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APPLIED MECHANICS II
1.1 INTRODUCTION The second aspect of the course on
Applied Mechanics deals wit h t he int ernal st ress and st rain
generat ed by ext ernally applied fo rces.

1.2 STRESS AND STRAIN

In the study of stresses and st r a ins, it is imp o r t a nt t ha t t he
students have a good understanding of the concept of free body
diagrams and equilibrium of a body under a set of applied loads which
must have been acquired in the first part of Applied Mechanics. This
familiarity will be assumed in the following sections.
If a cutting plane X-X is passed through the member in Fig.
1.1(a), it may be assumed that the internal forces generated is uniform
as shown in Fig.1.2. The intensity of the force perpendicular or
normal to the section is called a normal stress at a point. It is
designated by the greek letter , σ (sigma) in this note.

This stress, if considered uniform over the cross- sectional area, A,

as is the case in most Engineering problems, is defined mathematically
as ,

Force (orLoad ) P [N ]
= .........(1.1)
Normal stress=
Area A m2[ ]
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It should be noted that stress is a vector quantity having both

magnitude and direction .The sense of the stress is also important. It
depends on the action of stress on the body and may not be determined

from the sign of the force vector. If the stress is tending to stretch the
body or pull it apart, it is called a tensile stress as in Fig.1.2. If the
bo dy st ress is co mpressing o r quashing t he bo dy, it is called a
compressive stress. Using a sign convention, tension stress is
considered positive, while compression stress carries a negative sign.
The SI unit of force is the Newton and the unit of area is the meter
square. The unit of stress is thus Newton per meter squared or Pascal
(Pa) as shown in Eq.1.1.
Other multiples of the Pascal, commonly used because of the fact
that the Pascal is a relatively small unit of stress are the KiloPascals
( K P a = 1 0 3P a ) = 1 k N / m 2
M e g a P a s c a l s ( 1 M P a = 1 0 6/ P a ) = 1 N / m m 2
G i g a P a s c a l ( 1 G P a = 1 0 9/ P a ) , e t c .

1.3 SHEAR STRESS

In general, the applied forced P, can be at an angle to the cros-
section under consideration as shown in Fig.1.3. The force can then be
r e s o l v e d i n t o a n o r m a l c o m p o n e n t P y a n d a t a n g e n t i a l c o m p o n e n t P x.
The normal component Py causes normalcauses normal stress as in
Fig.1.2. The other component of the force acts parallel to the plane and
tends to shear the member. An average shear stress may then be
e x p r e s s e d a s av= P x/ A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 1 . 2 )
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It is to be noted that Eq.1.2 differs considerably from the true stress

situation, but is widely used in many engineering applications for
many practical reasons .The Greek letter, (tau) is used to represent

shear stress and the subscript AV is used to indicate the average nature
of the stress being calculated. Again for practical purposes, the stress
distribution is assumed to be uniform.

1.4 BEARING STRESS

This is a special t ype o f no rmal st ress, o ccurring when t wo
objects come into contact or bear on each other. An example of bearing
st ress is t hat exert ed o n t he flo o r by a t able leg. It isalways
compressive in nature.

Example 1.1
Determine the normal stress in a 100 mm square short column
carrying a t ensile fo rce o f 900 kN.

Solution:

N
900 kN × 10 3
P kN = 90 N = 90 MPa
σ = =
A 100 mm × 100 mm mm 2
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Example 1.2
Find the bearing stress exerted on the floor by each leg of a table
carrying a lo ad o f 140 kN. The t able has fo ur legs and weighs 20kN. The
cross-sectional dimension of each leg of the table is 20mm square.

Solution:
Total force = 140 +20 = 160kN
Force/leg = 160kN = 40kN
4
Cross-sectional area of each leg = 20mm x 20mm= 400mm2

P 40 X 10 3 N
Therefore bearing stress/leg = = = 100 MPa
A 400mm 2

Example 1.3
A 200N load is carried by a 25mm diameter rivet as shown in fig
1.4. Find the average shear stress in the rivet.
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Solution
A free body diagram for the riveted bars is drawn as shown in Fig
1.4 (b)
Summing all the horizontal forces, we have:

∑F x =0
200 − V = 0
The shear load, V, is 200 V = 200 N
N. Thus the average shear
stress is

V V 4V
∂ AV = = 2
=
A D D2
 

4
kN
( 4)( 200 N ) X 10 −3
= N = 407.4 KPa
2
(.025m )

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Example 1.4:
If the plate were double riveted as shown in Fig. 1.5 , find the
average shear stress in the rivet.

