TECHNICAL TRAINING

PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY - HANDHELD PRODUCTS

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Product Technology

Engine techniques...........................................................................3

Crankcase..........................................................................................7

Crankshaft........................................................................................9

Cylinder..........................................................................................15

Piston..............................................................................................19

Fuel systems...................................................................................27

Lubrication systems......................................................................35

Ignition systems.............................................................................41

Drive systems.................................................................................47

Protective equipment....................................................................49

Personal protective equipment.....................................................55

Ergonomics....................................................................................57

Environment..................................................................................59

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Engine techniques
The two-stroke engine is and will remain for some time the main
power source for small, hand-held tools powered by fuel engines.
Two-stroke engines have a very simple design with few moving parts
and two important advantages over four-stroke engines. Firstly, two-
stroke engines do not have valves, which simplifies their construction.
Secondly, two-stroke engines fire once every revolution (four-stroke
engines fire once every other revolution), which gives the two-stroke
engines a significant power boost. These two advantages make two-
stroke engines lighter, simpler, and less expensive to manufacture.
The main components of the engine are the crankshaft, connecting Crankshaft, connecting rod, piston and cylinder

rod, piston, and cylinder.

Crankshaft
The purpose of the crankshaft is to convert the up and down motion
of the piston into rotation in order to transfer the force that is
generated in the cylinder’s combustion chamber into rotary torque at
the engine’s output shaft.

Crankshaft
Connecting rod
The connecting rod connects the crankshaft to the piston. It consists
of a small end and a big end connected to the piston and the
crankshaft respectively.

Piston
The piston in a two-stroke engine can either have one or two piston
rings. The main advantage of using a single piston ring is less friction
loss, lower weight, higher power, and rotation speed and finally Connecting rod and piston
lower vibration level. The main advantage with two piston rings is a
more reliable sealing collar, longer working life, and a slightly limited
runaway speed.

Cylinder
A cylindrical hole bored through the cylinder block accommodates
the piston. The cylinder wall contains a fuel intake port and an
exhaust port. Scavenging ports in the cylinder wall allow the fuel-air
mixture to flow from the bottom of the crankcase into the top of the Cylinder
cylinder.

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 Engine techniques
Two-stroke engine cycle
As the name indicates, the two-stroke engine comprises two strokes,
the up-stroke and the down-stroke. The two-stroke engine can
operate according to two principles: cross-flow scavenging or loop
scavenging. Scavenging according to the loop scavenging principle
is now the most common. The top of the piston in this case is
completely flat or slightly convex. Normally the cylinder has two
transfer ducts, one on each side of the exhaust port. The function is
Induction stroke in principle the same as for cross-flow scavenging, with the exception
of the alteration of the direction of the gas flow.

The up-strokes
The piston moves upwards in the cylinder after passing the lower
dead centre. A vacuum forms in the crankcase, and when the piston
uncovers the intake port, a fresh charge from the carburettor is
drawn into the crankcase. This continues for as long as the piston
is on its way upwards in the cylinder, and even for a while after it
Compression stroke has passed the upper dead centre, because of the inertia of the new
charge rushing in. Shortly before the piston reaches the upper dead
centre, the existing new gas above the piston is ignited by the spark,
between the electrodes of the spark plug. The resulting combustion
pressure forces the piston downwards in the cylinder.

The down-strokes
On its way down, the piston opens the exhaust port, and the burnt
gases flow out through the exhaust port. As the piston continues
down it compresses the fuel-air mixture. The scavenging ports are
Combustion stroke
then opened, and the fuel-air mixture flows up into the combustion
chamber above the piston. After passing bottom dead centre, the
piston moves back up the cylinder, closing the scavenging ports and
the exhaust port. As it continues to rise, the piston compresses the
fuel-air mixture above it. The cycle is then repeated.

Exhaust stroke

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Engine techniques
Electric motors
The electric motor has its main applications as a power source in
applications that are used indoors or outdoors in situations where
it is unsuitable to use an internal combustion engine for safety or
environmental reasons.

The advantages of electrical motor power lie mainly in the low noise
level and the absence of noxious exhaust emissions. In addition, the
vibrations are small because the electrical engine lacks reciprocating Electric hedge trimmer
parts. Mechanical and electronic overload protection spares the
motor in the event of the chain sticking.

