DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SOLENOID ENGINE

ABSTRACT

The main objective of our project to design and construct an electrically

operated engine i.e. Solenoid Engine. Our engine is totally different from
ordinary IC Engine, because of the inventory advancement in operating
principles. We have changed the operating principle of IC Engine by using
electromagnetic effect instead of combustion of fossil fuels. This engine works
on the principle of magnetic repulsion between two magnets. This
electromagnetic engine consists of two magnets, one of them is an Electromagnet
and other one is a Permanent Magnet. Permanent Magnet acts as piston and
Electromagnet is located at the top of the cylinder instead of spark plug and valve
arrangement in IC Engines. In this way this engine does not contain any spark
plug and fuel injection system. The Electromagnet is energized by a battery
source of suitable voltage and the polarities of electromagnet are set in such a
way that it will repel the permanent magnet i.e. piston from TDC to BDC, which
will result in the rotary motion of crank shaft. When the piston is at BDC the
supply of Electromagnet is discontinued, the permanent magnet which was
repelled to BDC will come back to its initial position i.e. TDC. This procedure
completes one revolution of crank shaft i.e. our output work. The total power
supplied by battery will be just to fulfill the copper losses of winding and power
required to magnetize the windings.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 IC ENGINE

An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where the

combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion
chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal
combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure
gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the
engine. The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle. This
force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into
useful mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion
engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859 and the first modern internal
combustion engine was created in 1864 by Siegfried Marcus.

The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which

combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke
piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke piston engine and the
Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use
continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each
of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously
described. Firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine.
Internal combustion engines are quite different from external combustion
engines, such as steam or Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a
working fluid not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion
products. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid
sodium, heated in a boiler. ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such
as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many
stationary applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the
dominant power supply for cars, aircraft, and boats.

Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum
products such as gasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. There's a growing usage of
renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol
for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from
either fossil fuels or renewable energy.

1.1.1 APPLICATION

Reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source
for land vehicles including automobiles, motorcycles, locomotives and ships.
Wankel engines are found on some automobiles and motorcycles.

Where very high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion

engines appear in the form of combustion turbines. Powered aircraft typically
uses an ICE which may be a reciprocating engine. Airplanes can instead use jet
engines and helicopters can instead employ turbo shafts; both of which are types
of turbines. In addition to providing propulsion, airliners employ a separate ICE
as an auxiliary power unit.

1.1.2 DISADVANTAGES

Air pollution

Internal combustion engines such as reciprocating internal combustion

engines produce air pollution emissions, due to incomplete combustion of
carbonaceous fuel. The main derivatives of the process are carbon dioxide CO2,
water and some soot — also called particulate matter (PM). The effects of
inhaling particulate matter have been studied in humans and animals and include
asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. There are,
however, some additional products of the combustion process that include
nitrogen oxides and sulfur and some uncombusted hydrocarbons, depending on
the operating conditions and the fuel-air ratio.

Not all of the fuel is completely consumed by the combustion process; a

small amount of fuel is present after combustion, and some of it reacts to form
oxygenates, such as formaldehyde or acetaldehyde, or hydrocarbons not
originally present in the input fuel mixture. Incomplete combustion usually
results from insufficient oxygen to achieve the perfect stoichiometric ratio. The
flame is "quenched" by the relatively cool cylinder walls, leaving behind
unreacted fuel that is expelled with the exhaust. When running at lower speeds,
quenching is commonly observed in diesel (compression ignition) engines that
run on natural gas. Quenching reduces efficiency and increases knocking,
sometimes causing the engine to stall. Incomplete combustion also leads to the
production of carbon monoxide (CO). Further chemicals released are benzene
and 1,3-butadiene that are also hazardous air pollutants.

Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces emissions of incomplete

combustion products, but also promotes reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in
the air to produce nitrogen oxides (NOx). NOx is hazardous to both plant and
animal health, and leads to the production of ozone (O3). Ozone is not emitted
directly; rather, it is a secondary air pollutant, produced in the atmosphere by the
reaction of NO"x" and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight.
Ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and the environment. Though the
same chemical substance, ground-level ozone should not be confused with
stratospheric ozone, or the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful
ultraviolet rays.

Carbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities that eventually produce sulfur
monoxides (SO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the exhaust, which promotes acid
rain.

In the United States, nitrogen oxides, PM, carbon monoxide, sulphur

dioxide, and ozone, are regulated as criteria air pollutants under the Clean Air
Act to levels where human health and welfare are protected. Other pollutants,
such as benzene and 1,3-butadiene, are regulated as hazardous air pollutants
whose emissions must be lowered as much as possible depending on
technological and practical considerations.

Non-road engines

The emission standards used by many countries have special requirements

for non-road engines which are used by equipment and vehicles that are not
operated on the public roadways. The standards are separated from the road
vehicles.

Noise pollution

Significant contributions to noise pollution are made by internal

combustion engines. Automobile and truck traffic operating on highways and
street systems produce noise, as do aircraft flights due to jet noise, particularly
supersonic-capable aircraft. Rocket engines create the most intense noise.

Idling

Internal combustion engines continue to consume fuel and emit pollutants

when idling so it is desirable to keep periods of idling to a minimum. Many bus
companies now instruct drivers to switch off the engine when the bus is waiting
at a terminal.
1.2 ELECTRIC VEHICLE

An electric bicycle, or more precisely, a "power-assisted bicycle" is a

traditional bicycle to which a small electric engine and a battery have been
added, with the aim of assisting the rider at ‘’difficult’’ moments: hills,
headwind, recovery period …it’s enough to have you make friends with your
bicycle again. The electric car (EV) is a relatively new concept in the world of
the automotive industry. Although some companies have based their entire
model of cars around being proactive and using electricity, some also offer
hybrid vehicles that work off both electricity and gas. An electric car such as
Nissan Leaf, Ford Focus Electric or Tesla Model S, Chevrolet Volt is a great way
for you to not only save money, but also help contribute towards a healthy and
stable environment.

Cars produce a lot of carbon emissions that are ejected into our natural
atmosphere, leaving us vulnerable to things like pollution and greenhouse gases.
In order to help positively the environment we live in, an electric car is a great
step forward. By buying an electric car, you can also receive government
subsidies for being environmentally conscious. Although you may end up paying
more for your vehicle, the positives greatly overshadow the negatives. However
there are still two sides to consider when you’re thinking about investing in an
electric vehicle.

EV’s get their power from rechargeable batteries installed inside the car.
These batteries are not only used to power the car but also used for the
functioning of lights and wipers. Electric cars have more batteries than normal
gasoline car. It’s the same kind of batteries that are commonly used when starting
up a gasoline engine. The only difference comes in the fact that in electric
vehicles, they have more of them which are used to power the engine.

1.2.1 ADVANTAGES

 No Gas Required

 Savings

 No Emissions

 Popularity

 Safe Drive

 Cost Effective

 Low Maintenance
  Reduced Noise Pollution

1.2.2 DISADVANTAGES

 Recharge Points

 Electricity isn’t Free

 Short Driving Range and Speed

 Longer Recharge Time

 Normally 2 Seaters

 Battery Replacement

 Not Suitable for Cities Facing Shortage of Power

1.3 AIR COMPRESSED ENGINE

 A compressed-air vehicle (CAV) is powered by an air engine, using
compressed air, which is stored in a tank. Instead of mixing fuel with air and
burning it in the engine to drive pistons with hot expanding gases, compressed-
air vehicles use the expansion of compressed air to drive their pistons. One
manufacturer claims to have designed an engine that is 90 percent efficient.

Compressed-air propulsion may also be incorporated in hybrid systems,

such as with battery electric propulsion. This kind of system is called a hybrid-
pneumatic electric propulsion. Additionally, regenerative braking can also be
used in conjunction with this system.

