This theorem folJows from the fact that each point of the circle of By the definition or inverse points,
inversion is its own inverse under inversion with respect to that circle.
The circle is pointwise invariant, according to the following definition. OP'OP' = OQ'OQ',
or
OP OQ'
THEOREM 6.2. The inverse of a line through the center of . Th A OQ'1' is a right triangle, with the
have an angle In common. us L.:>. . '
inversion is the same line. vertex of the right angle at Q'. If Q is considered a ~anabl~ P01~t 00, the
. r then Q' is a variable vertex or a right tnangle inSCribed m a
glve~ . Ill", I'th 7'\"i'iI the diameter of the circle. The proor of the converse
This line is not pointwise invariant because, in general, a second semlClfCIe. w VI' . ' . 1 nent
of Theorem 6.3 consists of reversing the steps tn the prevlOu.~ at gt I
distinct point on the line is the image of a given point on the line.
The fact that the inverse points and the center of inversion are collinear and is lert as an exercise. .' t'
The fact that the image of a line under inverSion IS some 11.nes
is actually a part of the definition of inverse points.
a circle rather than a line shows that the property of being a stnllght
A more significant theorem, and possibly one that may not have
202 CHAPTER 6 THE GEOMETRY OF INVERSION 203
line is not always an invariant property under the transformation of h THEOREM 6.4. The image under' .
iilVersiol1. This is a major difference between the geometry of inversion t rough the center of
inversion I' • I mverslOn of a circle not passing
sa CIrc e.
and ordinary Euclidean geometry. The relationship between circles and
Hoes under inversion -can be further extended by investigating the inverse
of a circle not passing through the center of inversion. Before reading
ahead. you should predict what this image wiIJ be.
FIGURE 6.5
One of the most useful of the invariants under inversion is indicated statement is left as an exercise), so opposite angles are supplementary.
in the next theorem.
Thus,
L OPQ ;" L P'Q'O.
THEOREM 6.5. The measure of the angle between two inter-
secting curves is an invariant under the transformation of inversion. Applying a fundamental conc~ from analysis, one may conclude
.. f '~OQ' OP as Q approaches P along lhe
that the limiting pOSItIOn 0 IS • . .
. .' I The tallgents FA and VA are the limiting pOSItIOns of ~
The meaning of this theorem is shown symbolically in Figure 6.6. ongma curve. .. f OP
.=~ P
~Q d p"-Q' Thus the limiting posJtJOn of the angle rom
The angle between two curves eland C 2 is defined to be the angle m . , 'Ad
between their tangents at the point of intersection. One of the two to the original curve is L OPB. which is ~ongruent to LOP . le
supplementary angles must be designated. The images of the two inter- limiting position of the angle from OP to the Image curve.
THE GEOMETRY OF INVERSION 207
206 CHAPTER 6
FIGURE 6.8
. THEOREM 6.8. The inverse point for . .
lies on the Ime J'oining th . f. a pomt outside a circle
. ~ pomts 0 mtersect' f
In Figure 6.8. ,circle 0 is the circle of inversion and circle 0 ' the potnt to the circle. Jon 0 the tangents from
is any circle orthogonal to it. If a line through 0' intersects circle
0' at C and D, then OC'OD = (OE)2, for E a point of intersection
'of the two circles. But since lJE is also the radius iof the circle of
inversion, C and D are by definition inverse points with respect to the
circle of inversion.
For each point of fDE. the image under inversion is a point of o (--f-+-_"""=:::" p
f.CE, with the endpo~nts F and E invariant points. Thus, circle 0' is
a set of invariant points.
A second useful theorem about orthogonal circles under inversion 8
. . terms
expressed In 0f a set of simul- But
case, the transformatlOl1s were f t' of similarity was also
. t' 5 The trans onua Ion .
taneous Imear equa Ion: r I'
. II usmg sets 0 m e a r ·
equations The transformatIOn
d
described algebralca Y h d f an analytic point of view, an
. I be appraae e rom
of inversIOn can a so .. . . ht . to the nature of the
this approach will give add1t1onal mSlg m and if both sides are multiplied by x'. then x"(x' + y')' = x','" Taking
transformation. the square root of both sides shows that
y
or
PIx'. y) xrZ
x' = 2 2'
X +y
Similarly. the expression for y' can be found so that the next
theorem is proved.
inverse. The result is that x and Xl can be interchanged and y and y'
can be interchanged so that
(3,0)
x-4=O
The requirement that the circle of inversion have ils center at the
origin is of course not mandatory. The substitution
FIGURE 6.13
x" = X + h. y" = y + Ie
illustrates the wide variety of possibilities. Find the image of the parabola
shows that more general forms of the equations for inversion are l . " t tl c'rcle- -Xl + yl = 4. (See
= 4x under lflverSlOn WIth respect 0 le I.
(x" - 11)1'2 , (y" _ k).,' Figure 6,1.4.)
X' =(,-x-;'-"----';-;!J)'"-+-7(y-;'-"---I"",)" y = (x"-h)'+(y"-I<)". y
9x'
X'2 + ]1'2 FIGURE 6.14
for x in the equa~ion of the line. Thus, The substitution for x and y in the equation of the parabola
9x' _ 4 = 0 results in
X'2 + y'2 •
(4y')' _ 4 4-,'
9x' ~ 4
(X'2 + /2)2 - X'2 + y'2
X'l + y'2 •
This equation can be somewhat simplified, as follows:
9x' = 4(x'2 + y'2),
or
16y" = 16x'(x" + ),,'),
4x" - 9x' + 4y'2 = O. y'2 = x') + X'/2.
The inverse of the parabola in this case is not a ~ara~ola, ,DO,r eve~ a 1. Show that the product of their distances from the origin is one.
conic, so the property of being a conic is not an'InvarIant In inverSive 2, Show that they are collinear with the origin.
geometr~hen the study of inversion is extended ;rom the real Planet~~ Demonstrating that z and z' are inverse points is left as an exercise.
I
the campIex pane, a ..:other unexpected simplIficatlOn appears In . Inversion with respect to the circle with center at the origin
'" and radius in the complex plane is accomplished by the transformation
equation of the transformation.
r'
z'
(_4_)(3 ++
3 - 4i 3
4i) = 4(3 + 4i) =
4i 9 + 16
!2 + ~ i.
25 25
FIGURE 6.15
EXERCIS ES 6.3
I F' e 615 let the real and imaginary axes be given. If
n Igur ., .. d 'f ,_ c + di is the inverse
tl~e circle of inversion is a umt cIrcle, an I Z - . Use the equations for Im'ersion with respect to a circle with center at the origin
of z = a + bi with respect to this circle, then the followmg theorem to find the inverse of the following real points.
shows the relationship between z and z'.
Point Radills ojjllt'el'sioJl
THEOREM 6.1 L The transformation of points in .the complex 1. (3,4)
plane, with respect to the un~t circle with center at the on~m, has the 2. ( 1,1) 2
. z, =
equation l/z- whe,'e 11 is the conJ'ugate of z. If z = a + bl, then 3. (0,3) 3
1 1 a + bi 4. (7,1) 4
z' - - = - - - ' - - - .
-2 a-bia+bf
a + bi
For Exercises 5 and 6, find the inverse of the given point with respect to a circle
with center (2, 3).
j
5. (6,2) 2
To show that z and z' are inverse points with respect to the unit
6. (5,5) J
circle, it is necessary to:
THE GEOMETRY OF INVERSION 217
216 CHAPTER 6
so that
OD + OB OB + OC
6.4 SOME APPLICATIONS OF
OD - OB OB - OC
INVERSION
or
Three of the most appal' t r .
been mentioned but they need toe: ~~p l~atJO.ns of inversion have already
areas. e Iste< agam before we proceed to new
so that the ratios of division of AB by C and D are equal (directed
1. The theory of poles and I" . segments have not been considered here). Note also that points A and B
Mascheroni constructior!:°e~S I~ used In pr~jective geometry. divide CD internally and externally in the sarn~ ra~io; tllltS, the circle of
2.
3.
as a 'basic technique in ord r
y constructIOns of Ibe inverse poim
The finite geometry of D er 0 c~ry out many other constructions.
inversion is the circle of Apollonius with respect to the two points C
and polar. ' esargues ( hapter 1) used th(~ concept of pole andD.
The fact that an inversion transformation sometimes transforms a
straight line into a circle, or a circle into a straight line, is the basis for
A new fact about inverse pomts
. physical applications of inversion in linkages that change linear motion
shows an applicatl'on to an
. into curvilinear motion or vice-versa. The harnessing of the tides, the
ear 1ler construction problem.
driving of a locomotive" and the production of electricity are all
illustrations of one lype of motion changed into another type of motion.
THEOREM 6.12. Two inver . . The mechanical problem of devising linkages to do this sort of thing has
divide the diameter on which th /e .POllltS WIth respect to a circle
same ratio. . ey Ie Internally and externally in the concerned engineers during the past hundred years. One such device is
THE GEOMETRY OF INVERSION 219
218 CHAPTER 6
Qed))
A C B E
(a) (b)
B
FIGURE 6.18
FIGURE 6.17
Figure 6.18b. It is very important to re r
The quadrilateral AP' BF is a rhombus, so Dc is the perpendicular concerned only with the ,.elatl· I .
. .
a Jze that the new figure is
ons ups among the i .
It IS not concerned with the reI t· ons h. mage sets of pOll1ts-
bisector of All
the new nor with areas ane! at'h Ip between the original figure and
o er extraneous t t b
Op· OP' = (OC - PC)(OC + CP') the relationship within the new fi u. tl a~ ors ut only with
new theorem. g le - 1at makes It possible to state a
= (OC)' - (PC)'
. l5E is the image of OC, whereas th . I . .
= (OA)' _ (AC)' - [(P A)' - (A e)'] IS the image of in
Th ,.. I . . e clrc e WIth dIameter DE
e CIt c e of mverslOn" .
IS mv~nant. !he fact that
t-t •
@,
familiar Euclidean theorem, when inverted, may yield a new theorem by 4
suggesting the corresponding properties. Even further. the new theorem. ' A C
does not have to be proved from the beginning; it is true because of:. o 2
1
the proof of the original theorem and the accepted properties of inversion..
Examples will illustrate the technique. 3
One of the elementary theorems from geometry is the stateI11enl~, (a) (b) (e)
220 CHAPTER 6
The new theorem will involve four circles, and the conclusion will FIGURE 6.20
be that two ·of them are orthogonal. This new theorem, valid in
Euclidean geo~etry, is stated in somewhat complex wording, as follows: 'I Be II A' is also the midpoint
ID and l' E are radii perpendlClJ ar to ,len IJ15 . . . C E
of m. This can be shown as a result of the. fact that D ~ J '
, . I to Idf lhe perimeter of the lliangle
THEOREM 6.14. If circle 2 is orthogonal to circle 1, if circle 3 since both have measmes equa ,
passes through One intersection of circles 1 and 2 and also intersects minw) the length of side Ac. . . and jf
circle 1 in another distinct point, if circle 4 passes through the second Now if A' is taken as the ~enter of tn,:,er~l.on ,
intersection of circles 1 and 2 and the second intersection of circles 1 and 'D __ A' E is taken as the radius of inverSion. then the mcn de ~~nd the
A th onal to the CIrcle 0 f
excirde are both invariant, Sll1ce they are o~ ~~ ~ F the foot of the
0- •
ite side of the orthic triangle (the triangle THEOREM 6.16. The image under inversion with respect to a
is parallel to the oppo~ 't d ) This line is antiparallel to BL. Also, sphere of a plane not through the center of inversion is a sphere passing
through the feet of the a tl u es.. . 11 I lines make congruent angles through the center of inversion. and conversely.
I n that tWO anupala e f I
it can be S lOW tween the other two sides o. t lC
with the bisector of the . a~gl: be internal tangent of circles 1 and
ther A special case of inversion with respect to a sphere is known as
inscribed quadrangle. But It IS t ,e 0. h BC that IT' does so it is the
l' that makes the same a1lgle whIt. oint circle TI~is means that stereographic projection and is very useful in map making. This melhod of
H.i h t' the imag~ of t e nme-p . projection is illustrated in Figure 6.22. Plane a is tangent to both the
tangent t a. IS . nt to both the incircle and the excircle.; In a
the nine-point circle IS t~nge. b hawn to be tangent to the bther sphere with 0 as center and the sphere with B as the center at the
. '1 ar way
511111 ( • tl,e nine-pomt cIrcle can e s ., common point A. Plane !X and the sphere with 0 as center are inverses
excircles. Ie of proof by inversion appears in Chapte~ 9 o~
~nother examp In this example, inversion is used in the POIncare
nOIl-Euchdean geoo:etr y. . fi d the sum of the measures of the
model for hyperbohc geomeh y to n
angles of a triangle. "th look at inversion in three
TI is section concludes WI a . .
. . ' Analogous to the circle of inversion is the sphere of InverSIOn
dimensIOns.
FIGURE 6.22
"\ with respect to the second sphere. The effect of this inversion is to
p
-----.\.- establish a one-to-one correspondence between the points on the sphere
" ,
o.........rl1 and on the plane. One of the important features of a map prepared in
this way is that all angle measures are preserved under inversion.
I
Stereographic projection is also used in obtaining the Poincare model
for hyperbolic geometry mentioned above.
The inversive geometry of this chapter has proved to be a very
FIGURE 6.21 useful geometry. Though the invariant properties are not 'aU the same as
those of EucJidean geometry. the two geometries do have many common
. . . 621 If P and P' are inverse points with respect to a concepts. Inversive and Euclidean gtiometry are distinct geometries in the
as shown III Flgm e . .
sphere of radius r, then sense that neither i~ a special case or the other. The next two geometries
to be studied, pl'Ojective geometry and topology, are generalizations of
op,oP' = r2. Euclidean geometry and include it as a special case.
.' . nsions can be seen to be a cross section pf the
Inversl~n m .two dIme. 'th the plane passing through the center of
three-dimensIOnal drawmg, WI" EXERCISES 6.4
the sphere.
l. Explain the special case of llleorem 6.12 if one of the points is the center
. Corresponding to inversion relationships between the line land tl~e of inversion.
circle in two dimensions are t~oser::::e~~nt:~e ~::tet~~~r~~~. sphere Ill .. 2. Use cardboard and papel' fasteners to prepare a woi'king model of
Peucelliel"s cell.
three dimensions. An example IS P
CHAPTER 7
224 CHAPTER 6
3. Invert the figure of a line perpendicular to a radius of a cirde at its end~ PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
point on the circle, with respect to a point on the tangent, and state the
resulting theorem.
4. Invert the figure of a triangle inscribed in a semicircle with respect to one of
the endpoints of the diameter and state the resulting theorem.
FIGURE 7 1
Figure 7.2h, however, the picture on the screen will be distorted because
the film and the screen are not parallel. The figures are no longer
similar, and it is no longer apparent what properties of figures reniain r I
~
unchanged. For example, even the ratios of distances are no longer·
invariant.
Although the example in Figure 7.2b may at first seem completely
new, many people will be able to describe the figure as a perspectiIJity.
as the term is used in art. Artists talk about centers of perspectivity to
(a)
show that the lines in' a painting converge at a particular point that (b)
becomes the center of attention. A famous example is the painting df the FIGURE ]A
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 229
228 CHAPTER 7
1822 Most of the work on this book was done while POllcelet was."
perspectivity is not at the center. You should be able to locate this .'. . after the wars of Napoleon. Other advances III
point in each case. prts?ne.r 111 RUSSIa, ade during the nineteenth century. Karl von
In this text, geometries have been studied on the basis of their projective geometry wer~ m. etry could be developed without the
d h dhow projective geom . ."
invariant properties under a group of transformations. You should realize Stau ; :n;W;etrical basis for measurement. Felix Klein gav~ pro!ectIv~
that projective geometry can also be studied using this same approach, use 0 . I it deserves in the classlficatlOn 0
although historically the topic was not developed that way. geometry the pro111111ent P ace f 1872 Since that time postulational
It is important first to explain what is meant by a projective geometries in his Erlanger program 0 . b "tt' n and finite
transformation. Figure 7.5 shows several perspectivities in the same developments of projective ge~metry have een Wit e ,
drawing. The points on 11 and 12 are perspective. with A the center of projective geometries have been mtroduced.
EXERCISES 7.1
c 1. Write an equation relating the lengths of A'B and ;f1f in Figure 7.1.
2. Describe the location of the center of pe:rspectivity in
a Figure 7 Aa. b. Figure 7A b . . ..
. h sketch of a picture looking down a road with sets of .utlht y
3. Malke a ro.uthg side Make the lines in the drawing converge nl a pOIll! on
poesoneI er .
FIGURE 7.5 the horizon.
. 4-11 which of these properties, which are invariant in Euclidean
For E.xercises, .... t ?
geometry, also seem to be invanant III proJecuve geome .ry.
perspectivity. The points on l2 and 13 are perspective, with point B the
4. Measures of angles.
center of perspectivity. and the points on 1;, and 14 are perspective, with
'4
point C the center ofperspectivity. In general. the points on 11 and are 5. Collinearity.
I not perspective. Instead, they are defined to be projective. From this 6. Measures of area.
'.~ point of view, a projectivity is considered a chain of perspectivities. 7. Ratios of distances.
t;'., 8. Property of being a circle.
,
.i;
,~
DEFINITION. A projectivity is a finite sequence of per- 9. Property of being a square.
spectivities. 10. Property of being a triangle.
11. Property of being a rectangle. . .. (
. .' to Fi ure 75 in which several perspecttvIt!es resu t
In projective geometry, the invariant properties .for a projectivity 12. Make a drawmg sl.mdar. d
g. t back into points on the same line.
in the POllliS on a hoe bemg proJec e
are studied. While it is not obvious which properties may be preserved,
it should be evident that there is a one-to-one correspondence and that
collinear points remain collinear even though distances and relatiwi
7.2 POSTULATIONAL BASIS FOR
distances may change.
PROJ ECTIVE G EOM ETRY
This intuitive discussion has introduced several of the basic
concepts of projective geometry. Although it grew out of ideas dd at first, but the postulational basis for projectiv.e
developed earlier, the first real text in projective geometry, Traite des It .m~y se~~ ~om a mathematical point of view than is the baSIS
propri"es des figures by J. V. Poncelet (1788-1867), was published in geometry IS SImp .
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 231
230 CHAPTER 7
I determine a unique plane, the consequence of the axiom is that any two L ~:;~~~~::~o:~r~e~~o;e simpler than that for Euclidean geometry..
lines of a plane meet in a point. That is, there are no parallel lines • for projective geometry are also ax.loms for
in projective geometry. Each pair of lines in the plane determines a 2. Which of the eight axioms
ordinary Euclidean geometry?
unique point.
. I axioms for projective geometry are also
While ex.ploring the idea in the previous paragraph, it is important For Exercises 3-9, which of the elg 1t
to understand lhe development leading from Euclidean geometry to axioms lor the finite geometry n(lmed?
projective geometry in terms of the type of elements allowed. In J. Geometry of three points and three lines.
Euclidean geometry. every point of the Euclidean plane is an ordinary 4. Geometry of four points.
point. Two parallel lines have 110 point in common. In the extended
5. Geometry of four li~es.
Euclidean plane, parallel lines are said to meet at idedl points. Any two
6. Geometry of F ano.
lines meet at an ordinary point or at an ideal point. Saying that two
lines meet at an ideal poin~ in the extended Euclidean plane is just 1. Geometry of Pappus.
another way of saying that the lines are parallel. The extended 8. Geometry of Desargues.
Euclidean plane consists qf the union of the ordinary and ideal points 9. Geometry of Young. . l'
in lhe plane. The ideal points of the extended Euclidean plane are a . .' melry two distinct lines cannot have mOle t tan
10. Prove that, til proJecUvc geo ,
different concept lhan that of the ideal point of the inversive plane. one point in common.