The electric motor is a universal motor (seriemotor), which gives

a smooth start and a good adjustability of the rotation speed. A
universal motor develops greater power in relation to its weight,
compared to other alternating current motors, because of its higher
rotation speed. The power supply is delivered from a earthed wall
socket (110V or 220V).
Electric motor is a powerful motor, here with
replaceable carbon brush

A = Rotor D = Interference suppression

B = Carbon brush device
C = Brake E = Winding

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6
Crankcase
The crankcase is the component around which the entire engine is
built. A crankcase of a two-stroke engine has three main functions.

• It provides stable bearing mountings for the crankshaft.

• It acts as a scavenging pump for two-stroke engines (the
fuel-air mixture is drawn into the crankcase and forced
through the scavenging ports up into the combustion chamber).
• It provides mountings for the components of the chain saw,
e.g. chain gear and handles.
Crankcase from the middle of 1960

Crankcase designs through the years

There have been several different design solutions for the crankcase
throughout the years. The shape and construction of the crankcase
have a great influence on the durability and power of the chain saw.
The cooling air vortex in the crankcase must be given the correct
shape for the fan to function at maximum efficiency, thereby
attain the desired cooling of the cylinder, and enable higher engine
performance. The bearing housings have to be strongly proportioned
and reinforced with steel rings so as to cope with the high stress levels Crankcase from the beginning of 1970
that they are faced with.

Crankcase construction from the

60´s till the 90´s
In the early days of chain saw design, the oil and fuel tanks were built
into the crankcase. This construction produced a very rugged saw but
with a number of drawbacks, such an undesirable heating of the fuel.
This saw also had the front and rear handles bolted directly to the
crankcase. That meant that all the vibration was transmitted straight
to hands and arms, which had to act as vibration dampers.

In the beginning of the 1970’s, the oil and fuel tanks were separated
from the crankcase and placed in a separate tank and handle unit.
Connection to the crankcase was via six vibration dampers. This
step in development resulted in very good absorption of vibrations.
The tank unit combined with the handle in relation to the crankcase
constituted a proportionately large vibration damping bulk. The
vibration stress on the user became substantially less.

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 Crankcase
This saw from the 80´s is perceived as more modern and solidly
built. The reason for it is that the fuel tank has been combined with
the handles in a separate unit, while the oil tank has been moved
back into the crankcase.
The advantages of this construction are:

•The front section of the crankcase has been made stronger

where the guide bar is attached.
•It allows preheating of the oil, which is important in
Oil tank is back in the crankcase cold climates.
•It provides simple oil supply to the bar and chain through
drilled channels, instead of hoses.

Another important advantage of having the oil tank placed in the

front part of the crankcase is that the guide bar can be securely fixed
to a very strong area of the saw. The reason why the oil tank could
again be placed in the crankcase is that it made other design features
easier to implement. Development has progressed towards engines
with shorter piston travel and ventilated pistons. The reciprocating
forces are reduced and therefore the vibration level of the crankcase
More effective vibration damping
has been lowered. The possibility of creating a more effective
vibration damping of the tank unit with front and rear handles has
increased.

During the 90´s progress in polymer technology has made the

manufacture of crankcases in composite materials possible. In this
construction the crankshaft bearings are mounted either directly in
the crankcase or in a special composite seat that is mounted in the
crankcase. Because this material is a poor conductor of heat, it has
once again been possible to integrate the fuel tank in the crankcase
Crankcase from 1990´s in composite material
without causing leakage problems due to heating of the fuel.

Aluminium reinforcement has been cast into the crankcase in

order to provide extra stability in the composite material. This
reinforcement also prevents the crankcase from becoming deformed
when the long bolts which, secure the cylinder are tightened.

Aluminium reinforcement gives extra stability

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Crankshaft
The main purpose of the crankshaft is to convert the up-and-down
movement of the piston into rotation, and hence transfer the force
that is generated in the cylinder’s combustion chamber into rotary
torque at the engine’s output shaft.

The crankshaft can be constructed in a variety of ways depending

on the intended application of the engine, production factors, etc.
The most common method nowadays, is to make it from several
components, this is therefore known as a built-up crankshaft. The
Crankshaft rotation
source materials for such a crankshaft are forged blanks that are
machined in various ways to give the right shape, dimensions, and
tolerances. The various parts of the crankshaft have the same names
whether the crankshaft is built-up or cast.