1.3.1 ADVANTAGES

 Much like electrical vehicles, air powered vehicles would ultimately be

powered through the electrical grid. Which makes it easier to focus on
reducing pollution from one source, as opposed to the millions of vehicles
on the road.

 Transportation of the fuel would not be required due to drawing power off
the electrical grid. This presents significant cost benefits. Pollution created
during fuel transportation would be eliminated.

 Compressed-air technology reduces the cost of vehicle production by

about 20%, because there is no need to build a cooling system, fuel tank,
Ignition Systems
 The engine can be massively reduced in size.

 The engine runs on cold or warm air, so can be made of lower strength
light weight material such as aluminium, plastic, low friction teflon or a
combination.

 Low manufacture and maintenance costs as well as easy maintenance.

 Compressed-air tanks can be disposed of or recycled with less pollution

than batteries.

 Compressed-air vehicles are unconstrained by the degradation problems

associated with current battery systems.

 The air tank may be refilled more often and in less time than batteries can
be recharged, with re-filling rates comparable to liquid fuels.

 Lighter vehicles cause less damage to roads, resulting in lower

maintenance cost.

 The price of filling air powered vehicles is significantly cheaper than

petrol, diesel or biofuel. If electricity is cheap, then compressing air will
also be relatively cheap.

1.3.2 DISADVANTAGES

 When air expands, as it would in the engine, it cools dramatically

(Charles's law) and must be heated to ambient temperature using a heat
 exchanger similar to the Intercooler used for internal combustion engines.
The heating is necessary in order to obtain a significant fraction of the
theoretical energy output. The heat exchanger can be problematic. While it
performs a similar task to the Intercooler, the temperature difference
between the incoming air and the working gas is smaller. In heating the
stored air, the device gets very cold and may ice up in cool, moist climates.

 Refueling the compressed-air container using a home or low-end

conventional air compressor may take as long as 4 hours, while the
specialized equipment at service stations may fill the tanks in only 3
minutes.
 Tanks get very hot when filled rapidly. SCUBA tanks are sometimes
immersed in water to cool them down when they are being filled. That
would not be possible with tanks in a car and thus it would either take a
long time to fill the tanks, or they would have to take less than a full
charge, since heat drives up the pressure. However, if well insulated, such
as Dewar (vacuum) flask design, the heat would not have to be lost but put
to use when the car was running.
 Early tests have demonstrated the limited storage capacity of the tanks; the
only published test of a vehicle running on compressed air alone was
limited to a range of 7.22 km (4 mi).
1.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINE

An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is

produced by the flow of electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the
current is turned off. Electromagnets are widely used as components of other
electrical devices, such as motors, generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard
disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic separation equipment,
as well as being employed as industrial lifting electromagnets for picking up and
moving heavy iron objects like scrap iron.

A simple electromagnet consisting of a coil of insulated wire wrapped

around an iron core. The strength of magnetic field generated is proportional to
the amount of current.
 Current (I) through a wire produces a magnetic field (B). The field is
oriented according to the right-hand rule.

An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the

wire (see drawing below). To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet
the wire is wound into a coil with many turns of wire lying side by side. The
magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes through the center of the coil,
creating a strong magnetic field there. A coil forming the shape of a straight tube
(a helix) is called a solenoid; a solenoid that is bent into a donut shape so that the
ends meet is called a toroid. Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a
"core" of ferromagnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed inside the coil. The
ferromagnetic core increases the magnetic field to thousands of times the
strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the high magnetic permeability μ of
the ferromagnetic material. This is called a ferromagnetic-core or iron-core
electromagnet.

Magnetic field produced by a solenoid(coil of wire). This drawing shows a

cross section through the center of the coil. The crosses are wires in which
current is moving into the page; the dots are wires in which current is moving up
out of the page.
 The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found
from a form of the right-hand rule. If the fingers of the right hand are curled
around the coil in the direction of current flow (conventional current, flow
of positive charge) through the windings, the thumb points in the direction of the
field inside the coil. The side of the magnet that the field lines emerge from is
defined to be the north pole.