In the projective planes and spaces of projective geometry, the In Exercises I! and 12, use the sel of points shown in fjgure 7.6.
ideal points lose their special nature, and parallelism is not an invariant. many of its
. 'd d the basic complete qua d rung Ie, how
t 1. If AEGC IS consl ere
It is correct to think intuitively of projective geometry as being derived
diagonal points are labeled?
from the geometry or the extended Euclidean plane through the . 'd . d the basic complete quadrangle, how many of its
elimination of any distinction between real and ideal points. If ideal 12. If AEBF IS consl Ole <
diagonal points are labeled? . r
points are not treated as special elements, the need for consideration of .. r' 1ete quadrangle are the vertiCes 0 a
special cases or exceptions in much of what has been said so far in this' 13. Suppose the four vel Uces a a comp What effect would this have on the
parallelogram in Euclidean geomelrY· '
\ section has been eliminated. For example, the points A, B. C. in
diagonal points?
. . I for more than one complete
Figure 7.5 could just as easily be ideal points as real points. In
4 Could a triangle be a dtagonal lnang e .
Figure 7.6, the opposite sides could intersect in ideal points or in real 1. quadrangle? Make a drawing to support yom answer. . .?
points. Parallelism has lost its significance, and projective geometry is ch line in affine or projective geometry contains how many Ideal pOints.
displayed as a general geometry with ordinary geometry as a very special 15. Ea
case. The axioms of projective geometry apply to points in the projective
plane and in projective space.
It should be mentioned that the geometry of the extended 7.3 DUALITY AND SOME
, Euclidean plane, which considers ideal points as special cases, is called
CONSEQUENCES
t~:n~o~:t:~~W:~a~:t~;!~~~,~:~1~~I~~i':~
ciffine geometry. In affine geomelry, parallelism is preserved; parallel
lines are transformed into parallel lines. The transformations of affine In Euclidea.n geometry:
geometry form 2, proper subgroup of the group of all projective trans- line, but two lines 10 the sam. p. metry on the other hand, this
" formations. The group of affine transformations has the group of (they may be parallel). In projective ge? or;hestatements"twopoints
exception has been eliminated. A comparison
similarities and the group of motions as proper subgroups.
,.j
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 235
234 CHAPTER 7
Let A"B and C be any line and point (Figure 7,8) not incident, The properties of the co I
the pJane dual of th
'
mp e:e quadrIlateral can be studied as
as in Axiom 1..!rAxiom 3. points C and A determine a second line, e correspondmg p
quadrangle. The six points of ,'nt .
(' f
roper les 0 the complete
. ersectlOn of the r. . .
By Axiom 2, BC has a third' point D, and by Axiom 3, D and A
thre~ sets of opposite vertices. In Fi ure our ~Iven hnes are in
determine a third line, vertices, as are C and D and E an~ 7.9, A. and, ~ ~re opposite
vertices are diagonal fines and tl ~. The hnes Jommg opposite
diagonal fines is the diago;zal lrilal:.a~nlatera.1 ,for~ed by the three
customary to speak or a
t' I . In ploJectJve geometry. it is
both the vertices and th rdIan e as being self-dua~ since it includes
g
e Sl es, and to use d' I'
the complete quadrangle and th I lagona tnangle for both
Th d I f ' e comp ete quadrilateral.
e ua 0 Ax,om 7 implies th t th d "
cannot be-concurrehCThis should be e:s e oUed hnes I~ Figure 7.9
concurrent. then the three d,'a I ' Y to see, because If they were
, ' gona pOlOts of quad I AB
De colJmear, contrary t9 Axiom 7. rang~. CD would
FIGURE 7.B , ,~inally, the dual of Axiom 8 states h ' " ,
Invariant each of th.ree d' t' I' t at If a projectlvJty leaves
Ismctmesonaoit'l'
every line on the pOir1t Th . P n, It eaves Invariant
, e assumptJOn that th' d I'
Axioms 3 and 4 are, in effect, duals of each other, using the results in the completion f tl lS ua lS a true statement
interpretation of Axiom 4 as in Figure 7,7, The plane dual of Axiom 7 axioms of proJ'ective ge 0 1e argument that all the duals of the
ometry are true and th t th .
introduces new terminology that must be explained. This dual states duality may be used freely It ' a e concept of plane
. IS assumed that the plane dual of a
that the three diagonal lines of a complete quadrilateral are never
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 237
236 CHAPTER 7
definition or proved tlleorem is a good definition or another theorem and D' E' F' are perspective from line 1. since corresponding sides meet at
whose proof has been established without further work. points X, y, and Z on line I. . .
The concept of space duality is based on an interchange of the Unlike most theorems of geometry, Desargues' theorem IS easl~r
words point and plane. with the word line being self-dual in space. In to prov(~ for two triangles in different planes than for two triangles
the foHowing statements, the second gives the space dual for the first. in the same plane.
Any two distinct planes have at least two common points. Proof:
Space dual: Any two distinct points have at least two common a. Assume that the two given triangles are in differe~lanes,
planes. as in Figure 7.11. Since OB'C'BC lie in a plane, BC and B'C' must
many years before it was actually developed. His definition (Theorem 7.2)
of triangles perspective from a point and line is made dear by Figure 7.10. meet, and this point must be a point Z on· the line. of intersection
of the twoJ:!anes It and 1I'. Similarly, OA'CAC. detenm~e a plane. an~
lc and A'C meet at a point Y on the line of mtersectl0n of 1t and 1I.
Lines .In and E likewise must meet on the same line of intersectio~
of nand n', so l;ABC and l;A'B'C' are perspective from a line.
b. Assume that the two given triangles are in the same plane.
Let ABC and A'B'C' be any two coplanar triangles. as in Figure ?12H.
B' pers·pective from point O. Let poin~s C, D. E be points of intersectIOn of
pairs of corresponding sides (Figure 7.1.2b). We need to shoW that these
three points are collinear. .'
D'~ AF Let 0' and 0" be any two points colllI~ear WIth 0, but not ~n the
~
plane of the given triangles (Figure 7.12c). Connect 0' and the vertices of
triangle A' B'C' and 0" and the vertices of triangle 1B~. Si~ce the
x y Z · 0'0 d OA determine a plane, AO" and O'A' he III tillS plane
Imes an B" d
FIGURE 7.10 and must meet at a point Arl. -Similarly. O"B and O'B' meet. at. an
o"e and o'er meet at err. Triangles ABC and Air B"C" are 111 different
Two triangles such as ABC and A'Bre are perspective from point O. since planes and are perspective from 0". By DeSa~gues' theorem for, non-
corresponding vertices are collinear with O. Two triangles such as DEF coplanar triangles, they are perspective from a lme common to their l wo
238 CHAPTER 7 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 239
A EXERCISES 7.3
(d)
1. If a and b are distinct lines of a plane, there is at least one point on both
(e). lines.
FIGURE 7.12
2. On a point are at least four lines.
3. A triangle consists of three noncolIinear points and the lipes joining them in
• C' d A" 8"C" are noncoplanar and perspective
, I
pairs.
planes. Also, trIangles A B an . f1 n the same common line. The
from 0', so they are als2.1crspectlve rO.l t on the common line of the Write the space dual of each of the next two statements.
. I
result IS t lat
in d A' Bf meet at a pom
an. -. d the plane of triangle A
';B- IIC"
. 4. TIlree planes not on the same line determine a point.
plane containing t~lven t~ng~sA~ eel on this same line' and the
Similarly. 8C and B'C' and AC an ":. DE 5. A plane is determined by two intersecting lines.
two given triangles are perspective from tlus hne, . 6. Prove the pJane dual of Axiom 8.
7. Prove the converse of Desargues' theorem directly for triangles in different
From the principle of planar duality. the plane dual ofDesargues' planes, without assuming the original theorem or using duality.
theorem has also been established. 8. Draw a figure to represent Desargues' configuration, then indicate the ten
pairs of perspective triangles, naming the center and axis of perspectivity for
each pair.
THEOREM 7.3. If two triangles are perspective from a.line. they.
"
are perspective from a point. 9. Prove that if three triangles have a common center of perspectivity, their
three axes of perspectivity have a common point.
10. Prove that the diagonal triangle of a quadrangle is perspective with each of the
Note that the plane dual of .p'~sarg~€?s1 theorem IS
four triangles whose vertices are three of the verlices of the quadrangle.
. . I but neither 15 It a umque case. '. .
converse. ThiS IS not usua • t d d to a study of perspective
n
Desargues' the~rem could bec~xa: e~tended study of projective.'
polygons other than tnangles. In Sll • theorem or its converse .. ' 7.4 HARMONIC SETS
ou would find Desargues . .
ge-ometry. Y f three Jines or the
1 t 1 lp prove the concurrence 0 Since a complete quadrangle consists of four points and six lines,
frequent y 0 1e . f' for projective geometry
of three points. An alternative set 0 aXIOms an arbitrary line of the plane that does nOl pass through any of the four
240 CHAPTER 7 PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 241
points are on the sides passing through the third diagonal point. A
special notation for harmonic sets emphasizes this distinction between the
two pairs of points in the set. For example, H(NI, FG) indicates the
harmonicse! composed of the four points N, I and F, G. F and G are paired
because they are the two diagonal points, whereas N and I are the points
of intersection of the sides of the quadrangle through the third diagonal
point The same harmonic set could be indicated by H(I N. FG).
H(NI,GF), or H(IN.GF).
vertices or any of the three dia onal 0 · ·
distinct points This set f ,g . p mts wIll me~t the SIX sides in six In the notation H(NI,FG). G is the harmonic conjugate of oF"
.
points. Figure' 7 13 h 0 SIX pOInts is called a quadrangular set of with respect to Nand 1. Each point of the harmonic set is the
. sows complete quadran I ABCD harmonic conjugate of the other member of its pair wil~l respect to the
quadrangular set of points E F G ge and the
used to show that each poin~ of • H.~. J. Desargues' theorem can be other pair of points. Since Axiom 7 specifies that the three dia"gonal-
uniquely if the other five k a qua ran gular set can be determined points of a complete quadrangle arc not collinear, a point and its
are llown The co c t ' . harmonic conjugate must be distinct points, so there are at least four points
however, to give added m ' . . n ep 15 Introduced here,
eamng to the specIal case of a d on each line in projective geometry.
set called a harmonic set of POillts, qua ran gular The four points of a harmonic set cannot all be located
independently. The statement of dependence is given in the following
DEFINITION. A harmonic set f . .. theorem.
a set of four collinear in .' 0 pomts, or a harmonic range, IS
diagonal points.
0:
of the sides of a com:l~te t~tco:sIStl~g the f~ur pojn~s of intersection
m rang e wIth a hne passmg through two
THEOREM 7.4. Tne harmonic conjugate of a point A with
respe:ct to two other given collinear points Band C is uniquely
determined.
Figure 7.14 shows three harmoni f'
complete quadrangle ABCD Th r . c sets 0 pOInts determined by In Figure 7.15, let B. A. C be any three given collinear points. l'
.'
.
pomts on t1 r . ' e lour pOInts NFIG are a Ilarmomc
. set of
. .1 I le me... pasSIng through the diagonal points F and G
SIml ar y, the four oi ts LEMG . B
diagonal points E aPndnG h are a harmonic set on the lille through
,w ereas the points EJ FK . .
011 the line through diagonal points E d F I are a harmomc set
four points of the h a r . . an . n each case, two of the
mOfllC set are dIagonal points, and the other two
L ~~-~~===~====-----
----
E
o
!: 0
FIGURE 7.15
,".I FIGURE 7.14
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 243
242 CHAPTER 7
A~
complete quadrilateral and the other two pass through the 'two vertices
lying on the third diagonal line,
C B 0
In Figure 7,16, let a, b, c, d be the sides of the quadrilateral, . FIGURE 7.17
with e,j: 9 the diagonal lines, One set of harmonic lines is H(eg,lli),
The main reason for the study of harmonic sets in pr,oiective
geometry is that the property of being a harmonic set is an in·vn,i.nH H(~B, CD) be any harmonic set of oi t '
TillS harmonic set impJies the . p n s with 0 any non collinear point
under the group of projective transfonnations. eXIstence of a comp Iete quadrangle OEFG'
PROJEC)'IVE GEOMETRY 245
244 CHAPTER 7
, {IYll H(AB CD} is a iWfllwnic
with A and B two diagonal points and C and D points on lines 2. Locate D by construction with a straightedge so < '
through the third diagonal point. But GF. lEo II and GE are the four set. , \I possible pairings obtained from
sides of a complete quadrilateral. lo
and I51l are diagonal lines, J. U
se Theorems 7.6 and 7.7 to wnte a
whereas 15C and I5D are lines through the other two vertices, F and D. H(CX. Dn.
,
. - D .. ', II e
uclidean sense, that B is the 11lidpomt of .<Ie. escll)e \
which lie on the third diagonal line. This implies the existence of the 4, Suppose. In the E , ' . te of 8 with respect to A and e. .I
harmonic set of lines H(I51l. DA.X.OD).
The symbol for a perspectivity, ABCP *
A'B'CD', indicates that
S is the center of perspectivity and AA'. BB'~ ... are corresponding points.
location of the harmonic conJuga
.'
For E-xelc.ses -:.0.
(AD. KG) 6, (;tcrM)
' 8 : LF BD)
7. (AB.NE)
. F
5 t' which of these <Ire harmonic sets 1tl Igl1l e"
. ( '.
. 7 14" Why"
'
9. (BC.JG)
.
The symbol ABeD A A'B'C'D' indicates a projectivity in which AA·.
BB· •... are corresponding points. In Figure 7.17, ABCD
GEHD ~ BAeD. so ABeD A BACD. This implies that:
*
GEHD and
5.
.•
II.
.
TI . 75 direclly without usmg dunlHY·
10 Prov" statement b under leOletll '
k
uni uely if the other five are nowl~.
d' I"
Prove thnl the sixth paml of a qua I angu ,\I se _
" '
,
t (If points Ci.\Il be deternll ned
pr:e that a line in projective geometry hns more thall fOllf dlstl1lcl \111I11{S,
THEOREM 7.6. If H(AB. CD). then Ji(BA. CD). t2.
that:
Also i1l Figure 7.17, ABeD 4 FOHC and FOHC * BADC. so
7.5 PROJ ECTIVITI ES
fi '( sequence of
" ivit has been presented as a 111 ~ .'
THEOREM 7.7. If Ji(AB. CD). then H(BA. DC). ~. ~)wJect , ,Y t' 'ty is a type of transformation, S111ce It IS a one-
perspectlVlt1eS, A pi oJec IVl,
-to-one onto mapping of pomt~, " , 'OJ'ectivity and the product
Beginning with three distinct points on a line, the harmonic , f a proJectlvlty IS a pi •
conjugate of a-ne of these points with respect to the other two can be The l1~v~~se .0 , ' t ' 'ty,thus the following theorem is true
of two proje.cuvlues IS a pi oJec IVI. • .
uniquely determined. For the set of four points. each set of three (Exercise 9. Exercise Set 7.5).
determines other harmonic conjugates. All the harmonic conjugates on a
line determined by such a sequence of steps are said to be harmonically t of all projectivities of the plane
related to the three original points, II THEOREM 7.8. The se
constitutes a group of transformations.
DEFINITION. The set of all points harmonically related to three
distinct collinear points is a harmonic nee of points, , ' ' the stud of properties of sets of points
Projecl1ve geomellY IS f y!)I'oJ'ective transformations, The
, . t u del' the group 0 ,
that are mvartan n . ' eOl11etry must wait until the
The concept of hai'monic net is fundamental in the development . h th tudy of projective g .
algebralcapproac to. e s . the ro'ective plane in the next sectIOn,
of a system of coordinates for ,Points in projective geometry (see introduction or coord,m~tes ro~ p. Jd rojectivities from a different
Section 7.6). Before this, however, It IS possible to stu y P" d n you is: What is the
, t' tl 'tt may have OCClIlle l . " ,
viewpo1l1t. A ques lOn 1< ' I determine a prOJectlvlty r
. . . r
mllumllm 111 orma 10n n
t' eeded to untque Y
, d h '. '1 nages how many pturs 0
. r
EXERCISES 7.4 , " .' ' lie pomts an t ell I < • • ,
Smce proJectlVIUeS InVO \ , I t ii pairs can be deternuned?
, t be gIVen so t 1a a ~ I
Given lhree points A. B. C in this order on a line: points ,;lI1d Images mus. .' I '\t is caned the jiuu/amelli£l
The answers to these questIOnS appeal m w 1<
1. Locate D by construction with a straightedge so that H{AC.BD) is a harmonic
seL theorem c?f projective geometry.
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 247
246 CHAPTER 7
THEOREM 7.9. Fundamental theorem. A projectivity between the arbitrary distinct line I through A'. Then points BTl and C" are
sets of points on two lines in a plane is determined by three determined on I so that ABC!..7i A'B"C". The mtersection
. of bc" and
<-+
collinear points and their images. B'Btl determines a point S' such that A'B"G" ~ A'B'C'.
A'B'C'.
" so ABC 71
The proof is indirect. Assume, as illustrated in Figme 7.18, tilat
ABCX 7\ A'B'C'X', and ABCX 7\ A'B'C'X", for X' and X" distinct c ..
points.
B'
x ..
c·
8'
x.
x ABC
A 8 x •
C FIGURE 7.19
FIGURE 7.1 B
Given any point X on A'B X" and X'
perspectivities already set up If tI' . . C':'
be found by using the
Then A'B'C' X' 7\ ABCX 7\ A'B'C'X".and A'B'C'X"7\ A'B'CX". fine, then one extra perspecti~H :e SIX ~tven pomt~ all He on the same
But in this last projectivity, points A'. B'. and C' are fixed. By Set 7.4. y IS reqUJred. See Exercise 4 of Exercise
Axiom 8 of Section 7.2, all the other points on the line must also be The corresponding points in a '"
fixed. The assumption that X' and X are distinct contradicts the
If
perspective from a point n -r a th projectlvJty are not, in general
, v re e correspo d' r ' .
axiom, so X' and X" must be identical. perspective from a line But pro' '" n mg mes In a projectivity
. '
While the fundamental theorem of projective geometry is very
. jectlvltles do have' .
somewhat analogous to centers d a pomt or a hne that is
r. I . an axes of perspecf't Th
important from a theoretical point of view, it does not yeOt provide a are uselll In Section 7.8. tVl y. ese concepts
constructive method for actually determining additional pairs of cor~
responding points in a projectivity. One such method ·is based on
THEOREM7.11.A roo ..
establishing a minil11pm sequence of perspectivities for the -projectivity. distinct lines determines : tf~C~IV~~Y between two sets of points on two
This sequence, while not unique, yields unique results because of the 1f
homology. and contains the inte'rse t' me called the axis. or axis of
c lOllS of the c ..
fundamental theorem. .0 f corresponding points. ross JOinS of all pairs
of perspectivity on AA' and unique and that all of the intersections of the
points. Choose an arbitrary center cross joins are
~.
p.
"
111
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 249
248 CHAPTER 7
c
Axis A aX
FIGURE 7.22
C'
, FIGURE 7.21
X is the interse~on of a and [,' and Y
a'. b'. c' are given. Point
is the intersection or
d and b, so IT passeFthrough S. the center of
homology. Likewise, c and [,' intersect at l'V and c' and b meet at Z. so
' f The axis ' of
. homology may be used to construct . . additional
S lies on Wz. ' ~. .
pairs 0 corresponding
ex'un Ie I F . . t . . ' .
pom S In a proJectlvlty. as shown in the following The center of homology can be u~ed to construct additional
( p . n 19u1e 7.21. assume that a projectivity is determined by the
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 251
250 CHAPTER 7
. ..
pairs ofcOllespon mg
.
d is given. Ll11es
d' lines in a projectivity. In Figure 7.22, suppose that
.
' meet at P Lme a mee
d an d a ·
ts d' at point Q on
of a' b! c' is
~,~'
?S. The line connecting Q and the point of concurrency "
~
the. desired line d',
EXERCISES 7.5
K
,'.,, .
FIGURE 7.25 ~l' ..
