Electric Circuit Analysis

EE1206

Chapter Three: Useful theorems in circuit analysis

June 5, 2019
Learning outcomes

• Be familiar with star-delta transformation.

• Understand the concepts of linearity and equivalence
• Know how to analyze electric circuits using the principle of superposition
• Be able to calculate a Thvenin equivalent circuit for a linear circuit
• Be able to calculate a Norton equivalent circuit for a linear circuit
• Understand when and how to use a source transformation
• Be able to use the maximum power transfer theorem
1/39
Contents

1. Equivalent circuits

2. Linearity

3. Star-Delta transformation

4. Source Transformation

5. Thevenin’s theorem

6. Norton’s Theorem

7. Maximum Power Transfer

2/39
Equivalent circuits

*NB: it is important to note that a series connection of current

sources or a parallel connection of voltage sources is forbidden
unless the sources are pointing in the same direction and have
exactly the same values.

3/39
Contents

1. Equivalent circuits

2. Linearity

3. Star-Delta transformation

4. Source Transformation

5. Thevenin’s theorem

6. Norton’s Theorem

7. Maximum Power Transfer

4/39
Linearity

• Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear

relationship between cause and effect.
• The property is a combination of both the homogeneity
(scaling) property and the additivity property.
• The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also
called the excitation) is multiplied by a constant, then the
output (also called the response) is multiplied by the same
constant.

5/39
• For a resistor, for example, Ohms law relates the input i to the output v,

v = iR

• If the current is increased by a constant k, then the voltage increases

correspondingly by k; that is,
kiR = kv

• The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum
of the responses to each input applied separately. Using the voltage-current
relationship of a resistor, if
v1 = i1 R

and
v2 = i2 R

then applying (i1 + i2 ) gives

v = (i1 + i2 )R = i1 R + i2 R = v1 + v2

• We say that a resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current

relationship satisfies both the homogeneity and the additivity properties.
• In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous.

6/39
...contd

• A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or

directly proportional) to its input.
• Note that since p = i 2 R = vR2 (making it a quadratic function
rather than a linear one), the relationship between power and
voltage (or current) is nonlinear.
• Therefore, the theorems covered in this chapter are not
applicable to power.
• Suppose vs = 10V gives i = 2A. According to the linearity
principle, vs = 1V will give i = 0.2A. By the same token,
i = 1mA must be due to vs = 5mV .

7/39
...contd

• Assume that Vo = 1 V and use linearity to calculate the

actual value of Vo in the circuit of Fig below.
Ans: 12V

8/39
Contents

1. Equivalent circuits

2. Linearity

3. Star-Delta transformation

4. Source Transformation

5. Thevenin’s theorem

6. Norton’s Theorem

7. Maximum Power Transfer

9/39
Star-Delta transformation

• Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are

neither in parallel nor in series. For example, consider the
bridge circuit in Fig. below.
• How do we combine resistors R1 through R6 when the
resistors are neither in series nor in parallel?

10/39
...contd

• Many circuits of the type shown in Fig. above can be

simplified by using three-terminal equivalent networks. These
are the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown in the left in Fig.
below and the delta (∆) or pi (Π) network shown in the right
in Fig. below.

11/39
Delta to Wye Conversion

• Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in

a place where the circuit contains a delta configuration.
• We superimpose a wye network on the existing delta network
and find the equivalent resistances in the wye network.
• Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the
resistors in the two adjacent ∆ branches, divided by the
sum of the three ∆ resistors.
Delta to wye Conversion
Rb Rc
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rc
R2 =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra Rb
R3 = 12/39
Ra + Rb + Rc
Wye to Delta Conversion

Each resistor in the ∆ network is the sum of all possible products of Y resistors
taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.Considering fig above:

Wye to Delta Conversion

R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
Ra =
R1
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
Rb =
R2
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
Rc =
R3

The Y and ∆ networks are said to be balanced when

R1 = R2 = R3 = RY , Ra = Rb = Rc = R∆

Under these conditions:

R∆
RY = => R∆ = 3RY
3

13/39
Example

For the bridge network in Fig. below, find Rab and i.

Answer: 40 Ω, 2.5 A.

14/39
Superposition

Superposition
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or
current through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic
sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element
due to each independent source acting alone.

Things to keep in mind while applying superposition:

1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other
independent sources are turned off. This implies that we
replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and
every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we
obtain a simpler and more manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled
by circuit variables. 15/39
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to that active source using the
techniques covered in previous chapters.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.

NB: Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity. For this

reason, it is not applicable to the effect on power due to each
source, because the power absorbed by a resistor depends on the
square of the voltage or current. If the power value is needed, the
current through (or voltage across) the element must be calculated
first using superposition.
16/39
Example

Using the superposition theorem, find vo in the circuit of below.

Answer: 6 V.