Solution:

∑F x =0
200 − VT + V B = 0
VB = 200 − 100 = 100 N

The free body diagram for the top plate is shown in Fig. 1.5b.
∑F x =0
10 0 − V T = 0
V T = 10 0 N
From the free body diagram of the middle plate in Fig. 1.5c

This shows that the shear load on either side of the middle plate is
100 N. This condition is known as double shear and in it the rivet arries
only one-half of the total load. In single shear it carries the total load.
Thus average shear stress is
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Deformation under axial load

P

VT V 4 (V T )
τ AV = = T2 =
A πD πD 2
4
( 4 )( 1 0 0 ) x 1 0 −3
=
π ( 0 .2 5 ) 2
= 2 0 3.7 kP a

1.5 NORMAL STRAIN

The application of an axial tensile load P as in Fig 1.6 will
normally result in the member stretching in the direction of the
load. This elongation per unit lengh of the member is referred
to as normal strain If is the total deformation in a given length,
L,
Normal Strain, (epsilon) = /L 


It is to be noted that strain is usually dimensionless and is

generally very small except for a few materials like rubber.
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EXAMPLE1.6
The unloaded length of a beam carrying an axial load of
260kN is 3m long. If the beam has a diameter of 50mm and was
stretched by 0.002m, find the stress and strain in the beam.

y y y
2

x x

x x
y

x
2

(a)
(b)

x=L

x
(c)

SOLUTION
From equation 1.1
Stress  = P/A
A = 3 . 1 4 2 * ( 0 . 0 5 ) 2/ 4 = 0 . 0 0 1 9 6 m 2
 = 260000/0.00196 = 1.3 2 x 108

Strain , =   /L = 0.0002/3 = 0.0000667 m/m

1.6 SHEAR STRAIN

Consider a square element of a material in an undisturbed state as
shown in Fig. 1.7 (a).

To this element a shear stress is applied to each face in the 

directions shown, so that equilibrium conditions are met. The shear

stresses produce the shear deformation shown in Fig 1.7(b). Fig.
1.7(c) shows the element rotated clockwise through the angle /2 so

that the entire deformation can be easily seen as the angle ( Greek

gamma). This angle is defined as shear strain. It is measured in radians

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which is a dimensionless term.

The shear strain, , is calculated as

δ
tanγ = = γ ..............(1.4)
L
since for very small angles, tan
=
.

It should be noted that whereas equation 1.4 looks very similar to

equation 1.3 , and L are in the same direction in equation 1.3 but they


are measured perpendicularly in equation1.4 . However, in both cases

the deformation, , is in the direction of the applied stress.

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HOOKE'S LAW

The linear proportionality of stress to strain within the limit of elasticity

was first observed by an English scientist, Sir Robert Hooke, about 1678.
Many years later, in about 1807, another English scientist, Thomas Young,
determined the constant of this proportionality. Thus, up to some point on a
stress-strain diagram for all materials, Hooke's law can be stated as
=E
...........(1.5)

where E is the constant of proportionality, determined by Thomas Young. E

turns out to be a property of the material and is referred to as the modulus of
elasticity or Young's modulus. Rearranging Eq. 1.5, we have
E= / 

Since strain is dimensionless, the units of E are the same for stress. For
most steels, E ranges from 200 to 210 x 109 Pa. Because of the very large value
of the modulus of elasticity in SI units for common engineering materials, the
unit GPa = 1 x 109 Pa is normally used.
A more generally usable form of Eq. 1.5 is a direct relationship
between the load and total deformation of the member. From our definitions:

= P/A
= /L


and Hooke's law



=E 

Then, by appropriate substitution we have

P/A = E /L


solving for deformation we have,

= PL/AE ........................1.6


This equation shows that the deformation is directly proportional to the load
and the length of the member, but inversely proportional to the area and the
modulus of elasticity. We can therefore increase the deformation by increasing
the load or the length. The deflection can be reduced by increasing the area
or the modulus of elasticity. Equation 1.6 can be further rearranged as:
P = AE /L ....................(1.7)


which is similar to the spring equation

P = K ......................(1.8)


where K is known as the spring constant with units N/m. Comparing Eqs (1.7)
and (1.8) we have
K = AE/L ....................(1.9)
Equation (1.9) shows that every structural member is really a spring -
usually very stiff, but nonetheless a spring. This is a very important point to
bear in mind.
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Example 1.7
A 3 m long rolled wide flange column supports a 2.30 MN axial load in the
interior of a single storey building. If the cross-sectional area of the column is
17500mm2, determine the total elongation of the column. Take modulus of
elasticity E as 200 GPa.