The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that

the magnetic field can be rapidly manipulated over a wide range by controlling
the amount of electric current. However, a continuous supply of electrical energy
is required to maintain the field.

1.4.1 USES OF ELECTROMAGNET

Fig: Industrial electromagnet lifting scrap iron, 1914

 Electromagnets are very widely used in electric
and electromechanical devices, including:

 Motors and generators

 Transformers

 Relays, including reed relays originally used in telephone exchanges

 Electric bells

 Loudspeakers

 Magnetic recording and data storage equipment: tape

recorders, VCRs, hard disks

 Scientific instruments such as MRI machines and mass spectrometers

 Particle accelerators

 Magnetic locks

 Magnetic separation of material

 Industrial lifting magnets

 Electromagnetic suspension used for MAGLEV trains

1.5 SCOPE & OBJECTIVES

Nowadays the electromagnetic vehicle has high innovative compared with

IC engine. And this engine has very cleaner and which is not produce any kind
of the smokes. The maintenance cost of the type of electromagnetic engine is
also low. The present day electric vehicle is efficient than petrol/diesel vehicles.
They are 97% cleaner than gas-powered cars. The maintenance cost of electric
cars is optimum. The main problems faced by electric vehicles are its inability to
run long distances before being charged again and the high initial cost of the
electric vehicles. Most production electric cars about to hit the market can only
go about 100 miles (160.9kms). Also there is need for installation of charging
stations as the energy densities of normal batteries is less for vehicles to travel
over long distances and getting a full charge takes around eight hours.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Rithula, Jeyashruthi, Anandhi (2013): “Electric Vehicle with Zero-fuel

Electromagnetic Automobile Engine”

The main aim of the project is to design an electromagnetically

reciprocating automobile engine. A four-stroke engine is used in the vehicle. The
design involves the replacement of the spark plugs and valves by conductors and
strong electromagnetic material. The piston is a movable permanent magnet and
while an air core electromagnet is fixed at the top of the cylinder. When the
electromagnet is excited by A.C. (Square Wave) supply, for same polarities these
magnets will repel and for opposite polarities they will attract, thus causing the to
and fro movement of the piston. So when the cylinders 1 &4 of the four-stroke
engine experience attraction of magnets due to which the piston moves upwards,
repulsion takes place inside cylinders 2 & 3 in which the piston moves
downwards and then during the next stroke vice-versa occurs . The to and fro
movement of the piston is converted into a rotary motion by the crank shaft,
which in turn is coupled to the wheels which causes the wheels to rotate. So with
the help of the electromagnets and permanent magnets, the to and fro movement
of the piston is obtained using the alternating attractive and repulsive force of the
magnets, which is responsible for the movement of the vehicle. Thus we can run
the electric vehicle without a motor and the energy is extracted in a clean way as
it does not require fuels reducing the air pollution.
Shirsendu Das (Jun 2013): “An Electromagnetic Mechanism Which Works
Like an Engine”

Engine is the main power source of Automobiles, where combustion takes

place & produces heat which converts into mechanical energy. We know IC-
Engines are used in Automobiles, Aeroplane etc .But the incomplete combustion
produces some harmful gasses, which is one main cause of air pollution. Modern
Science & Technology has been taken many positive steps for emission control.
Like, using CNGs & LPGs instead of petrol & diesel. Now technology brings
Electrical bikes, scooters & cars. The battery of electrical vehicle can charge
easily like mobile.

They have less running cost & 100% emission free. But they have very
less load carrying capacity & not suitable for long run. So basically we have to
prefer Engines for more power & more running capacity. Here I have introduced
a mechanism which has more loads caring & running capacity then electrical
vehicles but makes zero emission or pollution.