17/39
Contents

1. Equivalent circuits

2. Linearity

3. Star-Delta transformation

4. Source Transformation

5. Thevenin’s theorem

6. Norton’s Theorem

7. Maximum Power Transfer

18/39
Source Transformation

Source transformation is another tool for simplifying circuits. Basic

to these tools is the concept of equivalence. We recall that an
equivalent circuit is one whose v-i characteristics are identical with
the original circuit.
Source Transformation
A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage
source vs in series with a resistor R by a current source is in
parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

19/39
...contd

• If the sources are turned off, the equivalent resistance at

terminals a-b in both circuits is R.
• Also, when terminals a-b are short-circuited, the short-circuit
current flowing from a to b is isc = vRs in the circuit on the
left-hand side and isc = is for the circuit on the right-hand
side.
• Thus, vRs = is in order for the two circuits to be equivalent.
Hence, source transformation requires that
vs
vs = is R is =
R

20/39
...contd

Source transformation also applies to dependent sources, provided we carefully handle

the dependent variable. As shown in Fig.below:

Things to keep in mind:

1. The arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal of the
voltage source.
2. Source transformation is not possible when R = 0, which is the case with an
ideal voltage source. However, for a practical, nonideal voltage source, R 6= 0.
Similarly, an ideal current source with R = ∞ cannot be replaced by a finite 21/39
voltage source.
Example

Find io in the circuit of Fig. below using source transformation.

Ans. 1.78A

22/39
Contents

1. Equivalent circuits

2. Linearity

3. Star-Delta transformation

4. Source Transformation

5. Thevenin’s theorem

6. Norton’s Theorem

7. Maximum Power Transfer

23/39
Thevenin’s theorem

• It often occurs in practice that a

particular element in a circuit is
variable (usually called the load)
while other elements are fixed.
• As a typical example, a household
outlet terminal may be connected to
different appliances constituting a
variable load.
• Each time the variable element is
changed, the entire circuit has to be
analyzed all over again.
• To avoid this problem, Thevenins
theorem provides a technique by
which the fixed part of the circuit is
replaced by an equivalent circuit.

24/39
...contd

Thevenin’s theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source
VTh in series with a resistor RTh , where VTh is the open-circuit
voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.

25/39
Cases to consider in Thevenin’s theorem

Case1
If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. RTh is
the input resistance of the network looking between terminals a and b.

Case2
If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. As with
superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off because they are
controlled by circuit variables. We apply a voltage source vo at terminals a and b
and determine the resulting current io . Then RTh = vi o .
o
Alternatively, we may insert a current source io at terminals a-b and find the
terminal voltage vo . Again RTh = vi o . Either of the two approaches will give the
o
same result. In either approach we may assume any value of vo and io . For
example, we may use vo = 1V or io = 1A, or even use unspecified values of vo or io .
It often occurs that RTh takes a negative value. In this case, the negative resistance
(v = −iR) implies that the circuit is supplying power. This is possible in a circuit
with dependent sources.

26/39
...contd

27/39
Example1

Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of

the terminals in the circuit of Fig. below. Then find I.
Answer: VTh = 9V , RTh = 3Ω, I = 2.25 A.

28/39
Example2

Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of

the terminals in the circuit of Fig. below.
Answer: VTh = 5.33V , RTh = 0.44Ω

29/39
Contents

1. Equivalent circuits

2. Linearity

3. Star-Delta transformation

4. Source Transformation

5. Thevenin’s theorem

6. Norton’s Theorem

7. Maximum Power Transfer

30/39
Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem states that a
linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistor RN , where
IN is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and RN is
the input or equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

We find RN in the same way we

find RTh
RN = RTh
31/39
...contd

To find the Norton current IN, we determine the short-circuit

current flowing from terminal a to b.

Dependent and independent sources are treated the same way as in

Thevenin’s theorem.
Observe the close relationship between Nortons and Thevenin’s
theorems: RN = RTh
VTh
IN =
RTh
This is essentially source transformation. For this reason, source
transformation is often called Thevenin-Norton transformation. 32/39
...contd

Since VTh , IN , and RTh are related, to determine the Thevenin or

Norton equivalent circuit requires that we find:
• The open-circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b.
• The short-circuit current isc at terminals a and b.
• The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b
when all independent sources are turned off.

We can calculate any two of the three using the method that takes
the least effort and use them to get the third using Ohm’s law.
vTh = voc
IN = isc
voc
RTh =
isc
33/39
Example

Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig. below at

terminals a-b.
Answer: RN = 1Ω, IN = 10A.

34/39
Contents

1. Equivalent circuits

2. Linearity

3. Star-Delta transformation

4. Source Transformation

5. Thevenin’s theorem

6. Norton’s Theorem

7. Maximum Power Transfer

35/39
Maximum Power Transfer

• In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide

power to a load.
• There are applications in areas such as communications where
it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load.
• We now address the problem of delivering the maximum power
to a load when given a system with known internal losses.
• The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum
power a linear circuit can deliver to a load.
• We assume that we can adjust the load resistance RL .

36/39
...contd
If the entire circuit is replaced by
its Thevenin equivalent except
for the load, as shown in Fig.
below, the power delivered to the
load is:
 2
2 vTh
p = i RL = RL
RTh + RL
For a given circuit, VTh and RTh are fixed. By varying the load
resistance RL , the power delivered to the load varies as sketched in
Fig. below.

37/39
...contd

Maximum power transfer

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load
resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load
(RL = RTh ).

To prove this, let us differentiate the power equation with respect

to RL and set the result equal to zero:

(RTh + RL )2 − 2RL (RTh + RL )

 
dp 2
= vTh =0
dRL (RTh + RL )4
 
dP 2 RTh − RL
= vTh =0
dRL (RTh + RL )3

RTh = RL
38/39
...contd

The maximum power transferred is obtained by substituting RL by

VTh in the power equation.
2
vTh
pmax =
4RTh
Example:
Determine the value of RL that will draw the maximum power
from the rest of the circuit in Fig. below. Calculate the maximum
power.
Answer: 4.22 Ω, 2.901 W.

39/39