Social Media Exposure and Fake News Awareness

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SOCIAL MEDIA EXPOSURE AND FAKE NEWS AWARENESS OF TERTIARY
STUDENTS OF FILAMER CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY
Phoebe Anne D. Jullar
Chapter I
Introduction to the Study
This chapter is made up of five parts: (1) Background
of the Study, (2) Statement of the Problem, (3)
Significance of the Study, (4) Definition of Terms and
(5) Scope and Delimitation.
Part One, Background of the Study, provides the
rationale and conditions that motivated the researcher to
conduct this study, discusses the facts in which the study
is appended and present the variables that are included in
the study.
Part Two, Statement of the Problem, states the general
and specific questions the study seeks to answer.
Part Three, Significance of the Study, presents the
benefits and advantages the study could bring as well as
the people and agencies that could benefit from the study.
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Part Four, Scope and Delimitation, seeks the scope of
the research in terms of location, participants, research
design, sampling procedure, data gathering techniques,
research variables as well as statistical tools to be
utilized for data analysis.
Part Five, Definition of Terms, defines the variables
present in the study conceptually and operationally.
Background of the Study
Information is the core of life. It plays a vivacious
part on shaping the decisions of every individual in the
society. It affects the political, social, economic and
cultural context of the communities. Thus, social media has
been a large platform for information dissemination.
In an age where almost half of all news consumers
receive and share their news from online sources (Mitchell
et al., 2016), false information can reach large audiences
by spreading rapidly from one person to another (van der
Linden et al., 2017).
Fake news had always been around, but nowadays, the
main differences lie in the way it’s being spread and read.
At present, information, whether true or false, travels
faster. People could easily access tons of news and

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information through different media platforms through the
internet. In addition to this, images are making it even
more believable — the better the image, the more convincing
the story is. Perception can be constantly manipulated to
make it better and believable. (Munsayac, 2018)
Social media exploded as a category of online
discourse which enables people to create contents, share
them, bookmark them and network at a prodigious rate (Jha
and Bhardwaj, 2012). This has breached the gab that existed
in communication where people had to rely solely on
traditional methods such as letters and phone calls as a
mode of getting in touch with friends and relatives. Today,
communication is as easy as walking into a neighbor’s
residence to deliver a piece of information or vice versa
through the use of social media. Social media is fast
changing the public discourse in the society and is setting
trends and agenda in topics that ranges from the
environment and politics to technology and the
entertainment industry (Asur and Huberman, 2010).
According to the recent survey of the Social Weather
Stations or SWS this March 2018 indicated that respondents'
perceived seriousness of the fake news issue is directly
related to the frequency of their use of the internet.

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Fake news spreads from sources to consumers through a
complex ecosystem of websites, social media, and bots.
Features that make social media engaging, including the
ease of sharing and rewiring social connections, facilitate
their manipulation by highly active and partisan
individuals (and bots) that become powerful sources of
misinformation (Menczer, 2016).
The polarized and segregated structure observed in
social media) is inevitable given two basic mechanisms of
online sharing: social influence and unfriending. The
resulting echo chambers are highly homogeneous, creating
ideal conditions for selective exposure and confirmation
bias. They are also extremely dense and clustered, so that
messages can spread very efficiently and each user is
exposed to the same message from many sources. Hoaxes have
higher chances to go viral in these segregated communities
(Tambuscio et al., in preparation).
It lieu with this, the researchers decided to conduct
a study on the level of social media exposure and fake news
awareness of tertiary students of Filamer Christian
University.
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Figure 1 shows the Research Paradigm of the study
Research Paradigm
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Sex
Age Social Media Exposure
College
Social Media Usage
Frequency spent in
Social Media
Fake News Awareness
Figure 1. The research paradigm showing the relationships
between the independent and dependent variables.

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Statement of the Problem
Generally, this study aims to find out the
interrelationships between social media exposure and fake
news awareness of the tertiary students of Filamer
Christian University.
More specifically, it seeks to find out the level of
social media exposure and fake news awareness of the
tertiary students of Filamer Christian University.
The study sought answers to following questions:
1. What is the participants’ level of Social Media
Exposure when taken as a group and when classified
according to selected variables?
2. What is the participants’ Level of Fake News
Awareness when taken as a group and when classified
3. Are there significant differences in the participants’
level of social media exposure when taken as a group and
when classified according to selected variables?

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level of fake news awareness when taken as a group and
classified according to selected variables?
5. Is there any significant relationship between social
media exposure and fake news awareness?
In view of the aforementioned statement of the problem, the
following were hypothesized:
1. There is no significant difference on the level of
social media exposure of the tertiary students of
Filamer Christian University in terms of sex, age,
college, social media usage and frequency spent to
update social media account.
fake news awareness of the tertiary students of
3. There is no significant relationship between social
media exposure and fake news awareness of the tertiary
students of Filamer Christian University.

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Significance of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine the Level of
Social Media Exposure and Fake News Awareness of the
participants and their relationship. This study can benefit
the researchers, students, teachers, educational
institution and Public Information Agency.
Students. This study can benefit the students because
of the fact that they are the most vulnerable to such
misinformation viral posts because they are young minds and
have little knowledge of the factual data and hence, they
easily get influenced by the fake news sources.
The result of this study will increase their awareness
regarding fake news as it is assumed as an essential one
because they should know the depth whether they are seeing
the truth or falsehood.
Faculty. This study will help the faculty since they
play a vigorous part in the foundation of the students. The
study will reveal the effectiveness of their media and news
literacy intervention among students.
Educational Institution. This institution may use the
study in order for them to assess the students on their
exposure in the social media and their awareness towards

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fake news that can conduct an intervention to promote an
effective communication.
Philippine Information Agency. As the official public
information arm of the Republic of the Philippines, this
study will help them evaluate in their campaign against
fake news.
Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the
Department of Education (Dep-Ed) may use the results of
this study as bases of assessment and as bases of their
programs and modules for educational and technical services
towards media literacy.
Future Researchers. The results of this study will
serve as related literature on the level of social media
exposure and fake news awareness.

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Definition of Terms
For purposes of clarity understanding, the following
terms were defined conceptually and operationally.
Social Media. Are interactive web, internet-based
applications, user- generated content, such as text posts
or comments, digital photos or videos, and data generated
through all online interactions (The Language of Internet,
2000). As used in this study are computer- mediated
technologies that facilitate the creation and sharing
information, ideas, career interests and other forms of
expression via virtual communities and networks
specifically Facebook and Twitter.
Media exposure. Defined as the extent to which
audience members have encountered specific messages or
classes of messages/media content (Slater, 2004). In this
study, it will be used as the frequency in utilizing the
social media platforms that affect the awareness towards
fake news.
Students. It refers to a person who is studying at a
university or college (Collins Dictionary). With regards to
this study, it indicates to fourth year students enrolled
in Filamer Christian University.

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Fake News. Fake news, or hoax news, refers to false
information or propaganda published under the guise of
being authentic news. Fake news websites and channels push
their fake news content in an attempt to mislead consumers
of the content and spread misinformation via social
networks and word-of-mouth. (Stroud, 2016). In this study,
it denotes to the articles that are intentionally and
verifiably false that could mislead the readers in the
social media platforms.
Awareness. Cited as an understanding of the activities
of others, which provides a context for your own activity
(Drachsler et. Al, University of Paderborn) In this study
it refers to the ability to perceive of an individual.
Filamer Christian University. FCU is the only private
university in the province of Capiz with an autonomous
status. In this study, it refers to the school where the
research will be conducted.

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Scope and Delimitation of the Study
A survey-correlational research design was employed to
determine the level of social media exposure and fake news
awareness of the tertiary students of Filamer Christian
University.
The participants of this study were the two-hundred
fifty-two (252) taken from a total population of six
hundred eighty-one (681) fourth year students enrolled in
Filamer Christian University for the school year 2018-2019.
Data was collected through structured questionnaires
administered to the students within the school. An adopted
and modified questionnaire from Kimberly Young (1998) was
used for the social media exposure and same with the fake
news awareness that the adopted and modified questionnaire
was utilized from Traci Gardner (2016).
The results were expressed as a correlation
coefficient that indicated the degree of relation between
variables. The scores for two or more variables of interest
will be obtained for each member of the sample, and the
paired scored will then be correlated.

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The independent variables in the study were the sex,
age, college, social media usage and frequency spent to
update social media accounts while the dependent variables
were the social media exposure and fake news awareness.
Frequency, mean and standard deviation as descriptive
statistical tools were used for the data analysis.
Moreover, the t-test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and the
Pearson r were used as inferential statistical tools to
determine the significant difference and relationship. A 5%
level of significance for all inferential analyses were
used.
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Chapter 2
Review of Related Literature
This chapter is organized into three parts, namely (1)
Social Media Exposure, (2) Fake News Awareness and
(3) Synthesis.
The First Part, Social Media Exposure, discusses
the history and role of social media.
The Second Part, Fake News Awareness, tackles
about the emergence of fake news and mechanisms to spot the
spread of misinformation.
The Third Part, Synthesis, presents the summary
of the literature and studies reviewed.