Abil Joseph Eapen, Aby Eshow Varughese (Jun 2014):

“ELECTROMAGNETIC ENGINE”

Increasing fuel prices and pollution are the major demerits of Internal
Combustion (IC) engines. Also presently the demand for fuel has increased and
in the nearby future, shortage of fossil fuels is being expected due to the ever
growing consumption. So need of alternative energy has become necessary. The
main aim of the project is the zero point fuel consumption. The working
principle of the engine is the magnetic force principle, i.e. magnetic repulsion
between the same poles of two different magnets. When similar poles of two
different magnets come in contact with each other they repel each other. This
phenomenon of repulsion is used in this engine to create motion.
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Figure 3.1 Line Diagram of Solenoid Engine

3.1 FABRICATION & WORKING

The working of the solenoid engine is based on the principle of

magnetism. A magnet has two poles a north pole and a south pole. Magnetism is
a class of physical phenomenon that includes forces exerted by magnets on other
magnets. By principle of magnetism, when like poles of a magnet is brought
together they repel away from each other. When unlike poles are brought near
each other they attract. This is same for the case of an electromagnet and a
permanent magnet too. So the idea is to modify the piston head and cylinder head
into magnets so that force can be generated between them.

Figure 3.2 Schematic Diagram of Solenoid Engine

This working of the solenoid engine is based on attraction & repulsive

force of the magnet. The engine greatly resembles the working of a two-stroke
engine. To start, let us begin from the situation, when piston is located in the
lower position. The coil is connected through the battery, the copper coil is
energized to produced the magnetic field the piston in side of the large power
Neodymium Iron Boron magnets, the piston moved upper and lower the fly
wheel connected through the piston link the copper coil energized the piston
move upward and copper coil is de-energized the piston move to downward.
With the help of relay and control unit. The continuous process through piston is
move to (up and down) with also rotated the fly wheel. The arrangement has
shown in the Electromagnetic engines working are based on the principle of
interaction between the magnetic field Permanent magnet is fixed in the piston
and iron material is connected to copper coil. So that the iron material is
converted into electromagnet when the power supply is given to it. When piston
is located in the lower position, the coil is connected through the battery. The
copper coil is energized to produce the magnetic field. When the copper coil
energized the piston move upward and copper coil is de- energized the piston
move to downward, with the help of relay and control unit. The continuous
process through piston is move to (up and down) with also rotated the fly wheel.

Figure 3.3 Line Diagram of Solenoid Engine

 CHAPTER 4

DESIGN & CALCULATION

Input voltage = 36 V

Input current = 1 A

Input Power = Voltage × Current = 36 × 1 = 36W

Max. Force exerted by electromagnet on piston F1 = (N2I2KA)/2G2

Where,

N = number of turns = 1000

I = Current flowing through coil = 1 A

K = Permeability of free space = 4π×10-7

A = Cross-sectional area of electromagnet (radius r = 0.0175 m)

G = Least distance between electromagnet and permanent magnet = 0.005 m

On substitution, we get Max. Force F1 = 24.18 N Force exerted by permanent

magnet Force F2 = (B2A)/2μ0

Where,

B = Flux density (T)

 A = Cross-sectional area of magnet (radius r = 0.0125 m) μ0= Permeability of
free space = 4π×10-7

Now flux density

B = Br/2 × [(D + z)/(R2 + (D + z)2)0.5 – z/(R2 + z2)0.5]

