MACHINE DESIGN I

LEARNING MODULE VI: COLUMNS

OBJECTIVE:
1.) To present the considerations taken in the design of columns.
2.) To teach the students the necessary concepts applied in column design.
3.) To provide a basic understanding on how the concepts of columns are applied
on the various members used in machine design.

A. BASIC CONCEPTS

A.1. Introduction

• Buckling - the type of failure due to an instability.

• Slenderness Ratio (L/k) - the measure used to describe the slenderness of a column.

where: L = length of the column

k = radius of gyration;--- nearly always the least radius of gyration
= (I/A)1/2 See Table AT1 : Design of MAchine Elements
by V. M. Faires
I = moment of inertia
A = cross-sectional area of the member

B. EULER'S FORMULA
… applies to very slender columns and is for frictionless rounded ends (no bending
moment at the ends)…

Fc = π2EA
(L/ k)2

where: Fc = the axial concentric load or the critical load that causes the
column to be on the point of buckling
E = modulus of elasticity of the member

B.1. Factor of Safety, N

Fc
N =
F
Note:
The load capacity, Fc, of a column depends solely on the modulus of elasticity for a
particular cross section. Since the modulus of elasticity for various steel grades
varies little, there is no use in using expensive high-strength alloy steel. Structural
steel is sufficient with L/k ≥ 120.
B.2. Effective Length, Le

Effective Length, Le, refers to the length between sections of zero bending moment.

B.3. Theoretical Values of Effective Length, Le

… values inside the parentheses are values recommended by the AISC

B.3.1. For fixed ends: Le = L/2 (0.65L)

B.3.2. For one end fixed, one end rounded (or guided): Le = 0.707L (0.8L)

B.3.3. For one end fixed, one end free: Le = 2L (2.1L)

F F F
F

70L
7
/2

L
=.
L
L

L
=

=2
L
e

e
L

L
F

F (d)
F F

(a) (b) (c)

Fc E
A
N =
F
2
π

(L / k)2

Fc =

Fig. 1. Types of Columns. (a) Rounded ends; (b) fixed ends; ('c) one end fixed, the
other rounded; (d) one end fixed, one end free.

B.4. Modified Euler's Formula

For structural steel when Le/k > about 120

π2 EA π2 EA π2 EI
Fc =NF = or F= =
(L e/ k)2 N (L e/ k)2 NL e2

where: N ≈ 3.5, typical design factor. This value tends to increase as Le/k increases.

Note(s):
 a.) Extreme limit: Le = L/1.41
b.) In Machine Design: Le = L (rounded ends), always;--- except for a column with
one free end.

C. JOHNSON FORMULA (PARABOLIC FORMULA) FOR SHORT COLUMNS

… applied for structural steels falling within the range of 30 < Le/k < 120. In this
range, the Euler formula for Fc gives a stress above the yield strength specifically for
AISI 8742, 1137, and 1015, respectively; ---- below this failure may well be of elastic nature.

For 30 < Le/k < 120, structural steels.

sy(L e/ k)2 F sy(L e/ k)2

Fc =syA 1- or = se 1-
4π2Ε A 4π2Ε

D. STRAIGHT-LINE FORMULAS
• used for shorter columns in structures and varies from state to state utilizing the
straight-line formula, i.e., s = a - b(L/k), where a and b are constants.
• never to be used for free-ended columns

D.1. For Structural Steel

F L L , Le
= 16,000 - 70 = 16,000 1 - 0.0044 30 < < 12
A k k k

D.2. For Cast-Iron Steel

F L L , Le
= 9,000 - 40 =9,000 1 - 0.0044 30 < < 70
A k k k

where: F = safe or design load for the column

E. TRANSITION POINT BETWEEN LONG AND INTERMEDIATE

• Used to determine when to use the Euler or the Johnson formula when the
effective length lies between the ranges specified in the aforementioned formulas.
1/ 2
Le 2π2Ε
= sy
k
 • The above formula is the equivalent of Le/k at the tangent point.
• Generally, when…
■ Le/k < the tangent point; use the Johnson formula
■ Le/k > the tangent point; use the Euler equation

F. SECANT FORMULA
• used when the load F is applied with an eccentricity, e, and the material is elastic
with a small deflection(see Fig. 2)…

NF ec Le NF
sy = 1+ sec
A k2 2 EI

where: e = eccentricity
c = distance from the centroidal axis to the external fibre
ec eccentricity ratio = 0.25 for structural columns centrally loaded
=as per ASCE recommendation
k2
e = Le/400

e Fig. 2. Effective Eccentricity

F B F
c (exaggerated)

G. COLUMN DESIGN

G.1. Points to Consider

• When the column is unknown to be either slender or in the intermediate range,
the design is one of trial and error especially if the section is complicated.

• If the section is simple, e.g., circular, annular, square, or rectangular, k and A may
be expressed in terms of a singular quantity which can be solved or determined.

• For standard rolled sections, handbooks providing properties (A, I and kmin) of
rolled sections may be used to advantage.

• First, compute A = F/se, where se = sy/N, the design stress for Johnson's formula,
because any section of a particular shape that is subjected to column action must
have a larger area than this.

H. EQUIVALENT STRESS, Se
 The equivalent stress, se, is considered since the stress in an axially loaded column at
buckling is less than sy. The equivalent stress indicates the degree of safety when
compared to sy.

H.1. Equivalent Stress for Euler's Equation

= 
F sy(L e/ k)2 F
se =
A π2Ε A

where:
H.2. Equivalent Stress for Johnson's Formula  is equal to the quantities in
the bracket.

= 
F 1 F
se =
A L A
1 - 0.0044
k
of a column.

of gyration
end fixed, the

se as Le/k increases.
 column with

f elastic nature.

Le
30 < < 120
k

Le
30 < < 70
k
rally loaded

e Eccentricity
he quantities in