Solution:
Deformation, = PL/AE


= (2.30 x 10 N)(3m)/(17500 x 10-6m2)(200 x 109 N/m2)

6

= 0.00197 m
= 1.97 mm

Example 1.8
A member whose cross-section is 50 mm x 100 mm carries a load of 20 kN.
The length of the member is 500 mm and the deflection obtained is 3 mm.
Find the stress, strain, and modulus of elasticity. Also determine the spring
constant of the member.

Solution:
Stress,  = P/A
= (20 x 103N)/((0.05m)(0.1m))
= 4 x 106 Pa = 4 MPa
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POISSON'S RATIO

The application of a load to a body causes it to undergo deformation

in the direction of applied load (axial deformation) as shown in Fig. 1.8.
Measurement of the diameter as the load is applied reveals that it is decreasing
in an orderly manner. This phenomenon was discovered in about 1828 by a
French mathematician, Poisson. Poisson found that within the elastic range of
the material the ratio of the lateral strain to the axial strain remains constant.
The ratio is called Poison's ratio, and can be described mathematically as:
Poisson's ratio is dimensionless, since the ratio of two strains is
likewise dimensionless. It carries a negative sign in Eq. 1.10 because the axial
strain and lateral strain will always be of opposite sign. If the length is
extended, the diameter will be reduced. If the length is compressed the
diameter will increase.
Poisson's ratio is a property of the material and can range in value from 0 to
0.5. For most metals, Poisson ratio has a value near 0.3.

Example 1.9
Using the problem in Example 1.8,
(a) Find the strain in the lateral (100 mm) direction.
(b) If the plate were fixed in the 100 mm direction, what stress would be
generated in this direction. Take poisson’s ration = 0.3

Solution:
From example 1.8,

a = 0.006
E = 6.67 x 108 Pa
Thus, (a) 1 = -




A

= -0.3 (0.006) = -0.0018

(b) If the side is restrained l will not be allowed to take place. Hence, a stress large

enough to produce this strain will be generated:

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= E l = 6.67 x 10 8 Pa x 0.0018

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= 1.2 x 10 6 Pa (tension)
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3 Two - Dimensional Stress System

3.1 Stresses on any plane
If the stress in AB and BC are y - x and then force would be sin ,




x 

x
cos , sin and cos
  

 

C
u

u
U
x Sin

in
Ts
A B
Tcos
sU
y Co

Fig. 3.1

Resolving the stresses shown in Fig. 3.1, the stress on plane AC is

= ( y. cos ) cos + ( x. sin )sin
    

  

+( . cos )sin + ( . sin )cos -------------3.1

   

 

Using sin² = ½(1 - cos2 ) , cos² = ½(1 + cos2 ),

 

 

sin2 =2 sin cos ,   

( 1 + co s 2 θ ) ( 1 − co s 2 θ )
σθ = σ y +σx + τ sin 2 θ
2 2


= ½(

y +
) + ½ ( y.- x)cos2
x

 + sin2 ---------- 3.2
 

and resolving in the direction of 

 = ( y. cos ) sin - ( x.sin )cos

 
 

+ ( .sin ) sin - ( .cos )cos -----------------------3.3

     

=1/2(

y -

x) sin2 - .cos2 ----------------------------3.4

  

Example 3.1 : Find the stress components and resultant stress on a plane at
60 to the stress plane in Fig. E.3.1

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20N/mm

15N/mm
60°
A
15 N/mm

30N/mm

Fig. E3.1


= (30 cos 60) cos 60 - (20 sin 60) sin 60 +
(15 cos 60) sin 60 + (15 sin 60) cos 60
= 7.5 - 15 + 3.75 3 + 3.73 3 

= 5.5 N/mm²

  = 29.2 N/mm²
/mm
. 2N
=29

m
/m
7N
r
29.

