Ground Improvement by

Deep Vibratory Methods

Ground Improvement by
Deep Vibratory Methods

Klaus Kirsch and Fabian Kirsch

First published 2010
by Spon Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Spon Press
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
Spon Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an informa business

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© 2010 Klaus Kirsch and Fabian Kirsch

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

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This publication presents material of a broad scope and applicability.
Despite stringent efforts by all concerned in the publishing process,
some typographical or editorial errors may occur, and readers are
encouraged to bring these to our attention where they represent errors
of substance. The publisher and author disclaim any liability, in whole
or in part, arising from information contained in this publication. The
reader is urged to consult with an appropriate licensed professional
prior to taking any action or making any interpretation that is within
the realm of a licensed professional practice.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kirsch, Klaus.
Ground improvement by deep vibratory methods / Klaus Kirsch and
Fabian Kirsch.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Soil stabilization. 2. Vibratory compacting. 3. Foundations.
I. Kirsch, Fabian. II. Title.
TA749.K57 2010
624.1′51363 – dc22 2010003222

ISBN 0-203-87428-5 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0–415–55015–7 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0–203–87428–5 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978–0–415–55015–4 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978–0–203–87428–8 (ebk)
Contents

Preface and acknowledgements viii

1 An overview of deep soil improvement by vibratory methods 1

2 A history of vibratory deep compaction 5

2.1 The vibro flotation method and first applications
before 1945 5
2.2 Vibro compaction in post-war Germany during
reconstruction 14
2.3 The “Torpedo” vibrator and the vibro replacement
stone column method 17
2.4 Development of vibro compaction outside Germany 19
2.5 Method improvements 26
2.6 Design aspects 29

3 Vibro compaction of granular soils 31

3.1 The depth vibrator 31
3.2 Vibro compaction treatment technique 36
3.2.1 Compaction mechanism of granular soils 36
3.2.2 Vibro compaction in practice 41
3.3 Design principles 45
3.3.1 General remarks 45
3.3.2 Stability and settlement control 50
3.3.3 Mitigation of seismic risks 57
3.4 Quality control and testing 73
3.5 Suitable soils and method limitations 76
3.6 Case histories 80
3.6.1 Vibro compaction for a land reclamation project 80
3.6.2 Ground improvement treatment by vibro compaction
for new port facilities 83
vi Contents
3.6.3 Vibro compaction field trial in calcareous sand 84
3.6.4 Foundation of a fuel oil tank farm 89
3.6.5 Liquefaction evaluation of CPT data after vibro
compaction and stone column treatment 92

4 Improvement of fine-grained and cohesive soils by vibro

replacement stone columns 97
4.1 Vibro replacement stone column technique 97
4.2 Special equipment 101
4.3 Principal behaviour of vibro stone columns under load
and their design 107
4.3.1 Overview and definitions 107
4.3.2 Load-carrying mechanism and settlement estimation 112
4.3.3 Failure mechanism and bearing capacity calculations 119
4.3.4 Drainage, reduction of liquefaction potential
and improvement of earthquake resistance 128
4.3.5 Recommendations 136
4.4 Quality control and testing 141
4.5 Suitable soils and method limitations 144
4.6 Case histories and computational examples 145
4.6.1 Analysis of settlement reduction 145
4.6.2 Analysis of slope stability 149
4.6.3 Bearing capacity calculation of single footings
on stone columns 153
4.6.4 Some results of a parametric study of stone
column group behaviour 157
4.6.5 Wet vibro replacement stone columns for a thermal
power plant 161
4.6.6 Vibro replacement soil improvement for a double
track railway project 163
4.6.7 Design and execution of a vibro replacement
foundation 164
4.6.8 High replacement vibro stone columns for a port
extension 167
4.6.9 Vibro stone columns for settlement control
behind bridge abutments 169

5 Method variations and related processes 171

6 Environmental considerations 174

6.1 General remarks 174
 Contents vii
6.2 Noise emission 174
6.3 Vibration nuisance and potential damages to adjacent
structures 175
6.4 Carbon dioxide emission 180