Where,

Br = Remanence field = 1.21 T

z = distance from a pole face = 0.005 m

D = thickness of magnet = 0.012 m

R = semi-diameter of the magnet = 0.0125 m

On substitution we get flux density, B = 0.2547 T

Now substituting B in the equation of force,

F2 = 12.67 N

Since, force F1 and F2 are repulsive,

Total force F = F1 + F2 F = 36.85 N

Torque T = F × r

Where,
 F = total force on piston

r = crank radius = 0.01m

Torque T = 0.3685 N-m

Mass of Fly wheel ω = (2πN)/60,

Where,

N = speed = 200rpm

Therefore ω = 20.94 rad/s

Energy stored on flywheel

E=T×θ

Where,

T = torque θ = Angle of rotation = 1800 = π radians On substitution we get

energy stored

E = 1.157 J

Also E = 0.5 × I × ω2

Where,

I = moment of inertia of flywheel

 ω = angular velocity on substitution we get moment of inertia,

I = 5.277 × 10-7 Kg-m2

Moment of inertia, I = 0.5 × m × r2

Where,

m = mass of fly wheel

r = radius of fly wheel = 0.07 m

On substitution, We get m = 2.154 Kg

Output power

P = (2πNT)/60

Where,

N = speed = 200 rpm

T = Torque = 0.3685 N-m

On substitution, we get Output power

P = 7.718 W

Efficiency = (Output/Input) × 100 = (7.718/36) × 100 Therefore,

Efficiency = 21.44 %
 CHAPTER 5

HARDWARE COMPONENTS

5.1 CYLINDER

Solenoid engine uses only magnets for its operation. The cylinder must
take care of unwanted magnetic field and other losses further cylinder material
itself should not get attracted to the magnet and resist the movement of the
piston. To take care of above issues, the cylinder must be only made up of non-
magnetic materials such as stainless steel, titanium or similar materials of high
resistivity and low electrical conductivity. The cylinder of an electromagnetic
engine is a simple rectangular block with a blind hole in it. The temperature
within the electromagnetic engine cylinder is very low and so no fins are needed
for heat transfer. This makes the cylinder easily manufacturable. Also the
cylinder is made of aluminum, a non-magnetic material which limits the
magnetic field within the boundaries of cylinder periphery. Usage of aluminium
material makes the engine lighter unlike the cast-iron cylinder used in internal
combustion engine.

5.2 PISTON

The hollow piston casing is made up of non-magnetic stainless steel,

titanium or similar materials of high resistivity and low electrical conductivity.
Alternatively, piston casing can also be made up of non-metallic, thermal
resistant materials as well or can be made by integrating both non-magnetic and
non-metallic materials. One end of the hollow case is fitted with a powerful
permanent magnet made of neodymium iron-boron (NdFeB), samarium-cobalt
(SmCo) or similar high field strength magnetic materials. The permanent magnet
acts as the core of the piston. The flat surface (which is also the pole of the
magnet) of the piston that is nearer to the pole od the electromagnet is called the
magnetic head of the piston or piston head. The flat surface of the piston head
may be completely exposed or it may be covered by a thin layer of non-magnetic
material of sufficient thickness. The other end of the piston case connects to the
piston rod that connects to the crankshaft. The crankshaft and the piston rod
convert the linear reciprocating movement of the piston to the circular
movement.

5.3 CONNECTING ROD

In a reciprocating engine, the connecting rod is used to connect the piston

to the crankshaft. This converts the linear motion or reciprocating motion of the
piston to the circular motion of the crankshaft. The material of the connecting rod
is cast iron and the magnetic fields are contained inside the cylinder and the
connecting rod will not be affected much. so, the connecting rod is same as that
of an Internal combustion engine. Hence, no modification is required.

5.4 FLY WHEEL

Flywheel is made up of mild steel. It regulates the engine’s rotation and

making it operate at a steady speed. So, that flywheel have a significant moment
of inertia and thus resist changes it rotational speed and the amount of energy
stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotational speed and
energy is transferred to the flywheel by applying torque and It is used to store the
rotation kinetic energy.

5.5 ELECTROMAGNET

An electromagnetic coil is formed when an insulated solid copper wire is

wound around a core or form to create an inductor or electromagnet. When
electricity is passed through a coil, it generates a magnetic field. One loop of
wire is usually referred to as a turn or a winding and a coil consists of one or
more turns. For use in an electronic circuit, electrical connection terminals called
taps are often connected to a coil. Coils are often coated with varnish or wrapped
with insulating tape to provide additional insulation and secure them in place. A
completed coil assembly with one or more set of coils and taps is often called the
windings.