=5
5

Fig. 3.2

Resultant stress, r = (5.5² + 2 9 .2 ² ) = 29.7/mm²



at angle = tan (29.2)/(5.5) = 80.25 , 20.25 to the 30N/mm² stress. The

  

resultant diagram is shown in the figure above.

3.2 Principal Planes.

These are planes where the shearing stress values are zero (that is,
 = o)

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From equation3.4 on this

± (σ y − σ x ) plane --------- 3.5
cos 2 θ =
[( σ y − σ x ) 2 + 4 τ 2 ]
2τ
ta n 2 θ =
(σ y - σ x )

which could be represented as in Fig. 3.3

) -4
2
x
y - 2

20°
y - x)

Fig. 3.3

From Fig. 3.3

±2 τ
sin 2 θ =
(σ y − σ x ) 2 + 4 τ 2
while:

---------------------- 3.6

3.3 Principal Stresses

There are pure normal on the principal planes. From equation 2.6 and
equation 3.1 the principal stress becomes

(σ y + σ x ) ( σ y - σ x )² + 4 τ ²
σ m ax = ± 3 .7
2 2
      

m in

They are the maximum and minimum values of normal stresses in the two
dimensions. Differentiating equation 3.4 with .respect to and set to zero, the 

maximum shear stress is on planes at 45 to the principal planes and is given by,

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(σ y − σ x ) + 4 τ 2
τ m ax =     

3 .8
2

The angles where these occur are given by,

tan2 s = -( y - x)/2
   

tan2 = -1/tan2 which means that the two angles 2 1,2 are 900 from the angles
  

2 3 1,2. This means that the planes of maximum shearing stress will be 450 away


from the principal planes. Hence, shear stres is one-half the algebraic difference
between the principal stresses.
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3.4 MOHR'S CIRCLE FOR STRESS

Mohr's circle is used to solve equations like the field of stress and strain in a
particle.

A stress field could be represented as,

 (σ + σ )  σ - σ 2  
 y x   
σα =   
y x
 ±   +τ ²  cos α 3 .9
  

2    2  
  

 σ −σ 2 
τα =    + τ  sin α
y x 2
3 .1 0
  2  
 

If
σ α = x , τα = y
σx − σy
A= , B =τ
2
σx + σy
C = ,2 θ = α
2
The equation becomes

y= ( )
A 2 + B 2 sin α

x=C± ( )
A 2 + B 2 cos α ............2 .4

If R= A2 + B2
th e n ,
y = R sin α
x = C ± R co s α
which is a circle of radius R and centre (C,0)

Note that:
(1) All tensile stresses are positive and compressive stresses are negative
(2) All shearing stresses tending to produce clockwise rotation are positive
and vise - versa.

Examples 3.2
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Draw the Mohr circle for the particle shown in Fig E3.2 and determine the
principal stresses and maximum shearing stress in the particle.

100MPa

50MPa 50MPa

50MPa 50MPa

50MPa 50MPa

50MPa 50MPa
100MPa

Fig E3.2a : Tiny element on the surface of a structural member

Solution:
Point V is (100 , 50) , while H is (0, - 50) negative shear. Since the angle
between V and H is 90o, then point V on the Mohr circle is 180 from point H,


that is line connecting V with H must be a diameter.

By rules of plane geometry, HO = OV, therefore O is the centre of the circle.

Hence, we can complete the Mohr circle.
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max=56.5MPa

V
(100, 50)

135° 2θ = 45°
σ
M
O

H
(0,-50)
σmin=-10 σmax=

Fig. E3.2 b

M, the plane of maximum stress, is 135 clockwise from the vertical plane, V


which corresponds to 2 , hence, the plane of maximum stress, is 67.5

 

clockwise from the vertical. Similarly, plane of minimum stress, P is 22.5 

counter clockwise from the vertical.

For the maximum shearing stress, we see that Q, the maximum. possible
vertical coordinate is 45 clockwise from the vertical plane, N, Thus the


maximum shear plane is 22.5 clockwise from the vertical.



The state of stress on the plane of max. shear, and the plane of minimum shear
at right angle to it is shown in Fig.E3.2c

The maximum shear stress is 56.5N/mm² and the associated normal stresses are
10N/mm². All the results are shown on the same sketch as in Fig.E3.2c.