7 Contractual matters 182

Bibliography 187
Index 196
Preface and acknowledgements

The use of depth vibrators for the improvement of soils that are unsuitable
as foundations for structures in their original state dates back over more than
70 years. Over the course of time the deep vibratory methods have become
probably the most-used dynamic in-situ soil improvement methods today.
They have not only experienced a continuous development of plant and
equipment to carry it out in practice, but also design methods have been
proposed and refined to predict the degree of soil improvement that can be
achieved.
Today the importance of deep vibratory soil improvement is unrivalled
among modern foundation measures; the demand for in-situ deep treatment
of soils introducing, if any, only environmentally harmless materials into
the ground continues to increase with the rising level of awareness for the
environment. Continued development of plant and process controls has
resulted in considerable increases in production rates.
When looking at the design concepts in use today the reader will realise
that experience with the system in different soil conditions still plays an
important role. With sand compaction this is because the relative simplicity
and convincing economy of the system, together with the familiar testing
methods for the estimation of settlements, has probably inhibited the
development of theories that would allow the calculation of the improved
properties of granular material based upon the fundamentals of soil
dynamics. Recent developments show encouraging attempts to correlate
the characteristic motion of the depth vibrator working in the ground with
the achieved soil properties. The composite system of vibro stone columns
and the surrounding cohesive soil has become a challenging field for
engineers to apply finite element analyses to, particularly where the founda-
tion of more complex structures and single foundations are concerned. This
computational tool supports the designer in his endeavour to find the most
economical solution by optimising the foundation system.
It was the son who encouraged the father to embark on this book project,
after the latter had collected knowledge and experience in the field of ground
improvement over a period of almost 35 years of his professional life. The
book aims to give an insight into deep vibratory soil improvement methods,
 Preface and acknowledgements ix
both from the contractor’s view (Klaus) and from the perspective of the
consulting engineer (Fabian), whose dissertation on experimental and
numerical investigations of the load-carrying mechanism of vibro stone col-
umn groups provided an interesting aspect in this context. We are grateful to
our publisher, Taylor & Francis, for their support in realising the book
which underlines their continued interest in ground improvement methods.
We hope that the book provides the practising engineer and the design
engineer with a comprehensive insight into deep vibratory soil improvement
methods. The historical development of these ground improvement methods
is presented in Chapter 2, which is based on an earlier publication, Kirsch
(1993) “Die Baugrundverbesserung mit Tiefenrüttlern”, in Englert and
Stocker (eds) 40 Jahre Spezialtiefbau 1953–1993: Technische und rechtliche
Entwicklungen (Werner Verlag, Düsseldorf). We wish to thank Werner
Verlag for their kind permission to use it within this book.
We also hope that we will succeed in demonstrating the astounding
versatility of these methods as reflected in a number of international case
histories from recent years. The reader will hopefully also realise that vibro
compaction and vibro replacement stone columns are presently fulfilling –
and will continue to do so – all the requirements of sustainable construction.
We will demonstrate in a separate chapter of the book that these methods
require only natural materials for their execution, leaving behind only a
minimal carbon footprint.
Finally, we do hope that the book will help stimulate further work and
research on the subject and on those problems that are not yet satisfactorily
resolved or are still the subject of controversy, to enable further plant
development and to improve ground engineering.
We wish to thank Keller Group plc for their noble assistance in preparing
this book, for funding the preparation of graphs and diagrams but especially
for allowing access to the technical archives and for using data in preparing
most of the case histories. In this context our thanks go in the first place to
Justin Atkinson, the chief executive of Keller. With the publication of this
book in 2010, we would like to take this opportunity to extend our best
wishes for continued development and success to Keller Group plc, which
pioneered deep vibratory soil improvement and which celebrates its 150th
anniversary this year.
Invaluable support has also been given in discussions with former and
present colleagues on technical matters. Our thanks go especially to Dr Alan
Bell who has critically reviewed the manuscript based on his long experience
of working in ground engineering. Thanks are also due to George Burke,
Jonathan Daramalinggam, Guido Freitag, Johannes Haas, Dieter Heere,
Gert Odenbreit, Dr Vesna Raju, Dr Thomas Richter, Raja Shahid Saleem,
Raja Samiullah, Prof. Dr Stavros Savidis, Dr Lisheng Shao, Barry Slocombe,
Dr Wolfgang Sondermann, Reiner Wegner and Dr Jimmy Wehr. Special
thanks go to Christine Trolle for her patience in supporting us to organise
the design of graphs for the manuscript.
x Preface and acknowledgements
In preparing case histories of recent applications of vibro compaction
and vibro stone column methods we gratefully acknowledge the support of
special contractors in providing valuable data and information: Keller
Holding GmbH for Sections 3.6.1–4 and 4.6.4–6, Hayward Baker Inc for
Section 3.6.5, Keller Limited for Section 4.6.8 and Bauer Gruppe for Section
4.6.9.

Klaus Kirsch
Fabian Kirsch
December 2009
1 An overview of deep soil
improvement by vibratory
methods

Realisation of structures always makes use of the soil on which, in which, or

with which they are built. Whenever engineers find that the natural con-
ditions of the soil are inadequate for the envisaged work they are faced with
the following well-known alternatives of:

1 bypassing the unsuitable soil in choosing a deep foundation;

2 removing the bad soil and replacing it with appropriate soil;
3 redesigning the structure for these conditions;
4 improving these conditions to the necessary extent.

When the Committee on Placement and Improvement of Soils of the ASCE’s

Geotechnical Engineering Division published its report Soil Improvement:
History, Capabilities, and Outlook in 1978 it concluded that “it is likely
that the importance of the fourth alternative will increase in future”. Indeed,
in the decades since “the need for practical, efficient, economical, and
environmentally acceptable means for improving unsuitable soils and sites”
has increased.
Before selecting the appropriate soil improvement measures it is necessary
to determine the requirements, which follow from the ultimate and service-
ability limit state of design. These are:

• increase of density and shear strength with positive effect on stability

problems;
• reduction of compressibility with positive effect on deformations;
• reduction/increase of permeability to reduce water flow and/or to
accelerate consolidation;
• improvement of homogeneity to equalise deformation.

