Highways Engineering I

CEng 3182 :Highway Engineering I
3rd year Regular Civil Engineering

Adigrat University
CEng 3182: Tewelde G (MSc)
Sunday, March 31, 2019 1

 Introduction To Transportation Planning

 Introarduction To Traffic Engineering
 Highway Alignment and Surveys
 Highway Geometric Design
 Highway Design Control and Critrea
 Highway Cross Section
 Horizontal Curve Design
 Vertical Curve Design
 Earth Works and MHD
Sunday, March 31, 2019 CEng 3182: Tewelde G (MSc) Page 1
1.1 General Introduction to Transportation
Planning
– Transportation systems: [Roadway, Airway, Marine]
– Mode of Transportation Systems: [List....]
– The main Processes in the development of many
transportation projects are -Planning- Design-
Construction- Operation- Maintenance
– The process of Transportation Planning is useful for
• Describing the effects of a proposed transportation
alternative
• Explaining the benefits to the traveler of a new
transportation system and its impacts on the
community.
• The highway and traffic engineer is responsible for
– Developing forecasts of travel demand,
– Conducting evaluations based on economic and noneconomic
factors,
– Identifying alternatives for short, medium and long range
purposes.
• Among the factors that may justify a transportation
project are Improvements in
– Traffic flow and safety,
– Energy consumption,
– Travel time,
– Economic growth,
– Accessibility etc.

• Some transportation projects may have been selected for reasons
unrelated to specific benefits, for example,
– To stimulate employment in a particular region,
– To compete with other cities or states for prestige,
– To attract industry,
– To respond to pressures from a political constituency, or
– To gain personal benefit from particular route location or construction
project.
• In some instances, transportation projects are not selected b/c of
– Opposition from those who would be adversely affected.
• For example, a new highway construction (property) and construction of an airport (noise)
• Whatever the reason for selecting/rejecting a transportation project,
• a specific process led to the conclusion to build or not to build.

• The process for planning transportation systems should be a
rational one that serves to deliver unbiased information about
the effects that the proposed transportation project will have
on the affected community and on users.
• The process must be flexible enough to be applicable to any
transportation project or system, because the kinds of
problems that transportation engineers work on will vary over
time.
• The transportation planning process is not intended to deliver
a decision or to give a single result that must be followed,
although it can do so in relatively simple situations.
• Rather, the process is intended to provide the appropriate information to
those who will be affected and those responsible for deciding whether
the transportation project should go forward.

1. 2 Basic elements of transportation
planning
– The process of transportation planning
involves these elements of:
I. Situation Definition,
II. Problem Definition
III. Search For Solutions
IV. Performance Analysis
V. Evaluation And
VI. Choice Of Project
VII. Specification and construction

ConT...
– Situation Definition
• Described all of the activities required to understand the situation , basic
factors that created the present situation & scope of the system to be
studied is explained
• Information about surrounding area, its people and their travel habits , etc.
• Example :
– List transportation facilities
– Measure travel patterns
– Review prior studies
– Problem Definition
• Describe the problem in terms of the objectives to be accomplished by the
project and to translate those objectives into criteria that can be quantified
• Example:
– Define objectives: e.g.. Reduce travel time
– Establish criteria: e.g.. Average delay time
– Define limitations e.g..
– Establish design standard e.g.

• Search for solutions
– Consider options that may provide solutions to the problem.
• Locations, ideas, designs and types
• Tunnel or don‘t build
• Toll charges
– (data gathering, field testing, and cost estimating) may be necessary at this stage
to determine the practicality and financial feasibility of the alternatives being
proposed.
• Performance analysis
– Estimate how each of the proposed alternatives would perform under
present and future conditions.
– The criteria identified in the previous steps are calculated for each
transportation option.
• For each option, determine
– Cost (investment +operation + maintenance)
– Traffic flow (develop models for estimating)
– Impacts
– Benefits
• Evaluation of Alternatives
– Determine how well each alternative will achieve the objectives of the
project as defined by the criteria
• Benefits vs. cost
• Profitability
• Cost-effectiveness
• Choice of project
– Project selection is made after considering all the factors involved
• Consider factors involved:
– Revenue cost forecast
– Site location
– Political judgment
• Specification and construction
• Design
• Construct
• Transfer

Note: Transportation Planning Organization:
 In carrying out the urban transportation planning
process, several committees represent various
community interests and viewpoints.
• These committees are
– The policy committee,
– The technical committee, and
– The citizens‘ advisory committee.
They also interact with permanent planning entities,
such as the regional metropolitan planning
organization (MPO).

1.3. Planning data collection :–
Your plan to collect the important data
– The data collection phase provides information
about the city and its people that will serve as the
basis for developing travel demand estimates.
– The data include information about
• Economic activity (employment, sales volume, income,
etc.),
• Land use (type, intensity),
• Travel characteristics (trip and traveler profile), and
• Transportation facilities (capacity, travel speed, etc.).
– This phase may involve surveys and can be based
on previously collected data.
The O-D survey asks questions about
– Each trip that is made on a specific day such as
• Where the trip begins and ends,
• The purpose of the trip, the time of day, and
• The vehicle involved (auto or transit) and
• About the person making the trip
– Like Age, Sex, Income, Vehicle owner, etc.
– The O-D survey may be completed as
• A home interview, or people may be asked questions
while riding the bus or when stopped at a roadside
interview station. Sometimes, the information is
requested by telephone or by return postcard.

1.4 Steps in the Travel Forecasting Process: Modeling
– Step 1. Population and economic analysis determines the
magnitude and extent of activity in the urban area.
– Step 2. Land use analysis determines where the activities will be
located.
– Step 3. Trip generation determines how many trips each activity
will produce or attract at each zone.
– Step 4. Trip distribution determines the origin or destination of
trips that are generated at a given activity.
– Step 5. Modal split determines which mode of transportation will
be used to make the trip.
– Step 6. Traffic assignment determines which route on the
transportation network will be used when making the trip where
each user seeks to minimize their travel time on the network.

1.4. Transportation Systems Modeling
– Trip generation,
• Trip generation analysis has two functions:
– To develop a relationship between trip end production or
attraction and land use and
– To use the relationship to estimate the number of trips
generated at some future date under a new set of land
use conditions.
– Methods considered: cross-classification and rates
based on activity units. Another commonly used method
is regression analysis
– Balancing trip productions and attractions: trip
productions are considered to be more accurate than trip
attractions. Thus, choose…

1.4. Transportation Systems Modeling
– Trip generation,
• A multiple regression analysis shows the following
relationship for the number of trips per household.
Example
• T= 0.82+ 1.3P+ 2.1A, Where
• T= number of trips per household per day
• P= number of persons per household
• A= number of autos per household
– If a particular TAZ contains 250 households with an
average of 4 persons and 2 autos for each
household, determine the average number of trips
per day in that zone?
• Trip distribution,
• A process by which the trips generated in one zone are
allocated to other zones in the study area
– Gravity model method
• Modal choice,
• Determines the number (or percentage) of trips between
zones that are made by automobile and by transit.
– Total System Cost Assignment method
• Traffic assignment
• Determine the actual street and highway routes that will
be used and the number of automobiles and buses that
can be expected on each highway segment.
– all or nothing

Thank YOU!
End Of Chapter 1
Questions?


Sunday, March 31, 2019 CEng 3182: Tewelde G (MSc) 19
2.1 Introduction to Traffic Engineering
Questions to be answered in this section
 What is Traffic Engineering ?
 What are the objectives of Traffic Engineering?
 Describe the 3 E‘s and their applications?
 Which are the fields of studies in Traffic Engineering?
 Discus the relationship in between the flow
characteristics (flow, speed, and density) and show in
diagrams or figures
 How can you know the level of service of different roads
and segments?

2.1 Introduction to Traffic Engineering
 Definition
What is Traffic Engineering ?
 It is the application of technology and scientific principles in
to the Planning, Functional design, Operation, and
Management of facilities for any mode of transportation in
order to provide Safe, Rapid, Comfortable, Convenient,
Economical, and Environmentally compatible movement of
people and goods‖
 It is the phase of transportation engineering that deals with
the Planning, geometric design and traffic operations of
Roads, streets and highways, their networks, terminals,
abutting lands, and relationships with other modes of
transportation
Objectives of Traffic Engineering
Safety is the primary objective
– Thousands of people die each year in traffic accidents (33,561
in year 2012)
Speed (higher speed means shorter travel time).
– Interstate highways encourage long distance trips.
Comfort
– Involves the physical characteristics of vehicles and roadways
Convenience
– The ease of making trips and the ability of transport systems to
accommodate all travel needs
Economy
– Try to provide the best possible systems for the money
Environmental compatibility
– Provide sustainable transport systems
 Ethical Aspects – traffic engineers deal with the public as well as
engineering topics
• Be honest
• Avoid ―cutting corners‖
• Avoid tailoring the results to please the client
• Avoid manipulating data
• Know what‘s in the analysis models and software
• Engineers Code of Ethics (example)
 Elements of traffic engineering
• Traffic studies and characteristics
• Performance evaluation
• Facility design
• Traffic control
• Traffic operations
• Transportation systems management

 The Nature of Transportation Demand

Concept of Mobility and Accessibility
Trunk Roads Principal arterials
Mobility
ERA Method
ASHTO Method
Link Roads Minor arterials
Access Roads Major collectors
Access Collectors Minor collectors
Feeder Roads Local roads and streets
Mobility = the ability to travel to many different destinations