Example 3.3
Find the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress, and the plane on
which each occurs in Fig E3.3
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50MPa 50MPa

50MPa 50MPa

150MPa 150MPa

50MPa
50MPa

50MPa 50MPa

Fig. E3.3a

Solution:

Plot the two points (150, -50) and (0,50) on the graph taking clockwise shear as
positive as shown in Fig. E3.3b.

max=90MPa

(0,50)

214°
σ
2θ = 34°

(150, -50)
min= -15MPa
σ σ
max=165 MPa

Fig. E3.3c
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The maximum normal stress is scaled out to be 165MPa at angle 2 =34 and  

the corresponding minimum stress is -15MPa at angle 2 =107 . Hence, the




maximum and minimum stress planes are at angle = 17 and = 107 The





maximum shear stress is measured as 90MPa and the plane is 45 from the 

principal planes.

Estimating Stresses in other Planes

Mohr’s circle can also be used to find stresses in other planes. For instance, to
find the stresses on a plane 30 clockwise from the horizontal in the particle


shown in Fig E3.4a

20MPa

15MPa
60°
A
15MPa

30MPa

Solution:
Draw the Mohr circle, by locating point V(-20,15) and H(30,-15). Then locate
point P, 120 clockwise from H as in Fig. E3.4b

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Approximate answer 

p = N/mm² and

p = 26N/mm².
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TORSION

Torsion is defined as the twist on a member.

Torsion = Fd

Shearing strain = r /L

Shearing Stress = Tr/GJ


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Shearing force and Bending Moment

A beam is usually a member subjected to force and/or moment. That is,

perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member.

There are various types of beams depending on the fixity of supports. We have:

(i) Simple beams which are supported on hinged and roller supports

where the supports can only resist vertical forces. It offers no restraint

to moments.

(ii) Cantilever beams

Where one end is fixed to a support while the other end is free.

(iii) Over-hanging beam

Where the beam is supported on two simple support and the beam

extend beyond on/or both of these support.

For this course, will would be restricting ourselves to statically

determinate beams. These are beams in which the reaction and

moment on the beam can be computed by using the equations of static

equilibrium.

∑ Fy = 0
∑ Mz =0

Shearing Force:

Forces and couple on a member would cause internal normal and shearing

stresses. It is necessary to determine the resultant force and moment at a section

in order to estimate the magnitude of the stresses at that section.

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The shearing force at a section of a beam is the algebraic sum of the vertical

forces acting on either side of the section.

Bending Moment

This is defined as the algebraic sum of the moment of all forces acting on either

side of a section (x –x ) about that section.

Sign Convention

Shearing force (S.F) is positive if the resultant of the forces to the left side of the

section is upwards or to the right of the section is downwards. Hence, the force

tends to shear the left portion of the beam upwards with respect to the right

portion as shown in the Fig 2

WA WA WC
X WA WB X W
C

X
RA RB
Fig. 2: Positive Shearing Force X
RA RA
Fig.1 Shearing Force

The bending moment (B.M) is positive if the resultant of the moment on the left

side of the section is clockwise and on the right side is anticlockwise. Hence, the

moment tends to sag the beam as shown in Fig 3

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WA WA WC

M M
RA RB
Fig. 3: Positive Bending Moment

Types of Loading

Different types of loading may be applied separately or in combination on a beam.

These include:

1. Point (Concentrated) load: This is usually considered to act at a point

although in reality it is usually spread over a small area. It is expressed in

Newton or Kilo-Newton.

2. Uniformly distributed load: The loads are spread uniformly over the entire

length of the beam. It is expressed in Newton per metre (Newton/metre)

or kN/m.

3. Uniformly varying distributed loads: The loading varies uniformly from a

lower value on one point on the beam to another maximum value on

another point on the beam. It is also expressed in N/m or kN/m.

4. Couple : This is a rotating moment usually applied at a point on the beam.

It is expressed in kNm.
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DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

The configuration of the deformed neutral surface is call elastic curve of the beam.
Specifications for design of beams frequently impose limitations on deflections and
stresses.
In many building codes, maximum allowable deflection = 1/300 span components of
aircraft should not exceed certain deformation, else the aero dynamic
characteristics may be altered.

METHODS OF COMPUTING DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

a. Double integration method (Calculus)
b. Moment area method
c. Method of singularity functions (Macaulay’s method)
d. Elastic energy method (Castigliano’s theorem)

(a) Double Integration Method

d2y
EI = M (1)
dx 2

dy
First integration yield slope while second integration yields deflection, y
dx

Differential equation of the deflection curve of a beam loaded by lateral forces.