,
6. For the projectivity in Exercise 5, find the image of X. .. '.1 shows the framework of the ordinary Cartesian coordinate system, with
7. Copy Figure 7.25. Find the. poi~l 0 f h 0010 Iogy for the projectlvlty WI 1 points E and F indicated as "points at infinity" in a coordinate system
aa'. bb', and ce' as correspondmg lines. for affine geometry. Figure 7,26a may be projected into Figure 7.26b,
8. Find the image of line X in the projectivity of Exercise 7. with the corresponding elements indicated by primes. The ideal points
E' and F' are no longer special points, and IT is the ideal line.
9. Complete the details of the proof of Theorem 7.8. . d I'
The points in the first quadrant of Figure 7.26a are projected into the
10. Prove the plane dual of the fundamental theorem. without uSlOg ua Hy.
-:.,
kE
For example, the point (2, 3,0) lies on the line [3,·- 2, OJ, since
(2 ,3) + (3 : - 2) + (0· 0) ~ 0,
The condition in the previous paragraph is a generalization of the
-
AT
x2 = 0
Xl = 0
x, = 0
condition for points lying on lines in Euclidean analytic geometry. If X3 Xl - X3 = 0
and X) are set equal to I, the condition reduces to X 1 Xl + X 2 X 2
x2 - X3 = 0
+ (1 'I) ~ 0, which is equivalent to the condition
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 255
254 CHAPTER 7
can be co~tinued for points with negative coordinates
These equations can be derived formally from the condition (-1,0, I) IS the harmonic con'u ate f ( . ' For example,
X 1 Xl + X"2 X + X 3 X3 = 0 for a point to lie on a line, by subslituting and (I 0 0) Not 11th . J g 0 1,0, I) With respect to (0 0 1)
2
• •. a e pomts on the line but II . • •
the coordinates of the two points on a line
...-and then so1ving rhe set of net determined by the three begi' : a those In the harmonic
nnmg pomts, can be constructed.
simultaneous equations. F Of example, for C' D',
X,+X,=O,
EXERCISES 7.6
X,+X,+X,=O.
1. HO~ can one teU an ideal point by looking at its coordinates?
Let X 3 = 1; therefore, 2. Wnte homogeneous coordinates for these points: .'
~
For Exerc'Ises 13- 16,construct with a strai hIed e ' .
Xl = 0, given (0, 0, 1), (I, 0, I). and (I, 0, 0), g g the reqUired points on the line
13. (2,0, t)
.,!'-..
t4. (3,0, t)
t5. (- t, 0, I) 16. (t,o, 1)
(0.0.1) (1.0.1) (2.0.1) x,~o (1.0.0)
,:/
FIGURE 7.28
7.7 EQUATIONS FOR PROJECTIVE
The point (2,O, I) is defined as the harmonic conjugate of (0,0, 1) TRANSFORMATIONS
with respect to (1,0, I) and (1,0,0). The point can be constructed with
The set of simultaneous equations need d ' ,
a straightedge as explained in Section 7.4. The series of constructions transformation analytically is more diffic I e to express a projective
could be carried on to show that (3,O, 1) is the harmonic conjugate of of equations for transformatio , u t to develop than were the sets
, ns given so far-those ~ E I'd
(1,0, I) with respect to (2, 0,1) and (I, 0, 0). Also, H, 0, I) is the. harmonic motIOns, for example . Keep i n mID ' d the fact that. or u~ 1 ean
conjugate of (1, 0, 0) with respect to (0,0, I) and (1,0, I). The procedure in projective
256 CHAPTER 7
PROJfiCTIVE GEOMETRY 257
(e I ' e1 , e3 ).
It is tmderstood that the determinant of the coefficients is not
and zero. Also, because homogeneous coordinates are not unique but Iilay be
mUltiplied by a const.ant and still name the same number. the introduction
(d,' + e, + f,. d, + e, + f,. d, + e, + f,). of a parameter as a coefficient of the primed tenns is considered
pnlis transformation can be accOl11plished by the cOlTespondence below: carefully in a more detailed course.
The proof of one and the assumption of two additi011al theorems
Xl' = {[tXt + etx l + f 1 x 3 • will help establish that the equations of Theorem 7.14 do provide for a
proje.ctive transformation because they keep projective properties
Xl' = d2 x, + e,' . 2 +12 x 3' invariant.
X3' = d3 x 1 + e3 -x 1 + /3-"3'
. This set o~ equations transforms any other point (le, /, 111) into a THEOREM 7.15. A transfol1l1ation in the plane is a projective
POlI1t whose coordmates are given by the equations: transformation if it transfonl1s one line pt·ojeclively.
8
_ Theorem 7.16 and Theorem 7.17 may be used for the line
y'
m Xl = O. The s~t of Simultaneous equations given in Theorem 7.14
transformsapomt,(O,x,.x,)onx,. = 0. into (e 1 X 2 + Jr1 x3· e 2 X 2 +J2 x3 •
)
eJ x, + f J X J . The four pomts (0, 0, I), (0, I, 1), (0, 1, 0), and (0, x , 'x )
X' have a cross ratIO of Xl/Xl' since . 2 3
FIGURE 7.29
X AY is transformed into X' BY', and since Y and Y' are projectively
(0, x,. x,) = (0, x, . I) Xl.
related, the following chain shows the projectivity connecting I and 1'.
It. can ~e verified that these four points are projected in(e four points
X~YAY'!LX'
7( 7( WIth thiS same cross ratio. Since the four sets of coordinates chosen
ma~ r~present any four points on the fine, the line is transformed
proJectively.
The use of Theorem 7.15 means that the homogeneous co~
ordinates may be considered for one dihlension only. Projective co· . . It has now been established that every projectivity in the
projective plane has equations of the form .
ordinates for three points on a line can be chosen so that they are
(Xl' x ). (Yl' )12)' and (Xl + Yl' X 2 + Y2)' Then the harmonic conjugate
2 •x'
1 -- QI X I + a1 x 2 + a3 x 3 •
of the third point with respect to the first two has the coordinates
(x, - y,. x - Y2)' For example, the harmonic conjugate of (4, 3) with
2
x 2' = bJ x 1 + b2 x 1 + b3 x 3 •
respect to (1,1) and (3, 2) is (-2, -1). x'-
3 - CtX, + C2 X 2 + Cl X 3 •
A generalization of the concept of harmonic set is the-idea of the
cross ratio of four points. with the stipulation that the determinant of the coefficients,
I ~: ~~ ~:I
DEFINITION. The cross rati,? r of four collinear points is the
number I' when the coordinates of the four points are writren in the C1 c2 c3
form (x,. x 2). (y,. Y2)' (x, + Y,.x 2 + y,).(rx, + y,.rx 2 + Y2)'
is. not zero. In line.ar a:~ebra, the concept of a matrix. a rectang ular
at ray of nu.mbers, IS utlhz~d to analyze sets of Unear e(luations. The
For example, the crosS ratio for A(2. 3). B(5. 6). C(7.9)' D(9. 12).
set of equatJOns for the projective plane has the matrix or"toefficients
with the pairing as in the definition, is 2, since 9 = (2' 2) + 5 and
12 = (2' 3) + 6. '
Two additional theorems, stated without proof, will make a
conclusion possible. (~: ~: ~:)
c1 Cl c3
IiI 6. Verify that the cross ratio of the images is the same us the origin<11 cross
,) by writing the" matrix
followin . of tl1e ceeffi Clents.
. This is illustrated by the ratio in Exercise 5.
g matllces, with the determinant nonzero in all cases. by each
For Exercises 7-lO. what lype of lransformation, if any, is represented
"
"2 matrix of coefficients?
C
b,
0
b2 b,
0
Q')
C,
affine transformations
7. (2
-3' 2
3
0 0 :J
8.
GD
2
5
8
2
G0
10. 0
( Q,
\~ D
a2 I
±( ~(2) (±a1) a,)
b, similarity transformations 5
0
0 1 (at' + a,2 '" 0) 0
a,
( a, SPECIAL PROJECTIVITIES
±(~a,) (±a1) a,)
b, motions 7.8
0 1 (a l
l
:+ a/ = 1) The general theory of projectivities developed in Section 7.5 can
be both used and extended by considering special projectivities in one
greatly ~ltl:n~S~ ,of ma~rkes in ,connection with transformations can be
e H1 an appropriate course F . .. and two dimensions.
of matrix multiplicatioll ca b d - Ol example, the defillltlOl1 A one~dimensional projectivity renames the points on the saille
. ( neuse to find tl d
formations and the cone t f' le pro uet of trans-
find the in~erse of a transfoe:ma~io~~verse of a matrix can be used to line.
DEFINITION. A one_dimensional projeclivily is called dliptic,
parabolic, or Jiyperbolic if the number of invariant points is zero, one, or
EXERCISES 7.7 . two, respectively. If there are three invariant points, the projeclivity is
the identity transformation.
L Find numbers {/. IJ • cos( how that the Ime
. through (1 I, 1) and (3, 2, I)
a Iso passes through (7, 4, 1). ' The fundamentallheorem of projective geometry can be used to
For Exercises 2 and 3, find the harmonic conjugate of the (hird point with
slate that:
respect to the first two.
2. (3, I), (-2,5), (1,6) 1. A hyperbolic projectivity is determined when both invariant points
3. 1-1, -2), (3,2), (2,0) and one other set of corresponding points are given.
2. A parabolic projectivity is determined when its invarianl point and
Use the projective transformation two other sets of corresponding points are given.
XI' = Xl +- ·"1 + .\3'
This second statement can be sharpened significantly, however,
X 2' = XI - X2 + "3_
by proving the following theorem:
s.~~c/{
/A
~ 8 8'
FIGURE 7.30
C" A
~
S'
8
A'
X Y I
!
FIGURE 7,31
In Figure 7.30, let a parabolic projectivity be given, with A the . I~ Fig~re 7.31,. le.t ABX be any three given distinct collinear I
invariant point and Band B' any other pair of corresponding points. i
~~~nt;; WIth A B' Y theIr tmages. in a projectivity that interchanges A ,I
An arbitrary point S can be chosen so that ABB' ~ ACe, where A, C, e . These SIX pomts de~e~~me a uniq,ue projectivity that can be
d
THEOREM 7.19. A one-dimensional projectivity that exchanges
one pair of distinct points is an involution. FIGURE 7.32
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 265
264 CHAPTER 7
EXERCISES 7.8
vertices lie three 011 each line, and these vertices are invariant
There is a projectivity between two corresponding sides, and every point. 1. Explain why a reflection is an eXi:lmple of an involution.
on these sides must be invariant since three pairs are. Any other linc· 2. Give an example of a rotation that is of period
meets the sides of this quadrilateral in invariant points and every point
a. Two. b. Three. c. Four.
Show how the image of any other point on the line ca~ be cons.tructed. i,f
on it must be invariant, so the transformation is the identity_
Special types of two-dimensional projectivities include one 3. the invariant point and one other set of corresponding pomts are glVen fm <1
relating two given perspective triangles, called a perspective colJil1eatioll. one~dimensionai parabolic projectivily.
That is, the two triangles are images under a projectivity and are also h . t on the tine c.lI1 be constructed
perspective. The point and line of perspectivity are the center and axis 4~ ~tt~: i~~::i~:~ pi~l:I:~e a~~ ~:~ :t\l:;·.S~~:r
corresponding points are given _~or
of the transformation. The special case for which the center lies on tho a one-dimensional hyperbolic projccllvlty.
. needed to determine a
axis is called an elatiolt, while aU other transformations of this type are 5. State and prove fI theorem about the in rormation
hWl101ogies, A special case is a homology in which the harmonic unique one-dimensional involution. ..
conjugate of the center with respect to pairs of corresponding points 6. State the plane dual of TIleorem 7.20 and pl'ove it by writing the dun I of {he
is on the axis, This transformation is called a harmonic homology and proof of Theorem 7.20.
is illustrated by the example in Figure 7.33. Triangles ABC and A'B'C' 7. Sketch an example of an elation.
are perspective from point S and from line t. Furthermore, the Sketch a homology that is not a harmonic homology,
harmonic conjugate of S with respect to pairs of corresponding vertices 8. . h I Y Construct the
is on line l. For example, S' is the harmonic conjugate of S with respect 9. 1n F ·Igure 734
. , let S and I determine a harmomc omo og .
images of points A. B. C.
to A and A'.
s· 8
A
• • s c•
•
FIGURE 7.34
A
FIGURE 7.33
7.9 CONICS
You should recall from elementary geometry that the various
'b d as sections of cones of
If the center and axis are given, the pairs of corresponding conics of Euclidean geometry can a.II b e descrt e . . r' W
points in a harmonic homology can be determined, since they are nappes as illustrated in Figure 7.35. From a dJfferel~t pomt 0 vll~e ,
two , . b ' t d tnto an e Ipse
harmonic conjugates with respect to the center and a collinear point on . 7 35 shows that a CIrcle can e proJec e
the axis. This type of transformation is of period two, since repeating it f;f~~:e 7·35a) a parabola (Figure 7.35b), ora hyperbola (Figure 7.35C\
will result in the identity. In fact. it can be established that every two- The pro~erty' o-r being a conic is an invariant under the group 0
dimensional transformation of period two is a harmonic homology.
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 267
266 CHAPTER 7
projective transformations, but the property of being an ellipse, a ~nd. ~ ,line conic, wi.th the connections between them and the pro-
parabola, Of a hyperbola is not. Jectlvltles
th thatf determme
.. them emphasized. In Figure 736
.a, A and B are
e centers 0 two projectively related pencils with C D E F . ts a f
. t . I '" pam
m'thersectJOn of" corresponding lines. In Figure 736b
' a
• an d b are I'mes
Wl two projectively related ranges of points. A,A'; B B" C C" '.
of corresponding points. ' , • ale pans
(b) (e)
(a)
FIGURE 7.35
A B
Just as there is more than one way to define conics in
Euclidean analytic geometry, so more than one possibility exists in c·
projective geometry. The first definitions chosen here are credited to
Jacob Steiner and are used because they emphasize dearly the relation~
ship between conics and the projectivities already studied. In the (a) (b)
,,
.,.J
definitions. pencils oJ lines are sets of concurrent lines, and ranges of FIGURE 7.36
DEFINITION. A line conic is the set of lines that join . In Figure 7.37, let A and B be the given centers. If ill .
corresponding points in two projectively related ranges of points in the
same plane. The two lines must be distinct, and the set cannot be
considered ,as o~e of the lines in the penciJ with A as center then
correspondmg hue m is one of the lines in the pencil with B as
i:: .;'; .
perspective.
m
It would be well to reflect on these remarkable definitions. /..... ..... - -- .... ......
,
Observe that several previous figures in this chapter have includ~d points
/
)( )(' \
on a conic, although the text has not called attention to the fact. A f>C------=::>I B
\ I
While a complete reconciliation of these definitions with the intuith'e
ideas of what a conic is might be extremely difficult, it is not hard to " ........... _---//
see that the definitions do provide for the fact that no three points
of a point conic are colline~r. Figures 7.36a and b shoW a point conic FIGURE 7.37
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 269
268 CHAPTER 7
X are conjugate paints, since the polar of one passes lhrough the other.
center. The_two lines intersect at B, a point on the conic. Similarly.
Similarly, x and a are conjugate lines. Note that the setting for the
A lies on AB, considered as a line through B, and on its corresponding
words pole and polar here is somewhat different rrom that used berore.
line I through A.
In Figure 7.38, conjugate points A and X are distinct. "A
polarity is called a hyperbolic l'0farity if a point call be self-conjugate. '
THEOREM 7.22. The lines corresponding to the common line of
the two pencils of lines determining a point conic are the tangents
at the centers of the'two pencils of lines.
8
c c
A P,
P,
Pascal line
FIGURE 7.41
D
EXERCISES 7.9
G
1. What would be the effect of dropping 'he ,e",.·e'.·on that the pencils
FIGURE 7.40 cannot be perspective in the definition of a point conic?
2. Poi~t out figures in this chapter, pdor to Figure 7.35 in which 't
Two points A and B can be chosen as centers of pencils of COIllC could be located. • pOlO S on a
lines in a projectivity determining the conic. There is also a projectivity 3. State the plane dual of Theorem 7.21.
established on IfF and Fri. This means that if AD and IfF meet at G. 4. State the plane dual of Theorem 7.22.
and BEand Fri meet at H. then PI EFG 7i P, HFD. These two sets of
5. Write the e~uati?n of the line that is the image of the point (I,
points have their common element F self-corresponding, and they are the correlatIon WIth equations 1, 1) under
related by a perspectivity (see Exercise 8, Exercise Set 7.9). The center of ~;.
,-,'!
this perspectivity is P3' which implies that PI and ,P'1 lie on n line X l' = Xl + X2 + Xl'
through p 3' as was to be proved. .. X 2' = Xl - Xl + Xl'
The six vertices of a simple hexagon determine sixty different X 3' = XI + Xl - x3 ·
hexagons, found by connecting the points in different orders. Each oE these 6, Prove that ~he line. joining two self-conjugate points in it olarit cann
hexagons in turn has a different Pascal line. The sixty Pascal lines be a self-conjugate line (passing through its pole), P y ot
associated with six given points on a conic are known as Pascal's 7. In Figure 7.38, let the intersection of a and X be point Y At' I
mystic hexagram. s~ch that ea~ vertex is the pole of the opposite side is called' a se,~~a:Ta;
Pascal's theorem was proved by Blaise Pascal (l623-166~), but tnangle. Is triangle AX Y necessarily a self polar triangle?
M
p
the plane dual was not proved until much later, by C. J. Brian chon 8. , Prove that !f two sets of points in a projectivity on two lines have their
(1785-1864), after the development of the concept of duality. comm,on PolU~ self-corresponding, they are related by a perspectivity.
9. Explam why SIX points, no three collinear, determine sixty hexagons,
THEOREM 7.24. Brianchon's theorem. Ifthe six lines of a,simple 10. Prove Brianchon's theorem directly,
hexagon are lines of a line collie, then the three lines connecting pairs
of opposite vertices of the hexagon are concurrent.
7.10 CONSTRUCTION OF CONICS
. .1' ..
Figure 7.41 illustrates the theorem, The point of concurrency is , ~he the.orY,ofSection 7.9 has provided the basis for constructions
called the Brianchon point. of comes In projectIve geometry. using only a straightedge, The fact that
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 273
272 CHAPTER 7 .
a
conics have been defined in terms of projectivities means that any number
of points or lines on a conic can be constructed using only a straight- B
d'
EXAMPLE. Given five points on a point conic. construct other d
points. D
FIGURE 7.43
I'
8
c
F b
The lines connecting the intersections of the cross joins determine FIGURE 7.44
S. the center ofholTIology.
Let f be another lille through A. Since fe' and e1' must meet
.
L t the five given I'mes be a, /, . c. d. e in Figure 7.44., Two
at S. f' can be constructed. The intersection off and /' is the required
point F. e . d b
r tl se say a an . can be chosen ':lS <
the lines to contalll
_.
the
o le. d' . ts l'n the proJ'ectivity while the other three deterl11ll1e
correspon !fig pom
'
" r ' 0 r·
. ts The intersectlOllS 0 pmrs CIO
ss
three pairs of correspon dIllg pom . . .
EXJ?M PLE. Given four points on a conic and the tangent at one
of them, construct another point of the point conic. J'oins determine the axis .of h0l11ology
F
I, _
b Fe and C F' must meet on lle <lXIS
I . .
If points A. B. C. D. and tangent a arc given as in Figure 7.43, Choose any POlllt on . ....-.- ~ . '.
so that F' can be detenmne. . d TI lei1 F F' is 'another hne of the COI1lt.:.
the projectivity can be determined by the three pairs of lines shown.
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY 275
274 CHAPTER 7
..
The theorems of Pascal and Brianchon, which include degenerate 3. Locate five new given lines in Figure 7.44 and use the method described in ','.:
forms in which all six given points are not unique, provide an alternative the text to construct a sixth line on the conic. iiI
way of constructing additional points or lines on a conic. 4. Construct another line of a conic, given four lines and the point of contact on
one.. -
Ii
-j!