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Social Media Exposure
A social media is an online platform which people use
to build social networks or social relations with other
people who share similar personal or career interests,
activities, backgrounds or real-life connections. The
impact of social networks on young people is significant.
It is becoming increasingly clear that social networks have
become part of people’s lives.
Many adolescent people are using their laptops, tablet
computers and smart phones to check Tweets and status
updates from their friends and family. Due to the
advancement in technology, people are pressured to accept
different lifestyles. Social networking sites can assist
young people to become more socially capable. Social media
is a web-based form of data communication. Social media
platforms allow users to have conversations, share
information and create web content. Social media has
different forms, together with blogs, micro-blogs, wikis,
social networking sites, photo-sharing sites, instant
messaging, video-sharing sites, podcasts, widgets, virtual
worlds, and more.

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Social Media is an innovative idea with a very
brilliant opportunity with additional scope for
advancements. With the advancement of social media many
organizations are making use of this medium to better their
practices. With the use of social networking we can
advertise or communicate in a more efficient way. Likewise
people don’t have to rely on the media or TV to get their
daily dose of news it can all be obtained from a social
networking site. People can track or get information from
all over the world. (Kumar, 2017)
Media use in the digital age becomes an activity that
crosses a broad range of communication channels. In
addition to the traditional media, various online social
media become regular channels through which people access
and exchange information. Among the online social media,
social network sites (SNSs) are the fastest growing
personal network channels. SNSs are online platforms that
allow users to create public profiles and interact with one
another on various topics. Information access through SNSs
is not merely simple exposure to news but also involves
information sharing and discussion with other network users
(Lee & Ma, 2012). Interconnections between people on SNSs
enhance the process of information dissemination and

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amplify the influence of that information (Luarn, Yang, &
Chiu, 2014).
Social media’s role in a common person’s life has
blurred the online-offline divide. Online activity has a
huge potential to improve the quality and quantity of
communication across the globe. However, at the same time,
it also raises severe challenges. Whether it is about
social issues or national and political matters, social
media gives issues a good amount of attention. Along with
the other social media-related challenges, fake news and
disinformation has become one of the most serious problems
to face us. (Cisss, 2018)
In a data collected, Pew, Nielsen, and Burst Media
data depict some other impressive stats about male vs.
female use of social media. In checking out their sources
and data points, we discovered that women are more likely
to interact with brands via social media than men.
More than half of women use social media to show
support and access deals or promotions from
brands, compared to just 36% of the men online. Not only do
women use social media to stay up to date with brands, they
also comment on their favorite brands more than men do.

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The fact that women are more active on social media
than men has held true for at least the last five years.
However, it is important to note that women interact in
different way and are leading the shift from desktop to
mobile where social media is concerned, which is a huge
concern for social networking sites launching in the next
few years.
Abelardo Pardo believes that technology offers a
platform for innovation, and allows its users to express
their opinions about how they feel towards the information
being published. He adds that, social media is also a
platform that allows students to interact with one another,
with their teachers and communities that share their same
education. Pardo also states that these types of
interaction are “an essential part of how humans learn.”
(Pardo, 2013, p. 45)
Social media has contributed to radical changes in the
interaction between traditional news media, community
actors and the public. Twitter, Facebook, Instagram and
YouTube are actively used by politicians, organizations and
ordinary people to promote views, participate in
discussions or just to show up. Journalists also use social
media as tools for news production, publishing channels ,

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and as direct communication with sources and audiences.
(Karlsen, 2017)
Thus, social media is coming of age. Since the
emergence of the first social media networks some two
decades ago, social media has continued to evolve and offer
consumers around the world new and meaningful ways to
engage with the people, events and brands that matter to
them. Now, years later, social media is still growing
rapidly, becoming an integral part of our daily lives.
Social networking is now truly a global phenomenon.
(Nielsen, 2012)
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Fake News Awareness
The long histories of fake news notwithstanding, there
are several reasons to think that fake news is of growing
importance. First, barriers to entry in the media industry
have dropped precipitously, both because it is now easy to
set up websites and because it is easy to monetize web
content through advertising platforms. Because reputational
concerns discourage mass media outlets from knowingly
reporting false stories, higher entry barriers limit false
reporting. (Allcott, 2018)
The term "fake news" gained importance with the
electoral context in Western Europe and North America. It
is determined by fraudulent content in news format and its
velocity. According to Bounegru, Gray, Venturini and Mauri,
fake news is when a deliberate lie "is picked up by dozens
of other blogs, retransmitted by hundreds of websites,
cross-posted over thousands of social media accounts and
read by hundreds of thousands" that it then effectively
becomes "fake news". (Mauri et. al, 2017)
Fake news may be created, published and shared for
many reasons, such as entertainment, influencing public
opinion and advertising revenue. Conroy et

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al. (2015) identified three broad types of fake
information, namely, serious fabrications, large-scale
hoaxes and humorous fakes, each having a different
intention from the other. In this context, the term
misinformation refers to information that is not true or
inaccurate, which may sometimes be produced as honest
mistakes (Walsh, 2010). Honest mistakes may include false
information being shared by real journalists or credible
mainstream media outlets, which give them the sense of
authenticity (Schifferes et al., 2014) that eventually
mislead people. Hao and Li (2013, p. 257) described
misinformation as “the idea that a sender can potentially
misinform the receiver by manipulating the way the latter
interprets the realization of an information structure
features naturally in other setting”. On the other hand,
individuals, institutions, shadowy government agencies,
government agents or foreign powers that deliberately
mislead information consumers for their evil intentions,
such as influencing public opinion or policies in a way
that meets a purpose (Fetzer, 2004), can generate
disinformation.
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Fake news may emerge repeatedly under the right
conditions (Chen et al., 2015) especially when people
tend to share what has been posted by their social media
networks without questioning their accuracy. Chen et
al. (2015) found that the top reasons that motivate
people to share information over social media websites
were non-informational including sharing information for
fun or information that they find interesting. Mintz
(2012, p. 2) suggested that social media users “have to
be the curators of their own friends and make informed
judgments about which messages to reply to and which
links to click on”, otherwise, if they do not spot real
from fake information, they will face the consequences.
According to Guess et al. Al (2018) case study on the
Selective Exposure to Misinformation: Evidence from the
consumption of fake news during the 2016 U.S. presidential
campaign manifested that Researchers often take different
approaches to defining misinformation, which can lead to
articles with contradictory results. In reality, these
articles often illuminate aspects of the larger machine of
misinformation.
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These researchers also confirmed that users who were
more likely to share fake news tended to skew older, male
and more conservative. Part of their panel included super
consumers and super sharers – the people who had abnormally
high posting and sharing rates on Twitter – who tended to
not be indicative of regular users. Researchers suggested
that they were “cyborgs” – accounts which are partially
automated, but mostly controlled by humans. They set these
individuals aside to measure the remaining panel members.
The regular user averaged around 204 potential
exposures to fake news sources in the last month 2016 US
presidential election campaign. The average proportion of
fake news sources in an individual’s feed is 1.18 per cent,
but they did find that there was a significant enough
difference between left and right. 11 per cent of those on
the right, and 21 per cent of those on the extreme right
shared fake news content, compared to fewer than five per
cent of those on the left or in the centre.
Another new study from researchers at Princeton
University and New York University released on Wednesday
found that people 65 years of age and over are seven times
more likely to share fake news than those aged 18-29.

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The study examined the data of 1,331 respondents who
agreed to share fields from their public Facebook profile
along with their timeline posts, external links and likes.
The researchers looked for links to a list of narrowly
defined fake news sites and a list of fake news sites
debunked by fact checking organizations. The researchers
didn’t measure links to contested “hyperpartisan” websites,
such as conservative media outlet Breitbart. While age
proved to be the best predictor of who shared what was
determined to be fake news, researchers also found
conservative users were more likely to share fake news.
The study adds to findings from other surveys about
the generational differences between Americans and their
abilities to parse fact from fiction online. A recent Pew
Research Center analysis found that younger Americans are
better than older Americans at telling factual news
statements from opinions. When presented with five factual
statements and five opinion statements, only 20 percent of
those over 50 years of age correctly categorized all
statements, versus 32 percent of those 18-49.
The Stanford study, published in November, surveyed
7,804 students from middle school age to college age,
asking questions about information online. The study

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described young people’s ability to reason about
information they find online as “bleak.” It further
suggests that young people’s inability to recognize untrue
information threatens democracy itself.
Many young people do not have the ability to
distinguish between real and fake information found online,
a Stanford University study found.

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Synthesis
Social media platforms provide a megaphone to anyone
who can attract followers. This new power structure enables
small numbers of individuals, armed with technical, social
or political know-how, to distribute large volumes of
disinformation, or “fake news.”
Misinformation on social media is particularly potent
and dangerous for two reasons: an abundance of sources and
the creation of echo chambers. Assessing the credibility of
information on social media is increasingly challenging due
to the proliferation of information sources, aggravated by
the unreliable social cues that accompany this information.
The tendency of people to follow like-minded people leads
to the creation of echo chambers and filter bubbles, which
exacerbate polarization.
The study acquires the findings based on a thorough
investigation regarding the social media exposure and fake
news awareness of the tertiary students of Filamer
Christian University. Importance is placed on the different
factors that may or may not be the effect their exposure
and awareness. The study also aims for the results and
effects of the variable towards the students.