It is assumed that deflections caused by shearing action are negligible compared to
these cause by bending action.
M I I
= where represents Curvature of neutral surface
EI R R

The exact formula for curvature of a curve y = f ( x ) P

I d 2 y dx 2
=
[ ]
3
R
1 + (d y d x )
2 2
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dy
where represent slope of curve at any point.
dx

2
dy  dy 
For small deflection, and   is small compare to unity
dx  dx 

1 d2y
∴ = 2
R dx
d2y
∴ EI 2 = M
dx

(Euler. Bernoulli Equation of bending of a beam loaded by lateral forces).

Exercise
Determine the deflection at every point of the cantilever beam and the maximum
deflection subject to the single concentrated force P.

y P
L

B x
A x

d2y
M = − P ( L − x) = EI
dx 2

dy Px 2
EI = − PLx + + C1
dx 2

Condition
Slope at A is zero at x = o
∴ C1 = 0
PLx2 Px3
E Iy = − + + C2
2 6

At x=0, y=0 C2=0

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Maximum deflection at x = L
− P L3
E Iy m ax = (-ve denotes below x – axis)
3

PL 3
D m ax =
3EI

Exercise
Obtain an expression for deflection curve of the beam subjected to a uniformly
distributed load of a unit length.
If L = 3.5m, P = 60KN, depth = 430mm, I = 2.5 x 108mm2
E = 210GPa, Determine the maximum deflection of beam.
Determine the slope of the right end of the cantilever.

W Lx W x2 d2y
M = − = EI
2 2x dx 2

Since
dy W L x 2 W L x 3
EI = − + C1
dx 4 6

dy
= 0 at centre since beam is symmetical.
dx

−W L 3
C1 =
24

W L x 3 W x 4 W L3 x
E Iy = − − + C2
12 24 24 L
x=
2
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Maximum deflection at centre

y = 0 at A, C2 = 0
L


Maximum deflection at centre x=

2
5 W L4
D m ax = .
384 E I

d2y M1
EI 2 = x
dx L

dy M 1 x 2
EI = . + C1
dx L 2

M1 x3
E Iy = . + C1 x + C 2
2L 3

M1

R=M1/L

y = 0 at x = 0, 
C2 = 0
− M 1L
y = 0 at x = L, C1 =
6

Deflection curve is

M 1x 3 M 1 L
E Iy = − x
6L 6
dy L
More deflection when =0⇒x =
dx 3
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− M 1 L2 3
E Iy m a x =
27

Determine equation of deflection at B and C

wkN/m
M1

E
A B C D

L/4 L/4

P P
a b c

a P b

L
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6m 3m

W
P

Point Load P
PLx2 Px3
E Iy = − +
2 6

For uniformly distributed load w

−w w L3 w L4
E Iy = ( L − x )4 − x+
24 6 24

Using method of superpostion

PLx 2 Px 3 w w L3 w L4
E Iy = − + − ( L − x )4 − x+
2 6 24 6 24
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(b) Moment – Area Method

1st moment – area theorem

M = EI - (I)
R
Ds = Rdq
R = ds/dce
Sub in (I)
dQ = M ds - (2)
EI
Ds = dx
dQ = Mdx
EI
Angle A and B
B
Q = dQ = M dx
A EI
i.e The increase of slope between any two points on a beam is equal to the net area
of the BMD between these points divided by EI.
2nd Moment – Area theorem
vertical contribution of ds = xdQ
substituting (2)
xdQ = MX dx
EI
A
D= x dQ = M x dx

B EI
In worlds, this equation states that if A and B are points on the deflection curve of a
beam, the vertical distance of B from the tangent drawn to the curve at A is equal to
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the moment write the vertical through B of the area of the BMD between A and B,
divided by EI.