,I
5. Use Brianchon's theorem to find one additional line of a line conic if five
EXAM PLE. Find one additional point on the same conic as the
lines are given.
five points given in Figure 7.45.
6. Use Pascal's theorem with a degenerate hexagon to construct one more point Ii
7.
on a conic if four points and the tangent at one of these are known.
Given five points o~ ~ point ~onic, lise any method with a straightedge alone
~l
to construct ten add1tlOnai pomts on the conic. ,Ii
il
Ii
i)
B
.Ii
E
c
D
FIGURE 7.45
EXERCISES 7.10
L Locate five new given points in figure 7.42, and use the method described in
the text to construct a sixth point on the conic.
2. Locate new given points and a given line in Figure 7.43 and use the method
described in the tex110 construct a sixth point on the conic,
CHAPTER 8
GEOMETRIC TOPOLOGY
O'~;?'
. ~. ~
onto S2 is continuous
• if for every point of S 2 alld eaClI POS!'t'Ive
1--/-_1/=1
number E t.h~re IS a p~sitive number b such that the image of any point
of.S I that IS In the neighborhood of point A with a radius of fJ is in the
neighborhood
.' . ' of A with a radius of v. Ti,l'S I'd ea may be
of the image 0
while to try to discover some of the properties that are preserved in This relationship is further clarified by a study of Figure 8.2.
topology.
Much of the basic vocabulary of topology has already bc::en
introduced, especially in Chapter 3 on convexity. Historically. topology s,
and convexity are closely connected and share m'any of the same s,
fundamental concepts, such as neighborhood of a point and interior,
exterior, and boundary points. FIGURE B.2
Topology is one orthe modem geometries created within the past
century. Outstanding names in the history of topology indude A. F.
Moebius (1790-1868), J. B. Listing (1808-1882), and Bernhard Riemann
If the preceding paragraph seems particularly difficult you may
profit .from the detailed study or review of the concept of ~ontinuity
;,;
(1826--1866). The study of topology continues 10 grow and develop, with fo~nd m a modern ~alculus text. Intuitively, a continuous transformation
'j
some American mathematicians in the forefront. Courses in topology are ta (es one set of pomts sufficiently near each other into another set of
common at the graduate level. and some are being introduced at the pomts located near.eac~ other. Physically. the tearing apart of a surface
undergraduate level. Intuitive concepts from topology are frequently used could take close pomts mto points at great distances.
as enrichment activities in both secondary and elementary schools. f ~ translation in Euclidean geometry is a very simple example
The introduction of an intuitive idea of topology has shown the o a contmuous transformation. The values of e and bare e I .
need to state and .discuss a formal definition of the subject. Topology is the . t . . qua. SJIlce
. _ pam s I.n any' Circular region have images in another congruent
a branch of mathematics in its own right, but the definition and
:1~u~a3r regIOn. Another example of a continuous transformation is
discussion given here will be limited to the geometric aspects of . : + h - l. whereas an example of a transformation that is not
topology. continuous IS x -+ tan x.
. Topology may be considered as a generalization of both
DEFINITION. Topology is the study of those properties of a Euc!ldean geometry and projective geometry, since the' group of pJane
set of points invariant under the group of bicontinuous transformations lllotlOns and the group of projective transformations are both proper
of a space onto itself. subgroups of the group of topological transformations. A topological
tI·ansformatlOn IS sometimes called a homeomorphism.
DEFINITION. A transformationJis bicontilluOI« if and only if
f andf- I are both continuous. THEOREM 8.1. The set of topological transformations of a
space onto Itself IS a group of transformations.
It was suggested earlier in the section that you think about An example of a simply connected set is shown in Figure 8An,
which properties are preserved under the group of topological transforma- whereas a multiply connected set is shown in Figure 8Ab.
tions. This section concludes with the exploration of one of these
properties that is fundamental.
A basic concept in topology is that of a connected set of points.
DEFINITION. A set is connected if and only if any two points (a) (b)
of the set can be joined by some curve tying wholly in the set. FIGURE 8.4
All convex sets are connected, since any two of their points can What is meant by being continuously deformed to a single
be joined by segments in the set. The requirement for a set to be point can be made clearer by considering a closed curve, like a rubber..
connected is a much looser requirement than for a set of points to be band, lying entirely within the region in Figure 8.4n. The band could be
convex in the following sense: if all the curves in the definition of a shrunk without any point going outside the regIOn. On the other hand.
connected set mllst be segments, then the set is convex. Figure 8.3a suppose the rubber band was in the region in Figure 8Ab, but wrapped .
shows examples of connected sets that are not convex, whereas Figure 8.3b around the hole. There would be no way to shrink it to a point
shows a set that is not connected. without going through points in the hole. A multiply connected set, such
as the one in Figure 8Ab, can be converted into a simply connected
set by making one cut as shown in Figure 8.5. Verify this intuitively
by considering the rubber band situation again. However, a connected
set with two holes, as shown in Figure 8.6a, requires two cuts {such as
those in Figure 8.6b) to convert it into a simply connected set.
(a) (b)
FIGURE 8.3
2B2 CHAPTER B , I·
8. Give a practical example of a flat object from the physical world resembling . ,
:..···1·
a set of points with connectivity of degree:
.p.'
a. One. b. Two. c. Five.
9. Draw two other sets of points topologically equivalent to those of Figure 8.7. I
to. Which of these properties seem to be topological invariants? .;
:'-~
FIGURE B.7 a. Intersection of curves. b. Cross ratio. !1
c. Midpoint. d. Convexity. "-'
For example, the degree of connectivity is tl~ree ~f two, cuts ,are "i
necessary. The degree of connectivity of a set of pomts IS an l~vanant
under the group of topological transformations. For examp~e. Flgu~e 8.7
i:
8.2 SIMPLE CLOSED CURVES
""1'
shows two plane sets of points that are topologically e~Ulvalen~, both ., :.
~ 1
.(
with degree of connectivity of four. These two se~s of p~mts are u~ages Section 8.1 introduced topological transformations and gave an
:u;
of each other for some topological transformaHon. Thts fi:st examp~e example of degree of connectivity as a topological invariant. In this !.'-:
of a topological invariant, degree o~ conne~tivity, is so ~bVlOUslY baSIC geometric approach to topology, informal arguments are necessary more
as to appear to have no significance m Euc1ldean geomeuy. often than in a regular course in topology that', uses analysis
extensively.
The concept of simple closed curve was used in Chapter 3 on
EXERCISES 8.1 convexity. The definitions of Section 3.1 should be reviewed if necessary.
The reason for extending the study of simple closed curves in this
and one
Give one additional example of a continuous tra~srormation chapter is that the property of being a simple closed curve is a
I. additional example of a transformation that is not contmuous. '·i
topological invariant. The image of a simple closed curve under a
Exercises 2 and 3 concern the proof of Theorem 8.1, topological transformation is a simple closed curve.
transformation is always a In general, proving that one curve is the image of another under
2. Explain why the inverse of a bicontilluous
bicontinuous transformation.
topological transformations is difficult. A special case is given to illustrate
3. Outline the proof of the fact that the product of two bicontinuous trans~ the method.
formations is a bicontinuous transformation.
f I motions that are oot
4. Name some invariants under the g:roup~ 0 pane THEOREM 8.2. A simple closed curve that is the boundary of
topological invariants. a two-dimensional convex body is the bicontinuous image of a circle.
5. Write a definition of convex set as a special kind of conne~ted set.
6. Which of the following sets of points are always conoecte~ sets? In Figure 8.8, K is the convex body. K contains an interior
a. Line. b. Circle.
c. Polygon. d. Angle.
e. Hyperbola.
r. Reuleaux triangle.
g. Two concentric circles. h. Half-plane.
i. Open set. j~ Bounded set.
7. Which of these sets are always co,nnected sets?
b. Hyperboloid of two sheets.
n. Sphere.
d. Tetrahedron.
c. Ellipsoid.
e. (x, y, x I x > yl· FIGURE B.B
r. {x, y. z I x. y. and z are rational numbers}.
284 CHAPTER 8 GEOMETRIC TOPOLOGY' 285
point A. and there is a circle with center A lying wholly within K. by moving a pencil over a piece of paper, subject only to the restriction
Each ray with endpoint A intersects the circle and the boundary of the that you cannot crosS a previous path and t~lat you mu~t return (0 the
convex. body in exactly one point each, so there is a transformation starting point. The result might be a c.ol~ph~ated drawmg. suc~~ ~s the
of. the boundary onto the circle. This transformation must be shown to one .m F' . tgure 8. 10. It is hard to dlstlOgUlsh between nllet 101 and
be continuous. Le~ Band C be corresponding points, one on the
boundary of K alld the other on the circle. For s any positive
number, a number (; can be found small enough so that the segment
joining any point of N(B.o) to A will intersect the circle in a point
of N(C, e). Then the' transformation is continuous.
For the transformation to be bicontinuous, the inverse trans-
formation mllst also be continuous. In Figure 8.9, e is any positive
number representing the radius of the neighborhood of point B. on the FIGURE'S.10
boundary of the convex body.
FIGURE 8.9
sets.
The Jordan curve theorem is proved in this section only for the
On ray AB. it is possible to find a point D with neighbor- following special case in which the simple 'closed curves are polygons.
hood N(D. a) in the interior of both K and N(B. s) and an exterior
point E with neighborhood N(E. Pl in the exterior of K but in the
interior of N(B. e). for some positive numbers IX and p. THEOREM 8.4. Any simple closed polygon ill the plane
Now. [} can be chosen small enough for N(C, 0) that any ray partitions the plane into tlH'ee disjoint connected sets such lhat the set
with endpoint A passing through a point of N(C. J) will also pass that is the polygon is the boundary of the olher two sets.
through both N(D. a) and N(E. (J). Since one of the neighborhoods is
interior to K and one is exterior, a boundary point of K lies on the Let OX be some fixed ray in the plane, not parallel to one of
ray and also lies in N(B. e). It follows that the inverse. transformation. the sides of the polygon. Figure 8.11 shows a typical ~xampte. Any
meets the definition of a continuous function. point P .of the plane may be regarded as the endpol11t of ~ r.a y
Some proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra depend on parallel to OX. In Figure 8.11, three such' rays. are sh~wn, WIth
an al)plication of topology using ideas very.similar to those in the proof d' P P' and P" The number of points of mtersectlOn of the
en pomts . ' . t' I If the
of Theorem 8.2. rays and the polygon are one, three, and two, respec lve y.
Consider tile intuitive notion of tracing a simple dosed curve number of intersections is odd, the endpoint P is said to have an odd
i
286 CHAPTER 8
GEOMETRIC TOPOLOGY 287 I
I
p
j
D
'I I·
I'
I
A
FIGURE 8.13
.I
FIGURE 8.11
set S or S' can be joined by a polygonal curve that does not intersect !I
arity' if the number of intersections is even, the endpoint has an even the polygon. ff P P' does not intersect the polygon, the statement is
. 'Thus , P and P' have an odd paritYt while pIt has an even
PparIty, obvious. Otherwise, let X be the point of intersection closest to P,
and let X' be the point of intersection closest to p'. as shown in
parity, To find the parity of each point in the planet it is necessary Figure 8.13. Let P" be a point of PP' near P' and with the same
o consider the possibility of a ray passing. through, one ~r, more parity as P'.
:ertices of the polygon. Two P?ssible r~~tio;~hlPS ~fl~dJI~~e;:g~~ee~.~~~ It is possible to trace a polygonal path with sides close to the
sides of the original polygon until a point pm on PP' near P is
the vertex of intersection are 11lustrate m. tgure . . .
reached. pm is between P and X. and the polygonal path from P" to
pm is between P and X. and the polygonal path from PrJ to pm is
entirely composed of points with the same parity.
The original polygon is the boundary of both set S and set S'.
If A is any point of the polygon, then there are points Band C on either
side of A. but arbitrarily close, such that their parity is different.
Since every neighborhood of A contains points of both Sand S', the
polygon is the boundary of both Sand S'. Points in the exterior of
(s) (h)
the polygon have an even parity, and points in the interior have an odd
FIGURE 8.12 parity.
The following two theorems, whose proofs are left as Exercises 6
the vertex is not counted as an intersection. For Figure 8.l~? th~ and 7 of Exercise Set 8.2, give additional properties of simple closed
. ounted The vertex is not counted when the two a Jacen curves and their intersections with one-dimensional convex: sets in the
vertex. IS c . 'd f tl but it is counted
sides of the polygon are on the same Sl e 0 le ray, . same plane.
when they are on opposite sides of the ray. th
Let set S be the set of all points in the plane not on . e
THEOREM 8.5. For one point A in the interior and one point
polygon such that the parity is odd, and let S' be the set ?f all P01~t:
. tI,e plane not on the polygon such that the panty is evel~. e B in the exterior of a simple closed curve S, As
n S is not empty.
111 ' be any segment not intersectll1g
PP
• the po Iygon. Then every pomt on
· . I . S or S' ' '. ~;
P.P' I,as the same parity. and the segment Iles enUre y m THEOREM 8.6. Every ray with an endpoint in the interior of
,
Now it can be shown that any two pom . ts P . P' of the same a simple closed curve intersects the curve.
288 CHAPTER 8 GEOMETRIC TOPOLOGY 269
. Th.e Jord;in curve theorem is involved in various puzzle-type 1. Prove Theorem 8.6.
plOblems In topology. One of these is illustrated in Figure 8.t4a. 8. In Figure 8.15, u..n Cllrves be drawn connecting the three p"irs of points with
the same numbers in stich ~\ way that the curves do not intersect el.\ch
other or any of the other lines given in the figme? Exphlin why or why not.
9. Pasch's axiom for Euclidean geometry states that a line in the plane of a
The
-,. problem is to draw curves connecting the three pairs . 0 f pOInts
. triangle which intersects one side of the triangle ul a poillt other thun lhe'
with the same numbers in such a way that the curves do not intersect vertex also intersects a second side. Prove Pasch's axiom as It (hem'em in
~ach o~her or an~ of tbe other lines given in the figure. The problem is topology, using the theorems of this section.
lInposslble to solve, as shown by Figure 8.14b. The given lines and the
l~aths drawn from I-I and 3-3 result in a shaded region representing a
~lIn~,le c1o~ed cUI~ve and its ,interior. One of the points labeled 2 is an 8.3 INVARIANT POINTS AND
Intel10r pOl~t nne. the other IS an exterior point, so any curve connecting NETWORKS
them !TItist mtersect the boundary. .
The study of invariants under the group of topological trnns-
formations is continued in niis section.1n the study of motions of a plnne,
EXERCISES 8.2 invariant points were common, but for more general transfonnalions, they
are more uncommon. One of the simplest examples of a theorem about
I. Which of thes!! sets of points are t opo IOglCU
. II y equivalent to any simple invariant points under topological transformations is the Brouwer fixed
cIosed curve? point theorem for a circular region. This theorem is narned for
a. Triangle. b. Hyperbola. L. E. J. Brouwer, a famous twentieth-century Dutch mathematician.
c. Two concentric circles. d. Boundary of Reuleaux triangle.
2. Which of these plane regions are topologically equivalent any simple
[0 THEOREM 8.7. Brouwer fixed point tlwort!lII. If the points of a
closed curve and its interior?
circuhfr region undergo a continuous transformation so that each image
tl. Tritlnguh~r region. b. Circular region. is a member of the set, then there is at least one fixed point.
c. Plane reglol1 with degree of connectivity olle.
d. Plane region with degree of connectivity two.
3. In Figtll"e. 8.11, explain what happens when vertices C, E of the polygon lue A simple example of Theorem 8.7 is a circle rotated about its
encollnteled by rays drawn parallel to OX with points on P' P as endpoints. center, with the center the fixed point. The theorem can be proved , !"
4. Do. the points in the interior of n simple closed curve have odd indirectly. Assume that there is nO fixed point. The transi'ormution may
~~1 m_ be visualized by associating a vector with each point. as in Figure 8.16(\.
5. Is the exterior of a simp
. Ie c Iosed polygon simply connected
. or multiply The initial point of each vector is the original point. and th~ terminal
connected? point is its image.
6. Prove Theorem 8.5. All of the vectors for points on the boundary of the region
GEOMETRIC TOPOLOGY 291
290 CHAPTER B
l\Y index may assume only integral values. No matter how sman the
concentric circle is, the index of the vectors of the transformation will
a portion (tha.t is, llot more than a finite set of isolated points) of the a particular network, the number of paths leading to a vertex is not
path? Try to trace the networks in Figure 8.18a-c before rcading the changed by a topological transformation. For example, the two networks
next paragraph. in Figure 8.19 are topologically equivalent.
The network in Figure 8.18a canDot be -traced, whereas those in
Figures 8.18b and c can be traced. Try to decide what is the essential
difference between networks that can be traced and those that cannot E:<ERCISES 8.3
before you read the next paragraph.
The number of paths leading to each vertex in a network is 1. Could the continuous transformation in Theorem 8.7 be a gl~de reft~clio.n?
crucial in trying to decide whether or not the network can be traced Why?
If a vertex has an even number of paths to it (an even vertex), then 2. Outline briefly the major steps in the proof of Theorem 8.7.
these may be used in pairs in going to and leaving the vertex. If there For Exercises 3-7, tell whether or not the networks in Figure 8.20 can he
are an odd number of paths to a point (an odd vertex), they cannot traced,
be "sed in pairs, and it is necessary to begin or end at that point. If the
network has two or fewer vertices with an odd number of paths, it can
be traced. The network will be a curve in this case. If there are no
vertices with an odd number of paths, then the network can be traced
by beginning and ending at the same point. The network will be a closed .
curve in this case. Now check Figure 8.lSd. This network has more FIGURE 8.20
than two vertices with an odd number of paths, so it cannot be
traced. The i~lformation about tracing puzzles is summarized in the 8. Which of the networks in Exercises 3-7 are curves'!
following table. 9, Which of the networks in Exercises 3-7 are closed curves?
to. Which of the networks in Exercises 3-7 are simple closed curves?
TABLE 8.1
NUll/bel' of Vertices
with Od!' Number Netw(jrlcCml Nt/me of
8.4 INTRODUCTION TO THE
of Paths Be Trawd Nefworf( TOPOLOGY OF SURFACES
more than two no nor a curve
two or fewer yos curve The topology of Sections 8.1-8.3 was the topology of the plane.
zero yes closed curve The last two sections include concepts and theorem.s from the topology
of surfaces in three dimensions. 111is section introduces some basic
theorems for simple closed surfaces, analyzes a topological invariant of
The essential characteristics of a network in terms of the number surfaces, and gives an example of an unsolved problem in topology,
of even and odd vertices is a topological invariant. In other words, for The following theorem is the Jordan curve theorem stated for
three-spat."C.
...
GEOMETRIC TOPOLOGY 295
294 CHAPTER 8
The following theorem and corollary can also be proved -ror Figure 8.22. Similarly. many common surfaces such :as an ellipsoid
analogous to the theorem proved for and a convex polyhedron are also of genus zero.
simple closed surfaces; they are
the simple closed curve. \
FIGURE 8.25
5. What is the minimum number of colors required ttl color each map in
. THEOREM 8.11. Every map on a sphere can be colored accord- F.igure 8.24 according to the rules of the map~colorillg problem'!
l11g to the rules [or the map-coloring problem by using at most "five colors. 6. Draw a map with 12 countries Ihnt requires only three colors, yet stays.
within the map~coloring requirements.
7. Dr.:lw a map with 12 countries tim! requires only two colors 10 fulfill the
The ~ollntries in Theorem 8.11 are assumed to be simply
map~coloritlg requirements.
connec.ted r~glOns. The rules for the map-coloring problem are that two'
8. Explain why it is important that the countries on a llU1P in lhe map·
countrIes wIth a Common boundary must have a different color but that
coloring problem be simply connected regions.
th~y may have the same color if the boundaries intersect in a single
pom!. 9. Explain why it is important in the map-coloring problem that countries with <\
..
~ :.