Accessibility = the ability to gain entry to a particular site or area

Modern Problems for the Traffic Engineers
• Urban congestion
• Growth management
• Reconstruction of existing highway facilities —
maintenance of traffic is a major issue
Standard References for the Traffic Engineer
• Uniform Vehicle Code (UVC) and Model Traffic Ordinance
• Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD 2003, 2009)
(on-line)
• Highway Capacity Manual (HCM)
• AASHTO‘s Green Book – A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets
• Traffic Engineering Handbook
• Manual of Traffic Engineering Studies (on-line)
• ERA Manual 2013

Traffic Flow Characteristics

Traffic flow characteristics
Movement of vehicles on a roadway is complex process. Needs to
consider Type of facilities
— Driver behavior 1. Uninterrupted flow facilities
— No traffic signals
— Controlling vehicle — Freeways & unlimited access
— Changing lane facilities
— Changing speed 2. Interrupted flow facilities
— Traffic signs (stop and Yield)
— Geometry complexity — Signalized intersections
— Pavement Performances — Platoons – group of vehicles
moving together
Operating conditions
 Unsaturated flow  Oversaturated flow
 Arrival flow rate is  Arrival flow rate is capacity
capacity  Queue created
 No residual queue  Traffic flow is affected by
 Traffic flow is not affected down stream condition
by down stream

Parameters
Macroscopic : traffic stream as a whole Microscopic : individual
 Application vehicles in the traffic stream
 Volume studies, f or q  Application
 Speed studies, s or u  Queue length
 Density studies, D or K  Delay studies
 Travel time studies, t  Car following models
 Volume studies, Rate of flow
 Lane changing models
 Unit: vehicles or vehicles per unit time
 Gap acceptance
 Components:
1. daily volume (AADT, AAWT,ADT, AWT)
models
2. hourly volume (Peak hour, DDHV) operating  Behavioral models
3. sub hourly volume (PHF, V15)  Headway and spacing
• Speed studies studies, ha, da
• Time mean speed = arithmetic mean  Time and spacing b/n
• Space mean speed = harmonic mean successive vehicle at
• Operating speeds specific point from
• 85th percentile common reference
• 50th percentile respectively
• 15th percentile  K=5280/da
• Density studies  F=3600/ha
 U=c*da/ha
Sunday, March 31, 2019 Page 29
 Macroscopic : Examples 1: Volume and rate of flow studies
Time Volume For Rate Of Flow For Time Queue Size = Arriving -
Interval Time Interval Veh/H Departing
Interval,
5:00- 1000 veh =1000/0.25=4000 1000-1050=NO
5:15
5:15- 1100 veh =1100/0.25=4400 1100-1050=50
5:30
5:30- 1200 veh =1200/0.25=4800 1200-1050+50=200
5:45
5:45- 900 veh =900/0.25=3600 900-1050+200=50
6:00
— Actual traffic volume = 1000+1100+1200+900= 4200 = hourly volume
— Rate of traffic for worst period= 4800 = peak flow rate
Therefore as 4400>4200 and 4800>4200, queue produces at 5:15-5:30 and 5:30-5:45 i.e.
from 5:15 to 5:45
Queue analysis
Capacity=Departing=actual volume/4 =4200/4= 1050 veh/hr
Queue = arriving – departing .i.e. 50 veh/hr
@the end of the period 50 vehicles will be forced to queue
PHF =4200 /4800 =0.875
Sunday, March 31, 2019 Page 30

 Macroscopic : Examples 2: Volume and rate of flow studies
mont Week days Days in Weekday Monthly volume, AWT ADT

h in month month volume, vehs vehs
Jan 22 31 170000 200000 7727 6452
Feb 20 28 171000 210000 8550 7500
Mar 22 31 185000 215000 8409 6936
Apr 22 30 180000 205000 8182 6833
May 21 31 172000 195000 8191 6290
Jun 22 30 168000 193000 7636 6433
Jul 23 31 160000 180000 6957 5806
Aug 21 31 150000 175000 7143 5645
Sep 22 3o 175000 189000 7955 6300
Oct 22 31 178000 198000 8091 6387
Nov 21 30 182000 205000 8667 6833
Dec 21 31 176000 200000 8000 6451
Sum 260 365 2067000 2365000
— AADT=2365000/365 =5663 & AAWT = 2067000/260 = 7950
— DDHV=AADT*K*D = Directional Design Hourly Volume

 Macroscopic : Examples 3: Speed studies
Speed of five vehicles measured by radar at a midpoint of 0-8 km is given as (71, 68,
82, 79 & 74) km/hr
 TMS?
 SMS?
TMS =Ui/ni = (71 + 68 + 82 +79 + 74)/5 = 74.8 km/hr
SMS = 1 / ((1/n)*(1/ui)) = 1/ ((1/5)*(1/71 + 1/68 +1/ 82 +1/79 + 1/74) = 74.45 km/hr
Read on Home
1. Spot speed studies
2. Operating speed studies
3. Density studies
 If the average spacing is 200 ft and average headway is 3.8 seconds:
 Determine flow rate?

 Determine density?
 Determine speed?
 Solutions
 F=3600/ha = 3600/3.8 =947 veh/h/l
 K=5280/da = 5280/200 = 46.4 veh/mi/l
 U= 0.68 da/ha = 0.38*200/3.8 = 20.4 ft/s

 Macroscopic : flow, speed and density
models
capacity
Flow U  0  = forced flow
V1 B A A B
(queue)
Uc Uf Kc Kj  = stable flow
speed density  Kj = 2 Kc
 Uf = 2 Uc
 Qc = Kc*Uc =KjUf/4
density  Kj = 4Qc/Uf
 Q = kj(u-u2/uf)
speed
Uc Uf  Q = uf(k-k2/kj)
@ U= Uc , K=Kc , and Q = Qmax = Qc
@ U=Uf , K =? , Q = ?  Conditions
@ U=0, K =? , Q = ?
 @ capacity?
 @ high speed and low density? Stable flow
 @ low speed and high density? Queue = forced  @ high speed and
flow low density?
 Between flow and speed, flow and density = parabolic  @ low speed and
relationship high density?
 Between flow and speed =linear inversely relationship

Level Of Service Determination, LOS
It is the quality of the traffic service to a given flow rate
Objective: to measure highest level of congestion
Determination of the capacities of transportation systems
and facilities is a major issue in the analysis of
transportation flow.
 Capacity is independent of demand in the sense that it
does not depend on the total number of vehicles (or
whatever) demanding service.
 It is expressed in terms of units of some specific thing,
however, so that it does depend on
1. Traffic composition
— For instance, for highways, the percentage of trucks or other
heavy vehicles; or for airport runways, the percentage of
heavy jet aircraft
2. physical and environmental conditions,
—such as the geometric design of facilities or the weather.

Finally, capacity is a probabilistic measure.
There is some variation from time to time and
place to place in the maximum number of units
of transportation demand that can be
accommodated by similar facilities. Not all of
these variations can be accounted for by the
normal determinants of capacity.
Capacity is often best thought of as the
Maximum Average Flow Rate that can be
sustained indefinitely, so long as there is no
lack of demand.

 A Service Volume is the Maximum Number Of
Vehicles, Passengers, or the Like, which can be
accommodated by a given facility or system under
given conditions at a given level of service.
 Although LOS are defined somewhat differently,
depending on the situation, they are always
intended to relate the quality of traffic service
to given volumes (or flow rates) of traffic.
 LOS may be based on such things as travel times
(or speeds), total delay, probability of delay,
comfort, safety, and so forth.

 Flow is the reciprocal of the time separation, or headway, between
vehicles. That is, C = 1/ minimum average headway
 The minimum average headway, in turn, depends on the
 Headway distribution, the speed distribution, and the degree of
maneuverability in the traffic stream.
 Minimum headways may be determined deliberately and imposed
upon a whole system by a controller, as in the case of air or rail
systems, or they may result from the behavior of individual
operators, as in the case of highway traffic.
 Actual minimum headways vary greatly, depending on the
 Type of control system, the ability of vehicles to make emergency
maneuvers, and the consequences of accidents.
 For highway traffic, average minimum headways may sometimes
be as small as 1.5 s/vehicle. For rail transit systems, minimum
headways are around 10 to 20 s/train. Air traffic headways are
expressed in distance rather than time, with minimum spacing on
final approach paths varying from 3 to 5 nautical miles (NM).