Area of shaded and A = 1/2 (WC/y) (1/2)

= WL2/16
slope at support = - A/EI
= WL2/16 EI
deflection of support reduction to centre
= Ax/EI
= WL2 L/3
16 EI
= WL3
48EI
exa. Store and deflections of a S. S beam of span A will n.d.l

Shaded area A = 2/3 (WL2/8) (1/2)

= WL 3/24
Slope at support = - A/EI
= - WL3/24 EI
Deflection of support relation to certain = A x/EI
= (WL3/24) (5/16l)
EI
= 5WL 4/384 EI
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Moment Area Method (Mohr and Greene)

(q) First Area Theorem

y
x
Bo
A

x
A

d 2y M
=
dx 2 EI

Integrating between A and B

dy  dy  B M dx A
 d x  −  d x  = ∫ =
B A A EI EI
A
i. e. Q=
EI

The first moment  Area theorem (for slope) states that: The increase of slope (angle
between the tangents) between two points A and B is equal to the area of the B.M.D
between these two points divided by EI
A
i. e Q=
EI
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(b) Second Moment  Area Theorem

If is the deflection of point B on the deflection curve to the tangent to this curve drawn


at point A.
The second moment Area Theorem (for deflection) states that: The vertical deflection of


point B on a deflection curve from the tangent drawn to the curve at A is equal to the
moment of the area of the bending moment diagram between A and B form B divided by
EI.
_
M xd x A x
B
i. e ∆=∫ =
A EI EI

Hence, deflection at nay point can be found by chosen a point A where the slope is zero,
and taking moments about the point where deflection is required.
e.g.
To find the deflection under the point load to the end of a cantilever beam

Tangent at B
B
L

2L/3

B.M.D
PL
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L − P L2
A = Area of bending moment diagram = − P L − =
2 2

− P L2 2 L 1 − P L2
∆= x x =
2 3 EI 3EI

-ve indicates final psition of B

w kN/m

A B

1.0m 2.0m
A a b B
L

Determine the slope at the end B of the cantilever beam from first moment area theorem


A − P L2
Q= =
EI 2 EI

-ve indicates clockwise angle at B

− w L4
∆= a t end
8EI

deflection at centre of span

dcentre = 6.18mm (Steel designer)
P ab
M m ax =
L
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Dmax always occurs within 0.07744 of the centre after beam, when

b≥a

Dcentre P L3  3a a 
3

=  − 4   
48EI L L 

also within 2.5% of dmax

P/2 P/2
L/2 L/2

P L3
Dmax = a t cen tre
48EI

the max slope and deflection

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Solution

By symmetry, the slope is zero at the centre, hence, max, slope and deflection

can be found from the area of the B.M.D over half the beam i.e. between A

L/2 L/2 W

RA=wL/2 RB=wL/2

max

5/8 .L/2

2
WL/8
B.M.D

A C B
L/2

and C.

Shaded Area (Parabola)

2  wl2  L
A=   
3  8  2
w L3
=
24

Slope between support A and point C = slope at support A ≡

A ' w L3
maximum slope = =
E I 24 E I
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−
Deflection of support A relative to centre C where slope is zero (note x is

taken moment of B.M.D about point A)

 w L3   5 
−    L
A x  24   16 
=
EI EI
4
5w L
=
3 84 E I
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Macaulay’s method

One continous expression for bending moment

Example

5kN 8kN

A B
10m
15m
20m
x

Question :

(a) Calculate deflection at C and D

(b) Maximum deflection

E = 2 X 105 N/mm2, I = 1 X 109 mm4

Solution :

20RA = 5 X 10 + 8 X 5

RA = 4.5kN

RB = 8.5kN
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d2y
E I 2 = 4 .5 x − 5( x − 1 0 ) − 8 ( x − 1 5 )
dx
d y 4 .5 x 2 5 8
− ( x − 1 0) − ( x − 1 5) + A
2 2
EI =
dx 2 2 2
3
4 .5 x 5 8
− ( x − 1 0 ) − ( x − 1 5) + A x + B
3 3
E Iy =
6 6 6

when x = 0, y = 0, 

B=0

x = 20, y = 0, A = -250

E Iy = 0 .7 5 x 3 − 0 .8 3( x − 1 0 ) − 1.3 3 ( x − 1 5 ) − 2 5 0 x
3 3

At C , x = 10m

EIy = 750 2500 = -1750kNm3

−1 7 5 0 x1 0 2
y =
2 x1 0 5 x1 0 9

At D, x = 15m

y=

( c) Maximum deflection can be judged to be between the loads and writing

the term in (x-15)3, for = 0, we have

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2.25x2
2.5(x-10)2 250 = 0

0.25x2

50x + 500 = 0

x2
200x + 2000 = 0

200 ± 2002 − 8000

x= = 100 ± 5 320 = 1
2

Maximum deflection,

− − − − x102
ymax. =
2 x1 0 5 x1 0 9
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Exercise

x/3

A B
x/2
RA x RB
10m

Determine the deflection of the centroid of loading

Solution :