GEOMETRIC TOPOLOGY 299
299 CHAPTER 8
What is the relationship between the number of vertices faces
8.5 EULER'S FORMULA AND SPECIAL and edges for these polyhedra 7 Take various other exam~les of
SURFACES polyhedra, if necessary, to arrive at Euler's formula on your own before
This section continues the study of the topology of surfaces by continuing.
introducing Euler's formula for surfaces of different genus and qy
suggesting special surfaces with strange properties unlike those of ordinaf:Y THEOREM 8.12. For a simple closed polyhedron, V + F
Euclidean geometry. = E + 2. where V is the number of vertices, E the number of edges,
The development of the subject of topology has come during and F the number of faces.
the past one hundred years, but it did have its beginning before that.
One of the earliest ideas that is actually to"pological in nature was first To prove the formula, think of cutting out one of the faces
discovered by Descartes, then rediscovered by Euler in 1752. It has since of the polyhedron so tile remaining surface can be stretched out flat by a
gone by the name of Euler's formula. Euler'S formula relates the number topological transformation. The network of vertices and edges in the
of faces, vertices, and edges of a simple polyhedron. Recall that; a plane will have the same number of vertices and edges as in the original
polyhedron is a dosed surface consisting of a number of faces, each of polyhedron, but there is one less face, since one has been removed.
which is a polygonal region. If the surface has no holes in it and can Figure 8.28 shows an example, using a cube.
be deformed into a sphere by a continuous transformation, it is a simple
polyhedron. A simple polyhedron has a genus of zero.
The Greeks showed particular interest in five polyhedra, those
that were regular, with congruent faces and angles. The five regular
polyhedra are shown in Figure 8.27. The names and some of the
FIGURE 8.28
m~GJ
. .- t'. . . No:", triangulate the plane network by drawing diagonals con-
ne.ctm~ vertlces until a triangular decomposition has been achieved In
-- -- : thIS trIangulation,
· I the value of V - E + F is not changed ' sI'noe d lawmg
. '.
(d) (0) eacI1 dlagona adds one edge and one face.
(.) (b) (0)
Once the trian~ulation has been compJeted, the triangles may
FIGURE B.27
~e removed one at a tIme untiJ a single one remains. (This process is
Illustrated for the cube in Fjgure 8.29.) Some of the triao?les will have
numbers of vertices, faces, and edges·' are listed in Table 8.2. The
completion of the table is left as Exercise I, Exercise Set 8.5.
---"
~
, ----, \
V F E
\
..... -...
\
\ ---.- ,
Figurf! Number Nalllf! oj P(lfyhf!!/nm
4 4 6 FIGURE 6.29
8.21a tetrahedron
octahedron 6 8 12
3.27b 1 1
cube 8
8.27e
1 12 1 edges on the boundary of the network. First, remove any edge of a
·8.27d dodecahedron
icosahedron 1 7 7 boundary triangle not an edge of another triangle.
8.21e
GEOMETRIC TOPOLOGY 301
300 CHAPTER 0
I LN (:
"Kl I ;1
A f-----i-t-+--+-!-__={
0 c
H)---l-+_--I-+_
I I 1M I I
/ I J---+-JN FIGURE 8.32
/ ,/ II
I il. ___ ..Y
/ P 0
. f Give the paper a half-twist
8 c formed from a rectangular stnp 0 paper. . .d . d
and tape the ends together. A Moebius stnp has only one SI e dll
one edge. You can trace a curve from anyone pOil:t on t!le :ut~face
F1GURE 8.30
k,- 7. Draw a figure. simiJar [0 Figure S.30, but with a genus of two. Find the
sided surface. For example, if a Moebius strip is cut down a line
number of vertices, faces, and edges, then detennine the Euler· characteristic.
through the middle, it remains in one piece.
A second example of a one-:sided surface is a Klein bottle, S. By constructi~g a ~odel. ~erify that if a Moebius strip is eut down a line
i. through the mIddle, It remains in one piece.
shown in Figure 8.33. This intersecting surface has no inside or outside.
i.
9. W!lat is the result when a Moebius strip is cut lengthwise, beginning one
tlurd of the way from the edge, rather than down the middle?
to. Suppose a. surface is constructed by giving a strip of paper a full twist
befor~ glumg the ends: Is this a Moebius strip? What happens when the
band IS cut down the middle lengthwise?
11. ~n~wer the same questio~s ;ts in Exercise 10, but assume th.e strip of paper
FIGURE 6_34 given one and a half tWists before gluing the ends.
FIGURE 8.33 IS
12. A Moebius strip is a set of points in n-space, for equal to what num~r1
An unusual application of one~sided surfaces for women's dresses appeaied
It
13. A Klein bottle is a set of points in n-space, for It equal to what number?
in Jean 1. Pedersen's article, "Dressing up Mathematics," in The
Mathematics Teach.". February. 1968. A possibly more practical applioa-
tion of the Moebius strip is shown in Figure 8.34. The shaping of a belt
in the form of a Moebius strip connecting two wheels allows the belt
to wear out at the same rate everywhere, n.ot just on one side as in the
usual arrangement. However, it also reverses' the direction of revolution.
The property of being a two-sided or a one-sided surface is a
topological invariant. For example, a Moebius strip cannot be changed
to a two-sided surface by a topological transformation. A related
application of topology that should be mentioned briefly here is the
classification of various kinds of knots. Two knots are topologically
equivalent if one can be deformed into the other in a continuous way.
EXERCISES 8.5
1. Complete Table 8.2 showing the number of vertices, faces, and edges for:lhe
five regular polyhedra.
2. Verify Euler's formula for each of the five regular polyhedra.
3. Verify Euler's formula for a:
a. Hexagonal right prism. b. Octagonal right prislll.
4. Make drawings similar to Figures 8.28 and 8.29 for a tetrahedron.
5, Find the Euler characteristic for the set of points in Figure 8.30.
6. Whal is the numerical value of the Euler constant for a surface of:
a Genus zero? b, Genus one1
c. Genus two? d. Genus three?
CHAPTER 9
NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
a way that the interior angles on one side of the tr~nsversal ~re less these people succeeded. Shortly after 1800, mathematicians such as Carl
than two right angles, then the lines meet on that SIde on Wh~l the Friedrich Gauss began to realize that the fifth postulate could never be
angles are less than two right angles." According to Euclid, AD- and proved from the others. because it was indeed an independent postuJate
Be meet to the right in Figure 9.1 if the sum of the measures of i~ the set of Euclidean postulates, not a theorem. Attempts to prove
i!
L DAB and L ABC is less than 7[ radians. " the fifth postulate by denying it had already produced strange theorems
that had to be accepted as valid if some other substitute postulate
A
was actually possible.
D
As in the discovery of calculus, more than one person shares the
credit for the actual discovery of non-Euclidean geometry. Though Gauss
was aware of the significance of the subject, he did not publish any
matenal. The first account of non-Euclidean geometry to be published
was based on th: assumption that, through a point not on a given line,
m~re than one hne can be drawn parallel to a given line in the plane.
B C
ThIS type of geometry, called hyperbolic non-Euclidean geometry, was
FIGURE 9.1 dIscovered mdependently by a Russian, Nikolai Lobachewsky (1793-
1856), and, at about the same time, by a Hungarian, Johann Bolyai
Note that the word "paratIel" does not appear in the fifth (1802-1860). The results were published about 1830. A second type of
postulate. . non~Euclidean geometry, elliptic geometry, is introduced briefly in
The wording of Euclid's fifth postulate that 15 most commonly Section 9.6.
used is called Play/air's axiom: Through a point not on a given line, The development of hyperbolic geometry in this chapter is based
exactly one line can be drawn in the plane parallel to the given line. on all the assumptions and undefined terms of modern Euclidean
The word "parallel" as used here means not intersecting or having no geometry except for the following substitution for the parallel postulate,
Euclidean point in common. Playfair's axiom and the original fifth ldentlfied as the characteristic postulate of hyperbolic geometry.
postulate are logically equivalent. This means -that either one can be used,
along with the other assumptions of Euclidean geometrYt to prove the CHARACTERISTIC POSTULATE. Through a given point C, J
second. ~ot on a gIven hne is. passes more than one line in the plane not ·'.i
Non-Euclidean geometry provided Einstein with a suitable .model Intersecting the given line.
for his work on relativity. While it also has applications in differential
geometry and elsewhere, it is worthwhile for other reasons as well. The The relationship described in the characteristic postulate is
real understanding of the concept of postulate sometimes comes only pictured in Figure 9.2. if it is assumed that CD and CE are two
when a person begi~s with postulates that are not self-evident. In non- distinct lines through C and that neither intersects All ~I ,
'! ~
Euclidean geometry, it is ·generally not possible to rely on intuition
or on drawings to the same extent as is true for Euclidean ge9metry. D
Finally, non-Euclidean geometry, unlike projective geometry or topology, c
is significant in that it is something other than a generalizatlOn of
Euclidean geometry. Non-Euclidean geometry does not include ordinary £
geometry as a special case.
From the time Euclid stated his postulates. about 300 B.C.,
I •
mathematicians attempted to show that the fifth postulate was actually A B
a theorem that could be proved from the other postulates. None of FIGURE 9.2
303 CHAPTER 9 NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 309 -..:Aj
': 'nl~
There are an infinite number of lines passing through C and
. ;;;.i!
The, idea of changing the parallel postulate may seem extremely .. ",Ii
st~ange. but there are many finite geometries where the parallel the interior of angle DCE in Figure 9.2. For Figure 9.3, let a ".\Il!
Ji!:~11
be the
postulate of Euclid does not hold. For example, several of the finite
geometries of Chapter 1 have an axiom stating that each two lines
-
perpendicular from C. and assume that eG. anyone of these illterio~·
~
lines, does intersect AB. This means that CE must also intersect FC.
~
ti,.
I'jll"
intersect at a point. The finite geometry of Desargues has a peculiarity by the axiom of Pasch. which continues to hold in hyperbolic ge(;mlctry
';~;il' .
·!t ~I~;:;
concerning parallels; in that geometry, each point can have three lines since only the axiom of parallels from Eucli~ean geometry has been
through it parallel to one particular line, the polar of the point. replaced.
There is no finite geometry that has all th(~ axioms of Recall that the axiom of Pasch states that a line entering a
triangle at a vertex intersects the opposite side. In Figure 9.3, CE ",\,1 '"
hyperbolic geometry. but some do have the characteristic postulate. 'A
parlicular example is the geometry of thirteen points and twenty-six. enters triangle CFG. The fact that CE intersects An
contradicts the
.~~~:
d.!i'..I"~
lines, represented by the table below, in which each set of three points +-+ -- • .......
assumption that it is parallel to AB. so CG cannot lntersect AB. ,,,~n"'
:
lies on a line.
A,H,C
A,D.E
B.D.F
8, E.l
C.D,G
C,E,l D,l,K
TABLE 9.1
E,G,L
~_G_._M
F,T,)
E
c o
11
Ii,F.fI
A.G,)
A,I,L
B,G.H
B.1.M
B,K,L
C.f,L
C.H.K
C,I,M
D,L.M £,H,M
D_._H_._I__E
__._F_.K
____ ___G_._C, ""']
"j
;I~r'
A,K.M
A F 8 x
F1GURE 9.4
Returning to hyperbolic geometry and its characteristic postulate,
you should pause to consider some of lhe consequences of this change In Figure 9.4, the set of all lines in a plane passing through
in postulates before reading the development of theorems and proofs for C is partitioned into two subsets, those that do intersect in
and those
lhe new plane geometry.
that do nOt. Because of the assumption of the one.:.to-one correspondence
between sets of real numbers and sets of lines through a point, which
_ THEOREM 9.1. Through a given point C. not on a given line was retained from Euclidean geometry, it is known that this partitioning
~ ~
,~
~l~' ,
AB, pass an infinite number of lines not intersecting the given line. is brought about by two different lines, shown as CD and CEo These
two lines must be either the last lines in either direction that do
c
o
-
intersect As or the first lines in either direction that do not intersect
AB. The assumplion that there is a last intersecting line, suy ~ ex.. for
example, is immediately contradicted by the fact that olher points on AB
;',j:
~~,
.-.~,~\
E '>w'
to the right of X also determine intersecting lines. Then CD Hnd CE ":1
are the first lines that do not intersect lB.
~:~;';.,;
'.
;",',
DEFINITION. In hyperbolic geometry, the first lines in either
direction through a point that do not intersect a given line are parallel
.1
A F 8 G ".:l;j
""t!i~
F1GUFlE 9.3 /ines.
k.~
", 'i!{;I!
NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 311
310 CHAPTER 9
fact prior to using the fifth postulate in Book I oJ his Elements.
DEFINITION. AU other lines through a point not int:r5e~ting
Furthermore, the angle of parallelism cannot be obtuse, as in Figure 9,6b,
, ' I tl the two parallel Hnes are lIonil1terSectUlg Imes.
the gIven hue, ot "ler nm I because then it would have a nonintersecting tine CA within the angle.
This would contradict the fact that the parallel is defined to be the first
According to these technical definitions, there are exactly :1 wo noncutting line.
.. II I through C to JR. CD is called the right hand pm'allel and The angles of parallelism in hyperbolic geometry are neither
pal(\ e 5 FeD nd FeE are angles
CE is the left hand par"llel. The angles a right nor obtuse, so they must be acute. This illustrates a consequence
oj parallelism fOf- the distance Fe. of the characteristic postulate that is radically different from the statement
for Euclidean angles of parallelism whose measures have a sum of n.
THEOREM 9.2. 111e two angles of parallelism for the s",no
distance are congruent and acute.
EXERCISES 9,1
C
D
E /
,, L Prove Playfair's axiom, assuming Euclid's fifth postulate in the original form.
/
/ 2. Prove the. original statement of Euclid's fifth postulate, assuming Playfair's
/
/ axiom.
/
,/ It can be proved that each of the statements in Exercises 3-8 is equivalent
/
G to Euclid's fifth postulate. RewQrd each sentence so that it becomes a valid
H A F B
statement in non-Euclidean geometry.
FIGURE 9,5
], If a straight line intersects one of two parallel lines, it will always intersect
the other.
and L FeD in Figure 9.5 are angles of
Assume t Ilat L FeE FeD 4. Straight lines parallel to the same straight line are always parallel to one
arallelism for CF. but are not congruen,t. Assume next that L _ • another.
P , I L FCG congruent to
for example. is greater. Then there IS, an ,an g e, . _ FG 5. TIlere exists one triangle for which the sum of the measures of the angles
L FC E and such that EG is in the mtenor of L FC D. If F H ~ . ' is 1C radians,
- A FC H so L FC H ;;: , L FeE. 111is is a contradIctIon
then I::. FCG = '-" . - FCD - LFCE. 6. There exists a pair of similar but noncongruent triangles.
because CE has no point in COl1un<?l1 With AB. Hence, L =
7, There exists a pair of straight line.s the same distance apart at every
point.
=r
A 8. It is always possible to pass a circle through three noncolline.ar points.
9. For which of these finite geometries of Chap~er I dOt:s Euclid's fifth
postulate always hold?
a. Geometry of Pappus. b. Fano's geometry. "
F F c, Four-line geometry. d. Geometry of Des8rgues.
(a) (b) 10: for the thirteen-point finite geometry of this section, lUuue· all the lines
FlGURE 9,6 through point A that do not have a point in common with line BDF.
11. Without using an axiom of parallelism, prove that if a transversal of two
The angles of parallelism cannot be right. angles, a~ in Figure 9::~ lines makes the alternate angles congruent, then the two givell lines do not
',nes shown are nonintersectmg. Euclid proved t intersect.
because the two I
312 CHAPTER 9 NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 313
12. In hyperbolic geometry. through a given point not on a given line, exactly The development of the properties of pan'llellines in hyperbolic
how many lines can be drawn in that plane that are pantllel to the given line?
geometry is continued by considering the omega triangle. a three-sided
figure as in Figure 9.8, with one ideal vertex. Though not a triangle
in the ordinary sense, an omega triangle does have some of the same
9.2 IDEAL POINTS AND OMEGA
TRIANGLES properties as a triangle with three ordinary vertices.
In hyperbolic geometry, as in the geometry of the extended THEOREM 9.3, The axiom of Pasch holds for an omega triangle,
Euclidean plane and in projective or inversive geometry. the inclusion whether the line entei's at a vertex or at a point 110t a vertex,
of ideal points is an important idea. In hyperbolic geometry, two
parallel lines do not have an ordinary point in common, but they are
In Figure 9.9, let C be any interior point of the omega triangle
said to meet at an ideal point.
A BQ. Then Be and lc intersect the opposite side because 00 is the
first noncutting line through B for iB and ;I'D is the first nonclitting
DEFINITION. An ideal poillt in hyperbolic geol11<:try is the point line through A for BE. If a line en enters the omega triangle through
of intersection of two para lie! lines. the ideal vertex, it intersects lB. because of Pasch's axiom applied to
ll.ABD. The second part of the proof is left as Exercise 5 of Exercise
A Set 9.2.
E
o· o
8 c
FIGURE 9.7
In Figure 21, the right and le~ hand parallels shown through FIGURE 9 9
point A to line BC meet that line in ideal points G (omega) and
G'. It can be proved (see Exercise 1, Exercise Set 9.2) that G and Q' Euclid proved, without the use of the fifth postulate, that an
are distinct points. An ordinary line in affine geometry has exactly One exte.rior angle. of a triangle has a measure greater than either opposite
ideal point, but a line in hyperbolic geometry has two distinct ideal points. interior angle, and the statement also holds for hyperbolic geometry_ The
familiar relationship of measures of exterior and opposite angles is
8r--_______ modified only slightly for omega triangles.
FIGURE 9.8 This theorem nlay be proved indirectly by eliminating lhe other
,
NON·EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 315
314 CHAPTER 9
that AB;; A'B' and that LBAQ;= LB'A'Q'. Assume that one of the
c c angles, say S ABD. is greater than LA' u'n', Some point C can be
located on~n such that L ABC ~ L A' 8'0.'. If C' is located on An-
AI~- __ --J.D~
so that A'C';= AL'. then 6ABC;= 6A' B'C'. But this means that
L A'S'C' ~ LAIB'Q', which is a contradiction.
n . A second set of con~itions for the congruence of omega triangles
sLh.------ IS stated here, but the proof IS left as Exercise 7 of Exercise Set 9.2.
s~------------- £
FIGURE 9.10 FIGURE 9.11
. THEOREM 9.6. Omega triangles ABQ and A' B'Q' are congruent
If the pall' of angles at A and AI are congruent and the pair of angles
two possibilities. Suppose, ill Figure 9.lO, that IIl(LCAQ) < IIl(L.4BQ).
at Band B' are congruent.
Then a point D on in can be found such that L CAD ;= L ABD.
But this is impossible, since L:1ABD is an ordinary triangle and the
exterior angle cannot be congruent. to an opposite interior· angle.
EXERCISES 9.2
Suppose next, as in Figure 9.11, that L CAQ;= L ABU Let D ~be the
midpoint of AB. let lJE be perpendicular to Bn and let FA = BE.
I. EX!JJain why a line in ·hyperbolic geometry mllst contain two distinct ideal
Then 6FAD;= 6EBD, FDE is a straight line, and LDFA is a right pomts.
angle. But the angle of parallelism for the distance EF cannot be a right
angle because of Theorem 9.2. which means that this is a contradiction
2. Sk~tch three omega tri?ngles. all with the same ideal ver~ex and each two of
which also have an ordinary vertex in common.
and the assumption of congruence of angles must be rejected.
3. Sketch a three-sided figure with two ideal vertices.
Congruence of omega triangles is somewhat simpler than that of
ordinary triangles, since less information is required. One set of con- 4. Sketch a three-sided figure with three idenl vertices.
ditions for congruence is given in the-following theorem. 5. Prove that a .line intersecting a side of an omega triangle at a point other
than a verlex mtersects a second side.
6. Prove that the sum of the measures of the two angles at ordinary vertices
THEOREM 9.5. Omega triangles ABQ and A' B'Q' are congruent of an omega triangle is less than 11:.
if the sides of finite length are ~ongruent and if a pair of corresponding
7. Prove Theorem 9.6.
angles at A and A' or Band B' are congruent.