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Chapter 3
Research Design and Methodology
This chapter consists of three parts: (1) Research
Design; (2) Research Method; and (3) Statistical Data
Analysis.
Part One, Research Design, describes the research
design used in the study.
Part Two, Research Method, describes the respondents,
the data gathering instrument and the research- gathering
procedure employed in the study.
Part Three, Statistical Data Analysis, explains the
statistical tools used in the study.
Research Design
This study endeavored at determining the level of
social media exposure and fake news awareness in the
tertiary students of Filamer Christian University. This
study employed the Quantitative method of research and
survey-correlational research design.
Quantitative research involves the collection of data
so that information can be quantified and subjected to

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statistical treatment in order to support or refute
“alternate knowledge claims” (Creswell, 2003, p. 153). The
researcher uses mathematical models as the methodology of
data analysis. Three historical trends pertaining to
quantitative research include research design, test and
measurement procedures, and statistical analysis.
Quantitative research also involves data collection that is
typically numeric and the researcher tends to use
mathematical models as the methodology of data analysis.
Additionally, the researcher uses the inquiry methods to
ensure alignment with statistical data collection
methodology.
The study involved a single phase. It consisted of a
quantitative survey, started with a quantitative data
collection through the use of researcher-made questionnaire
checklist. The quantitative data will be analyzed and
interpreted using various statistical tools.
The model of procedures for the Quantitative Method Design
of this study is presented in Figure 2.
Descriptive Design a Gather, Analyze, Report Study

Research Design Quantitative Data- and Interpret Findings
Gathering Data
Instrument
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Methods
The Respondents
The respondents of the study were the two hundred
fifty-two (252) randomly selected from a population of six
hundred eighty-one (681) Tertiary students of Filamer
Christian University for the school year 2018-2019.
The stratified proportional sampling with the use of
Slovin formula was utilized to obtain the appropriate
sample size from the different colleges of the population
involved in the study.
As to age they were classified as to young adult (18
to 24 years old) and adult (25 years old and above); as to
sex they were classified as to male or female; as to
college they were classified according to the name of
college their course belonged; as to social media usage
they were classified as to how often times to check their
social media account per day and lastly as to frequency
spent to update social media account.

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Table 1.
Proportional allocation of the sample size from each

college
Filamer Christian University

Tertiary Students
College Population Sample Size
College of Arts and 29 11
Sciences
College of Teacher 173 64

Education
College of Nursing 50 18
College of Computer 119 44

Studies
College of Engineering 20 7
College of Hotel Tourism 142 53

Management
College of Business and 108 40

Accountancy
College of Criminal 47 15
Justice Education
Total 681 252

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As shown in table 2, out of 252 students, 103 (40.9 %)
of the participants were male and 149 (59.1%) were female.
In terms of age 245 (97.2%) of the participants were ages
18-24 years old and 7 (2.8%) were ages 25 and above. In
terms of college, 11 (4.37%) from CAS; 64 (25.40%) from
CTE; 18 (7.14) from CN; 44 (17.46%) from CCS; 7 (2.78%)
from COE; 53 (21.03%) from CHTM; 40 (15.87%) from CBA and
15 (5.95% from CCJE).
Also, in terms of social media usage, 25 (9.9%) use 0-
2 times; 65 (25.8%) use 3-5 times; 79 (31.3%) use 6-10
times; 83 (32.9%) use more than 11 times while in Frequency
spent to update social media account, 24 (10.7%) allot 0-30
minutes; 52 (20.6%) allot 31 minutes – 1 hour; 76 (30.2%)
allot 1-2 hours and 97 (38.5%|) allot more than 3 hours to
update their social media account.

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Table 2. Distribution of students according to Sex,

Age, College, Social Media Usage and Frequency Spent to
Update in Social Media
Category F %
Sex Male 103 40.9
Female 149 59.1
Age 18-24 245 97.2

25 and above 7 2.8
CAS 11 4.37
CTE 64 25.40
CN 18 7.14
College CCS 44 17.46
COE 7 2.78
CHTM 53 21.03
CBA 40 15.87
CCJE 15 5.95
Social Media 0-2 times 25 9.9

Usage 3-5 times 65 25.8
6-10 times 79 31.3
More than 11 times 83 32.9
Frequency Spent 0-30 minutes 24 10.7

to update Social 31 minutes- 1 hour 52 20.6
Media Account 1-2 hours 76 30.2
More than 3 hours 97 38.5
Total 252 100.0
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Data-gathering Instruments
The data needed for the study were gathered using the
adopted and modified questionnaire on the Social Media
Exposure and Fake News Awareness.
Social Media Exposure. To gather data on the level of
social media exposure of tertiary students of Filamer
Christian University, a 10-item adopted and modified
questionnaire was used from Kimberly Young (1998) shows the
exposure of the students. Using the likert technique with a
three-point scale each of the items in the questionnaire
are answerable by the following responses: 3- Always, 2-
Sometimes, 1- Never.
For statistical purposes, the following responses were
given their respective numerical weight:
Weight Response
3 Always
2 Sometimes
1 Never
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Numerical values were also designed to each response,
to interpret the result, the arbitrary scale of means below
was used
Scale Verbal Description Interpretation
2.36-3.00 Very High Very Exposed
in Social Media
1.68-2.35 Moderate Moderately Exposed
in Social Media
1.00-1.67 Very Low Least Exposed
in Social Media
Fake News Awareness. A 15- item standardized Social Media
Exposure Questionnaire adopted from Traci Gardner (2016)
shows the awareness of the students. Utilizing the likert
technique with a three-point scale each of the items in the
questionnaire are answerable by the following responses: 3-
Always, 2- Sometimes, 1- Never.
For statistical purposes, the following responses were
given their respective numerical weight:
Weight Response
3 Always
2 Sometimes
1 Never
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Numerical values were also designed to each response,
to interpret the result, the arbitrary scale of means below
was used
Scale Verbal Description Interpretation
2.36-3.00 Very High Shows outstanding
Fake News Awareness
1.68-2.35 Moderate Shows satisfactory
Fake News Awareness
1.00-1.67 Very Low Needs improvement

in Fake News
Awareness
Data Gathering Procedure
Prior to the conduct of study, an approval letter was
given to each Dean of the eight colleges of Filamer
Christian University. The researcher asked the Office of
the Registrar to determine the total population of the
Fourth Year students of the said school.
The researchers personally administered the Personal
Data Sheet instrument, level of social media exposure and
level of fake news awareness to the student participants.
After the participants finished answering the instruments,
the researchers collected the questionnaire and expressed
gratitude to the participants. The data obtained from the

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tests were processed, encoded, and analyzed using the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
Data Analysis Procedure
The following statistical tools were employed in the
analysis of the data gathered.
Frequency. This was used to determine the rate of
recurrence the tertiary students involved in the social
media exposure and fake news awareness.
Standard Deviation. This was used to describe the
homogeneity and heterogeneity of tertiary students in their
social media exposure and fake news awareness.
t-test. This test was used to assess the significant
difference in the social media exposure and fake news
awareness of tertiary students in terms of sex and age.
ANOVA. This was utilized to determine the significant
differences in the social media exposure and fake news
awareness of tertiary students in terms of college, social
media usage and frequency spent to update social media
account.
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Person r. Set at .05 alpha level of significance this test
was used to determine the relationships in the social media
exposure and fake news awareness of tertiary students. A
main advantage of Pearson r is that it helps reduce and
simplify the data collected, while at the same time
producing results that may then be measured using
quantitative techniques. Moreover, Pearson r gives the
ability to researchers to structure the quantitative data
collected in a way that will satisfy the accomplishment of
research objectives.
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Chapter 4
Results and Discussion
This chapter is divided into two parts: (1)
Descriptive Data Analysis and (2) Inferential Data
Analysis.
Part one, Descriptive Data Analysis presents the
descriptive data on the level of social media exposure and
fake news awareness of the tertiary students.
Part two, Inferential Data Analysis, presents the
inferential data on the differences of the social media
exposure and fake news awareness in terms of sex, age,
college, social media usage and frequency spent to update
their social media and on the relationship between social
students.
Descriptive Data Analysis
Level of Social Media Exposure

of Tertiary Students
Table 3 presents the result of the level of Social
Media exposure of tertiary students of Filamer Christian
University. As a whole, the level of social media exposure
of Tertiary Students is “moderate” (M= 2.2036; SD= .29637).

39
In addition, both male and female, 18 to 24 years old
(Young Adult) and 25 and above (Adult) students had “Very
High” social media exposure.
In terms of college, College of Engineering, College
of Computer Studies, College of Nursing, College of
Criminal Justice Education, College of Arts and Sciences,
College of Teacher Education and College of Business and
Accountancy, all obtained “moderate” social media exposure
except the College of Hospitality and Tourism Management
that resulted to a “Very High” social media exposure that
means a very exposed social media exposure among others
While with regards to Social Media Usage, students had
moderate usage from 0-10 times except in the more than 11
times that resulted to “Very High” (M= 2.3663; SD= .24057).
While in terms of frequency to update their social media
account had a result of “moderate”.