5.6 PERMANANT MAGNET

A neodymium magnet (also known as NdFeB, NIB or Neo magnet), the

most widely used type of rare-earth magnet, is a permanent magnet made from
an alloy of neodymium, iron and boron to form the
Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline structure. Developed in 1982 by General
Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals, neodymium magnets are the strongest
type of permanent magnet commercially available. They have replaced other
types of magnet in the many applications in modern products that require strong
permanent magnets, such as motors in cordless tools, hard disk drives and
magnetic fasteners.

5.7 BATTERY

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the
type most commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulphuric acid
(H₂SO₄). In the application of battery power to start the engine in an auto
mobile, for example, the load current to the starter motor is typically 200 to
400A One cell has a nominal output of 2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in
a series combination of three for a 6-V battery and six for a 12-V battery.
 CHAPTER 6

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

The prototype of an electromagnetic engine which works on the principle

of magnetism was successfully designed and fabricated. Experimental analysis
was successfully performed on the prototype. The results obtained from the
experiment are as follows.

 Prototype of an engine which works on the principle of magnetism was

successfully manufactured.

 It uses electricity as its input. No fuel is consumed, which was the

primary goal.

 The prototype creates no pollution and is eco-friendly.

 The prototype is a two stroke engine.

 Only the repulsive force between the magnet and electromagnet is used
for power generation.

 Acceleration is done by controlling the timer which controls the relay.

 Maximum efficiency obtained was 21.22% at 229 rpm for an input

current of 1.2A.

 Maximum output power obtained was 20.7W at 249 rpm for an input
current of 1.7 A
 The efficiency and power output of the engine was less than what was
expected. The reason for less power and efficiency are

 The windings of the electromagnet are not perfect. The windings are
not machine wound. It was wound with hands on a lathe. So windings
are not tight and there is air gap. The field generated will not be as
strong as expected.

 The windings are not laminated. It will result in copper losses and
hysteresis losses.

 The use of relay limits the flow of current as it offers a resistance. So

with less current flow, the field generated by the electromagnet will be
less and results in less force.

 The fabrication work and the design are not perfect. There might be
some misalignments and it might cause a drop in output.
 CHAPTER 7

ADVANTAGES

 Implementation cost is less

 Easy to install.

 Maintenance is less, one time investment

 CHAPTER 8

APPLICATIONS

 Used in vehicles

 Modified and it can be used in industrial motors

 CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION

The Solenoid engine has various advantages over the internal combustion
engines. The main advantage is, no fuel is being used in the engine. This results
in no pollution which is very desirable in the present day situation. As there is no
combustion taking place inside the cylinder there is only very little heat
generation. This eliminates the need for a cooling system. As magnetic energy is
being used the need for air filter, fuel tank, supply system, fuel filter, fuel
injector, fuel pump, valves etc. are eliminated and the design of the engine is
made simple. Also by the use of materials like Aluminum, titanium etc. we can
reduce the weight of the engine. Also existing transmission systems can be used
in the electromagnetic engine. Less noise is produce during working. The
disadvantage of the solenoid engine is its high initial cost. The electromagnet and
permanent magnet can be very costly. Also the power of the permanent magnet
will decrease during time and the permanent magnet has to be replaced during
regular intervals. The engine is not as flexible as the internal combustion engine.
The power source is battery. The number of batteries will vary according to the
requirement. In high power engines, the number of batteries will increase which
may increase the total weight of vehicle and consume a lot of space. Also the
batteries needs to be charged regularly which is difficult and time consuming. So
the engine is not dependable The prototype is an idea which uses the property of
an electromagnet by virtue of which it changes the polarity of its poles whenever
the direction of current is changed. This variation in polarity is utilized to attract
or repel the permanent magnet attached to the piston. The usage of relay and
timer will limit the output of the engine. By using an ECU in the engine instead,
power can be obtained on each stroke which will result in an increased output.
Also, by inserting more permanent magnets in series on the piston will enhance
the output of the engine. By slight modification in design and by the use of better
hands the engine can be modified to generate more power, thereby increasing its
efficiency, so that it can be used in commercial vehicles and other applications.
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