MA : 10RB = (1 x 10) x 5 + (1/2 x 4 x10) x 10/3



RB = 11.7kN

d2y x2 1 x
E I 2 = 1 1.7 x − −  ( 0 .4 x ) x 
dx 2 2 3
= 1 1.7 x − 0 .5 x 2 − 0 .0 6 7 x 3
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d y 1 1.7 x 2 0 .5 x 3 0 .0 6 7 x 4
EI = − − +A
dx 2 3 4

At x = 0, y = 0 , B=0

At x = 10, y = 0 , A=

2
Centroid of loading is at x = (10)m = 6.67m from B
3

Assignment

A horizontal beam simply supported at its ends carries a load which varies

uniformly from 2kN/m from one end to 6kN/m at the other over a span of

8m.

E = 2.05 x 105N/mm2, I = 8.05 x 108mm4

(a) Find the deflection at the centre of the beam

(b) Position magnitude of the maximum deflection.

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20kN 20kN 15kN

30kN/m

A B
C
2m 2m 2m
8m 2m

2kN/m 2kN/m

A C
B
10m 10m

Examples

(1) Draw Shear force diagram and Bending moment diagram and determine

the moment at C.

(2)
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(3)

30kN 40kN
50kN/m

A D
B C 1.5m
1m 3m

(4) 25kN 30kN

2m 10m 10m

C
5m 5m

8m

15m

B
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Hine at A , B and C. Determine the reactions at A and B and draw the

Bending moment diagram.

Solutions

(1)

2kN/m 2kN/m

x
C
L/2 L/2
RA RB

wx w 2w
= =
x L L
2
2wx
wx = = 0 .2 x
L
w − wx
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 x2 1 2  wL
m x = (w − w x ) + w x x − x  + x
 2 2 3  4
 2wx  x2 1 2wx3  wL
=  w −  + + x
 L  2 3 L  4
wx2 wx3 2wx3 wL x3
= + − + x = 10 x − x 2 +
2 L 3L 4 30

L
mc = x =
2
1
m c = (w − w ) +
3
w L2 w L2 w L2
= + = = 3 3 .3 K N m
12 8 24
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m A = 0,
mB = 0
x = L,
dm
M a xim um w hen =0
dx
 x2  2w   2wx  wL
2

  x (w − w x ) + −  +
 L   +
 2 L  4
wL 2wx2 2wx2 2wx2
= wx − − +
4 L L L
2
L x
=x−
4 L
L2
x 2 − xL + =0
4
+L ± L 2 − L2 L
x= = = 10 m
2 2
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Cubic

B.M.D
C

Shear Force,

L
x > 0, ≤
2
wL wx 2
γx = − wx +
4 L
wL wL wL
γL = − + =0
2
4 2 4
25
V5 = 1 0 − 1 0 + = 2 .5
10
V 2 .5 = 1 0 − 5 + 0 .6 25 = 5.6 25

2
wL  2x  wx
− w x 1 −  −
4  L  L
wL 2wx2 wx2
− wx + −
4 L L
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S.F.D

L/2 L/2

30kN 40kN
50kN/m

A D
B C 1.5m
1m 3m

Draw the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram for the beam shown.

Solution:

MB: -30 x 4 40 x 1.5 50 x 1.5 x1.5/2 + 3RA = 0



RA = 60 + 18.75 = 78.75kN

RB = 30 + 40 + 50(1.5) 78.75 = 66.25kN

x < 1:

Vx = -30kN

V < x < 2.5:

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Vx = -30 = 78.75 = 48.75

From B:

0 < x < 1.5

Vx = -66.25 + 50x

V1.5 = -66.25 + 75 = 8.75kN

0<x<1

Mx = -30x, M1 = -30

48.75

8.75

A
C B
D

S.F.D -66.25
-30

1 < x < 2.5

Mx = -30x + 78.75(x 1)

M2.5 = -30 x 2.5 + 78.75(1.5)

= -75 + 118.12

= 43.12kNm
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From B,

0 < x < 1.5

Mx = -66.25x + 50x2/2

6 6 .25
Mmax. occurs when Vx = 0 i.e x = = 1.325m from B
50

Mmax. = -66.25(1.325) + 25(1.325)2 = 43.89kNm