Counterweights
The counterweights, of which there are usually two, are designed
to counterbalance the piston, gudgeon pin, piston rings, circlips,
gudgeon pin bearing and part of the weight of the connecting rod.
In other words, they have to balance the reciprocating parts, although Built-up crankshaft
only around 60 percent of their weight.

Main journals
The counterweights are fitted with main journals. These may
be pressed into place or machined from the same blanks as the
counterweights. The main journals provide bearing surfaces for
mounting the crankshaft in the crankcase, but are also designed to
allow attachment of the flywheel, chain sprocket, centrifugal clutch,
etc. Counterweights

Crank pin
The crank pin connects the two counterweights. The crank pin
rotates inside the connecting rod and a needle bearing generally
separates the two.

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 Crankshaft
The crankshaft may have a one-piece, two-piece, three-piece, or built-
up (more than three-pieces) construction. The one-piece crankshaft
is made from a single casting. This type of crankshaft is used mainly
in low-speed engines with lower demands for precision and vibration
level.

One-piece crankshaft

One-piece crankshaft
A one-piece crankshaft generally requires a connecting rod with
a split big end and a bearing that is made up of separate bearing
rollers or bearing shells fitted to the connecting rod and bearing cap.
The exception is where the connecting rod has a one-piece big end,
despite the fact that the crankshaft is a single casting. In this case, one
of the counterweights is made so small that the connecting rod can
be slid over it.

Two-piece crankshaft
A two-piece crankshaft consists of two halves. One half consists of
A small counterweight allows the connecting rod to be
slid over
a counterweight, main journal and crank pin, and the other half of
a counterweight and main journal. The two counterweights usually
have different shapes and the connecting rod has a one-piece big end.

Three-piece crankshaft
A three-piece crankshaft consists of a separate crank pin and two
halves comprising counterweights and main journals. Once again, the
connecting rod has a one-piece big end. This is the most common
construction method and it offers certain advantages for production.
Two-piece crankshaft

Three-piece crankshaft

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Crankshaft
Individual needle bearing
The bearing between the crank pin and connecting rod must be
designed to suit the type of crankshaft and the power output and
working speed of the engine. Cast crankshafts usually have individual
needle bearings, since the connecting rod generally has a split big
end. Individual needle bearings are used in engines that run at
fairly moderate speed. The reason for this is that the needles rotate
in opposite directions where they touch each other. This leads to
friction heating at the contact surfaces, which can cause bearing Individual needle bearings
failure at high speeds.

Bearing cage
To prevent contact between the needles in a high-speed engine the
individual needles are held in a bearing cage. This reduces friction
heating and lowers the temperature of the bearing. The bearing cage
may have a variety of designs and surface finish, and may be made of
metal or plastic depending on the application. The surface finishing
of the bearing cage is important for the temperature of the bearing. Cage needle bearing.
The most common surface coatings are phosphate, copper, and silver.

Lubrication of the bearings

Due to the high speeds modern chain saws work at, it is vital that
the crank bearing is properly lubricated. In addition to choosing the
right lubricant, it is important that the bearing is correctly designed
to allow the oil to penetrate. The little end of the connecting rod may
have a drilled hole or bevelled edges on the upper part of the bearing.
The design of the bearing cage has some influence on the lubrication
The small end of the crankshaft
efficiency, but it should primarily be designed to withstand the high
inertial forces and resist the centrifugal forces on the bearing needles.
The cage should also give a large total area of contact with the
connecting rod.

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 Crankshaft
The connecting rod
The connecting rod must be controlled laterally. There are two
different principles for this:

A. Control between the crank halves was previously the most

common method of controlling the connecting rod. The
disadvantage of this was above all the generation of friction and
heat between the crank half and the side of the connecting rod. The
Control of the connecting rod friction became greater through the rotating movement of the big
end compared with the oscillating movement of the small end.

B. Control by the wrist pin bearings in the piston is now the

most common method used. The reason for this is mainly that
the movement in the small end of the connecting rod is less (only
oscillating) than in the big end. The friction, and therefore the
generation of heat, is less. This is especially important at high
rotation speeds. A piston-guided connecting rod makes greater axial
play possible at the big end, and by that, better lubrication of the
bearing.
The introduction of the chain brake caused increased
torsional stress on the crankshaft
The crankshaft must be centred axially in the crankcase in order to
avoid the chance of the connecting rod and the piston seizing up.