Basic Freeway Segment
 Basic freeway segment capacity is the simplest
highway capacity problem.
Basic freeway segments are
Essentially uninterrupted one-way flow.
Have 2 or more lanes in each dxn
Full access control
Un affected by merging or diverging mov‘ts near
ramps
For divided roadways , capacity analysis focuses on
the traffic flow in one dxn only
Full Capacity =2400

Basic Conditions and Capacity on freeway segments are
 Maximum flow (for 15 min) is vary with the free-flow speed of the
freeway, and to range from 2,250 passenger cars per hour per lane
(pc/h/ln) for a free-flow speed of 90 km/h up to 2,400 pc/h/ln for free-
flow speeds of 120 km/h or more.
 3.6 m lanes,
 At least 1.8 m of minimum right shoulder clearances, all passenger
cars,
 Only passenger car in the traffic stream
 10 or more lanes (applies to urban areas only),
 3.2 km or more interchanges spacing
 Level terrain (no grades greater than 2 percent), and
 A driver population consisting of regular and familiar users of the
facility.
 In cases in which these conditions are not met, capacities will be
decreased.
 Service measure = Density
Basic Conditions and Capacity on freeway segments are
 The Highway Capacity Manual defines six levels of service,
designated by the letters A through F, with A being the highest
level of service and F the lowest. The definitions of these levels of service
vary depending on the type of roadway or roadway element under consideration.
 LOS A Represents
 Free flow conditions (operating at free flow speed)
 Extremely high freedom to select speeds and to maneuver within the
traffic stream
 Individual users are virtually unaffected by the presence of others in
the traffic stream
 Drivers level of comfort and convenience is excellent
 LOS B Represents
 Free flow conditions (operating at /near free flow speed)
 Relatively unaffected freedom to select speeds but slight decline in
freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream relative to LOS A
 The presence of others in the traffic stream begins to be noticeable
 Read on your Home : LOS C, D, E and F
 In the case of basic freeway sections, the levels of service are based on
density, and are given in Table below
Level of Density, FFS Capacity
service pc/km/ln Km/h Pc/h/ln
A 0-7 120 2400
B 7-11 110 2350
C 11-16 100 2300
D 16-22 90 2250
E 22-28
F >28
 Level of service F represents congested flow. Speed and flow are also related
to densities and may be related, in turn, to the various levels of service.
 Determination of the level of service for a basic freeway section involves
determination of the free-flow speed, the 15-min flow rate, and the level
of service.
 The free-flow speed may be determined by either a field study, in which
speeds are measured for low to moderate traffic volumes (up to 1,300 pc/h/ln)
or by the following formula

 FFS = BFFS – fLW - fLC – fN – fID
 FFS = estimated free-flow speed, km/h
 BFFS =base free-flow speed, 110 (urban) or 120 km/h (rural)
 fLW =adjustment for lane width from Table, km/h
 fLC =adjustment for right shoulder clearance from Table, km/h
 fN =adjustment for number of lanes from Table, km/h
 fID =adjustment for interchange density from Table , km/h
 The 15-min flow rate in pc/h/ln is calculated from the hourly volume
of mixed traffic by
 Up = V/ (PHF x N x FHV x fp)
 Up = 15-min passenger car equivalent flow rate, pc/h/ln
 V =hourly volume, veh/h
 PHF = peak hour factor
 N= number of lanes in one direction
 FHV =heavy-vehicle factor
 fp = driver population factor
 fHV = 1/(1 + PT(ET - 1) + PR (ER -1))
 ET = PCE of Buses and Trucks and ER = PCE of Recreational vehicle
 PT = Percentage of Buses and Trucks and PR = Percentage of Recreational vehicle
 Density , K = Up/ FFS
 LOS = ?

PCE‘s For Extended Freeways
Factor Type of terrain
level Rolling Mountainous
ET (Buss 1.5 2.5 4.5

and Trucks)
ER (RVs) 1.2 2.0 4.0

 Example 1 Required
LOS of the given way?
Solution
Given
FFS = BFFS – fLW - fLC – fN – fID
6 lane urban freeway – BFFS =110 (urban)
Rolling terrain – fLW = 2.1 Table 6.3, km/h
3.4 m lane width – fLC =2.6 Table 6.4 , km/h
– fN =4.8 Table 6.5 , km/h
Obstructions 0.6 m from the right – fID =8.43 Table 6.6 , km/h, interpolation
edge of the travelled pavement,
FFS = 110 – 2.1 - 2.6 – 4.8 – 8.43 = 92 km/h
and Up = V/ (PHF x N x FHV x fp)
0-93 m interchanges per PHF = 2200/(4*700) = 0.786
kilometer fHV = 1/(1 + PT(ET - 1) + PR (ER -1))
Primarily commuters (drivers ) fHV = 1/(1 + 0.15 (2.5 - 1) + 0* (ER -1))=0.816
Dxnal weekday peak hour Up = 2200/ (0.786 x 3 x 0.816 x1) =
1144pc/h/l
volume of 2200 vehicles and @
K = Up / FFS = (1144pc/h/l) / (92 km/h)
Most congested 15 minute = 12.43 pc/km/l
period , 700 vehicles arriving Then , LOS ‗ C‘
15 % large trucks and buses
No recreational vehicles
 Example 2
Given Solution 1
Consider the freeway and traffic FFS = 110 – 2.1 - 2.6 – 4.8 – 8.43 = 92 km/h
conditions in example 1 Up = V/ (PHF x N x FHV x fp)
PHF = 2200/(4*700) = 0.786
At some point further along the
roadway there is a 6% upgrade that is fHV = 1/(1 + PT(ET - 1) + PR (ER -1))
2.4 km long. Look to table 6.8 on your note
All other characteristics are the same fHV = 1/(1 + 0.15 (3.5 - 1) + 0* (ER -1))=0.727
Up = 2200/ (0.786 x 3 x 0.727 x1) = 1284
as in example 1
pc/h/l
Required K = Up / FFS = (1284 pc/h/l) / (92 km/h)
1. LOS of this portion of roadway? = 13.95 pc/km/l
Then , LOS ‗ C‘
2. How many vehicles can be added
Solution 2, Look to table 6.8 on your note
before the roadway reaches
capacity? @ v/c =1 ; the max service flow rate that can
be accommodated for FFS = 92 km/h is 2285
pc/h/l
Then, V = Up x PHF x N x FHV x fp
V = 2285 x 0.786 x 3 x 0.727 x1 = 3917veh/h
Thus, 1717 vehicles can be added during the
peak hour before capacity is reached.

Multilane Highways
 Are the similar as of freeway segment in most aspects except for key
differences
Multilane Highways are
 May or may not be divided by median or barrier, but (freeways
are always divided)
 Traffic signals may be present but (freeways – no traffic signals)
 Design standards are sometimes lower than those for freeways
 Visual setting and development more destructing to drivers than
freeway case.
 Full capacity = 2200
 Have four or six lanes (both directions)
 Have posted speed limits b/n 65 and 100km/h
 Can have physical medians, TWLTLs
 Opposing dxnal volumes may not be divided by medians at all
 Multilane Highways are
 Procedures for determining LOS of multilane
highways are closely similar to that of
freeways. The difference lies to in some of the
adjustment factors and their values
 Signals should apart /spaced 3.2 km or more
 No significant parking and bus stops with high
usage
 No significant pedestrian activities

Basic Conditions and Capacity on Multilane Highways
are
 3.6 m [12ft] minimum lanes width,
 At least 3.6 m [12ft] of minimum lateral clearances from road side
objects(right shoulder and median) in the travel direction
 Only passenger car in the traffic stream
 No direct access point
 Divided highway
 Level terrain (no grades greater than 2 percent), and
 A driver population consisting of regular and familiar users of the facility.
 Free flow speed of 100km/hr or more
 In cases in which these conditions are not met, capacities will be
decreased.
 Service measure = Density

Determining free flow speed
FFS = BFFS – fLW – fLC- fM- fA
fM=Adjustment for median type
fA= adjustment for the number of access points along the roadway
To get fLC first compute total lateral clearance , TLC = LCR +LCL
Level of service Density, pc/km/ln FFS Capacity
Km/h Pc/h/ln
A 0-7 100 2200
B 7-11 90 2100
C 11-16 80 2000
D 16-22 70 1900
E 22-28
F >28

Determining free flow speed
BFFS =posted speed limit (65,70 km/h) plus 11 km/r or
BFFS =posted speed limit (=>80 km/h) plus 8km/r
fLW – the same as of values used for freeways
fLC- To read fLC first compute total lateral clearance , w/c is sum of
lateral clearances of median and shoulder .i.e.
TLC = LCR +LCL
For undivided highway, there is no adjustment factor for left side
lateral clearance b/c it is considered in the fM term (thus, LCL = 1.8 m),
if >1.8 m use 1.8m and for TWLTLs use LCL = 1.8 m , [6ft]
fM= 2.6 km/h for undivided highways and fM = 0 for divided highways
including TWLTLs
fA= for intersections and drive ways
Flow Rate = the same as of freeway
Density and LOS= the same as of freeway

Example 3 Required
What is the estimated free flow speed?
Solution
Question
FFS = BFFS – fLW - fLC – fM – fA
A 4 lane undivided
– BFFS =posted speed limit (65,70 km/h) plus 11
highway has 11 ft
km/r [40- 45 mi/h , plus 7mi/h ] or posted speed
(3.4m) lanes , with 4 limit (=>80 km/h) plus 8km/r [[=> 50 mi/h , plus
ft (1.2 m) shoulders 5 mi/h ] ]. Thus,
on the right side. – BFFS = 50 mi/h + 5 mi/h = 55mi/h
There are 7 access
– fLW = 1.9 mi/h
points per mile
– fLC = 0.4 mi/h, TLc = 4+6 = 10 ft
(4.35per km) , and
– fM =1.6 mi/h
the posted speed
limit is 50 mi/h – fA=1.75 mi/h, interpolation
(80km/h). FFS = 55 – 1.9 - 0.4 – 1.6– 1.75 = 49.35mi/h
Thus, 55 mi/h-49.35mi/h = 5.65mi/h reduction
in speed due to restrictive roadway