When leaving aside the method of exchanging the soil, ground improve-
ment can be categorised into compaction and reinforcement methods.
Table 1.1 shows a classification of the methods of ground improvement that
are of practical relevance today.
2 Ground Improvement by Deep Vibratory Methods

Table 1.1 Ground improvement methods (after Sondermann and Kirsch, 2009)

Ground improvement methods

Compaction Reinforcement

Static methods Dynamic Displacing No displacing effect

methods effect
Mechanical Hydraulic
introduction introduction

• pre-loading • compaction by • vibro stone • MIP1 • jet grouting

• pre-loading vibration: columns method
with • using depth • vibro • CMI2
consolidation vibrators concrete method
aid • using columns • permeation
• compaction vibratory • sand grouting
grouting hammers compaction • freezing
• influencing • impact piles
groundwater compaction: • lime/cement
• drop weight stabilising
• explosion columns
• air pulse
method

Notes: 1 mixed-in-place; 2 cut-mix-inject (Topolnicki, 2004)

This book deals with two important soil improvement methods that
utilise the depth vibrator as the essential tool for their execution. Granular
soils are compacted utilising the dynamic forces emanating from the depth
vibrator when positioned in the ground. The reinforcing effect of stone
columns, constructed with modified depth vibrators, in cohesive soils
improves their load-carrying and shearing characteristics.
Since the development of vibro compaction during the 1930s and vibro
replacement stone columns in the 1970s, they have become the most
frequently used methods of soil improvement worldwide due to their
unrivalled versatility and wide range of application.
As we will see, deep vibratory sand compaction is a simple concept, and
therefore design and quality control of compaction in cohesionless soils have
remained almost entirely empirical. The development of predictive design
methods based upon fundamental soil dynamics were probably inhibited
by the simplicity of in-situ penetration testing for settlement and bearing
capacity calculations. The study of the effect of resonance developing during
compaction in granular soils surrounding the vibrator and improved
mechanical and electronic controls of the compaction process have, only
relatively recently, opened opportunities for significant advances in this
field.
The introduction of coarse backfill during vibro compaction and the
 An overview of deep soil improvement by vibratory methods 3
resulting formation of a granular or stone column was a logical and almost
natural development when unexpectedly cohesive or non-compactable soils
were encountered. The composite of stone column and surrounding soil
stimulated theoretical studies on settlements and shear resistance by
applying standard soil mechanics principles.
Each of the systems, vibro compaction and vibro stone columns, has
its characteristics and method of execution, and even machine types are
different for the two systems of ground improvement, as are design
principles, field testing and quality control.
When in motion, depth vibrators send out horizontal vibrations, and are
all excellent boring machines in loose sandy and soft cohesive soils.
The horizontal motion emanating from the depth vibrator being
positioned in the ground is the distinctive characteristic that distinguishes
this method from all the other methods, which utilise vertical vibrations.
These methods, which are in general less effective for the compaction of
granular soils and which cannot be used for the improvement of fine-grained
cohesive soils, are generally not recognised as true vibro compaction
methods and hence are not discussed in great detail.
Depth vibrators are normally suspended like a pendulum from a standard
or special crane for vertical penetration into the ground. The vibrator sinks
by the desired depth, sometimes assisted by water or air flushing, additional
weight when necessary, or even by downward thrust developed by special
cranes with vertical leaders. In granular soils the surrounding sand is com-
pacted in stages during withdrawal, and in cohesive soils imported backfill is
employed to form a stiffening column.
The choice of technique follows from the soil and groundwater conditions
given in site investigation reports. As will be explained later, the grain size
distribution diagram of the soil to be improved is a valuable tool for this
choice. Sand and gravel with negligibly low plasticity and cohesion can be
compacted by the vibrations emanating from the depth vibrator (vibro com-
paction) while with an increasing content of fines vibrations are dampened
rendering the method ineffective. Experience shows that the limit of vibro
compaction is reached with a silt content of more than approximately 10%.
Clay particles at even smaller percentages (1–2%) cause a similar effect. In
these cases an improvement of the soil characteristics can only be obtained
by adding granular material during the process of forming compacted stone
columns (vibro replacement stone columns).
Following a historic overview of the development of these soil improve-
ment methods, two chapters deal with the improvement of granular soils
by the vibro compaction method and of fine-grained cohesive soils by the
vibro replacement stone column method. The chapters include detailed
descriptions of the equipment used and the specific physical processes con-
trolling the two methods and provide state-of-the-art design principles,
including methods to assess and mitigate seismic risk when applying either
improvement method. Quality control procedures, the evaluation of suitable
4 Ground Improvement by Deep Vibratory Methods
soils and practical method limitations together with recent case histories
complete these chapters.
In final three chapters, method variations and related processes will be
described as well as environmental considerations and contractual implica-
tions of these ground improvement methods for the practising engineer.
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