Rotational stress
With the introduction of the chain brake, the amount of torsional
stress on the crankshaft increased. When the chain brake is applied
the rotation of the crankshaft is stopped instantaneously. As a result,
the flywheel attempts to continue rotating and the torsional stress on
the crankpin becomes extreme. In adverse cases, the crank halves can
become twisted round the crankpin.

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Crankshaft
Heat treatment
In order to improve the press-fit between the crank pin and the crank
half so that a higher torque is necessary before torsion occurs, heat
treatment round the hole of the crank pin has been applied. The
heat treatment can be seen as a light blue colouring on the crank half
round the crankpin.

Chemical surface treatment Heat treatment

Another method of improving the torque stability round the crank

pin is to specially treat the surface. These crankshafts are easily
recognizable because the crank pin is completely black.

Chemical surface treatment

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Cylinder
The cylinder and piston, in conjunction with the crankcase and
crankshaft are the main components of a combustion engine. The
cylinder can be compared with a container in which fuel-air mixture
is ignited by a spark generated from the spark plug. The ignited fuel-
air mixture forces the piston down the cylinder, a force that in turn
also drives the engine’s output shaft.

Chainsaw cylinder placement

Horizontal cylinder placement
Depending on the type of engine the cylinder may be cast as a single
unit with the crankcase, or be attached in different ways to the
crankcase. Each approach has its pros and cons. One way is to place
the cylinder horizontally behind the crankcase. One of the drawbacks
of this arrangement is the restriction on the size and placement of the
silencer.

Vertical cylinder placement

Another method is to place the cylinder vertically, directly above
Vertical cylinder placement
the crankcase. This provides maximum space for the silencer and
the carburettor assembly. This has been one of Husqvarna’s most
important design principles since the sixties, when the company
began making chain saws.

Horizontal cylinder placement

In order to meet market requirements for a small and lightweight
chain saw that could be used when working, for example up in a tree,
Husqvarna launched the 335 XPT chain saw. For the first time this A horizontally placed cylinder saw is good when
marked a departure from the traditional, vertical cylinder placement. working up in a tree
Instead the cylinder was horizontal, partly so that the rear handle
could be placed above the engine block to give the saw the balance
and manoeuvrability that is required when working in a tree.

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 Cylinder
Silencer construction
The silencer is designed to reduce the noise level and to direct the
exhaust gases away from the operator. The exhaust gases are hot
and can contain sparks, which may cause fire if directed against dry
and combustible material. The silencer has a completely different
appearance depending on the placement of the cylinder. A horizontal
cylinder requires a complicated silencer and in many cases a broader
saw. A vertical cylinder permits the design of a compact silencer with
Silencer construction a large volume, which is also mechanically strong.

Cooling fins
The cylinder cooling fins vary in size in order to gives as uniform
cooling effect as possible. The cooling fins are larger on the side that
is furthest away from the fan (lee side). The cooling air that passes
over this side is warmer than that which meets the cylinder as soon
as it leaves the fan. In order to compensate for this the cooling fins
the lee side are made longer in order to give a larger heat dissipation
Cylinder cooling fins
area and the temperature is therefore more uniform around the
entire cylinder.

The number and size of the cooling fins is of great importance

concerning the effectiveness of the cooling system. Moreover, the
distance between the cooling fins must be spaced so as to obtain
sufficient passage of air and prevent the accumulation of debris.
Cooling round the exhaust port is especially important. In order
to improve cooling here, a conductor for the cooling air flow can
be placed between the silencer and the cylinder. In addition, the
conductor prevents heat radiation from the silencer to the cylinder.
Conductor
There is thick insulation between the cylinder and the carburettor
in order to prevent heat from the cylinder transferring to the
carburettor. If the carburettor becomes too hot, pockets of vaporized
fuel will form which in turn will result in starting difficulties
when the engine is hot. It is also important that hot cooling air is
prevented from forcing its way into the carburettor compartment.