Example 4
Question Required
A 6 lane divided highway is on What is the LOS of the segment?
rolling terrain with 2 access Solution
points per mile (1.24 per km ) FFS = BFFS – fLW - fLC – fM – fA
and has 10 ft (3 m) lanes , with – BFFS =posted speed limit (65,70 km/h) plus 11 km/r
a 5-ft (1.5 m) shoulder on the [40- 45 mi/h , plus 7mi/h ] or posted speed limit
right side and a 3-ft (0.9 m) (=>80 km/h) plus 8km/r [[=> 50 mi/h , plus 5 mi/h ] ].
shoulder on the left side. PHF is Thus,
0.80, and directional peak hour – BFFS = 55 mi/h + 5 mi/h = 60 mi/h
volume 3000 vph. There are 6% – fLW = 6.6 mi/h
large truck, 2% buses and 2% – fLC = 0.4 mi/h, TLc = 5+3 = 8 ft
recreational vehicles. There are – fM =0.0 mi/h
significant amount of unfamiliar – fA=0.5 mi/h, interpolation
roadway users are in the traffic FFS = 60 – 6.6 - 0.9 – 0.0– 0.5 = 52.0 mi/h
stream (fp =0.95). No speed Up = V/ (PHF x N x FHV x fp)
studies are available, but the V = 3000, PHF = 0.80, N =3, fp =0.95 , PT =8%, PR =2% and
posted speed limit is 55mi/h ET =2.5, ER = 2
(88km/h). fHV = 1/(1 + 0.08(2.5 - 1) + 0.02 (2 -1)) =0.877, substitute and
Up = 3000/ (0.80 x 3 x 0.877 x0.95) = 1500.3 pc/h/l
K = Up / FFS = (1500 pc/h/l) / (52 mi/h) = 28.8 pc/mi/h 19
pc/km/l
Then , LOS ‘ D’

Assignment
The layout, profile, and projected peak period traffic volumes for a new suburban freeway that is
intended to fill in a gap in an existing freeway system are shown below. Horizontal distances are
given in 100 m stations. Although the state Transportation Department considers this to be a high
priority project, it is in competition with other local projects for funding. An existing parallel facility
8 km away experiences significant peak period congestion. Although no specific projections are
available, local experience suggests that about 2 percent trucks and buses and a similar
percentage of recreational vehicles are likely to use the proposed freeway during peak periods.
Design the number of lanes for each section of the proposed freeway? You may select any
design standards you believe to be appropriate for this type of roadway. Defend your design
decisions in a brief written report discussing design standards, design objectives and constraints,
major design decisions, and your rationale for your decisions.

Thank YOU!
End Of Chapter 2
Questions?
Reading Assignment
LOS of intersections and 2 lane
highways


CEng 3182: Tewelde G (MSc) Sunday, March 31, 2019 64
An ideal and most desirable roadway is one that generally
follows the existing natural alignment of the land.
 This is the most economical highway to construct, but
the geometric designer should consider an adjustment in
both the vertical and horizontal directions to make safe
and confortable drive, optimize construction,
maintenance and operation costs and to reduce accident
rate.
The optimal final alignment will be that in which the best

balance between grade and curvature is achieved. Terrain
has a considerable influence in the in the final choice of
alignment.

The position or the layout of the centre
line of the highway on the ground is
called the alignment.
Centerline determines the amount of

cut and fill, cross-section details,
drainage design, construction costs
and societal & environmental impacts
Improper alignment would increase; all or some of
z following
 Construction cost
 Land acquisition cost
 Maintenance cost
 Vehicle operation cost
 Accident rate
 Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy
to change the alignment due to increase in cost of
adjoining land and construction of costly structures by
the road side.
 Hence careful considerations is needed while finalizing the
alignment of a new road.

 Requirements of an ideal alignment between
two terminals include:
◊ Short
◊ Shortest possible path is preferred,
but the shortest road alignment is not necessarily the easiest,
quickest or most economical option for construction and
maintenance. Frequently, topography, slope stability, flood
hazards and erosion potential are likely to be the most significant
control in the choice of the most suitable alignment and design of
cross section.
◊ Easy
 Easy to construction
 Easy for operation with easy grades and curves
 Easy to maintain
 Economical
Design should consider initial capital cost,
maintenance cost, and operation cost.
Prefer the finest one
 Safe
Safe enough for construction and
maintenance from the view point of stability
of natural slopes, embankments, cut slopes,
and foundations
Safe for traffic operations with easy
geometric features such as sharpness of
curves, grades,sideslopes and etc.
Factors controlling alignment
 Obligatory points
 Traffic
 Geometric design
 Economics
 Other considerations
Obligatory points
Points through which the alignment is to pass
 Bridges sites /existing
 Intermediate town b/n terminals
 Mountainous pass /existing tunnels

Obligatory points
Points through which the alignment should not pass
 Very costly structures
 Highly developed expensive land areas
 Cultural or religious places
 Hospitals, schools
 Lakes and swampy(soft and watery soil, muddy) areas
 Marshes and low lying lands subject to flooding, hilly
terrain where there is a possibility of land slides and
etc…

Traffic
 The alignment should suit the traffic requirements
 Present and future travel patterns should be
observed & forecasted
 Traffic ―Desire line‖ should be drawn showing path
of traffic flow
Geometric Constraints
 Design factors such as max. gradient, minimum
radius of curve, minimum available sight distance,
maximum allowable super-elevation, etc. should
be within the limits of allowable design values
which are governed by the expected traffic speed

Economy
 Total transportation cost including initial
construction cost, maintenance cost, and
operation cost
 Example :
 Deep cuttings, high embankments, no of bridges that need
to be constructed, etc. increases the initial cost of
construction.
Other considerations
 Drainage considerations
 Hydrological factors
 Political considerations
 Monotony, aesthetics

 Slope Stability
 a common problem in hill roads is land slide. Special
care should be taken to choose the side that is more
stable
 Drainage
 Numerous hill-side drains to adequately drain the
water across the road should be provided
 But, attempts should be made to align the road where
the number of cross-drainage structures are minimized
 Geometry
 Different standards of grades, curves, sight distances,
speeds and other related features are followed in hill
roads
 Resisting Length
 The resisting length should be kept as low as possible.
Thus, the ineffective rise and excessive fall should be
kept minimum
The purpose of the route survey is to fix
the road alignment (accepted route) to the
required SD .
The work of the highway location survey
may include
Reconnaissance surveys
Desk study
Field study
Preliminary surveys
Final location & detailed surveys

Probable Alignment is identified on the map
by:
 Avoiding valleys, ponds, etc.;
 Avoiding river bends where bridges should
not be located;
 Keeping in view of geometric standards
(e.g. avoiding steep topographies, etc

Field Study
Purpose
 To verify conditions as determined from the
desk study (It is a field investigation)
 Helps to decide the most feasible routes for
detailed studies
A survey party inspects a fairly broad stretch of
land along the proposed routes identified on the
map during the desk study and collects all relevant
details not available on the map

The following are some of the details/data to be
collected:
 Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land
 Approximate values of gradient, length of
gradients
 Number & type of cross-drainage structures,
max. flood level
 Soil survey
 Sources of construction materials, water &
location of stones (selection of quarry site)

Criteria to evaluate the most feasible routes
 Design standards
 Grading & earthwork
 Foundation condition
 Geological conditions
 Drainage
 Right of way
 Effect on community
 Traffic characteristics & maintenance cost

 It is carried out to collect all the physical information
 Consists of running an accurate traverse line along
the routes already recommended as a result of
reconnaissance survey in order to obtain sufficient
data for final location
 Objectives
 Survey and collect necessary data (topography,
drainage, soil, etc.) on alternate alignments
 To estimate quantity of earthwork, material, … of
different alternatives
 Compare alternate alignments
 Finalize the best alignment from all considerations

 The preliminary survey may be carried out
by one of the following two methods:
 Modern: Aerial Survey – using photo
interpretation techniques, information on
topography, soil, geology, etc. can be obtained
 Conventional: a survey part carries out surveys
using the require field equipment taking
measurements, collecting topographical and
other data and carrying out soil survey

Procedures for conventional method
 Primary traverse
 Topographic features
 Leveling work- CL profiles & X-sections
 Drainage- type, number & size of Drainage
structure
 Soil survey- slope, pavement type & thickness
After finishing the preliminary survey
 Select the most suitable alignment by conducting
a comparative study considering economy,
geometry, etc.

Purpose
 To fix the centerline of the selected alignment on the
ground and
 To collect additional data for the design and preparation of
working drawings.
If extensive data is collected earlier the survey work here
might be limited.

 Pegging the center line: usually done at stations
established at 30m intervals with reference to
preliminary traverse/ base line (if used earlier) or
a control survey (if aerial survey was used).
 Centre-line Leveling: at the stations and at
intermediate points between stations where there
is a significant change in the slope to obtain the
representative profile of the ground

 Cross-section Leveling: at each station (!) and at
points with significant change in ground slope
 Intersecting Roads: the directions of the center
line of all intersecting roads, profiles, and cross-
sections for some distance on both sides
 Ditches and Streams: horizontal alignment,
profile, and cross section leveling of the banks of
the stream/river

Alignment
study considering economy,R1
geometry, R2 R3
alternative
Length(km) 2.108 2.28 2.417
Maximum gradient (%) 11.2 8.05 11.52
No of bridges No no No
No of culverts 4 3 4
Dominant soil type Soil, boulders Soil, Soil,
& hard rocks boulder & boulder &
soft rocks soft rocks
amount of cut(m3/m) 174.4 217.60 147.8
Amount of fill(m3/m) 324.00 239.40 151.80
No horizontal curves 5 4 6
No of vertical curves 10 6 8
dominant terrain type Mountainous Mountaino Mountainou
us s
Thank YOU!
End Of Chapter 3
Questions?