8. Prove that the angle of parallelism is constant for a given distance.
9. Prove that, as the distance jncreases, the angle of parallelism decreases.
The theorem is proved here by assuming that the remaining pair
10. Prove that if the two .angles at ordinary vertices of an omega triangle are
of angles at an ordinary vertex are not congruent. _then arriving-on
cOl1gr~ent: th.en the h~e rrom the ideal vertex. to the midpoint of the
the basis of this assumption-at a contradiction. In Figure 9.12. ,assume OpPosite Side IS perpendicular to (hat side.
IL Prove the converse of the statement in Exercise to.
s B'
,
" ,,
,, 9.3 QUADRILATERALS AND TRIANGLES
,,
It ~hould not. be .surprising to find that omega triangles have
A c A' SOI11~ pe~uhar p~'opertIes, S1nce they are not identical to any sets of points
studIed 111 EuclIdean geometry. It is even rnore signifidant, however, (0
FIGURE 9 12
316 CHAPTER 9 NON· EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 317
consider how the co~cept of omega triangles, developed in Section 9.2. which does not depend on the fifth postulate, continues to hold in non-
leads very logically t~, the formulation of seemingly strange theorems for Euclidean geometry.
ordinary triangles and quadrilaterals in hyperbolic geometry_ Some of the properties of the Saccheri quadrilateral are unlike
Among the attempts to prove Euclid's fifth postulate, the most any for sets of points in Euclidean geometry.
productive were those using the indirect method. ·By adopting a
contradictory postulate and reaching valid conclusions based upon it,
THEOREM 9.8. The summit angles of a Saccheri quadrilateral
mathematicians were aClually developing non-Euclidean geometry. even
are congruent and acute.
though they remained unaware of the significance of their work.
Girolamo Saccheri (1667-1733), in his attempt to prove the fifth
postulate, made use of a set of points now called a SlIcchel'i The congruence or the summit angles is a consequence of the
quadrilateral. A Saccheri quadrilateral has two right angles and two congruence of the pairs of triangles in Figure 9.l4. The significanl
congruent sides, as shown in Figure 9.13. Ali is called the base and fact that the summit angles are acute is a consequence of established
properties of the omega triangle. In Figure 9.15, m( L ECl'l) > m( L C /)l'l),
0 c
o c E
f
A
}
8
t1
FIGURE 9.13
A 8
'CD is called the summit of the quadrilateral. The two congruent segments FIGURE 9.15
are the sides. The next theorem shows that some properties of the
corresponding figures in Euclidean geometry continue to hold in since L fen is an exterior angle for omega triangle C DO.. Since
hyperbolic geometry. LADl'l,,, LBCl'l.IlI(LBC£) > Ill(LtlDC). But LADC =
LBC/), and
therefor" m(LBCE) > Ill(LBCD), so LBCD is acute.
THEOREM 9.7. The segment joining the midpoint of the base l. H. Lambe.t (1728-1777), like Saccheri, attempted lo prove the
and summit of a Saccheri quadrilateral is perpendicular to both. fifth postulate by an indirect argument. He began with a quadrilateral
with three right angles. now called a Lambert quadrilateral, shown in
0
"-
"-
"-
"-
"-
"-
"-
F
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
C
D FIGURE 9.16
The proof of Theorem 9.9 follows from the obsel;vatioll that, in For example, if the angle sum were 191[/20. the defect would be
Figure 9.14, EFCB and EFDA are Lambert quadrilaterals. 1[/20.
Theorem 9.9 is needed to prove the following even more
significant theorem, one that serves to clearly distinguish between
THEOREM 9.12. The sum of the measures of the angles of any
hyperbolic and Euclidean geometry.
convex quadrilateral is less than 2n.
EXERCISES 9.3 DEFINITION. Two nonintersecting lines are said to meet at i.\
gamma point (r). Another name for this point is an ulu'a-iclelll point.
1. What is the maximum number of angles of a Saccheri quadrilateral that
could be congruent to each other?
Recall that nonintersecting lines do not include the parallel lines
2. III hyperbolic geometry. why can there be no squares or rectangles? ~ ~ I
through a point ~ a line. F~r ex.!mple, if i1C and AB are lhe p~rall~ 5
3. Show that, for a figure such as Figl1l~ 9.19, if AD> Be, then
through A to D£. then AF, AG, and AH are three of the Illfimte
m(LBCD) > m(LADC~
number of nonintersectil1g lines through /1. Each of these lines has a
gamma point in common with DE (Figure 9.20).
4.
:0: FIGURE 9.19
1! I
9.4 PAIRS OF LINES AND AREA OF
TRIANGULAR REGIONS
BC. both perpendicular to one of the given nonintersecting lines, since nature of a set of points with each member the same distance from a
the common perpendicular can then be found. given Jin~ (see Secti~n 9.5). Notice also in this connection that defining
paraIJeJ hnes as two hnes everywhere equidistant is equivalent to assuming
the fifth postulate.
The fact that there is no square in hyperbolic geometry means
tha~ a method of measuring the area of a pJane region must be
de:ls~d that do~s not depend on square units. Congruent triangles
eXIst III hyperbolIc geometry. and the theory of area can be based on
o C H this concept in a way very similar to the modern theory of area in
Euclidean geometry.
FIGURE 9.22
Assume, as in Figure 9.22, that AD and Be are perpendicular .DEFINITION. Two polygons are called equivaielll if they can
to the same line, but not congruent. Let ED ~ BC, and L FED b~ partItIOned Into the same finite number of pairs of congruent
~ L FBe. If BV ~ EF and CH ~ DI, then quadrilateral BGHC can be tnangles.
shown to be congruent to EFID. and GH is perpendicular at H; thus,
BC and GH are the required sides for the Saccheri quadrilateral. Note . For example, polygons ABCD and CDEF in Figure 9.23 are
that the proof of the existence of point F on line AB has not been eqUIvalent but not congruent. Two polygons both equivalent to another
included here.
Because of Theorem 9.14, all of the lines perpendicular to a given
E
line can be said to have the same ultra-ideal point in common. It is A'_7_-,Br---iF
left as an exercise to show that two lines in hyperbolic geometry
cannot have two distinct common perpendiculars.
With the inclusion of the previous information about the .gamma
point and the common perpendicular for nonintersecting lines, Table 9.2
o C
can be given summarizing the relationships between pairs of lines inter-
FIGURE 9.23
secting at each kind of point in hyperbolic geometl'y.
_._-_ _ - - -
U Ilra.-ideal point
..
Lilies. diverge from their common perpendicular THEOREM 9.15. Two triangles are equivalent if and only if
they have the same defect.
You may find it interesting to observe that in none of the cases If two triangles are equivalent, they can be partitioned into a
are the two lines always equidistant. You may speculate about the finite number of pairs of congruent triangles. The defect of each of the
324 CHAPTER 9 NON· EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 325
original triangles is equal to the sum of the defects of the triangles' is equivalent to Saccheri quadrilateral BUe. Point [( on [] is a point
in the partitioning; hence, the original defects are equal. See Exercise 7, located so that KC = J:Df. and IT '" Df. Triangles ABC and LBC
Exercise Set 9.4. can be shown to have the same defect and to be equivalent. Triangles '·r· .
.. ::!
Now suppose that two triangles have the same defect. If they LBe and DEF also have the same derect ane? a pair of congruent
also have a pair of corresponding sides congruent, they can be shown sides, hence are equivalent. Since 6.DEF and 6.ABC are both equivalent ;11
to be equivalent to congruent Saccheri quadrilaterals and hence to the same triangle, they are equivalent to each other.
equivalent to each other. 1n the proof of Theorem 9.15, the significance of the defect of a
triangle was that it made possible the equivalence of trinngle~ t<?
A H
Saccheri quadrilaterals that could be proved congruenl.- Since the
equivalence of triangles depends on the defect, it is possible to define the
~
VE
G
C
D'S]
F
8
K;:]
J7--------------
M measure. of area of a triangle in hyperbolic geometry as fa!. where d is the
defect and 1< is a posilive constant the same for all triangles in
hyperbolic geometry. The value of!c depends on the particular triangle
chosen to have a unit ,;u-ea, It should be evident lhat the measure of area
FIGURE 9.24 increases as the defect increases. In other words, the larger the triangle,
the smaller the sum of the measllres of the angles.
. For example, in Figure 9.24, let triangles ABC and JNI have the Oddly enough, in hyperbolic geometry, triangles do not becon1e
same defect and congruent sides lJC and fl, Triangle ABC is equivalent larger and larger without limit. The triangle with three ideal vertices,
t~Saccheri ~uadrilateral BeGF, where D and E are the midpoints of
AC and All (see Exercise 8, Exercise Set 9.4). Triangle HI} is o
/~
equivalent to Saccheri quadrilateral lJ NM, where K and L are the
midpoints of m
and m. But the two Saccheri quadrilaterals are
congruent because they have congruent summits and congruent summit
angles.
0" , • O·
Fimllly. suppose that two triangles have lhe same defect but no
pair of congruent sides. Let triangles ABC and DEF be any t~o such FIGURE 9.26
triangles, as in Figure 9.25, with DF > Ae.
sllOwn in Figure 9.26, is the triangle of maximum area. and its angle
A
D Slim could be considered zero.
L
I
I
I EXERCISES 9.4
I
,
I L Explain why two distinct lines cannot have more thun one common
I
I perpendicular.
E~--------'" F 2. Where are tWO nonintersecting lines closest logether?
8 c
FIGURE 9.25 3. How many gamma points are on each line in hyperbolic geometry·r
4. Do two lines in hyperbolic geometry always diverge from their point of
If G and Ii are the midpoints of AS and AC. then 6ABC intersection?
.,
326 CHAPTER 9 NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 327
(a)
Q
tb)
ttJ
J K
(e)
L
An equidistant curve may be considered the orthog::mal trajectory
of a pencil of rays with a common perpendicular.
A liiniting curve in hyperbolic geometry has many of the
properties of an ordin'ary circle. For example, a line perpendicular to a
chord at its midpoint is a radius. Theorem 9.16 states a se~ond common
FIGURE 9.27 property.
328 CHAPTER 9 NON· EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 329
THEOREM 9.16. Three distinct points on a limiting curve so that omega triangle A' B'n' is congruent to omega triangle ABO.
uniquely determine it. The result is that LABQ~· LA'B'!}.', and B' and A' are corresponding
points with B' on the second limiting curve. In the same way, it can be
shown that points C. D', ... on the limiting curve can be found so that
In Figure 9.28, the perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC, for il'C' ;;;; BC. CD' ;;;; CD, and so on. A corollary or Theorem 9.17 is lhe
A, B, C on a limiting curve, determine the unique point H, the center statement that congruent chords intercept congruent arcs and congruent
of the limiting curve. It should be emphasized that a part of the given arcs are intercepted by congruent chords for limiting curves.
condition was that the three points were on some limiting curve. This is The second new type of curve to be studied in hypei:bolic
not necessarily the case for any three points chosen at random. For
:~.,.
geometry is the equidistant curve. Let A, B. C be any three poit~ts all
example, in Figure 9.28, three points A, B. C lie on an ordinary circle an equidistant curve, as shown in Figure 9.30. The common perpelld.Jcul~r•.
if the' perpendicular bisectors at D and E meet at a real point. .1
~(IJ
o o E F
:1
FIGURE 9.28 FIGURE 9.30
The following theorem states a property of limiting curves that OF. j's ;:alled the baseline. Quadrilateral ABED is a Saccheri quadrilnteral,
is unlike any property of circles. since A. and B are corresponding points and L BAD -= L ABE. The
name "equidistant curve" is justified because every point on the curve is
THEOREM 9.17. Any two different limiting curves are congruent. the same perpendicular distance from the baseline.
All the points in the plane the same distance from the baseline
actuai1y lie on an equidistant curve of two branches, as shown in
Let ABeD and A'B'C'D' in Figure 9.29 be any two limiting
Figure 9.31. In Exercise SeI9.5, properties of the figure ABCD that are
curves. Suppose that points A, B. C, D are given and that A' is any
surprisingly like those of a parallelogram are investigated. The equidistant
curve has many other properties, a few "of which are stated here. Though
S' C'
,~ \IT! , A B
.j
...-' ["-
,- , 1
,I : ·I~
!
o . j
}
I
FIGURE 9.29 "
V
point on a second limiting curve. If L B' A'h' is constructed congruent
1 '-
0 C
to L BAn. and if A' B' is congruent to AB, then point B' is located
j FIGURE 9.31
1
1
j
]
330 C HAPTE R 9 NON-EUCliDEAN GEOMETRY 331
it is not as fundamental as the limiting curve in the analytic treatment 10. Compare the properties of ABeD in Figure 9.31 with those of a parallelogram
or non-Euclidean geometry, it is simpler to study. in Euclidean geometry. .
Three points on an equidistant curve determine the curve
uniquely, since the baselines can be determined. Not all equidistant
curves are congruent-only those whose points are the same distance 9.6 ELLIPTIC GEOMETRY
from the baseline. For congruent equidistant curves, congruent chords
intercept congruent arcs, and congruent arcs are intercepted by congruent The first five sections of this chapter have included a look at
chqrds. Given one line, an intersecting line diverges from the point of many of the major ideas of hyperbolic non-Euclidean geometry. Not
intersection; in addition, parallel lines and llonintersecting lines are at.· a long after the development of hyperbolic geometry, the German
nonconstant distance. It is only the equidistant curve in hyperbolic mathematician Riemann (1826-1866) suggested a geometry, now called
geometl)' that has the equidistant property characteristic of parallel lines elliptic. based on the alternative to the fifth postulate, which states
in Euclidean geometry. that there are no parallels to a line through a point On the iine.
The statement that a circle can. always be found that passes
through three noncollineal' points is equivalent to the fifth postulate or
CHARACTERISTIC POSTULATE OF ELLIPTIC GEO-
Euclid. In hyperbolic geometry. on the other hand, three noncollinear METR Y. Any two lines in a plane meet at an ordinary point. .i,
points may lie on a circle, a limiting curve, or on one branch of all
equidistant curve.
Various finite geometries from Chapter 1. such as the three- Ii
point geometry and Fano's geometry, satisfy the requirement of this ,i
EXERCISES 9.5 postulate, although they do not satisry all the postul.,es or elliptic
geometry.
,;i
I. In hyperbolic geometry,.is the measure of an inscribed angle less thall i.or It is also necessary to further modify the postulational system
greater than half the measure of its intercepted arc? of Euclid by replacing the statement about infinitude of a line with the
2. Why are any two given points on an ordinary circle corresponding points?, milder statement that a line is boundless in elliptic geometry. An
3. Prove that the segments of radii between ~ny pair of limiting curves with intuitive idea of the meaning of the word boundless is that the line
the same ideal center are congruent. cannot be enclosed by a circle lying in the same pJane. That is,
4. Could a straight Hne intersect a limiting curve in three distinct points? boundless means unbounded, as it was used in Chapter 3.
Why? If Figure 2J2 is in elliptic geometry, with EH and n
both
5. Could a straight line intersect one branyb of an equidistant curve in three perpendiCUlar to CG. these two lines meet at some pOint A because
distinct points? Why?
A
6. Show how to construct the baseline' of an equidistant curve, given three
points 011 one branch of the curve.
7. Prove that any segment connecting two poillts, one on each branch of an
equidistant curve, is bisected by the baseline.
8. Explain how to construct the baseline of an equidistant curve given three
points, not all of which are on rhe same branch of the curve.
9. Show that three ditlereot equidistant curves pass through the vertices of a
triangle. with twO vertices 011 one branch and the third vertex on the other B
bnlllch.
FIGURE 9,32
. I
332 CHAPTER 9 NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 333
of the characteristic postulate that any two lines interse.ct. In elliptic The use of a model also helps to explain whut it means when a
geometry, it is customary to use curves to show straight lines. U line is called boundless. A great circle on the sphere, representin.g i.l
i5E: '" IT. then 6AEF '" 6AED. and ;ill is also perpendicular to line in elliptic geometry. cannot be enclosed by a curve On the sphere.
eG. By an extensio11 0!..11is argument, it can be shown that every line There 'js no way to "get around" the great circle from a point on one
thr~h A intersects CG at right angles. Point A is called a pole side orit to a point on the other without intersecting the great circle.
of CG and the line is the polar for point A. Here, the distance from In elliptic geometry, there are no parallel or nonintersecting
A to any point on CG is a constant. Recall other uses of the words lines, since any two lines meet. However. there are quadrilaterals and
pole and polar to show a relationship between a point and a line in triangles that have some properties analogous to those encountered in
various geometries encountered in this text. hyperbolic geomelry.
In Figure 9.32, if At: '" EB. then 6BEF '" 6AEF. and A. F.
and B are also collinear. This means that B is also a pole of eG, and THEOREM 9.18. The segment joining lhe midpoinl or the base
that two lines intersect in two pojnts. 1t is assumed here that A and B and summit of a Saccheri quadrilateral is perpendicular to both the base
are distinct points. although it is also possible to consider them as and the s!..lmmit.
identical (in single elliptic geometry). The commOll polar of the two points
of intersection is the unique common perpendicular to the lWo lines.
The proof of this theorem is identical to the proof of Theorem 9.7
Interestingly enough, two straight lines, such as ADB and AFB, enclose a
region in elliptic geometry. This region is called a digOl1 or biangle. for hyperbolic geometry.
Fortunately, the elliptic geometry of the plane can be explained
conveniently by comparison with a familiar model, the earth and lines THEOREM 9.19. The summit angles of a Saccheri quadrilaleral
of longitude on its surface. In Figure 9.32, think of A and B as the are congruent and obtuse.
north and south. poles, and CG as the equator. Be very careful to
observe that the geometry on the surrace of a sphere is not non- In Figure 9.34, let ABCD be any Saccheri quadrilateral, with
Euclidean but instead provides a three-dimensional model for two- o and 0' the poles of EF. the line joining the midpoints of the base
dimensional elliptic geometry.
and summit.
In Figure 9.33, let Hi and KJ be lines in elliptic geometry
K
/-"'--------,
A E 8
J
FIGURE 9.34
The fact that the summit angles are congruent comes from the
FIGURE 9.33 congruent triangles used in the proof of Theorem 9.18.
To show that the summit angles are obtllse, it can first be
suc~hat H and I are lhe poles of KJ. and K and J are the poles established that their complements are acute. If, as in Figllre 9.34, X
of HI. In elliptic geometry, the distance from any line to its pole is lies on BO' and is Ihe pole of Be. then BX > BO·. since BO' < EO'.
COl1stant-the same for all lines. Furthermore, a line is or finite length.. This means that LBCX is a right angle, so LBCO' is acute and its
and the length is four times the distance from the pole to the line. supplement, LBCD. is obtuse.
'i
1
334 CHAPTER 9 NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 335
The following theorems are consequences of Theorem 9.19, and 8. Verify the fact that the proof of Theorem 9.18 is the same as that for
the proofs are len as Exercises 10-12 of Exercise Set 9.6. Theorem 9.7.
I
9. In elliptic geometry. where are two given lines farthest apart?
THEOREM 9.20. [n elliptic geometry, a Lambert quadrilateral 10. Prove ll1eorem 9.20.
has its fourth angle obtuse, and each side of this angle is shorter than II. . Prove Theorem 9.21-
the side opposite. 12. Prove Theorem 9.22.
13. Prove that similar but noncongruent triangles cannot exist in elliptic
geometry.
THEOREM 9.21. The sum of the measures of the angles of any
triangle is greater than 1t.
9.7 CONSISTENCY OF NON-EUCLIDEAN
GEOMETRY
THEOREM 9.22. The sum of the measures of the angles of any
CJuadrilateral is greater than 2n.
The question of which kind of geometry is the "right" geometry
to fit the physical universe is one that may never be answered.