Insulation prevents heat from reaching the carburettor

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Cylinder
Induction manifold
An induction manifold in combination with a flexible rubber
connection immediately before the carburettor ensures that only a
small amount of heat is transferred to the carburettor. This results in
less carburettor failure, improved idling characteristics and a greater
possibility to achieve maximum tuning in combination with a
catalytic converter-silencer. This results in improved combustion and
cleaner exhaust fumes.
Induction manifold

Transfer ports
The transfer ports can be of different shapes in the cylinder,
depending on how the chain saw is to be used. On part-time use
chain saws, where the demand for high performance is not so
great, straight and often open transfer ports facing the piston are
commonly used.

Professional use chain saws usually have curved transfer ports. It is

now common practice to place them in the cylinder wall, together Curved transfer port
with both intake and exhaust ports. Cylinders with curved transfer
ports, and both intake and exhaust located in the cylinder wall, have
a very narrow cylinder pedestal base. Consequently, the crankcase
can even be made narrower. The shape of the ports can be compared
to the handle of a coffee cup. Combined with these ports, a piston
with vents round the wrist pin is also used. This solution produces
effective cooling of the piston, as the new gas can pass through
whilst lubrication of the wrist pin bearing is simultaneously very
good. From a manufacturing point of view the cheapest and simplest
design of the transfer ports is the completely open form.
Open transfer port

Aluminium
The cylinder is normally manufactured from aluminium. Therefore
the cylinder surface requires a hard-wearing surface. There are
two main types of surface coating: hard chromium plating and
coating with a layer of nickel alloy. The latter type of coating is
somewhat harder and leads to greater wear and tear on the piston,
but withstands wear better than hard chromium plating. Nickel
alloy coating is pale golden brown in colour, whilst hard chromium
plating is grey-white. Nickel alloy coating versus hard chromium plating

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 Cylinder
Decompression valve
A well known device which has come into favour again is the
decompression valve. On chain saws with large cylinder volume,
a relatively large amount of power is required to rotate and start
the engine. In addition, powerful kick back can occur which in
adverse cases could pull the starter handle out of the hand. In order
to reduce these difficulties, a decompression valve (Smart Start)
has been placed in the upper part of the cylinder. When the valve
Decompression valve is pushed in, a duct into the combustion chamber is opened. By
this, the compression is reduced, and the engine becomes easier to
rotate by means of the starter. In addition the strain on the starter’s
components is reduced. The decompression valve has started to be
used on smaller engines to increase comfort and make starting easier.

Automatic decompression valve

A chainsaw with an automatic decompression valve makes the saw
even easier to start as 30-50% less force is needed because of low
Automatic decompression valve open compression when starting. The decompression valve is always
open when the engine is not running. When engine starts, the
suction in the crankcase closes the decompression valve. . A one-way
valve connected to the crankcase gives just enough suction to the
decompression valve to close it and keep it closed. The pressure in
the combustion chamber also helps to keep the decompression valve
closed during running.

Automatic decompression valve closed

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Piston
Piston construction
The piston can have either one or two piston rings. The advantages
of one piston ring are primarily:

•Less friction loss

•Lower weight
•Higher power and rotation speed
•Lower vibration level
One piston ring
These advantages can only be achieved if the piston ring is perfectly
sealed, which in turn places certain demands on the user’s knowledge
about fuel and oil qualities as well as servicing.

A piston with two piston rings has the following advantages:

•More reliable sealing collar

•Longer working life
•Limits runaway speed slightly

Two piston rings

A piston with two piston rings requires less servicing, lower grades of
fuel and oil, and is more tolerant to incorrect operation.

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 Piston
Analysis and reasons for piston
failure
The piston is often said to be the heart of the engine. By analysing the
piston after an engine failure one can in most cases pinpoint the factors
that caused the failure. The following pictures of piston failures should
be used as a basis when forming a judgement of the cause of cylinder
and piston failure. Due to tight quality control process’s defects or errors
in today’s modern manufacturing are a very rare occurance.
New piston from the inlet side
Use this guide to help explain the cause to the customer and avoid
repeated failures.

In the majority of cases there are other factors which result in

failures, such as:

1. Insufficient or no 2T oil mixed with the fuel.

2. Incorrect grade or type of oil.
3. Insufficient maintenance.
Clogged silencer and screen.
New piston from the exhaust side Clogged, broken or incorrect type of air filter.
Dirty or clogged air intake on the starter cover.
Dirty cooling fins on the cylinder.
Dirty fins on the flywheel.
4. Incorrectly adjusted carburettor.
5. Insufficient fuel feed depending on:
Clogged fuel filter.
Clogged tank ventilation.
Cracked or deformed fuel hose.
Worn, aged or dirty carburettor components.
Piston from the inlet side with normal wear and normal Clogged or leaking impulse channel.
discolouring Loose or damaged mounting.