40
Table 3. Mean and Standard Deviation of Social Media

Exposure in terms of research participants’ sex, age,
college, social media usage and frequency spent to update
social media account.
Social Media Mean Description N SD

Exposure
Entire group 2.2036 Moderate 252 .29637
Sex
Male 2.8058 Very High 103 1.01998
Female 2.9195 Very High 149 .96224
Age
18-24(Young 2.8694 Very High 245 .98310
Adult) 3.0000 Very High 7 1.15470
25 and above
(Adult
College
CHTM 2.4698 Very High 53 .21625

COE 2.1286 Moderate 7 .26904
CCS 2.1773 Moderate 44 .25414
CN 2.0611 Moderate 18 .34983
CCJE 2.0333 Moderate 15 .34983
CAS 2.0727 Moderate 11 .32586
CTE 2.1687 Moderate 64 .28106
CBA 2.1125 Moderate 40 .24199
Social Media
Usage
0-2 times 1.9800 Moderate 25 .32660
3-5 times 2.0892 Moderate 65 .29640
6-10 times 2.1975 Moderate 79 .24857
More than 11 2.3663 Very High 83 .24057
times
Frequency Spent
to update
Social Media
Account
0-30 minutes 2.0111 Moderate 27 .33551
31 minutes- 1 2.0962 Moderate 52 .25511
hour
1-2 hours 2.1671 Moderate 76 .28537
More than 3 2.3433 Moderate 97 .25204
hours
41
Scale Description
2.36-3.00 Very High
1.68-2.35 Moderate
1.00-1.67 Very Low
The result implies that the tertiary students of
Filamer Christian University are able to manage their
social media exposure moderately. The students’ level of
social media exposure is moderate because students are able
to manage their social media very well. The result
indicates that the Tertiary students have self-control and
have no sign of social media addiction. These may be
because they utilize their time in doing their household
chores and school works and it helps them to minimize their
time on using social media.
This contradicted to the study of (Walubita, 2017)
which stated that There is general consensus that one of
the most popular Internet activities among college
students is social media use as confirmed by Smith &
Caruso (2010)who found that 90% of 36,950 university
students drawn from 126 U.S.A and Canadian universities use
social networking websites. Young people are active social
media users (Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010).

42
Level of Fake News Awareness

of Tertiary Students
The level of Fake News Awareness of tertiary students
is shown in table 4. As reflected in the table, the fake
news awareness of tertiary students when taken as an entire
group is “moderate” (M= 2.11; SD= 0.21).
In terms of sex, the level of fake news awareness of
both male and female is “moderate”. In terms of age, both
young adult and adult is “moderate”. While in terms of
college, all colleges of Filamer Christian University
obtained “moderate” fake news awareness. Also, in terms of
social media usage and frequency spent to update social
media account, it resulted to “moderate” fake news
awareness.
43
Table 4. Mean and Standard Deviation of Fake News Awareness

in terms of research participants’ sex, age, college,
social media usage and frequency spent to update social
media account.
Fake News Mean Description N SD

Awareness
Entire group 2.1101 Moderate 252 .21337
Sex
Male 2.1081 Moderate 103 .21388
Female 2.1115 Moderate 149 .21373
Age
18-24(Young 2.1105 Moderate 245 .21479
Adult) 2.0957 Moderate 7 .16772
25 and above
(Adult
College
CHTM 2.1987 Moderate 53 .16985
COE 2.1157 Moderate 7 .23699
CCS 2.0345 Moderate 44 .19605
CN 2.2111 Moderate 18 .28479
CCJE 2.0307 Moderate 15 .20506
CAS 2.2055 Moderate 11 .26097
CTE 2.0567 Moderate 64 .20747
CBA 2.1185 Moderate 40 .18581
Social Media
Usage
0-2 times 1.9956 Moderate 25 .23983
3-5 times 2.1025 Moderate 65 .19613
6-10 times 2.0996 Moderate 79 .23893
More than 11 2.1606 Moderate 83 .17757
times
Frequency Spent
to update
Social Media
Account 2.0407 Moderate 27 .24223
0-30 minutes 2.1227 Moderate 52 .21678
31 minutes- 1
hour 2.0789 Moderate 76 .23484
1-2 hours 2.1471 Moderate 97 .17749
More than 3
hours
44
Scale Description
2.36-3.00 Very High
1.68-2.35 Moderate
1.00-1.67 Very Low
Generally, the “moderate” fake news awareness implies
that they have mid- amount of understanding and
satisfactory awareness with regards to the proliferation of
fake news in the social media platforms. This is may be
because of their ample knowledge between facts and hoax and
they have critical mindset on how to be wise to be spared
as victim of the spread of misinformation in the social
media platforms.
It contrary of the study of Stanford University,
published in November, surveyed 7,804 students from middle
school age to college age, asking questions about
information online. The study described young people’s
ability to reason about information they find online as
“bleak.” It further suggests that young people’s inability
to recognize untrue information threatens democracy itself.

45
Inferential Data Analysis
Differences in the Social Media Exposure

of Tertiary Students in terms of sex, age,
social media usage and frequency spent to
t-test results in the social media exposure of
Tertiary students in terms of sex.
Table 5 shows the t-test result of the difference in
social media exposure in terms of sex. As shown in the
table below, it was found out that there is no significant
difference in the social media exposure in terms of sex.
(t= .899; with p>.05)
Table 5. T-test results for social media exposure of
the Tertiary Students in terms of sex.
Sex N Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig.
Male 103 2.8058 1.01998 .899 250 .369
Female 149 2.9195 .96224
P > 0.05- not significant at 5% level

P < 0.05- significant at 5% level
46
The results imply that the Social Media Exposure of
Tertiary students do not vary in terms of sex. This means
that the students’ social media exposure does not differ if
the sex of the respondents is either male or female. This
maybe because both male and female engage in the social
media platforms that influences their exposure.
The results of the study as cited with the study of
Vermeren (2015) that men and women have varying degrees of
online activity across different sites. 74% of internet
users are using social media, with women (76%) having a
slight edge over men (72%).
Thus, the null hypothesis which stated that there is
no significant difference in the social media exposure of
tertiary students in terms of sex is hereby accepted (p-
value .369> 0.05)
Differences in the Social Media Exposure

of Tertiary Students in terms of age.
T-test results in the social media exposure of
Tertiary students in terms of age.
social media exposure in terms of age. As shown in the
table below, it was found out that there is no significant

47
difference in the social media exposure in terms of age.
(t= -.345; with p>.05)
Table 6. T-test results for social media exposure of
the Tertiary Students in terms of age.
Age N Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig.
18-24 245 2.8694 .98310 -.345 250 .730
25 and 7 3.0000 1.15470
above

The results imply that the Social Media Exposure of
Tertiary students do not vary if the age of the respondents
is either younger adult or adult. This maybe because of the
fact that all ages today in this modern era are socially
inclined in the social media platforms in order for them to
be updated.
tertiary students in terms of age is hereby accepted (p-
value .730> 0.05)

48
ANOVA results in the social media exposure of

Tertiary students in terms of college.
social media exposure in terms of college. As shown in the
table below, it was found out that there is significant
difference in the social media exposure in terms of
college. (F= 10.825; with p<.05)
Table 7. ANOVA results for social media exposure of
the Tertiary Students in terms of college.
Sum of Squares df Mean of F Sig
Square
Between Groups 5.224 7 .746 10.825 .000
Within Groups 16.822 244 .069
Total 22.047 251

The results infer that the Social Media Exposure of
Tertiary students vary on what college the respondents
belonged. This means that the students’ level of social
media exposure has influence by which college that they
enrolled in. This maybe because their diversity as
classified by college affects their exposure in the social

49
media outlets with regards to their time and personal
endeavours.
tertiary students in terms of college is hereby rejected
(p-value .000< 0.05).
ANOVA results on the social media exposure of Tertiary

students in terms of social media usage.
Table 8 shows the ANOVA results of the differences in
social media exposure in terms of social media usage. As
shown in the table below, it was found out that there is
significant difference in the social media exposure of the
Tertiary students in terms of social media usage (F=
20.026; with p <.05).
Table 8. ANOVA results on the Social Media Exposure of
Tertiary Students in terms of Social Media Usage.
Square
Between Groups 4.299 3 1.433 20.026 .000
Total 22.047 251

50
The result imply that the social media exposure of
Tertiary students vary when it comes to social media usage.
This means that the respondents vary on how many times they
check their social media account in a daily basis.
Thus, the null hypothesis which stated that there is no
significant difference in the social media exposure of
tertiary students in terms of social media usage is hereby
rejected (p-value .000< 0.05).
ANOVA results on the social media exposure of Tertiary

students in terms of frequency spent to update
social media exposure in terms of frequency spent to update
social media account. As shown in the table below, it was
found out that there is significant difference in the
social media exposure of the Tertiary students in terms of
social media usage (F= 16.106; with p <.05).

51
Table 9. ANOVA results on the Social Media Exposure of
Tertiary Students in terms of frequency spent to update
Sum of df Mean of F Sig
Squares Square
Between Groups 3.595 3 1.198 16.106 .000
Total 22.047 251

The result infer that the social media exposure of
Tertiary Students vary when it comes to frequency spent to
update social media account. This entails that the
respondents diverge in their number of hours spent to
update their social media account in a day.
tertiary students in terms of frequency spent to update
social media account is hereby rejected (p-value .000<
0.05).
52
Differences in the Fake News Awareness

of Tertiary Students in terms of sex, age,
college, social media usage and frequency
spent to update social media account.
t-test results in the Fake News Awareness of Tertiary
students in terms of sex.
Fake News Awareness in terms of sex. As shown in the table
below, it was found out that there is no significant
difference in the social media exposure in terms of sex.
(t= -.127; with p>.05)
Table 10. T-test results for fake news awareness of
the Tertiary Students in terms of sex.
Sex N Mean Std. Deviation T df Sig.
Male 103 2.1081 .21388 -.127 250 .899
Female 149 2.1115 .21373

The results imply that the fake news awareness of
the Tertiary students do not vary in terms of their sex.
This means that regardless if they are male or female,
their fake news awareness is congruent.