You should find it worthwhile to return to the sections on While it might seem a simple problem to solve, there are formidable
hyperboJic geometry to see which oCthe concepts not already mentioned difficulties. For example, it might seem that physical measurement of the
can be used in elliptic geometry. For example, there is no angle of angles of triangles would easily settle the question of whether the sum
parallelism in elliptic geometry. Circles do exist in elliptic geometry. is or is not equal to n. But physical measurement always involves
They can be described as the set of all points a fixed distance from a errors. Besides, it is known that in non-Euclidean geometry the angle
given point. Since each point on a circle is also the same distance from sum depends on the size of the triangle. The small part of the universe
the polar for the given point, a circle can be considered as an in which we live may not be big enough to contain triangles with a
equidistant curve in elliptic geometry. defect (or excess) large enough to be measured. Space traveJ may someday
settle the question.
For most practical purposes, it makes little dilTerence in our lives
whether the universe is Euclidean or not. Euclidean geometry provides
EXERCISES 9.6 a simple model to use in most practical applications, such as engineering.
Einstein's general theory of relativity asserts that physical ;;pace that is in
1. Name two other geometries from Chapter I for which the characteristic
the neighborhood of any kind of matter is best described by the
postulate of eUiptic geometry holds.
postulates of elliptic geometry. Non-Euclidean geometry may have new
2. In ordinary Euclidean geometry, is a line bo.undless?
applications as man explores more of the universe. In many cases, it could
3. A line of latitude that is not the equator of a sphere represents what be used instead of Euclidean geometry without making much difference.
other. concept in the model of elliptic geometry shown in Figure 9.337
From a purely mathematical point of view, the truth of an
4. In elliptic geometry, if the distance from :-a line to its pole has a measui"e
axiomatic system is not what must be investigated. The important
of two, what is the measure of the length of a line in that geometry?
thing to determine is whether or not the system is consistent, as
5. When 111ny two points not always determine a unique line in elliptic
discussed briefly in Chapter 1. In other words, do the axioms of non-
geometry?
Euclidean geometry lead to valid conclusions, without any contradictions.
6. Do limiting curves exist in elliptic geometry? Why?
Actually, the mathematician is interested in what is called relative
7. What is the maximum measure of lhe third angle in a triangle in elliptic consistency. He needs to be sure that non-Euclidean ~eometry is as
geometry, if two of lhe angles are right angles? consistent as Euclidean geometry 01·· as the algebra of real numbers.
,
NON.EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 337
336 CHAPTER 9
Beltrami is given the credit for first proving the consistency. of Poincare and the Klein models for hyperbolic geometry is illustrated
non-Euclidean geometry, in 1868. The proof of the relative consistency of a in Figure 9.36. On a plane tangent to the sphere, Klein's model is
non-Euclidean geometry consists of finding a model within Euclidean shown as the interior of the circle C' congruent to the great circle e" of the
geometry that, with suitable interpretations. has the same postulational sphere.
structure as the non-Euclidean geometry. Then any inconsistency in the
;l-
non-Euclidean geometry would mean there is also an inconsistency in
Euclidean geometry.
It has already been mentioned that the lines of longitude on a
sphere provide a three-dimensional model for lines in plane elliptic
geometry. More generally, great circles in the model correspond to lines,
and each line has two poles associated with it. Lines of latitude are ., j
-is -
Figure 9.35. and CD are intersecting lines AD and CD are parallel
lines, and AD and BC are nonintersecting lines.'
hemisphere of the sphere by a projection from an ideal point. Each
chord, sllch as a, is projected into the arc a' of a circle orthogonal
to C". Now, the points on the bottom hemisphere are carried by a
stereographic projection (considered in Section 6.4 as an application of
A A::-----;:'" 0
E
inversive geometry) into the points on circle C and its interior. The arc
a' is projected into an arc a" orthogonal to circle C in the tangent plane. ..
Poincare's model for ordinary points in hyperbolic geometry is illustrated
by- the interior of C. The ordinary points on a line are illustrated by
C~-----~B the points on an arc, such as a", interior to C.
According to the development above, lines in Poincare's model
are represented by arcs of circles orthogonal to a give~ circle. }E
Fi"ure 9.37, AB and fG represent intersecting lines, AB and Be
FIGURE 9.35
re;resent parallel lines, and iIi and fiE represent nonintersecling lines.
1
One advantage of the Klein model is that straight lines are
B
represented by portions of straight lines. Two major problems in con-
nection with the Klein model soon become apparent, however. One is
that some interpretation of distance must be given so that a segment such
as AD in Figure 9.35 has the characteristics of a line of infinite
I
length. The second major problem is that some interpretation of angle
must be given to avoid having the sum of the measures of the angles
li E
c
The ingenious way in which distance is defined in Poincare's show the correct relative positions of the set of points in (a) and its
model is shown in the following formula, which refers to Figure 9.38. inverse (b), since this relative position is unimportant in the proof.
Actually the sets of points would overlap if drawn correctly. but such a
AC drawing would be confusing. thus making it harder to interpret relation-
CB ships within the inverted figure.
CD = !dog, AD .
DB
where AC, CB, AD. and DB are lengths of segments, not arcs, and k
A'
is a parameter. Check to see that this rormula does yield the correct
8'
results when the distance between two points is infinite (such as for D
and B in Figure 9.38) or is zero-that is, if the two points coincide. ,,
Also note that the concept of cross ratio used in the rormula is familiar
from the related concept studied in the projective geometry of Chapter 7.
,
-~o
\ ,
(a) (b)
FIGURE 9.39
1,
,I
..,
i
The axioms in Appendix 1 are reprinted from David Hilbert,
\
The Fouudqtiol1S of Geometry. La Salle: Open Court Publishing
Company, 1950, by permission of Open Court Publishing Company.
A new tenth edition of The Foumlations of Geometry was published
by Open Court Publishing Company in 1971.
that line; that is, if AB = a and AC = a, where B "" C. then is which does not intersect the line Ct. This straight line is calJed the
also BC = a. parallel to a through the given point A. ,i I
I, 3. Three points A. B, C not situated in the same straight line
always completely determine a plane 0::, We write ABC = 0:..
1,4. Any three points A, B, C of a plane 0:, which do not lie ill the GROUP IV. AXIOMS OF CONGRUENCE
same straight line, completely determine that plane.
1,5. If two points A, B of a straight line a lie in a plane a, then IV, 1. If A. B are two points on a straight line a, and if A' is a point
upon the same or another straight line 0', then, upon a given side
every point of a lies in 0:.
1,6. If two planes a, IJ have a point A in common. then they have. of A' on the straight line 0'. we can always find one and only one
at least a second point B in common. '
point B' so that the segment AB (or BA) is congruent to the
1.7. Upon every straight line there exist at least two points, in every segment A'B'. We indicate this relation by writing AB A'B'. =
plane at least three points not lying in the same straight line, Every segment is congruent to itself; that is, we always have
and in space there exist at least four p.oints not lying in a .plane. AB =
AB.
rV,2. If a segment AB is congruent to the segment A'B' and also to
the· segment A"B". then the segment A'B' is congruent to the
GROUP II. AXIOMS OF ORDER segment A"B"; that is, if AB = A'B' and AB = A"B", then
A'B' == A"8".
II, 1. If A. B, C are points of a straight Hne and B lies between
IV, 3. Let AB and BC be two segments of a straight line a which
A and C. then B lies also between C and A.
have no points in common aside from the point B, and, further-
III 2, If A and C are two points of a straight line, then there exists
more,let A' B' and B'C' be two segments of the same or of another
at least one point B lying between A and C and at least one point
straight line a' having, likewise. no point other (han S' in common.
D so situated that C lies between A and D.
Then, if AB '" A'B', and BC '" B'C', we have AC '" A'C'.
II, 3. Of any three points situated on a straight line, there is always
IV,4. Let an angle (h, Ie) be given in the plane a and let a straight
one and only one which lies between the other two.
line a' be given in a pJane a', Suppose also that, in the plane 0:',
II,4. Any four points A, B, C, D of a straight line can always be so
a definite side of the straight line a' be assigned. Denote by It'
arranged that B shall lie between A and C and also between
a half-ray of the straight line a' emanating from a point 0' of
A and D, and furthermore, that C shall lie between A and D
t~is line. Then in the plane 0:' there is one and only one half-ray
and also between Band D.
/c such that the angle (h, k) or (/(, h) is congruent to the angle
n, 5. Let A. B, C b.e three points not lying in the same straight line
(11', "') and at the same time all interior point-s of the angle
al~d let a be a straight line lying in the plane ABC and not
(h',k') lie upon the given side of d. We express this relation by
·passing through any of the points A. B, C. Then. if the straight
line a passes through a point of the segment AB, it will also ...,'
means of the notation L(h, k) =
L(h', /c'). Every angle is congruent
i. to itself; that is
pass through either a point of the segment Be or a point of ,the
segment AC. L (h, k) '" L (h, k), I
i
L(h,I,) = L(k, h).
GROUP III. AXIOM OF PARALLELS IV,5. If the angle (/t, Ie) is congruent to the angle (h', Ie') and to the angle
(It", Ie:'), then the angle (It', Ie') is congruent to the angle (It", Ie");
III. In a plane a there can be drawn through any point A, lying that IS to say, if L (h, Ie) = L (It', Ie') and L (It, Ie) =. L (It", Ie") then
outside of a straight line a, one and only one straight line L (It', Ie') '" L (h", Ie"). .
344 APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 2
IV. 6. If, in the two triangles ABC and A'B'C, the congruences
AB", A'B', AC '" A'C', LBAC '" LB'A'C' hold then the con-
I BIRKHOFF'S POSTULATES
gruences LABC ;;;; LA'B'C' and LACB '" LA'C'B' also h~ld.
1
V.
GROUP V. AXIOM OF CONTINUITY
(mod 2,,) so that, if A i' 0 and B i' 0 are points on I and In,
respectively, the difference Gill - 0, (mod 2n:) is LAOB. Further- POSTULATES FROM HIGH SCHOOL
more, if the point B on m varies continuously in a line ,. not
containing the vertex O. the number am varies continuously also.
GEOMETRY
IV. Postulate of similarity: If in two triangles, 6ABC, 6A'B'C'. and
for some constant k > 0, d(A', B') = kd(A, B), d(A', C') = kd(A, C)
and also LB'A'C' = ±LBAC, then also d(B'.C')=kd(B,C),
LC'B'A' = ± LCBA, and LA'C'B' = ±LACB.
.!i.
348 APPENDIX 3
POSTULATES FROM HIGH SCHOOL GEOMETRY 349
7. Every plane is a set of points and contains at least three distinct of all rays between BA and Be. H is the set ABle n BCfA. and
noncollinear points. S is the set of interior points of segments which join a point in
8. No plane contains all of the points of space. Be.
SA and a point in then I = R = H = s.
9. If two distinct planes intersect, then their intersection is a line. 20. If for a one-to-one mapping of the vertices of one triangle pnto
10. H two distinct 'points of a line lie in a plane, then every point the vertices of another (not necessarily distinct from the first), two
of the line lies in the plane. sides and the included angle of one are congruent to the correspond-
11. There exists a correspondence which associates the number One ing two sides and the included angle of the other triangle, then'
witl~ ,an arbitrarily chosen, pair of distinct points and a unique the two triangles are congruent. .
posilive real nurnber with every other pair of distinct points. 21. If for a one-to-one mapping of the vertices of one triangle onto.
12. There is a one-to-one mapping of the real numbers onto the t he vertices of another (not necessarily distinct from the first). two
points in a line such thal 0 and I are mapped onto the points angles and the included side 'of one triangle are congruent to thf!
o and ~. r~spectiv~ly. ~he measure of the distance between any corresponding two angles and the included side of the other, then
two POints III the hne IS the absolute value of the dift'erence of the two triangles are congruent.
their corresponding numbers. 22. If for a one-to-one mapping of lhe vertices of one trinngle Ol1to
13. If P and Q are distinct points in line Land IJ and q are distinct the vertices of another (not ·necessarily distinct from the first), the
real numbers, then there is a unique coordinate system for L three sides of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding three
which assigns P the coordinate p, and Q the coordinate q. sides of the other, then the two triangles are congruent.
14. Any line in a plane separates the points of the plane which are not 23. If a point is not in a given line, then there is no more than one
points of the line inlo two sets such that line containing the point and paraliel to the given line.
t. Each of the two sets is a convex set, and 24. There exists a correspondence which associates the number one
2. Every.segment which joins a point of one set to a point of the with an arbitrarily chosen polygonal region and a unique positive
other Intersects the line. . . real number with every polygonal region.
15. ~ny plane separates the pOints of space which are not in the plane 25. If the polygonal region R is the union of two polygonal regions
1I1tO two sets such that R t and R 2 , whose interiors do not intersect., then relative to a given
1. Each of the two sets is a convex set, and unit area, the measure of the area of R is the sum of the
2 Every.segment which joins a point of one set to a point of the measures of the areas of R t and R z•
other Intersects the plane. 26. The measure of the area of a square region is the square of the
16. There exists a 'correspondence which associates with each angle in measure of the length of its side.
space exactly one real number IT such that 0 < Ii < 180. 27. If two triangles are congruent, then the triangular regions bounded
17. For every. point 0 and every closed half-plane whQse edge contains by the triangles have the same area.
0, there 15 a one-to-one mapping of the real numbers n, where 28. There exists a correspondence which associates the number one
o a. II ~ 180, onto the set of all rays in the closed half-plane with an arbitrarily chosen geometric solid and a unique positive real
haVing 0 as their endpoint. number with every other geometric solid.
18. F?r any angJe. ABC there exists exactly one ray-coordinate system 29. If the polyhedral solid S is the union of two polyhedral solids
WI~~S th-e zero-ray stich that for any point X in the C-side 51 and S2 whose interiors do not intersect, then the measure of
of SA, DX corresponds to a real number 11, 0 < 11 < 180. the volume of S lS the sum of the meaSures of the volumes of
5{ and 52'
350 APPENDIX 3 APPENDIX 4
..
.~:
352 APPENDIX 4
Perspectivity
G~ *D
ABCD A'S'C'D'
EXERCISES
EXERCISES l.l
I. a. }1 + 4 2 = 52; b. 30 1. ~7,787 miles 3. False 4. True
S. False 6. True 7. True 8. False
EXERCISES 1.2
8, II,5 9, I, 1 and I, 2 10, II, 1-4 II. II 12, 12 13, 13
14, 14 and 15 15, 20,21,22 16. 24,25,26,27 17, Yes 18, Yes
19. Yes 20. Yes
EXERCISES [.3
2. (I) There exist exactly three distinct books in the system. (2) Two distinct
353
354 ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 355
books are in exaclly one library. (3) Not all the books in the system are in Ihe 4. {(a.i).(c,JJ.(e.kj) 5. Not defined
same library. (4) Two distinct libraries have at least one book in common. 6. {(b. 0). (d, c). (h, e)l 7. {(i. b). (), d). (/<, II)}
3. (1) There exist exactly three different students. (2) Two different students are 8. (x,y)~ (x _ 3.y - I) 9. (x.y)~ (x - 3.y - I)
on exactly one committee. (3) Not all the students are on the same committee. 10. (x, y) ~ (x + 5.}, - 2) II. (x. y) ~ (x - 2, y + 3)
(4) Two different c~mmittees have at least one student in common.
4. NOlle S. Two 6. No.7. No S. No EXERCISES 2.2
3. RI 5. R(240) 6. R(120) 7. No
EXERCISES 1.4
8.
1. (1) There exist exactly three distinct lines in the geometry. (2) Two distinct R, I
lines are on exactly one point., (3) Not all the lines of the geometry are on Ihe
same point. (4) Two distinct points are on at least one lina R, I R,
3. None
4. (I) The total number of committees is four. (2) Each pair of committees has I R, I
exactly one student in commOn. (3) Each student is on exactly two committees.
5. No 6. Four 7. None 9. Axiom 2
10. R I • 1; I 13. One subgr?up with eight members; three subgroups with
10. (l) The total number of trees is four. (2) Each pair of trees has exactly
four members; five subgroups with two members; and one subgroup with one
one row in common. (3) Each row contains exactly two trees. member.
II. No 12. One
EXERCISES 2.4
EXERCISES 1.5
I. a. (3, -5); b. (8,2); c. (2, -13); d. (I, -13/2)
l. (l) There exists at least olle library. (2) Every library has exactly three books
2. a. L-5, -~; b. (0,0) 3. (-)2/2,7)2/2)
in it. (3) Not all books are in the same library. (4) For two different books,
4. (../2/2,3../2/2) 5. x - " ~ (x' - h)cos. + (y' - k)s;n •.
6. C+ ;.fi. 3.fi - 7)
there is exactly one library containing both of them.. (5) Each two libraries have
at Jeast one book in common. .y - k~ -(x' - h)sina + (y' - k)cos.
2. l, 3, 4 3. 4, 5, 6; 4, 5, 3; 4, 5, 2; 4, 5, 7; 4, 1, 2; 4, I, 3; 4, I, 6; 2
4, 1,7; 4.2,3; 4,2,7; 4,6,3; 4,6,7
5,2,7; 4,7,3 and 5,6,3
4.4,5, I and 7, 6, 1; 4,6,2 and 7. (17,/32 -. 3. 3,/32+ 3) 8.(-5,10) 9.x=x·+5; y~y'-2
10. x = x'cos30 + y'sin30 y = -x'sin30 + y'cos300
D
6. «() There exists at least olle row. (2) Every row has exactly three trees in.' it. D
;
D
(3) Not all trees are in the same row. (4) There exists exactly one row containing 11. x: = x'; y = -y' 12. x = x'cos60° + y'sin60";
a tree not on a row that contains no tree of the: given row. (5) If a tree is 110t y = x' sin 60" - )I' cos 60"
on a row, there exists exactly one differenf'tree in the row such that the thlo
trees do not have a row in COmmon. (6) With the exception in Axiom 5, exactly
one row contains each pair of distinct trees. EXERCISES 2.5
7. 1,3,4 8. Two
6. The result is that a and b in the general equations for the translation are
~ero, .so the. translation is the identity. 7. Only the center of rotation is an
EXERCISES [.6 mvanant pomt. 9. Let the lines be y = 0 and ]I = ntx.
2. a. A; b. B' 3. a. A~; b. Pi 4. BRB' and ASA' 5. 1. 3. 4. 5
6. lif. fiP.1fR 10. Four n. ll. b. and d 12. a. 21; b. 3l; d. 57 EXERCISES 2.6
15. Four 16. Ten, five 17. None 18. Two 19. Four, four -~
20. One 21. Twelve, six 22. One I. •. (-2,1,7); b. (0,6,10); c. (-4,-2,2); d. (-2,-3,8)
2. a. (1,3, -4); b. 13,2, -I); 4. (-3.j2i2,4, 7.ji/2)
5. (3,8, -I) 6. (-2, -4,3) 7. (-2,3,9) 8. (7,4, -2)
EXERCISES 2.1
ll. a.. RefIecti~n, rOlato,: reflection, or glide refIectionj b. Reflection, rotatory
2. c 3. a. (7, -2) b. (5, -3) c. (2, -5) refiectJOn, or glide reflecuon J2. x' = x, y' = ]I. =' = 4_ :
ANSWERS 1 U :,tLt; ..... ' eu '-,~L., ...... , .... ~~
356 ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES
EXERCISES 4.4
EXERCISES 3.4 6. 3/4; 3/5; 4/5
1. A median 3. At the centroid 4. No 5. Shorter
1. Door handle and door, book on n shelf 2. It fills an octant in space. with
the vertex at the origin and three sides lying on the reference planes. 3. No. i
H must pass through a boundary point of the convex set. 4. Yes 5. No i EXERCISES 4.5
6. No 7. Yes S. Yes 10. A tetrahedral solid IS the intersection of the I 9. The four points are
four closed half-spaces containing the sides of the tetrahedron and the vertex not 1. Yes 8. The four points are vertices of a square.
on the side. vertices of a square.