The first two pictures show what new pistons looks like, one from
the inlet side and the other from the exhaust side. Note the clearly
visible machining marks from manufacturing.

The second two pictures show two pistons with normal wear and
normal discolouring based on using a high quality 2-stroke oil.

Piston from the exhaust side with normal wear and

normal discolouring

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Piston
Lean seizure
A damaged piston due to insufficient lubrication is commonly
referred to as lean seizure. Lean seizures are usually caused by some
type of lubrication breakdown. Lubrication breakdown occurs when
the engine overheats, this can occur when the carburettor is set too
lean, or when there is insufficient lubrication from the wrong fuel-oil
mixing ratio, wrong type of oil or simply no oil at all.

Small to medium scoring within the exhaust port area

Small to medium scoring within the
exhaust port area
The piston in the picture has small to medium size score marks,
usually shown around the exhaust port area or on the opposite side
to the flywheel. In extreme cases, heat development can be so great
that material from the piston smears along the piston skirt and in the
cylinder bore. Scuffmarks may appear on the intake side opposite of
the heaviest exhaust scoring due to the rapid heat expansion of the
exhaust side of the piston. Generally the piston ring is undamaged
and moves freely in the ring groove.

Reason:
•Incorrect carburettor setting.
•Recommended max. speed has been exceeded.
•Incorrect oil mixture in the fuel.
•Fuel is stale or too old.

Action:
•Check and change the carburettor setting.
•Change to fresh fuel.

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 Piston
Medium to deep scoring
Medium to deep scoring along the entire piston skirt is caused when
the piston ring has begun to stick or is completely stuck in its groove
and has therefore not been able to seal against the cylinder wall, this
results in further, intensive temperature increases on the piston and
cylinder wall.

Vertical seizure scores are visible across the entire piston skirt on both
Medium to deep scoring the exhaust and inlet sides.

Reason:
•Incorrect oil mixture in the fuel.
•Fuel is stale or too old.
•Air leaks.
Cracked fuel hose.
Leaking inlet gaskets.
Cracked manifold or inlet manifold.
•Air leakage in engine body.
Leaking crankshaft seals.
Deep scoring Leaking cylinder and crankcase gaskets.
•Bad maintenance.
Dirty cooling fins on the cylinder.
Blocked air intake on the starter.
Blocked spark arrest screen on the silencer.

Action:
•Change to a fuel with the correct oil mixture.
•Change to fresh fuel.
•Replace damaged parts.
•Replace leaking gaskets and shaft seals.
•Clean the cooling fins and air intake.
•Clean or replace the spark arrest screen.

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Piston
Carbon seizure
Piston damage from excessive carbon build up can at first appear
to be a lean seizure. The piston will be scored on the exhaust side
and the piston ring will most likely be stuck in the ring groove.
However, unlike a lean seizure, carbon deposits will be present on
top of the piston and in the combustion chamber of the cylinder.
Heavy carbon deposits are usually present in the exhaust port. These
deposits can break loose and become lodged between the piston
and the cylinder wall. However, the piston skirt has a darker colour The piston ring (seen from the inlet side) is stuck in the
groove and the dark discoloration under the piston ring
caused by the hot combustion gases that are blown past the piston is due to compression blow-by
ring. The top two pictures illustrate typical carbon seizures and the
main causes.

Reason:
•Wrong type of two-stroke oil or petrol.
•Incorrect oil mixture in the fuel.
•Incorrect carburettor setting.

Medium to deep scores on the exhaust side. The piston

Action: ring is stuck in the groove. Dark discoloration under
•Change the fuel. the piston ring due to compression blow-by
•Change to a fuel with the correct oil mixture.
•Correct the carburettor setting.