53
no significant difference in the fake news awareness of
tertiary students in terms of sex is hereby accepted (p-
value .899< 0.05).
Differences in the Fake News Awareness

of Tertiary Students in terms of age.
t-test results in the Fake News Awareness of Tertiary
students in terms of age.
Fake News Awareness in terms of sex. As shown in the table
below, it was found out that there is no significant
difference in the social media exposure in terms of age.
(t= .181; with p>.05)
Table 11. T-test results for fake news awareness of
the Tertiary Students in terms of age.
Sex N Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig.
18-24 245 2.1105 .21479 .181 250 .857
25 and 7 2.0957 .16772
above

54
The results indicate that the fake news awareness of
the Tertiary students of Filamer Christian University do
not vary in terms of their age. Whether they are young
adult or adult their awareness towards fake news remains
the same.
tertiary students in terms of age is hereby accepted (p-
value .899< 0.05).
It contradicted the study of Popken (2019) of
Princeton University deliberating that the adult people are
less aware with regards to fake news since they are
vulnerable to share hoax in the social media accounts since
they are lacking in digital savvy compared to younger
individuals.
55
Analysis of Variance results on the

Fake News Awareness of Tertiary
students in terms of college.
Fake News Awareness in terms of college. As shown in the
table below, it was found out that there is significant
difference in the Fake News Awareness of the Tertiary
students in terms of college (F= 4.207; with p <.05).
Table 12. ANOVA results on the Fake News Awareness of
Square
Between Groups 1.231 7 .176 4.207 .000
Total 11.427 251

The results infer that the Fake News Awareness of
Tertiary Students of Filamer Christian University vary in
terms of college. This means that the eight colleges of the
said institution have a different level of fake news
awareness. The Commission on Higher Education provided a
distinct curriculum to the appropriate courses provided.
Hence, this may add up to the substantial reason that they

56
vary in their level of awareness based on their particular
field of specialization.
tertiary students in terms of college is hereby rejected
(p-value .000< 0.05).
ANOVA results on the Fake News Awareness of Tertiary

students in terms of social media usage.
Fake News Awareness in terms of social media usage. As
shown in the table below, it was found out that there is
significant difference in the Fake News Awareness of the
Tertiary students in terms of social media usage (F= 4.195;
with p <.05).
Square
Between Groups .552 3 .184 4.195 .006
Total 11.427 251

57
The results imply that the Fake News Awareness
of Tertiary Students of Filamer Christian University vary
when it comes to their social media usage. This denotes
that in terms of their awareness with regards to fake news
it differs on how many times they check their social media
account in a daily basis.
tertiary students in terms of social media usage is hereby
rejected (p-value .006< 0.05).

58
ANOVA results on the Fake News

Awareness of Tertiary students in terms
of frequency spent to update social media account.
Fake News Awareness in terms of frequency spent to update
social media account. As shown in the table below, it was
found out that there is no significant difference in the
Fake News Awareness of the Tertiary students in terms of
frequency spent to update social media account (F= 2.572;
with p >.05).
Tertiary Students in terms of Frequency Spent to Update
Social Media Account.
Square
Between Groups .345 3 .115 2.572 .055
Total 11.427 251

The results imply that the Fake News Awareness of
Tertiary Students of Filamer Christian University does not
vary when it comes to their frequency spent to update
social media account. Regardless on the number of hours

59
they spent to update their social media account it does not
affect their fake news awareness.
tertiary students in terms of frequency spent to update
social media account is hereby accepted (p-value .055<
0.05).
Relationship between Social Media Exposure

and Fake News Awareness of Tertiary Students
Table 15 shows the Pearson r results of the
relationship between Social Media Exposure and Fake News
Awareness. As shown in the table below that there is
significant relationship between social media exposure and
fake news awareness. (r= .365**, with p<.05).
Table 15. Correlation of Social Media Exposure and

Fake News Awareness of Tertiary students.
Variables r Sig. (2-tailed)
Social Media Exposure and

Fake News Awareness .365** .000
Legend: *- significant at 5% alpha level

ns- not significant at 5% alpha level
60
The data revealed that there is significant
relationship found between social media exposure and fake
news awareness.
This transpires that the social media exposure of the
students positively correlated to their fake news
awareness. This implies that the level social media
exposure influences their awareness with regards to fake
news. In other words, when the respondents obtain a high
social media exposure, most likely they will also have a
high fake news awareness. Consequently, the null
hypothesis, which states that there is significant
relationship between social media exposure and fake news
awareness is hereby rejected.
The results of the study conformed to the study of
Hutchinson (2018) manifesting that that users are becoming
more wary of content shared online, which could help slow
the spread of misinformation as long as they are more
exposed in indulging in the social media platforms.
Furthermore, in the study of Reifler et. al (2018)
Selective Exposure to Misinformation: Evidence from the
consumption of fake news during the 2016 U.S. presidential
campaign, manifested their contention that consider the
extent to which social media usage exacerbates tendencies

61
toward selective exposure to misinformation. Though Messing
and Westwood (2014) find that social endorsements can help
overcome partisan cues when people are choosing news
content, other research indicates that tendencies toward
selective exposure to attitude-consistent news and
information may be exacerbated by the process of sharing
and consuming content online (e.g., Bakshy, Mess- ing, and
Adamic, 2015). In this way, social media consumption may
also be a mechanism increasing differential exposure to
factually dubious but attitude-consistent information.
Thus the null hypothesis that states that there is no
significant relationship between social media exposure and
fake news awareness is hereby rejected.

62
Chapter 5
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter 5 consists of three parts; (1) Summary of the
Problems, Methods and Findings; (2) Conclusions; (3)
Recommendations.
Part one, Summary of the Problems, Methods and
Findings, gives the summary, methods used and finding of
the study.
Part Two, Conclusions, presents the generalizations
obtained from the results and findings of the study.
Part Three, Recommendations, presents possible areas
for future investigations and finding of the study.
Summary of the Problems, Methods and Findings
This survey-correlational research was conducted to
determine the level of social media exposure and fake news
awareness of Tertiary students of Filamer Christian
University for the school year 2018-2019.

63
Specifically, the study attempted to answer the
following questions:
1. What is the participants’ level of Social Media
Exposure when taken as a group and when classified
2. What is the participants’ Level of Fake News
Awareness when taken as a group and when classified
level of social media exposure when taken as a group and
when classified according to selected variables?
level of fake news awareness when taken as a group and
classified according to selected variables?
5. Is there any significant relationship between social
media exposure and fake news awareness?

64
In view of the aforementioned statement of the problem, the
following were hypothesized:
social media exposure of the tertiary students of
fake news awareness of the tertiary students of
6. There is no significant relationship between social
students of Filamer Christian University.
The respondents of this study were two hundred
fifty-two taken from the total population of fourth
year students of Filamer Christian University for the
school year 2018-2019.
To measure the level of students’ social media
exposure a 10- item researcher-made Social Media
Exposure was used. The students’ level of Fake News

65
Awareness was measure using a 15-item researcher- made
questionnaire. The questionnaire underwent face
validation by experts of Filamer Christian University.
The independent variables covered in the study
were the following sex, age, college, social media
usage and frequency spent to update social media
account. The dependent variables were social media
exposure and fake news awareness.
The statistical tools that were used in data
analyses are frequency, mean, standard deviation and
pearson r. All inferential tests were set at 0.05
alpha level of significance.
The major findings of the investigation are the
following:
1. The total level of social media exposure of
tertiary students as an entire group is
“moderate”. In terms of sex and age the
respondents had a “very high” social media
exposure. While in terms of college, all colleges
had a “moderate” exposure except the College of
Hospitality Tourism Management that resulted to a
“very high” social media exposure. In terms of
social media usage, only more than 11 times had a
“very high” exposure and the rest had a “moderate”

66
result. Then, in the frequency spent to update
social media account, it resulted to “moderate”
social media exposure.
2. The total level of fake news awareness of the
tertiary students as an entire group is
“moderate”. Thus, in terms of sex, age, college,
social media usage and frequency spent to update
social media exposure resulted to “moderate”.
3. There is no significant difference in the social
media exposure in terms of sex and age. However in
terms of college, social media usage and frequency
spent to update social media account has
significant difference.
4. There is no significant difference in the fake
news awareness in terms of sex, age and frequency
to update their social media account in the number
of hours. However, there is a significant
difference in terms of college and social media
usage in their fake news awareness.