 HIGHWAY DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITREA
 HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION
 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 COMBINATION OF HA & VA
Outline
4-1 Design Control And Criteria
4-2 Cross-section Elements Of Highways
4-3 Sight Distance
4-4 Horizontal Alignment
4-5 Vertical Alignment
4-6 Combination Of Vertical And Horizontal
Curves

Introduction
 Highway geometric design entails the
design of geometric elements of a highway
and fixation of standards with respect to
various components. This shall include:
Highway cross section
Horizontal alignment
Vertical alignment
Sight distances
Lateral and vertical clearances
Intersections etc.

1) Volume and composition of traffic in the design
year.
2) The design must be consistent and
compatible/well-matched to one another.
3) Design should include road marking, lighting,
intersection, road signs
4) The design should minimize initial and
operation costs.
5) Safety
6) Faulty geometric designs are costly to rectify.
So, avoid Faults
7) All road users should be able to use the facility.
4-1 Design Controls and Criteria
Factors influencing design control and criteria:
1. The functional classification of the road
2. The nature of the terrain
3. The design vehicle
4. The traffic volume expected on the road
5. The design speed
6. The density and characteristics of the adjoining land use
7. Vehicle size and performance
8. Safety
9. Right of way impacts and costs associated with it
10. Economic and environmental considerations, Etc.
But, does all those factors usually remains constant along the route? If
not, How will be the design?! Balance the above factors and the road
layout! In Realistic Construction Cost

1. Road Functional Classification
ERA Funal Classifn
AASHTO Funal
I. Trunk road
Classifn
II. Link road
III. Access road I. Arterials
1. Principal arterials, freeways
IV. Collector road
2. Minor arterials
V. Feeder road
II. Collectors
1. Major collectors
2. Minor collectors
III. Locals

Road Functional Classification Con…..
I. Trunk Roads (Class I)

 Roads which link Addis Ababa to center of
international [ roads terminating at international
boundaries]
 Numbered with an ‗A‘ prefix
 Have mid life AADT >= 150-15,000+, DC8-DC4
 Although can have volume as low as 150 of mid
Life AADT its major function is to provide Mobility
 Designed for 20 years

II. Link Roads (Class II)

 Connects center of national importance with
each other. Eg. Woldya – Debretabor - Wereta
 First year mid life AADT 75-10,000, DC7-DC3
 although mid life AADT can range 75-10000
its Mainly provides mobility
 Numbered with B prefix

III. Main Access road (class III)

 Connects centers of provincial importance
 Mid life AADT 25-1000, DC5-DC2
 Numbered with C prefix
 Provides both mobility and accessibility

IV. Collector roads (class IV)

 Connects locally important centers to each others
 Mid life AADT 25-300, DC4-DC2
 Numbered with D prefix
 Main function is to provide access
V. Feeder Roads (class V)
 Links minor centers like market and local locations to
each other/to higher class roads
 Mid life AADT 0-150, les than DC3
 Provides access

Road functional classification con…..


2 Terrain
Terrain has the greatest effect on road costs. So, it isn't
economical to apply same standard for all terrains.
Lower standards are expected in difficult terrains.
Geometric design elements of a road depends on the
transverse terrain through which the road passes
Transverse terrain properties categorized into :
 Flat: transverse slope 0-3% and 0-10 five – meter contour
 Rolling: transverse slope 3-25%and 11-25 five – meter
contour
 Mountainous: transverse slope 25-50% and 26-50 five –
meter contour
 Escarpment : transverse slope >50% and > 50 five – meter
contour

Terrain cont.……..
I. Flat Terrain:
 Offers few obstacle
to construction of
road
 Transverse slope up
to 3%
 0-10 five – meter
contour
 Unrestricted
horizontal and
vertical alignment

II. Rolling Terrain:
 Moderate and
occasional steep
slopes are
encountered
 Some
restrictions in
alignment
 Transverse
slope
3-25%
 11-25 five –
meter contour

Rolling Terrain; Flat to Rolling Roadway Alignment

III. Mountainous Terrain:
 Hilly and mountainous
country and river gorges
 Imposes definite
restrictions on the
standard of alignment
 Involves long steep
grades and restricted
sight distances
 Transverse slope 25-
50%
 26-50 five – meter
contour
 Low stability and high
difficulty in construction,
operation & maintenance
Terrain cont...
IV. Escarpment:
 Includes switchback
roadway section
 Side hill transverse
sections where earthwork
quantities are
considerable
 Transverse slope in
excess of 50%
 Low stability and high
difficulty in construction,
operation & maintenance

Terrain Cont.…..
 Some of Highway geometric design elements affected by
topography:
 Horizontal alignment
 Gradient
 Sight distance
 Construction cost will be greater as the terrain becomes
more difficult and higher standard will be less justifiable
 Drivers accept lower standards in difficult terrain and
adjust their driving accordingly
 Design speed will vary with transverse terrain
 In mountains and escarpments, gradients >12% shouldn‘t
be greater than 250 m and horizontal radius should be
R>13m [in worst case]

3. Design Traffic Volume
 Volume & composition of traffic affects road design
standard (design speed, width, alignment)
 Using functional classification & design traffic flow;
 Design class or standard will be selected
 Design speed, width, and all alignment design parameters
depends on these design classes
Physical characteristics of vehicles affect geometric design
 Truck requires more space than a car
 Truck requires larger curve radius for turning and than a car
 Truck require wider road for safe passing than a car
Thus, the composition required to be noted carefully in selecting the
design class of the road.

Design Traffic Volume cont...

ERA Design traffic volume

ERA Design procedures

4. Design Vehicle
Physical dimension& turning capabilities of vehicle is
important in geometric design of roads
 Truck requires more space than a car
 Truck requires larger curve radius for turning and than a car
 Truck require wider road for safe passing than a car
Example of the effects:
— power to weight ratio affect selection of max. gradient
— Minimum turning radius affect lane width
— Travel path during a turn horizontal curve widening
— Vehicle height & width in junction design
The vehicle fleet in Ethiopia is classified in to four
design vehicles categories
ERA Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics

5. Design speed
 Is an index which links road function, traffic flow &
terrain to the design parameters of sight distance
and curvature.
 Affects the geometric design parameters of a
highway such as lane & shoulder width, horizontal
radius, super elevation, sight distance & gradient.
 Refer to ERA Manual ,Geometric Design 2013,
from chapter 5 to 8

Design speed cont.…
Guide lines to select design speed
 Length of journey/ short distance (access purpose) with low VD
 Physical limitation and prevailing traffic conditions
 Road user savings Vs. construction cost / High Volume,
High Speed
 Change in design speed, if required due to change in
terrain class, should not be affected abruptly, but over
sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed
gradually
 Example: If terrain changes from mountain to flat
which is not possible, we should have to provide a
transition in between.
 It should enable safe decision

Design speed cont.…
Design Standard Surface Width (m) Design Speed (km/hr) Urban
Type /Peri-
Carriagew Flat Rolling Mountai Escarp Urban
ay nous ment
DC 8 Paved ***Dual 2 x 120 100 85 70 50
7.3
DC 7 Paved 7.3 120 100 85 70 50
DC 6 Paved 7.0 100 85 70 60 50
DC 5 Paved 7.0 85 70 60 50 50
DC 4(2) Paved 6.5 - 7.0(1) 70 60 50 30 50
Unpaved 7.0 - 7.5(1) 45(3)
50
DC 3(2) Paved 6.0 60 50 50 30 50
Unpaved 7.0 45(3)
DC 2(2) Paved 3.30 60 50 40 25 50
Unpaved 6.0 35(3)
DC 1 Unpaved 4.5 60 40 30 20 40
Basic Access Unpaved 3.5

6. Density and Character of Adjoining land use
In areas with reasonable population size, markets, business

areas; the geometric design of the road in that area needs to be
modified to ensure good access and enhance safety by
 Providing wider x-sections
 Specifically designed lay-bys for passenger vehicles (to pick & drop )
 Providing roadside parking areas
Density and land use has an impact mainly on design speed
selection
 E.g.. Urban and semi-urban areas have lower traffic speeds
Traffic speeds are influenced by
 Presence of other vehicles traveling in & across the
through lanes
 Physical & right-of-way constraints
 Pedestrian safety considerations

Four lane divided roadway

Introduction
 Highway cross-section consist of the carriageway,
shoulders or curbs, drainage features, and
earthwork profiles
 Definitions
 Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for
use by moving traffic, including traffic lanes,
auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and
deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and passing
lanes.
 Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the
shoulders, parking lanes and viewing areas
 Earthwork profiles- includes side slopes and
back slopes

Introduction

Introduction (cont…)
 For urban cross-sections, cross-section elements
may also include facilities for pedestrians,
cyclists, or other specialist user groups.
 These include curbs, footpaths, and islands.
 It may also provide for parking lanes.
 For dual carriageways, the cross-section will also
include medians.
BACKSLOPE: - Slopes back to natural

topography.
FORESLOPE: - Slopes down to ditch

 Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to
traffic requirements and characteristics of the
terrain.
 The cross-section may vary over a particular route
because these controlling factors vary.
 Changes in cross-section standards shall be
uniform within each sub-section of the route and
 Any changes of the cross-section shall be effected
gradually and logically over a transition length.
 Abrupt or isolated changes in cross-section
standards lead to increased hazards and
reduced traffic capacity and complicate
construction operations.