358 ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 359
16 3 + 71 4 - 8i 27 + 991
EXERCISES 5.2 . 58 17. - 5 - 18. 130
12. Ie - ,,)lfo - eh) - 10 - .)(I>e - ad)
Ie - a)lll - fl - Ig - e)(d - b)
EXERCISES 6.4
1.1 - 1» [Ie - o)lfg - eh) - 10 - e)lbe - ad)] be - ad
--
Ie - a) Ie - a)(h - J) - (g - e)(d b)
+ --
e- 0
1. The other point would be the ideal point. 3. A tangent to a circle passes
through the center of a circle orthogonal to the circle at the point of tangency.
4. A circle circumscribed abollt a right triangle has the hypotenuse as a diameter.
EXERCISES 5.3 13. The same plane
1. Two orthogonal circles, a circle and a line through the center 10. A line nol
passing through the point EXERCISES 7.6
l. The last coordinate is zero. 2. a. 13, 8, .1); b. 12, 3/4, I); c. (I, -4, 1)
EXERCISES 6.3 3. a.12, 5) b.(-I/2,3/2); c.(2/3, -5/3) 4.15/3,2/3,1); (10,4,6); (20,8,12)
5. No 6. (I, -I, 0) . 7. 3x, + x, -
2x, ~ 0 8. 3X; + X, - 2X, ~ 0
1. 13/25,4/25) 1 (2, 2) 3. 10, 3) 4. 156/25, 8/25) 5. (16/17, -4, 17) 9. ", - x, ~ 0 10. iI.O, -I) 11. x, - x, ~ 0 12. 10.2. 1)
360 ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 361
EXERCISES 7.7 to a circular region. 9. More than four countries with" common point would
I
1.-2,3,1 2. (5, -4) 3. (-4, -4) 4. (I, I. -I); (I, I, I); (I, 1,0); each require a separate color.
(4,4, -I) 5. 5/3 7. Similarity 8. 1'!ooe 9. Affine 10. Motion
EXERCISES 8.5
EXERCISES 7.8
I. By TOWS: 6, 12; 20, 30; 12, 20, 30 5. 0 6. 2; 0; -2; -4 9. Two
1. The product of a reflection and the same reflection is the identity. interlocking pieces 10. No. Two interlocking pieces 11. No. Two illter-
2. 3. Rotation of 180°; b. Rotation of 120°; c. Rotation of 90° 5. A unique locking pieces 12. Three 13. Four
one-dimensional involution is determined by two pairs of corresponding points.
6. A two-dimensional projectivity that leaves the fouf vertices of a complete
quadrangle invariant is the identity transfOimation. EXERCISES 9.1
3. If a straight line intersects one of two parallel lines, it witl 110.t always
EXERCISES 7.9 intersect the other. 4. Straight Jines parallel to the same straight line' are not
always parallel to each other, 5. There does not exist one triangle for which
1. It could be a degenerate conic. 2. Figures 7.5, 7.19, 7.21, 7.22, 7.23, 7.25 the stun of the measllres of the angles is 7t radians. 6. ll1ere does 110t exist a
3. The lines of the ranges of points in the projectivily defining the line conic pair or similar bUI noncongruent triangles. 7. 111ere does not exist a pair of
are also lines of the coniG. 4. The points corresponding to the common point straight lines the same distance apart at every point. 8. It is not always possible
of the two ranges of points determining a line conic are the points of contact of to pass a circle through three noncollinear points. 9. a
the two ranges of points. S. 3x 1 + x 2 + Xl = 0 7. Yes 9. There are 10. AGJ; AIL; AKM 12. Two
720 permutations of six things taken six at a time. Half of these are duplicates
caused by reversing the. order of points. Of the remaining 360, there are six
different names fo. each of 60 hexagons. EXERCISES 9.2
1. Otherwise, two distinct lines could be both parallel and intersecting.
EXERCISES 8.1
1. A rotation; x -+ cotangent X 2. TIle inverse also has an inverse that is a EXERCISES 9.3
con~inuous transformation. 4. Length of a segment; area of a region; number 1. Two 2. The sum of the measures of the angles would be 2n. 4. Adjacent
of Sides of a polygon 5. A convex set is a connected set ror which the curve side S. Summit 7. TIle defect of the original trjungle is equal to the sum
joining two points can always be a segment. 6.. a, b, c, d, r. h 7. a. C, d, e of the defects of the two smaller triangles.
8. a. Penny; b. Washer; c. Button 10. a
EXERCISES 9.4
EXERCISES 8.2
1. There would exist a rectangle. 2, At their common perpendicular 3. An
l. a, d 2. a, b, c 3. Vertex C is not counted. Vertex E is counted. infinite number 4. No 9. The Slim of the measures of the summit angles
4. Odd S. Simply connected 8. Yes is equal to the sum or the measures of lhe three angles of the original lriungies.
2. Zero 3. Zero: prism; One: teacup; Two: dining room chair with arms
EXERCISES 9.6
S. Four; foqr 8. The theorems only apply to countries topologically equivalent t. Four-line geometry;PG (2. 3) 2. Yes 3. Circle 4. 8 S. When they
f
1
362 ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES
are the two poles of a line. 6. No, there are no ideal points. 7. Less than 21t
9. At the polar of their common points BIBLIOGRAPHY
EXERCISES 9.7
9. Infinite 10. Atjf is the image of circle A. B. ire
is the image of circle
H, C. Circle A', C' is the image of circle A. C. Each of the three images is
orthogonal to the image of the fundamental circle.
Adler, Claire F., Modern Geometry, Second Edition. New York: McGraw-Hili, 1967.
Barry, Edward H., Introduction to GeometJ';cal rrl/ns!ormatiolJs. Boston: Prindle,
Weber & Schmidt, 1966.
Benson, Russell V., Euclidean Geometry and Convexity. New York: McGraw-Hili,
1966.
Blumentha~ Leonard M., A Modem View of Geometry. San Francisco: W. H.
Freeman, 1961.
Bullard, Sir Edward. 111e Origin of tile Oceans. Scienrific American, September 1969.
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Chinitz, Wallace, Rotary Engines. Scientific American. February 1969. Vol. 220(2).
Chrestenson, H. E.. MappirJgs of the Phme. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. 1966.
Courant. Richard. and Robbins, Herbert. What is Mathematics? London: Oxford
University Press, 1951.
363
BIBLIOGRAPHY 365
364 BIBLIOGRAPHY
366
j
.]
INDEX 369
368 INDEX
Hyperbolic projectivity, 261 Linear programming. 101-103
Equations: (wlllinl/eel) Fundamental theorem: Hypotheses, 3 Linkllges, 217-218
for inversion transformation, 211 of algebra. 291 Icosahedron, 298 Listing. J. B., 278
for motions of plane. 51-58 of projective geometry, 245-246 ldeal point, 199.232.312 Loci. 175 .
for .motions in three-space, 68 Fundamental triangle. 254 Iden tical sets, 94 Logically equivalent, 306
for projective transformations. 255-261 Gamma point. 321 Identity element. 40 Magnus. L. 1., 200
for reflection, 54-56 Gauss, Karl, ISS, 307 Identity transfonnation, 37 MAp-colouring problem. 295
for similarity transformations. 75 Genus. 294-295 Implication. 3, 89-90 Mapping. 34
Equidistant curve, 327. 329-330 Geometric topology. 271-303 Impossibility proofs. 180-187 MnschefQni, L., 192
Equilateral1riangle: Geometric transformation (see Incenter. 128 MHthematic."l.1 construction, .164.
symmetries of, 40-45 Transformation) Incidence. 230 Matrix. 259-261
tessellation, 157-158 Geometry: Incidence axioms, 15 Maximum value. lOt
Equivalence, 89 amne. 232 Incircle, 128 Maximum width, 114-115
Equivalent polygons, 323,-324 convexity. 79-123 Inconsistent system, 9 Measure of area, 325
Equivalent triangles, 323-325 definition of, 47 Independent sets, 9 Medians. 128
Eratosthenes. 2 demonstrative. 3 Index, 290 Menelaus, 134
Erlanger program. 229 elliptic, 331-340 Indirect argument. 13 Menelaus' theorem, 134 .
Escher, M. C., 50, 158 finite, 11-31 Interior poinl, 84-85 Midpoint of segment, 192-193·
Euclid, 3, 6, 306 history of. 4 Inll:mal angle bisectors, 128-129 . Miniature geometries (see Finile
Euclidean geometry. 3 inversion. 197-224 Intersection, 81 geometry) .
Euclidean group, 58-65 literal meaning of, I Into mapping, 34 Minkowski. H .• 82
Euler, C, liS, 142, 298 non-Euclidean. 305-340 Invarianl{s): Miquel's theorem. 143-144
Euler characteristic, 301 polygon and circle, 125-161 group of motions, 62-65 Model:
Euler line, 142 projective, 225-275 inversion. 204-206 for elliptic geometry, 336
Euler's formula. 298-300 Gergonne. J. D., 138 meaning of, 36 for hyperbolic geometry, 332-333
Even parity, 285-286 Gergonne point. 138 molions in three-space, 69 Modern geometry, 4-5
Even vertex, 292 Glide reflection. 50, 56. 68-69 topology, 289-291. 294--295. 300-302 Moebius, A. F .• 278. 296, 301
Ellcircies, 130 Golden ratio. 154-157, 186 Inverse, 89 Moebius strip, 301-303
Existence axiom. 15 Golden rectangle, 155-156 _Inverse element. 59 Mohr, C., 192
Extension fields, 171-173 Golden spiral, 156 In'verse points. 193, 197-198,206--207 Mohr-M~scheroni constructions, 192-195
Exterior angle. 313-314 Great circle. 333 Inverse transformation, 38, 57 Morley, Frank. 152
Exterior point, 85 Greek geometry, 2-3 Inversion: Morley's theorem. 152-154
External bisectors, 130 Greek problems, 180-183 analytic geometry of, 209-215 Motion(s):
Extreme and mean ralio. 154 Group: applications of, 216--224 definition. 46
Extreme point. 109 Abelian, 40 in complex plane. 214-216 direct, 61
Extremum problems, 160-162 bicontinuous transformations, 278-279 equations for transformation. 211 equations in three-space, 68
Fagnano, J. F., 161 Euclidean, 58-65 geometry of, 197-224 matrix ror. 260
Fagnano's problem, 161 motions in three-space, 68··69 in three dimensions, 222-224 opposite, 61
Fano, II projective transformations, 245 Inversive plane. 199 rigid,49
Fano's geometry, 19-22 similarities in three-space. 75 Inverting theorems, 218-220 sets ofequatious for. 51-58
Fenchel. W., 82 similarity transformations, 71 Invohltion, 262-263 of three-space, "66-70
Feuerbach, K. W., 141 transforma tions, 39-45 Involutory transformation, 203 types of, 47-50
Feuerbach's theorem, 221-222 Hal~-plane, 81 Is~)gonal conjugates, 145-149 Multiply connected, 280-281
Fibonacci numbers, 155 Hammer, 116 Isometric sets, 46 Mystic hexagram. 270
Fifth postulate, 6, 305-306 Harmonic conjugfHe, 241 Isometry, 46. 63 Neighborhood. 83-84, 278-279
Finite geometry: Harmonic homology, 264 Isomorphic. 62 Network, 291-293
of Desargues, 26--28 Harmonic net, 244, 254 10·rdan curve theorem, 285-286, 293--294 Nicomedes, 183
of Fano. 19-22 Harmonic pencil, 242 hm~'s theorem. 124 Nine-point circle, 141-143,221-222
four-line. 14-16 Harmonic properly, 242-24:1 Klein. Felix. 47, 229. 336 Nonconvex sels, 80
rour-point, \6-18 Harmonic range, 240 Klein bottle, 302 Non-Euclidean geometry, 305-340
history of, II Harmonic sets, 239-245 Klein model, 336 Noninlersecling lines, 310, 321-322
meaning of, II Harmonically related, 244 Knots, 302 N~tuply connected, 281
non-Euclidean, 308 Helly, Eduard, 120 Lambert, J. H.. 317 Oceanography. 291
of Pappus, 23-25 Helly's theorem. 120-124 Lambert quadrilateral, 317-318, 334 OCI~hedron, 298
projective geometries. 28-29 Heron's theorem. 159-160 Least tIpper bound, lOt Odd parity. 285-286
three-point. 11-14 Hexagon. 269 Left hand parallel. 310 Odd vertex, 292
of Young, 29 Hilbert. David, 7, 34 I Lemoine. E., 146 Omegu lriangle, 313-315
First Brocard point, 151 Homeomorphism, 279 Lemoine point, 147 On. 19
Forder. Henry, 7 Homogeneous coordinates. 251-255 Length of curve, 99 One-sided surface, 301-303
Foundations of mathel!1atics, 9 Homology, 264 Limiting curve, 327-329 One-to-one correspondence, 34
Four-line geometry, 14-16 Homothetic transfonnation, 202 Limiting position. 205 Onto mapping, 34
Four-point geometry, t6--18 Homothety.72-75 Lindemann, T .• 183 Open neighbourhood, 83-84
Function: Huntington, E. V.• 7 Line, 3, ll, 23 Open set, 86
continuous. 82 Hyperbolic geometry. 307-331 Line conic, 266 Opposite molion. 61
definition of, 35 Hyperbolic polarity, 269
-
370 INDEX INDEX 371
Opposite sides, 2J I Polarity. 268 Rotatory refieclion. 68-69 Tessellation, 157-158
Opposite Inlnsformalion. 206 Pole. 26-27, 208-209, 268. 332 Rubber sheet geometry, 277 Tetrahedron, 69, 298
Orthocenter. 127, 142 Pole or spreading, 291 Saccheri. Girolamo. 316 Theorems:
Orthocentric set, 128 Polygons. 323-324 Saccheri quadrila~ral, 316-317. 324, 333 inverting, 218-220
Orthogonal circles, 206 Polyhedron, 298 School ~athem<lhcs Study Group, 8 parI of Euclidean geometry, 3
Orthogonal curves, 118 Poncelet. J. -V". 228-229 Screw displacement, 68-69 Three ramous Greek problems 180-183
Orthogonal trnjectory.• 118,327 Poncelet-Steiner construction theorem, 191. Secants. 132-133 Three-p?,int ¥eometry, 11-14 •
Pulrs of lines. 320-323 Positive Brocard point, 15 I Self-dual. 28, 235 Topological··mvarianl 282 292
Paper folding, 187-190 Postulates (see Axioms) Self-inverse, 199 Topology, 277:":303..' •
Pappus, 23-25 Pre-Greek mathematics. 1-2 Semilangents, 91 Torus, 295
Parabola: Projection, 223. 225-226 Set; Tracing puzzles, 291-293
inverse of. 213-214 Projective geometry, 28-29, 225-275 bounded, 86---87 Transformation(s) :
flIngCllls to. 190 Projective plane, 232 ! closed, 86 bicontinuous, 278-279
Parabolic projectivity, 261 Projective transformation, 228, 255-261 of constant widlh, 115-119 continuous, 278-279
Parallel lines: Projectivities. 228. 245-250, 261-265 open, 86 definition of, 34
ill Fa no's geometry. 22 Proof: width of, 114-·t~O equations for plane motion. 56
firth postulate, 306 of implication, 3-4 Sides. 316 examples of, 33, 35-36
in four-point geometry. J7 by inversion. 220-222. 338-339 Similarity transfonnations 70-7-7 260 groups of, 39-45
in geometry of Desargues, 28 step in construction problem, 168 Simple closed curws, 97, i83-289 identity, 37
in geometry of Pappus, 24 Properties. 36 Simple closed polnon, 285 inverse, 38
under homothety. 73 Proportions. 129 S!mple closed surfa:e, 106, 294 of inversion 199-200
in hyperbolic geometry, 309. 320 . Pythagorean theorem. 5
Quadrangle. 231
Stmple curve. 83
Simple hexagon, 269
2:03
involutory,
by paper folding, 188-189 isometry, 46
Parity. 285-286 Quadrangular set, 240 Simple polyhedron, 298 matrices for 259-261
Partition of segment. 166-167 Quadrilateral: _ Simply connected, :'80-281 period of, 2en
Pascal. Blaise, 270 cyclic, 132 j Simson, Robert, 139, 200 product of, 36-37
Pascal line, 270 in hyperbolic geometry, 315-318 Simson line. 139 projective, 228 245
Pascal's mystic hexagrtlm, 270 inscribed in circle. 131-132 Single elliptic geometry, 332 similarity, 70-77
P<lscai's theorem. 269-210. 274 Radius of inversion. 198 Sobyzk, 116 Tr~llslation, 47, 52-53. 66;279 .
Pasch. Moritz, 7 Ranges of points, ~66 Space duality, 236 Tnangle(s) :
Pasch's lIx.iOO1. 7 Ratio: Species, 176 angles of, 318-319
Peano. Guiseppi, 7 golden. 154-157 Spiral: auxiliary. 174
Pendl of lines. 266 of similarity. 71 of Archimedes, 184-185
Rational numbers, 170 deti~ition for projective georiietry, 230
Pencil of rays, 327 golden. 156 eqUivalent, 323-325
Pentagon. 156-157 Rect~mgle. 155-156 Square. 157-158 geometry of. 126-161
Perimeter. 119 Reflection(s): Squaring the circle, 180--183 maximum area. 325
Period, 203. 262-263, equations for, 54-56 \ Steiner. Jacob. 266 perspeeHve frem a line 26
Permutation group symbols, 42-44 in plane, 49-50 , Ster70graphic projection. 223. 337 perspective from a poi~t 26
Perpelldicuia r. 189 product of. 59--60 j Stl<ughtedge, 163
properties of r~ght triangle. 1-2
Perpendicular bisectors, 126-127, 188 symmetries of triangle, 41 I Subgroup, 45 Reuleaux, 116--117
Perspective collineation. 264 in three·space, 67 ' Subset. 80 ~n three-point ~eometry, 14
Perspective from line. 26. 237 Region. 83 Summit, 316
Reguhll' decagon. 185-186 Tr~ang~dar decomposition, 299-300
Perspective rrol11 point. 26, 236-237 Summit angles, 317 Tr!secung the angle, 180-182
Perspeclivity, 226-227 Regular heptagon. 186-187 Superposition. 7
Regular hexllgolls, 157-158 TrISectors of angle. 152
Peucellier's cell. 218 Supporting half-plane, 93-94 Truth. 3
rhme: Regular pelliagon. 156-157 Supporting half·spaces, 107
of inversive geometry. 199 Regular point. 92. 105-106 Supporting line, 88-90 105 Ultra-ideal point. 321
'Regular polygon. 185--186 Undefined lerms -3
undefined in Euclidean geometry. 3 Supporting plane. 104 • Unit point, 254 •
Plane du;dity, 16,234-236 Regular polyhedra, 298 Surface, 106
Unit segment. 169
Plane region, 83 Regular tessellation, 157-158 Surface ~f one side, 301-303
Plane similurily, 71 Relative consislency, 335 Symmedlan, 146-149 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 2
Reuleaux polygons. II g ! Universal cover lt9-120 •
Plane-filling pHttems. 50 Symmedian point, 147 Valid. 335 '
Plato. 163 ReuleauxJriangie, 116-117 ! Symmetries. 40-45
Playfair"s axiom, 306 Rhombus. 218 . Veblen. Oswald, 7, 11
Symposium on ConvexilY 82 Vector. 47
Poincare, H .. 336 Riemann. Bernhard, 278. 331 j Synthetic geometry, 4 ' Vieta; F,. 200
Poincare model, 222-223. 336-340 Right hand pnraJlel. 310 ' Tacit assumptions. 6-7
Right triangle, 1-2 Von Staudt. Karl. 229
Point: Tangent, 90-92., 132-133. 190,268 Wankel engine 116
analytic projective geometry, 252 Rigid molions, 49 Tangent cone, 9 I, 105 Width ofa set'114-120
Euclidean geometry, 3 Rotation(s): Tangent vectors, 290 Young's geom~try, 29
finite geomeh·ies. II definition of, 53
Point at infinity, 251 equations for. 53-54
Point conic. 266. 269 in plane. 48
Pointwise invariant, 200 symmetries of triangle, 41
Polar, 26-27. 208-209. 268. 332 in Ihrce-space,,67