67
5. There is a low degree, positive and significant
relationship between social media exposure and
fake news awareness.
Based on the aforementioned findings, the following
conclusions have been drawn:
1. The total level of social media exposure of
Tertiary students of Filamer Christian University is found
to be moderate. This converts to a temperate usage of
social media of the respondents that they are able to
connect with their friends, advance their social
relationship; incline their satisfaction of utilizing the
social media platforms like Facebook or Twitter in order to
respond to the contents and photos in their newsfeed. Thus,
this study manifests that they were able to balance their
time to be exposed in the social media and rather engage
themselves in a constructive time management and self-
control that leads to the result as students may find
engaging in leisure and obtain information on outdoors with
other people not from the virtual world. While in terms of
sex, both male and female had a very high social media
exposure the same with young adult and adult that signify
that their sexes and ages showed very exposed to social
media. Thus, in the case of College of Hospitality Tourism

68
Management it resulted to the only “Very High” that can be
inferred that they engaged in a very exposed manner to
social media maybe because of their field of specialization
and social whereabouts. Thus, another finding that the
social media usage in more than 11 times had a different
result of which is “Very High” due to the fact that the
respondents check their social media accounts in excessive
that they are deemed as very exposed in social media
exposure.
2. The students’ level of fake news awareness is
generally moderate. This implies that they have mid- amount
of understanding and satisfactory awareness with regards to
the proliferation of fake news in the social media
platforms. Due to the datum that fake news widely emerged
in this modern age, younger individuals specifically the
students in the institution preferably obtain their
information in the various social media platforms like
Facebook and twitter rather from the traditional news media
outlets. This denotes also, that the respondents in the
study have no excessive nor too low ideas in order to spot
fake news and its repercussion. They have a mediocre
thinking to consider the source of an article if
trustworthy, validating the information spread in facebook

69
and twitter to a fact checking websites; merely ignoring
the typographical errors in an article and responding to
the provocative headline considering it immediately as
legitimate information.
3. As revealed in the study, there is no significant
difference in terms of sex and age in the social media
exposure. This implies that the students’ social media
exposure does not differ in terms of sex and age. While in
terms of college, social media usage and frequency spent to
update social media, it transpired that there is a
significant difference. With regards to college, it
indicates the eight colleges enumerated in the data has its
diversity and no parallel amount of exposure that affects
like their course schedule, requirements and personal
leisure. While in terms of social media usage, this means
that the respondents vary on how many times they check
their social media account in a daily basis. This may be
due to respondents own level of vital social engagements in
the social media podiums like facebook or twitter in order
to be informed as part of their daily routine. Also, with
regards to frequency spent to update social media account,
it indicates that the respondents in the said study differ
in their number of hours expended to be engaged in their

70
social media accounts. This maybe because they have their
own variance of time allotment to update their profile,
post information and share their personal thoughts.
4. There is no significant difference in the Fake News
Awareness in terms of sex, age and frequency to update
their social media account in the number of hours. This
implies that whether you are male or female, younger adult
or adult and the number of hours spent to update social
media accounts does not vary in their awareness and
information about the proliferation of fake news. However,
there is a significant difference in terms of college and
social media usage in their fake news awareness. With
regards to college, this denotes that the students from
eight colleges of Filamer Christian University have a
different level of awareness. One reason maybe because the
Commision on Higher Education provided a distinct
curriculum according to their courses, resonating that they
vary on their awareness and knowledge based on their field
of specialization. Thus, with regards to social media
usage, it influences their fake news awareness because they
differ on how many times they check their social media
account in a daily basis. It emerged that the quantity of

71
times that they indulge themselves in the social media
platforms affect their fake news awareness.
5. There is a low degree, positive and significant
relationship between social media exposure and fake news
awareness. The result signifies that the level of social
media exposure conversely translates to the level of fake
news awareness, with the higher social media exposure
resulting to higher fake news awareness.

72
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended
that in order to ensure amplified knowledge and awareness,
the following should be looked into:
1. The tertiary students of Filamer Christian University
are advised to increase their fake news awareness and
maintain moderate use of social media. Students must
practice to fact-check information disseminated in the
social media platforms and research effective mechanisms to
confirm the accuracy of an article like from factcheck.org
or Hoax slayer websites in order not to be deceived by hoax
proliferated. Also, being critical in thinking and indulge
in the seminars or forums regarding to fake news awareness
that can help improve their knowledge for a wiser
discernment.
2. Teachers are recommended to help maintain and improve
students’ fake news awareness and guide their students’
social media exposure for a responsible use. They can teach
their students about social media ethics and anchor media
and news literacy programs in the related subjects applied
to all tertiary students.

73
3. Institutional organizations are recommended to conduct
activities or forums related to responsible social media
usage and advance fake news awareness among students. This
will enable them to be holistic in acquiring information
whirling in the social media podiums and help to fight fake
news as an advocacy of the information agency.
4. School administrators are encouraged to improve school
programs and activities that will make students understand
further the depth of social media and fake news awareness.
They could implement discussions and assemblies that
lecture about proper use of social media and the spread of
fake news.
5. Future researchers are recommended to conduct this study
in the first year tertiary students to measure their
knowledge and awareness with regards to fake news from
their previous classes in media literacy also it should be
conducted to the faculty of the institution for them to be
equipped in the proper teaching and dissemination with
regards to the matter.

74
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Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social Media and Fake
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DUGGAN, M. (2019). Frequency of Social Media Use. Pew
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https://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/09/frequency-of-social-
media-use-2/ [Accessed 3 Feb. 2019].
Lazer, D. (2019). Combating Fake News: An Agenda for
Research and Action. Shorensteincenter.org. Available at:
https://shorensteincenter.org/wp-
content/uploads/2017/05/Combating-Fake-News-Agenda-for-
Research-1.pdf [Accessed 6 Feb. 2019].
Ordway, D. (2019). Fake news and the spread of
misinformation - Journalist's Resource. Journalist's
Resource. Available at:
https://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet/fa
75
ke-news-conspiracy-theories-journalism-research/ [Accessed
6 Feb. 2019].
Allcott, H. and Gentzkow, M. (2019). Social Media and Fake
News in the 2016 Election. [online] Available at:
http://file:///E:/Fake%20News%20Study/fakenews%202016%20ele
c.pdf [Accessed 8 Mar. 2019].
Roozenbeek, J. and Linden, S. (2018). Cam.ac.uk. Available
at:
https://www.cam.ac.uk/sites/www.cam.ac.uk/files/fakenews_la
test_jrr_aaas.pdf [Accessed 11 Mar. 2019].
Roberson, R. (2017). Lesson Plan: Fighting Fake News.
Ww2.kqed.org. Available at: http://ww2.kqed.org/lowdown/wp-
content/uploads/sites/26/2016/12/Fake-news-lesson-plan.pdf
[Accessed 16 Mar. 2019].
Allcott, H., Gentzkow, M. and Yu, C. (n.d.). Trends in the
diffusion of misinformation on social media.
Carson, J. (2013). Fake news: What exactly is it – and how
can you spot it?. The Telegraph. Available at:
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/0/fake-news-exactly-
has-really-had-influence/ [Accessed 2 Apr. 2019].

76
SMITH, A. (2018). Social Media Use 2018: Demographics and
Statistics.] Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech.
Available at:
https://www.pewinternet.org/2018/03/01/social-media-use-in-
2018/ [Accessed 10 Apr. 2019].
Shellenbarger, S. (2018). Most Students Don’t Know When
News Is Fake, Stanford Study Finds. WSJ. Available at:
https://www.wsj.com/articles/most-students-dont-know-when-
news-is-fake-stanford-study-finds-1479752576 [Accessed 12
Apr. 2019].
Richter, F., & Richter, F. (2019, January 5). Infographic:
Teens' Social Media Usage Is Drastically Increasing.
Retrieved April 20, 2019, from
https://www.statista.com/chart/15720/frequency-of-
teenagers-social-media-use/
Older children are getting wise to fake news. (2018, August
06). Retrieved April 20, 2019, from
https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/media/media-
releases/2017/children-social-media-fake-news
77
Appendixes
78
Appendixes A
Research Instrument
79
Filamer Christian University

College of Arts and Sciences
Roxas City
SOCIAL MEDIA EXPOSURE AND FAKE NEWS AWARENESS OF TERTIARY

STUDENTS OF FILAMER CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY
To the Respondents:
This study seeks to determine the level of social media exposure and fake news awareness of the
research participant. Kindly fill out the needed information and answer each item of the
questionnaire of your best and honest choice.
PHOEBE ANNE D. JULLAR

Researcher
Part I. Participant’s Data Sheet

Directions: Please don’t leave any item unanswered.
Name: (Optional) ______________________________________

Course and Year: ______________________________________
Sex: [ ] Male [ ] Female
Age:
[ ] 18-24 years old (Young Adult)
[ ] 25 and above (Adult)
Social Media Usage

Frequent times to check social media account per day
[ ] 0-2 times [ ] 6-10 times
[ ] 3-5 times [ ] more than 11 times
Frequency spending to update social media account

[ ] 0-30 minutes [ ] 1- 2 hours
[ ] 31 minutes- 1 hour [ ] More than 3 hours
Part II. Social Media Exposure