Two Lane Town Section

Four Lane Town Section

Lane widths
 Lane width or carriageway width has great influence on
safety and comfort.
 Selection of road width depends on the following
factors:
 Classification of the road: The higher the class of
road, the higher the level of service expected and the
wider the road will need to be.
 Traffic: The heavy traffic volumes roads needs wider
traffic lanes
 Vehicle dimensions: the larger vehicles needs wider
lane
 Vehicle speed: As speeds increase, drivers have less
control of the lateral position of vehicles, reducing
clearances, and so wider traffic lanes are needed.

Lane widths (cont…)
Road Functional Design Design Traffic Flow Surface Width (m)
Classification Standard (AADT)* Type
Carriagewa Shoulde
Mid life
y r
DC 8 10000–**15000++ Paved ***Dual 2 x See T.2-
7.3 2
T DC 7 3000–10000 Paved 7.3 T.2-2
R DC 6 1000–3000 Paved 7.0 T.2-2
L U DC 5 300–1000 Paved 7.0 T.2-2
I N
DC 4(2) 150– 300 Paved 6.5 - 7.0(1) T.2-2
N K
M
K
A
I
Unpaved 7.0 - 7.5(1)
C N
DC 3(2) 75–150 Paved 6.0 T.2-2
O
L A
E C Unpaved 7.0
F C C
E T E
E O S
D R S
E S
R DC 2(2) 25–75 Paved 3.30 T.2-2
Unpaved 6.0
DC 1 0–25 Unpaved 4.5
Basic Access 0–15 Unpaved 3.5
Shoulders
 A shoulder is the portion of the
roadway contiguous to the
carriageway.
 Has the following purposes:
 For the accommodation of
stopped vehicles; traditional and
intermediate non-motorized traffic,
animals, and pedestrians;
 For emergency use; the recovery
of errant vehicles; and
 Lateral support of the pavement
courses.
 Refer to the ERA Manual 2013
(Geometric) for more detailed info
 Shoulder widths vs. design
standards, terrain type, and
urban/rural environment are
presented in the ff Table.
Shoulders (cont…)
Design Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m) Town Section Widths (m)
Standar Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpme Shoulde Parking Foot
d ous nt r Lane Way Median!
DC 8 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5(min 5.0
) (min)
DC 7 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 Barrier!
DC 6 1.5 - 1.5 - 0.5 – 1.5 0.5 – 1.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
3.0++ 3.0
DC 5 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC4 1.25 1.25 0.5 0.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
Paved
DC4 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
Unpave
d
DC3 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
Paved
DC3 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a
Unpave
d
DC2 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
Paved
All Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
others
Normal Cross fall
 Also known as camber or
crown.
 It should be sufficient to
provide adequate surface
drainage whilst not being so
great as to make steering
difficult.
 On unpaved roads, Most of the time, the normal
 The minimum acceptable value cross fall should be 3 percent
of cross fall depends on the on paved roads and 4 percent
need to carry surface water on unpaved roads, Nc +1.5%
away from the pavement
structure effectively, and
 The maximum value depends
on the need to avoid erosion of
materials
Side Slopes & Back Slopes
 Side slopes should be designed to insure the
stability of the roadway and to provide a reasonable
opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
 Three regions of the roadside are important when
evaluating the safety aspects:
 the top of the slope (hinge point),
 the side slope, and
 the toe of the slope (intersection of the fore slope
with level ground or with a back slope, forming a
ditch).
 Rounding at the hinge point can significantly reduce
the hazard potential. Similarly, rounding at the toe of
the slope is also beneficial.

Side Slopes & Back Slopes (cont…)
(1) HINGE POINT
CARRIAGEWAY (2) SIDESLOPE

(5) BACKSLOPE
(4) DITCH BOTTOM
SHOULDER
(3) TOE OF SLOPE

Material Height of Slope Side Slope (V:H) Back Slope

(m) Cut Fill
0.0 - 1.0 1:3 1:3
Earth or Soil 1.0 - 2.0 1:2 1:2
Over 2.0 2:3 2:3
Strong Rock 0.0 - 2.0 5:4 2:1
Over 2.0 1:1 4:1
1:2
Weathered Rock 0.0 - 2.0 2:3 2:1
Over 2.0 1:1 3:1
Decomposed Rock 0.0 - 1.0 1:3 1:3
1.0 - 2.0 1:2 1:2
Over 2.0 2:3 2:3
Black cotton soil 0.0 - 2.0 - 1:6 -
(expansive soil) Over 2.0 1:4

Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic
may be defined as recoverable, non recoverable, or
critical.
Recoverable slopes include all embankment slopes 1:4 or flatter.
Motorists who encroach on recoverable slopes can generally
stop their vehicles or slow them enough to return to the roadway
safely.
A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable,
but from which most motorists will be unable to stop or to return to
the roadway easily.
Embankments between 1:3 and 1:4 generally fall into this
category.
A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn.
Slopes steeper than 1:3 generally fall into this category.
Roadside Ditches
 Minimum depth of ditches should be 0.6m in
mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m
elsewhere, using a “v-ditch” configuration.
 The side slope and back slope of ditches should
generally conform to the slopes given in the
above Table.
 Please, refer to ERA Manual drainage design for
more info

Roadside Ditches
 Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive
clay soils such as black cotton soils.
 Where this is not possible, they shall be kept at a
minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of the
embankment, dependent on functional classification (6m
for trunk roads)

Clear Zone
 The cleared width should be a minimum of 15 meters
each side from the edge of the roadway for the higher
road standards.
 For lower standard roads, the clear zone can be
reduced as practical. It should extend beyond the toe of
the slope. Normally be not less than 1.5 meters
 Lateral clearances between roadside objects and
obstructions and the edge of the carriageway should
normally be not less than 1.5 meters.
 Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc.
Shall be a minimum of 1.0m from the edge of the
carriageway.
ROW and Median
Left for class discussion
4-3 Sight Distance
Is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car
 For safety reason, appropriate sight distances should
be provided.
Aspects of sight distance to be considered are
1. Stopping sight distance,
2. Passing sight distance
3. Decision sight distance
 The criteria for measuring these sight distances for
use in the design

NEED: S = SSD
Sight Distance (cont.…)
I. Stopping Sight Distance
 The distance with which the driver can control the
operation of the vehicle which is travelling at the
design speed (i.e. to avoid striking of un expected
object on the travel way)
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances:
 d1-the distance moved from the instant the object is
sighted to the moment the brakes are applied
(perception & brake reaction time, referred to as the
total reaction time)
 d2-the distance while braking (the braking distance )

 SSD= d1+d2
 V =initial vehicle speed (km/h)

 G = gradient (%) positive uphill
& negative downhill
 f=a/g=a/9.81 = coefficient of
longitudinal friction
 t= reaction time [2.5sec ]

II. Passing Sight Distance
is the minimum sight distance on two-way single
roadway roads that must be available to enable the
driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely
without interfering with the speed of an oncoming
vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Assumptions in computing safe PSD
 The overtaken vehicle travels @ a uniform speed
 The passing vehicle is required to follow @ the same speed until there is
an opportunity to pass
 The driver of the passing vehicle requires a certain period of time to start
his maneuver
 The passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and its
average speed during its occupancy of the left lane is greater than that of
the overtaken vehicle
components of passing sight
distance Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
i. d1 = initial maneuver a = average acceleration, km/h/s
distance, including a time for v = average speed of passing
perception and reaction vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed
vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h

ii. d2 = distance during iii. d3 = clearance distance
which passing vehicle is between the passing and
in the opposing lane opposing vehicles at the
end of the maneuver
Depend on the speed
Where iv. d4 = distance traversed
 t2 = time passing vehicle by the opposing vehicle
occupies left lane, s
 v = average speed of
passing vehicle, km/h

The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for
design is therefore:
PSD = d1+ d2 + d3 + d4

iii. Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance
Sight distance is dependent on
 Driver’s eye height above the road surface
 Object height above the road surface
 The height and lateral position of sight obstructions
within the driver’s line of sight
These have an effect on the design of horizontal &
vertical curve.

The following values should be used for the
determination of sight lines
 Driver's eye height: 1.05m for passenger
cars and 2.4m for trucks
 Object height for stopping sight distance:
0.2m
 Object height for passing sight distance:
1.30m

stopping and passing sight distance required in
a vertical crest curve.

Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves

4-4 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 Horizontal alignment of a highway consists
of a series of tangents or straights and
curves
 Is the plan (as seen from top) of a highway
 Deals with the design of the outline of the
tangent and curves so that safe driving be
secured for safe operation

Horizontal Alignment con…
Considerations during horizontal alignment
design:
 Horizontal and vertical alignment should
compliment each other
 Alignment should be straight if possible
within physical and economic constraints
 Alignment should be consistent
 Avoid the use of minimum radii whenever
possible
 Avoid horizontal curves on bridges
 Avoid abrupt reversals in reverse curves
 Avoid broken back curves

Straights (tangents)
 Long tangent should be avoided as they are
monotonous for drivers and cause headlight
dazzle on straight grade
 More pleasing appearance and higher road

safety can be obtained by winding alignment
 Short straight b/n curves should not be used

 Guidelines to the length of tangent:

 Straights should not have length greater
than (20V)
 Straights b/n curves turning in the same

direction should have length greater than 6V
 Straights b/n the end and beginning of non

transitioned reverse circular curve should
have length greater than 2/3 of the total
super elevation runoff

Horizontal curves
Four types of
horizontal curves:
 Simple circular
curves
 Compound
Curves
 Reverse Curves
 Transitional
Spirals

I. Simple Circular Curves - Terms

Degree of Curvature
 Arc Definition
20 2R 1145.92
 D
D 360 R
 Chord Definition
10
R
sin( D )
2

Formula for simple curve

 Tangent (T):)
T = R*tan (Δ/2)
 External distance (E):
E = R*(Sec (Δ/2) – 1 or
E = T*tan (Δ/4)
 Middle ordinate (M):
M = R*(1- Cos (Δ/2))

 Long chord(C): straight-line distance from

PC to PT.
C = 2R*Sin (Δ/2)
 Length of Curve (Lc): distance from PC to
PT along the curve.
Lc = 20* Δ/D or Lc = R*π* Δ/180
 Stations of PC, PI, and PT:
PC = PI – T
P T = PC + Lc or PT = PI + T

II. Compound Curves:

 consisting of a series
of two or more simple
curves of different radii
turning in the same
direction.
 Is used to avoid
broken back curve



III. Reverse curve

 Are adjacent curves that curve in opposite
directions.
 Should be used for low-speed roads such
as in mountainous terrain
 Sufficient length of tangent should usually
be provided b/n the curves to allow removal
of super elevation from the 1st curve and
attainment of super elevation for the 2nd
curve


Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

 Situations frequently exist where an object on
the inside of a curve, such as vegetation,
building or cut face, obstructs the line of sight.
 Where it is either not feasible or
economically justified to move the object a
larger radius of curve will be required to
ensure that stopping sight distance is
available.
 The required radius of curve is dependent on
the distance of the obstruction from the
centerline and the sight distance
Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
𝑠 − 𝑙𝑐
2
Case 1. S < Lc
Case 2. S > Lc
M=R(1-cos(ѳ/2)
M = Lc* (2S - Lc) / 8R
Where, θ= ΔS/Lc
SUPERELEVATION
 Any body moving
rapidly along a curved
path is subject to an
outward reactive force
called the centrifugal
force.
 Superelevation is tilt
that is provided on the
pavement on a
horizontal curve in
order to resist the
outward acting
centrifugal force

Analysis of superelevation
 ww Resolving the Forces // and |to the road

(// to the road)
Wv 2
F  WSin  Cos
gR
( | to the road)
Wv 2
WCos  Sin  N
gR
Frictional force, F=µN

SUPER ELEVATION con….
Relation cont…
Wv 2
N  Cos  WSin
gR
Wv 2  Wv 2
 Sin  WCos   Cos  WSin
 gR  gR
 v 2   v2 
Sin   1  Cos   
 gR   gR  But the term 𝜇𝑣 2
has a very small
𝑔𝑅
v2 value and could be ignored for all
 practical purposes. Check using
gR typical values like V=50km/hr;
Tan  µ=0.16; and R=100m.
v 2
1
gR

Relation cont…
v2
Thus, Tan   e
gR
e 
v2

V 3.6 

V2
2
gR 9.81R 127R
V=Km/hr
R=m
e=m/m
µ=dimensionless

Minimum radius of curvature

Safe Side Friction Factor, µ

 µ is low for high speed design and high
for low speed design

Friction coefficients are dependent on:

 vehicle speed, type condition and texture of
roadway surface, weather conditions and type
and condition of tires.
maximum rate of superelevation is controlled by
four factors:
 climate conditions, terrain conditions, type of
area and frequency of vey-moving vehicles.
In summary
 As per ERA manual 4 % for urban and 8 % for
rural . Refer Table 8-5 and Table 8-6 to manual

Attainment of super elevation
Is done in two stages:
1. Neutralizing the camber of the road gradually,
bringing it in to a straight line slope
2. Increasing the slope gradually until design super-
elevation is attained
 The surface of the road is rotated about the
centerline of the carriageway (commonly used)
inner edge
outer edge

Attainment of super elevation cont.…

Attainment of Super elevation (cont…)
Superlevaation transition section consists:
 Superelevation runoff
 Tangent run out sections
 Superelevation runoff the distance required for
accomplishing the transition from a normal to a
super elevated section
 Is a function of the design speed and rate of
super elevation
 Tangent runout the distance required for
accomplishing the transition from cross slope to
normal

Superelevation transition

Attainment of super elevation…..

(curve with transition spirals)

Without Spiral Transition(tangent-circular )

Attainment of Super elevation (cont…)

Without Spiral Transition(tangent-circular)
 The super elevation runoff is considered to
be that length beyond the tangent run out
 Empirical methods are employed to locate
the super elevation runoff length with respect
to the point of curvature (PC)
 Current design practice is to place
approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the
tangent approach and one-third on the curve
Transition Curves
 Transitions are curves which provide a
gradual change in curvature from tangent to
a circular path
 Advantages:
• Provides an easy-to-follow path so that
centrifugal force increases and decreases
gradually; lesser danger of overturning/ side-
slipping
• Vehicle could keep to the middle of lane
while traversing a curve
• Is convenient for the application of super-
elevation
• Improved visual appearance

Transition Curve cont.…
Transition Curves – Geometry
Note: The requirement differs based on the DC

and location of the road (urban or rural)

Transition Curves – Geometry
• Some of the important
properties of the spirals are
given below:
• L = 2Rθ
• θ = (L / Ls)2 * θs
• θs = Ls / 2Rc (in radians) =
28.65Ls / Rc (in degrees)
• Ts = Ls /2 + (Rc +
S)*tan(Δ/2)
• S = Ls2 / 24Rc
• Es = (Rc + S)*sec(Δ/2) - Rc

Definition of spiral curve
parameters
R = radius of curvature

 θs = spiral angle
of the spiral at a point L
 Δ = total central angle distant from starting
 Δc = central angle of the point.
circular arc extending  E = external distance
from BC to EC = Δ - 2 s
θs  S = shift
 Rc = radius of circular  BS = beginning of spiral
curve  BC = beginning of
 L = length of spiral from circular curve
starting point to any  EC = end of circular
point curve
 Ts = tangent distance  ES = end of spiral curve

Length of Transition Curves
I. Length required for super-elevation runoff
○ Super-elevation runoff: length of highway needed to
accomplish the change in cross slope from a normal
crown section to a fully super-elevated section (or,
vice versa)
2. Length required for driver comfort
The value of c lie in the range
3
v 0.2 to 0.6m/sec3; c=0.3m/sec3
ls 
cR is often used.
(0.28V ) 3 (V ) 3
ls  
cR 46.66cR
Widening
Need
 Rear wheels don‘t follow front wheels,
 Trailers fitted on trucks, don‘t follow
path of trucks wheels
 To have adequate sight-distances
 Drivers tend to keep greater clearances
with vehicles coming from the opposite
direction and might thus move out of a
lane when traversing a curve
 high fills for the psychological comfort
of the driver

Widening cont.….
The widening required can be calculated
2
B V
Wc  n  
2R 10 R
B = wheel base
R = radius of curve
V = design speed
(Km/hr)
n = number of lanes
Wc=total widening

Widening cont.….
Widening – Methods
 On a simple curve (i.e. with no spirals)
widening should be applied on the inside
edge of a pavement only. For curves with
spirals, widening could be applied on the
inside (only) or could be equally divided b/n
the inside and outside
 Widening should be attained gradually over
the super elevation runoff length but shorter
lengths are sometimes used (usually this
length is 30 – 60m).
 Widening is costly and very little is gained
from a small amount of widening.
Widening cont.….
• ERA recommendation for widening on high fill

4-5 Vertical Alignment
 Consists of straight sections of the highway
known as grades, or tangents, connected
by vertical curves.
 The design involves the selection of
suitable GRADES for the tangent sections
and the design of the VERTICAL
CURVES.
 The topography of the area through which
the road traverses has a significant impact
on the design of the vertical alignment.

GRADES
 Grade is measure of inclination, or slope of the
roadway (rise over the run)
 Effect of grade is more pronounced on Heavy
Vehicles than on Passenger Cars
 Maximum Grade on a highway should be carefully
selected based on the design speed and design
vehicle
 grades of 4 to 5 %  little or no effect on passenger
cars, except for those with high weight/horsepower
ratios,
 grade > 5% speed of passenger cars decrease
on upgrades and increase on downgrades.
 truck speeds may increase up to 5 percent on
downgrades and decrease by 7 percent on
upgrades
Maximum Grade
 MAXIMUM GRADIENTS- greatly affects both
the serviceability and cost of the road
 Vehicle operations on gradients are
complex and depend on a number
of factors:
 severity and length of gradient;
 level and composition of traffic; and
 the number of overtaking opportunities
on the gradient and in its vicinity.