Directions: Please answer each item in the questionnaire by indicating a checkmark on the
column corresponding to your choice. Please do not leave any item unanswered.
Legend:
(These legends are provided for questionnaire only)
3 - Always
2 - Sometimes
1 – Never
80
3 2 1
Social Media Exposure (ALWAYS) (SOMETIMES) (NEVER)
1. I make sure that I’m connected with my friends in
social media.
2. I have an ample time to scroll my newsfeed in a
day.
3. Social media platforms like Facebook or Twitter

play an important role in my social relationships.
4. I immediately check my social media accounts as

soon as I wake up.
5. I respond to content that others share using

Facebook or Twitter.
6. Using social media platforms are part of my

everyday routine.
7. I would be disappointed if I could not use

Facebook or Twitter at all.
8. I don’t enjoy checking my Facebook or Twitter
account.
9. I prefer to read news in the newspaper than

online news.
10. I get upset when I can’t log on to my social media

account/s in a day.
Part III. Fake News Awareness
Directions: Please answer each item in the questionnaire by indicating a checkmark on the column
corresponding to your choice. Please do not leave any item unanswered.
Legend:
(These legends are provided for questionnaire only)
3 - Always
2 - Sometimes
1 – Never
3 2 1
Fake News Awareness (ALWAYS) (SOMETIMES) (NEVER)
1. I browse in social media than reading in other
media outlets to get information.
2. I consider the source of an article in the social
media.
3. All news that I have read in the social media were
trustworthy.
4. If there’s a provocative headline that drew my
attention, I deemed it as legitimate information.
81
5. I check the date of the news article in the social

media.
6. I dig deeper in the information that I am reading
in the social media.
7. I look up the date of the news article if when it
published.
8. I examine the publisher’s website closely by
checking the “about us” section of the website.
9. I usually check the journalism/ editorial quality of
the news story.
10. I don’t read the comments under the news article
link to seek if the story is legit or not.
11. I validate news information from experts or fact
checking websites.
12. I share immediately an article that I believed it as
factual information without checking where it
came from.
13. I check the accuracy of the image in certain
information in the social media sites.
14. I ignore the typographical errors in an article.
15. I can distinguish facts from opinions.

82
Appendixes B
Statistical Data Analysis

83
FREQUENCIES VARIABLES=Sex Age SMUsage Frequency /ORDER=ANALYSIS.
Frequencies
Objective No. 1: Profile of the Respondents
Statistics
Sex Age SMUsage Frequency
N Valid 252 252 252 252
Missing 0 0 0 0
Frequency Table
Sex
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Male 103 40.9 40.9 40.9
Female 149 59.1 59.1 100.0
Total 252 100.0 100.0

84
Age
Cumulative
Valid 18-24 245 97.2 97.2 97.2
25 above 7 2.8 2.8 100.0
Total 252 100.0 100.0
SMUsage
Cumulative
Valid 0-2 times 25 9.9 9.9 9.9
3-5 times 65 25.8 25.8 35.7
6-10 times 79 31.3 31.3 67.1
more than 11 times 83 32.9 32.9 100.0
Total 252 100.0 100.0
Frequency
Cumulative
Valid 0-30 minutes 27 10.7 10.7 10.7
31 minutes - 1 hr 52 20.6 20.6 31.3

85
1-2 hours 76 30.2 30.2 61.5
more than 3 hours 97 38.5 38.5 100.0
Total 252 100.0 100.0
DESCRIPTIVES VARIABLES=SMExposure FNAwareness /STATISTICS=MEAN STDDEV MIN MAX.
Descriptives
Objectives 2&3: Level of SOCIAL MEDIA EXPOSURE and FAKE NEWS AWARENESS
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
SMExposure 252 1.20 2.90 2.2036 .29637
FNAwareness 252 1.60 2.73 2.1101 .21337
Valid N (listwise) 252
T-TEST GROUPS=Sex(1 2) /MISSING=ANALYSIS /VARIABLES=SMUsage /CRITERIA=CI(.95).
T-Test
86
Social Media Exposure between Sex: No significant Difference
Group Statistics
Sex N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
SMUsage Male 103 2.8058 1.01998 .10050
Female 149 2.9195 .96224 .07883
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper
SMUsage Equal variances assumed 1.080 .300 -.899 250 .369 -.11364 .12637 -.36253 .13525
Equal variances not -.890 211.057 .375 -.11364 .12773 -.36543 .13815
assumed
T-TEST GROUPS=Age(1 2) /MISSING=ANALYSIS /VARIABLES=SMUsage /CRITERIA=CI(.95).

87
T-Test
Social Media Usage between Ages: No significant difference
Group Statistics
Age N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
SMUsage 18-24 245 2.8694 .98310 .06281
25 above 7 3.0000 1.15470 .43644
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Mean Std. Error
SMUsage Equal variances assumed .031 .860 -.345 250 .730 -.13061 .37856 -.87618 .61496
Equal variances not -.296 6.251 .777 -.13061 .44093 -1.19912 .93789
assumed
88
ONEWAY SMExposure BY SMUsage /STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES /MISSING ANALYSIS.
Oneway
Significant difference among Social Media Usage: There is a significant difference.
Descriptives
SMExposure
95% Confidence Interval for

Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
0-2 times 25 1.9800 .32660 .06532 1.8452 2.1148 1.20 2.70
3-5 times 65 2.0892 .29640 .03676 2.0158 2.1627 1.30 2.80
6-10 times 79 2.1975 .24857 .02797 2.1418 2.2531 1.70 2.90
more than 11 times 83 2.3663 .24057 .02641 2.3137 2.4188 1.80 2.90
Total 252 2.2036 .29637 .01867 2.1668 2.2403 1.20 2.90
ANOVA
SMExposure
89
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 4.299 3 1.433 20.026 .000
Total 22.047 251
ONEWAY SMExposure BY Frequency /STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES /MISSING ANALYSIS.
Oneway
Social Media Exposure among Frequency: There is a significant difference.
Descriptives
SMExposure

Mean
Std.
N Mean Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
0-30 minutes 27 2.0111 .33551 .06457 1.8784 2.1438 1.20 2.70
31 minutes - 1 hr 52 2.0962 .25511 .03538 2.0251 2.1672 1.60 2.70
1-2 hours 76 2.1671 .28537 .03273 2.1019 2.2323 1.30 2.90
more than 3 97 2.3433 .25204 .02559 2.2925 2.3941 1.60 2.90

hours
Total 252 2.2036 .29637 .01867 2.1668 2.2403 1.20 2.90

90
ANOVA
SMExposure
Between Groups 3.595 3 1.198 16.106 .000
Total 22.047 251
T-TEST GROUPS=Sex(1 2) /MISSING=ANALYSIS /VARIABLES=FNAwareness /CRITERIA=CI(.95).
T-Test
Fake News Awareness between Sexes: No significant Difference
Group Statistics
Sex N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
FNAwareness Male 103 2.1081 .21388 .02107
Female 149 2.1115 .21373 .01751

91
95% Confidence Interval of
the Difference
Mean Std. Error
FNAwareness Equal variances .071 .790 -.127 250 .899 -.00349 .02740 -.05744 .05047
assumed
Equal variances not -.127 219.380 .899 -.00349 .02740 -.05748 .05051
assumed
T-TEST GROUPS=Age(1 2) /MISSING=ANALYSIS /VARIABLES=FNAwareness /CRITERIA=CI(.95).
T-Test
Fake News Awareness between Ages: No significant difference
Group Statistics
Age N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
FNAwareness 18-24 245 2.1105 .21479 .01372
25 above 7 2.0957 .16772 .06339

92
95% Confidence Interval of
the Difference
Mean Std. Error
FNAwareness Equal variances .435 .510 .181 250 .857 .01482 .08195 -.14658 .17622
assumed
Equal variances not .228 6.575 .826 .01482 .06486 -.14058 .17022
assumed
ONEWAY FNAwareness BY SMUsage /STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES /MISSING ANALYSIS.
Oneway
Fake News Awareness among Social Media Usage: There is a significant Difference.
Descriptives
FNAwareness

Mean
0-2 times 25 1.9956 .23938 .04788 1.8968 2.0944 1.60 2.47
3-5 times 65 2.1025 .19613 .02433 2.0539 2.1511 1.60 2.53
6-10 times 79 2.0996 .23893 .02688 2.0461 2.1531 1.60 2.73

93
more than 11 times 83 2.1606 .17757 .01949 2.1218 2.1994 1.73 2.60
Total 252 2.1101 .21337 .01344 2.0836 2.1366 1.60 2.73
ANOVA
FNAwareness
Between Groups .552 3 .184 4.195 .006
Total 11.427 251
ONEWAY FNAwareness BY Frequency /STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES /MISSING ANALYSIS.
Oneway
Fake News Awareness among Frequenies: No Significant Difference
Descriptives
FNAwareness

Mean
Std.
N Mean Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
94
0-30 minutes 27 2.0407 .24223 .04662 1.9449 2.1366 1.60 2.47
31 minutes - 1 hr 52 2.1227 .21678 .03006 2.0623 2.1830 1.60 2.53
1-2 hours 76 2.0789 .23484 .02694 2.0253 2.1326 1.60 2.73
more than 3 97 2.1471 .17749 .01802 2.1113 2.1829 1.73 2.60

hours
Total 252 2.1101 .21337 .01344 2.0836 2.1366 1.60 2.73
ANOVA
FNAwareness
Between Groups .345 3 .115 2.572 .055
Total 11.427 251
CORRELATIONS /VARIABLES=SMExposure FNAwareness /PRINT=TWOTAIL NOSIG

/MISSING=PAIRWISE.
95
Correlations
There is a low, posit
Correlations
SMExposure FNAwareness
SMExposure Pearson Correlation 1 .365**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 252 252
FNAwareness Pearson Correlation .365** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 252 252
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
GET FILE='C:\Users\user\Documents\Chinggay Dataset.sav'. ONEWAY SMExposure BY College

/STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES /MISSING ANALYSIS /POSTHOC=TUKEY ALPHA(0.05).
ONEWAY SMExposure BY College /STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES /MISSING ANALYSIS

/POSTHOC=TUKEY ALPHA(0.05).
96
Oneway
Social Media Exposure in terms of College: p-value is SIGNIFICANT at 0.05 alpha level.
Descriptives
SMExposure

Mean
CHTM 53 2.4698 .21625 .02970 2.4102 2.5294 1.90 2.90
COE 7 2.1286 .26904 .10169 1.8798 2.3774 1.70 2.40
CCS 44 2.1773 .25414 .03831 2.1000 2.2545 1.70 2.90
CN 18 2.0611 .25927 .06111 1.9322 2.1900 1.80 2.70
CCJE 15 2.0333 .34983 .09033 1.8396 2.2271 1.30 2.60
CAS 11 2.0727 .32586 .09825 1.8538 2.2916 1.20 2.30
CTE 64 2.1687 .28108 .03514 2.0985 2.2390 1.60 2.80
CBA 40 2.1125 .24199 .03826 2.0351 2.1899 1.60 2.70
Total 252 2.2036 .29637 .01867 2.1668 2.2403 1.20 2.90

97
ANOVA
SMExposure
Between Groups 5.224 7 .746 10.825 .000
Total 22.047 251
Post Hoc Tests
Multiple Comparisons
SMExposure
Tukey HSD
95% Confidence Interval

(I) (J) Mean Difference
College College (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound
CHTM COE .34124* .10559 .030 .0184 .6641
CCS .29254* .05355 .000 .1288 .4563
CN .40870* .07163 .000 .1897 .6277
CCJE .43648* .07679 .000 .2017 .6713

98
CAS .39708* .08700 .000 .1311 .6631
CTE .30106* .04877 .000 .1520 .4502
CBA .35731* .05499 .000 .1892 .5255
COE CHTM -.34124* .10559 .030 -.6641 -.0184
CCS -.04870 .10685 1.000 -.3754 .2780
CN .06746 .11696 .999 -.2901 .4251
CCJE .09524 .12019 .993 -.2722 .4627
CAS .05584 .12695 1.000 -.3323 .4440
CTE -.04018 .10453 1.000 -.3598 .2794
CBA .01607 .10758 1.000 -.3128 .3450
CCS CHTM -.29254* .05355 .000 -.4563 -.1288
COE .04870 .10685 1.000 -.2780 .3754
CN .11616 .07347 .761 -.1085 .3408
CCJE .14394 .07851 .598 -.0961 .3840
CAS .10455 .08851 .937 -.1661 .3752
CTE .00852 .05142 1.000 -.1487 .1657
CBA .06477 .05736 .950 -.1106 .2402
CN CHTM -.40870* .07163 .000 -.6277 -.1897
COE -.06746 .11696 .999 -.4251 .2901
CCS -.11616 .07347 .761 -.3408 .1085
CCJE .02778 .09180 1.000 -.2529 .3084

99
CAS -.01162 .10049 1.000 -.3189 .2956
CTE -.10764 .07005 .787 -.3218 .1065
CBA -.05139 .07452 .997 -.2792 .1765
CCJE CHTM -.43648* .07679 .000 -.6713 -.2017
COE -.09524 .12019 .993 -.4627 .2722
CCS -.14394 .07851 .598 -.3840 .0961
CN -.02778 .09180 1.000 -.3084 .2529
CAS -.03939 .10423 1.000 -.3581 .2793
CTE -.13542 .07532 .622 -.3657 .0949
CBA -.07917 .07950 .975 -.3222 .1639
CAS CHTM -.39708* .08700 .000 -.6631 -.1311
COE -.05584 .12695 1.000 -.4440 .3323
CCS -.10455 .08851 .937 -.3752 .1661
CN .01162 .10049 1.000 -.2956 .3189
CCJE .03939 .10423 1.000 -.2793 .3581
CTE -.09602 .08570 .952 -.3581 .1660
CBA -.03977 .08939 1.000 -.3131 .2335
CTE CHTM -.30106* .04877 .000 -.4502 -.1520
COE .04018 .10453 1.000 -.2794 .3598
CCS -.00852 .05142 1.000 -.1657 .1487
CN .10764 .07005 .787 -.1065 .3218

100
CCJE .13542 .07532 .622 -.0949 .3657
CAS .09602 .08570 .952 -.1660 .3581
CBA .05625 .05292 .964 -.1056 .2181
CBA CHTM -.35731* .05499 .000 -.5255 -.1892
COE -.01607 .10758 1.000 -.3450 .3128
CCS -.06477 .05736 .950 -.2402 .1106
CN .05139 .07452 .997 -.1765 .2792
CCJE .07917 .07950 .975 -.1639 .3222
CAS .03977 .08939 1.000 -.2335 .3131
CTE -.05625 .05292 .964 -.2181 .1056
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Homogeneous Subsets
SMExposure
Tukey HSDa,,b
Subset for alpha = 0.05
College N 1 2
CCJE 15 2.0333
CN 18 2.0611
CAS 11 2.0727
101
CBA 40 2.1125
COE 7 2.1286
CTE 64 2.1687
CCS 44 2.1773
CHTM 53 2.4698
Sig. .715 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are

displayed.
a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 18.256.
b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic

mean of the group sizes is used. Type I error
levels are not guaranteed.
ONEWAY FNAwareness BY College /STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES /MISSING ANALYSIS

/POSTHOC=TUKEY ALPHA(0.05).
Oneway
Fake News Awareness in terms of COLLEGE: p-value is SIGNIFICANT at 0.05 alpha level.
Descriptives
FNAwareness

Mean
CHTM 53 2.1987 .16985 .02333 2.1519 2.2455 2.00 2.53

102
COE 7 2.1157 .23699 .08957 1.8965 2.3349 1.80 2.47
CCS 44 2.0345 .19605 .02956 1.9749 2.0941 1.67 2.53
CN 18 2.2111 .28479 .06713 2.0695 2.3527 1.87 2.73
CCJE 15 2.0307 .20506 .05295 1.9171 2.1442 1.67 2.33
CAS 11 2.2055 .26097 .07869 2.0301 2.3808 1.80 2.60
CTE 64 2.0567 .20747 .02593 2.0049 2.1085 1.60 2.47
CBA 40 2.1185 .18581 .02938 2.0591 2.1779 1.60 2.53
Total 252 2.1101 .21337 .01344 2.0836 2.1366 1.60 2.73
ANOVA
FNAwareness
Between Groups 1.231 7 .176 4.207 .000
Total 11.427 251

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1

SOCIAL MEDIA EXPOSURE AND FAKE NEWS AWARENESS OF TERTIARY

STUDENTS OF FILAMER CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

Phoebe Anne D. Jullar

Introduction to the Study

This chapter is made up of five parts: (1) Background

of the Study, (2) Statement of the Problem, (3)

Significance of the Study, (4) Definition of Terms and

(5) Scope and Delimitation.

Part One, Background of the Study, provides the

rationale and conditions that motivated the researcher to

conduct this study, discusses the facts in which the study

is appended and present the variables that are included in

Part Two, Statement of the Problem, states the general

and specific questions the study seeks to answer.

Part Three, Significance of the Study, presents the

benefits and advantages the study could bring as well as

Part Four, Scope and Delimitation, seeks the scope of

the research in terms of location, participants, research

design, sampling procedure, data gathering techniques,

research variables as well as statistical tools to be

utilized for data analysis.

Part Five, Definition of Terms, defines the variables

present in the study conceptually and operationally.

Background of the Study

Information is the core of life. It plays a vivacious

part on shaping the decisions of every individual in the

society. It affects the political, social, economic and

cultural context of the communities. Thus, social media has

been a large platform for information dissemination.

In an age where almost half of all news consumers

receive and share their news from online sources (Mitchell

et al., 2016), false information can reach large audiences

by spreading rapidly from one person to another (van der

Linden et al., 2017).

Fake news had always been around, but nowadays, the

At present, information, whether true or false, travels

faster. People could easily access tons of news and

information through different media platforms through the

internet. In addition to this, images are making it even

more believable — the better the image, the more convincing

the story is. Perception can be constantly manipulated to

make it better and believable. (Munsayac, 2018)

Social media exploded as a category of online

discourse which enables people to create contents, share

them, bookmark them and network at a prodigious rate (Jha

in communication where people had to rely solely on

traditional methods such as letters and phone calls as a

mode of getting in touch with friends and relatives. Today,

communication is as easy as walking into a neighbor’s

residence to deliver a piece of information or vice versa

through the use of social media. Social media is fast

changing the public discourse in the society and is setting

trends and agenda in topics that ranges from the

environment and politics to technology and the

entertainment industry (Asur and Huberman, 2010).

According to the recent survey of the Social Weather

Stations or SWS this March 2018 indicated that respondents'

perceived seriousness of the fake news issue is directly