Grades cont.…
desirable maximum gradients [D] were set to assure user

comfort and to avoid severe reductions in the design speed
If the occasional terrain anomaly is encountered that
requires excessive earthworks to reduce the vertical
alignment to the desirable standard an absolute
maximum gradient[ A] can be used

Minimum Grade
 depend on the drainage conditions of the
highway
 zero-percent grades may be used on
uncurbed pavements with adequate cross
slopes to laterally drain the surface water
 for curbed pavements, however, a
longitudinal grade should be provided to
facilitate the longitudinal flow of the surface
water
 a minimum grade of 0.5% is usually used; it
may reduced to 0.3% on high-type
pavement constructed on suitably crowned,
firm ground.

Critical Length of Grade
 Indicates the maximum length of a
designated upgrade on which a loaded truck
can operate without an unreasonable
reduction in speed
 For a given grade, lengths less than critical
result in acceptable operation in the desired
range of speeds.
 To maintain LOS on grades longer than
critical
change in location to reduce grades
addition of extra lanes (climbing or
crawler lanes)

Critical Length of Grade
 To establish design values for critical lengths
of grade data or assumptions are needed on
the following:
 Size and power of representative truck or
truck combination to be used as a design
vehicle
 Speed at entrance to critical length grade
 Minimum speed on the grade below which
interference to following vehicles is considered
unreasonable

Effect of Grade
 Speed-distance curves for a typical heavy truck of
120kg/kw for deceleration on upgrades

CLIMBING LANES
 It is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous
lanes and has the effect of reducing congestion in
the through lanes by removing slower moving
vehicles from the traffic stream.
 A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing
the impact of a steep gradient.
 It also enhances road safety by reducing the speed
differential in the through lane
 The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore
based on road standard, speed and traffic volume.
 Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when
present traffic volumes are greater than 400 ADT,
i.e., for trunk and link roads

…CLIMBING LANES
20 km/h speed reduction is expected for a truck.

They must be clearly marked and, where possible, should end on
level or downhill sections where speed differences between
different classes of vehicles are lowest to allow safe and efficient
merging maneuvers.
4-5 Vertical Curves
 Are parabolic curves used to provide a gradual change
from one tangent grade to another so that vehicles may
run smoothly as they traverse the highway.
 Are of two types
 Sag Vertical Curves
 Crest Vertical Curves
 Design Criteria for vertical curves
 Provision of minimum stopping sight distance
 Adequate drainage
 Comfortable in operation
 Pleasant appearance (aesthetics)
 The first criterion is the only criterion associated with
crest vertical curves, where as all four criteria are
associated with sag vertical curves.

Vertical Curves
 Vertical curves are characterized by the length L
and algebraic difference A of corresponding grades
g1 & g2
 rate of change of slope of parabolas is a constant;
i.e.
d2 y
2
r
dx

Vertical curves

Types of Vertical Curves

Length of vertical curve
 Minimum length of the vertical curve (L) is
determined by sight distance (S)
requirements
 This length is generally satisfactory from the
standpoint of safety, comfort, and
appearance.
 Derivation is done for the two cases of:
 Case 1: S > L
 Case 2: S < L

Crest Vert. Curves
 Min. length: Case 1 (S>L)

L  2S 
200 H1  H 2  2
A
 where,
 L=length of vertical curve, m
 S = sight distance, m
 A = algebraic difference in
grades, %
 H1 = height of eye above
roadway surface, m
 H2 = height of object above
roadway surface, m

Crest Vert. Curves
 Min. length: Case 1 (S>L)
 When the height of eye and the height of
object are 1070 mm and 150 mm,
respectively, as used for stopping sight
distance, the length of the vertical curve is,
404
L  2S 
A

Crest Vert. Curves
 Min. length – Case 2:
(S<L)
 Similarly: AS 2
L
200 H 1  H2 2
 Substituting 1070 mm for

H1 and 150 mm for H2
gives
AS 2
L
404

Crest Vert. Curves
 Design for Passing sight distance
 differ from those for stopping sight distance
because of the different height criterion (i.e.
1300 mm height of object) results in the
following specific formulas with the same
terms as above:
946
 When S > L, L  2 S 
A
AS 2
 When S < L, L
946

Sag Vertical Curves
 Sag vertical curves are curves that connect
descending grades, forming a bowl or a sag
 Once again, the sight distance is the parameter
that is normally employed to find the length of
the curve
 The length of sag vertical curves is also
determined by considering driver comfort,
drainage, and aesthetics.

Sag Vertical Curves
 Design Criteria:
1. Headlight sight
distance
2. Rider Comfort
3. Drainage Control
4. Aesthetics (rule
of thumb)

Sag Vertical Curves
 Head light criteria
L = Curve length (m)
200( H  S  tan(  ))
S = Sight distance (m)[normally the L  2S 
A
SSD]
B = Beam upward divergence (°) ;[1°]
H = Height of the headlights (ft) ;[0.6m]
2
AS
A = Change in grade [|G2-G1| as a %] L
200(H  S  tan())

Sag vertical curves
 Riding comfort  Let radial acceleration be a,
 The effect of a = V2/R
comfort of driving  Since the parabola practically
in vertical
direction is more coincide with a circle of radius
pronounced in R, L = ΔR, where Δ is in radians.
sag curves than  Expressing Δ in percentage of
on crest vertical the difference in the
curves. downward and upward
 Riding is grades, Δ =A/100
comfortable on
sag curves when  Combining all the above
radial equations L = (V2A)/100a
acceleration does  If a = 0.3m/sec2, then
not exceed
0.3m/sec2. L=AV2/30
Sag vertical curves
 Min. Length for Aesthetics
 Rule of thumb
Lmin  30 A
 Longer curves are necessary for high type
of highways to improve appearance.

Sag vertical curves
 Max. Length of Curve for drainage
 Here the drainage criteria sets a limit on the
MAXIMUM length of curve!
 Long curves would have a relatively flat portion
near the bottom of curve
 A min. grade of 0.3% should be provided with in
15m of the level point of the curve
 Max length (drainage) is usually greater than
min. length for other criteria up to 100kph and
nearly equal to min length for other criteria up to
120kph

Sag vertical curves
 Sight Distance at underpass
Structures
 When sag curves occur at an under
pass, the overhead structure may
shorten the sight distance.
 There fore, the minimum length of
vertical curve which will provide a
specified sight distance for under pass
structures should also be considered.

Sag vertical curves
 Where:
 H1 = height of driver‘s
eye position
 H2= object height
(usually taken as tail
light height = 0.45m)
 d= over head structure
height

4-6Combination of Horizontal & Vertical Alignment
 Types of mis-phasing and Corrective Action
 When the horizontal and vertical curves are
adequately separated or when they are coincident,
no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action
is required.
 Phasing is achieved either by separating the curves
or by adjusting their lengths such that vertical and
horizontal curves begin at a common station and
end at a common station.
 In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is
sufficient if only one end of each of the curves is at
a common station.
 Here below are the different cases of mis-
phasing:

Types of Mis-phasing & Corrective Measures
1. Vertical Curve Overlaps
One End of the Horizontal
Curve
 Delayed perception of the change
of dir. at the start of the H curve
(less SSD due to V curve)
 Hazardous
 Vehicles tend to increase speed on
the down gradient following the
highest point of the crest >>
unexpected change of direction
DANGEROUS
 corrective measures- use the three
measures listed in the previous
slide

2. Insufficient Separation between the
Curves
Appearance of a false reverse curve on the
outside edge-line at the beginning of the H
curve (See d).
 Correction: increase the separation between
the curves OR make the curves concurrent
(see a).

3.Both Ends of the Vertical
Curve Lie on the
Horizontal Curve
 If both ends of a crest curve
lie on a sharp horizontal
curve, the radius of the
horizontal curve may appear
to the driver to decrease
abruptly over the length of
the crest curve.
 If the vertical curve is a sag
curve, the radius of the
horizontal curve may appear
to increase.
 The corrective action is to
make both ends of the
curves coincident

4. Vertical Curve Overlaps Both Ends of the Horizontal
Curve
 If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal
curve, a hazard may be created because a vehicle has to undergo a
sudden change of direction during the passage of the vertical curve
while sight distance is reduced.
 The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident.
If the horizontal curve is less sharp, a hazard may still be created if
the crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This is because the
change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will then
occur on a downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where vehicles
may be increasing speed).
 The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so
as to bring the crest on to the horizontal curve.
 No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is
combined with a gentle horizontal curve.
 If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip,
depending on the ―hand‖ of the horizontal curve will appear in the
road alignment.
 The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident
or to separate them.
Thank YOU!
End Of Chapter 4
Questions?
Sunday, March 31, 2019 CEng 3182: Tewelde G (MSc)

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CEng 3182 :Highway Engineering I

3rd year Regular Civil Engineering

CEng 3182: Tewelde G (MSc)

Sunday, March 31, 2019 1

 Introduction To Transportation Planning

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 Introduction To Transportation Planning

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Access Roads Major collectors

Access Collectors Minor collectors

Feeder Roads Local roads and streets

Mobility = the ability to travel to many different destinations

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mont Week days Days in Weekday Monthly volume, AWT ADT

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 Determine flow rate?

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level Rolling Mountainous

ET (Buss 1.5 2.5 4.5

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 Introduction To Transportation Planning

The optimal final alignment will be that in which the best

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Centerline determines the amount of

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