Damage by excessive engine speed

Typical damage associated with a too high an engine speed is, broken
piston rings, broken circlips on the gudgeon pin or the guide pin for
the piston ring coming loose. The following picture illustrate typical
over speed damages and the main causes.
Exhaust side damaged by a broken piston ring. The
piston ring parts damage the top section and cause
score marks
Piston ring breakage
When the carburettor setting is too lean this results in too high an
engine speed and a high piston temperature. The engine may not
be running lean enough to cause a lean seizure but the abnormal
operating temperature causes the ring to stick in the ring groove.
The edges of the piston ring can then hit the top edge of the exhaust
port and will be broken and can also cause piston damage. Excessive
engine rpm can also cause rapid ring wear and contribute to ring
breakage.
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 Piston
Piston ring locating pin loose
A too high engine speed can also cause the ends of the piston ring
to hammer against the guide pin when the piston ring moves in its
groove. The intensive hammering can loosen the pin which will then
exit through the top of the piston causing serious damage to the
cylinder and piston.

The locating pin for the piston ring has been pushed up Damage caused by loose gudgeon
through the top of piston pin circlips
A too high engine speed can cause the gudgeon pin circlips to
vibrate. The circlips are drawn out of their groove due to the
vibrations, which in turn reduces the circlips’ tensioning power. The
rings can then become loose and damage the piston.

Bearing failure
A failure on the crankshaft bearing or on the connecting rod bearing
Deep, irregular grooves caused by a loose circlips
shown here on the piston’s inlet side is usually caused by a too high an engine speed, resulting in the
bearing being overloaded or over heating. This in turn can cause the
bearing rollers or balls to glide instead of rotate, which can mean
that the roller or ball retainer breaks. The broken debris can be
trapped between the piston and cylinder wall, damaging the piston
skirt. Debris can also pass up through the cylinder’s transfer ports
and cause damage to the top and sides of the piston as well as the
cylinder’s combustion chamber. To avoid excessive engine rpm always
use a tachometer when adjusting the carburettor. The maximum
speed recommended must not be exceeded.

Irregular grooves on the piston’s inlet side caused by a

broken roller retainer

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Piston
Damage caused by foreign objects
Anything other than clean air and fuel entering the engine through
the intake port will cause some type of abnormal wear and damage
to the piston. Abnormal wear and damage of this type is always
evident on the intake side of the piston starting at the lower section
of the piston skirt where it passes the intake port. Abnormal piston
wear is the result of improperly filtered air passing through the
carburettor into the engine. Larger foreign objects entering the
engine can cause severe lower intake skirt damage to the piston. Small score marks and a matt, grey surface on the
piston’s inlet side caused by fine dust particles
Of course, if the engine is operated with a damaged air filter or
without an air filter, rapid piston wear or damage is a certainty. The
following four pictures demonstrate various types of foreign object
damage. The first three examples are easily prevented with routine air
filter maintenance and replacement as instructed in the Operator’s
Manual. The last example can be avoided with good service
techniques.

Fine dust particles

Particles of dust and dirt from carbon-like deposits on
Intake side shown, exhibiting small scratches and a dull grey the top of the piston and in the piston ring groove

appearance.

Cause:
•Incorrect air filter for application.
•Faulty air filter. Small dust particles pass through the filter.
•The filter is worn out due to too much cleaning, whereby
small holes have appeared in the material.
•Unsuitable filter maintenance, e.g. wrong method or
wrong cleaning agent.
Flock material comes loose and holes appear. The piston scored and worn from the piston ring down
•Air filter incorrectly fitted. on the inlet side
•Air filter damaged or missing.

Action:
•Fit a finer grade filter. Check the filter carefully for holes and
damage after cleaning. Replace the filter if necessary.
•Clean more carefully and use the right cleaning agent (e.g. warm
soapy water or Husqvarna Active Cleaning).
•Change the filter. Fit the filter correctly. Fit a new air filter.

25
 Piston
Larger dust and dirt particles
Large, softer particles that penetrate into the engine cause damage to
the piston skirt under the piston ring as the photograph shows.

Cause:
•Air filter incorrectly fitted.
•Air filter damaged or missing.
Extensive damage to the lower part of the piston’s inlet
side
Action:
•Fit the air filter correctly.
•Fit a new air filter.

Large hard particles

Larger, harder particles that enter the engine cause serious damage to
the underside of the piston skirt.

Cause:
•Air filter damaged or missing.
•Parts from the carburettor or intake system have become loose
and entered the engine.

Action:
•Fit a new air filter.
•Regular service and inspection.

26
Fuel systems
All Husqvarna fuel driven engines have a carburettor, which has the
purpose of mixing fuel and air so that the engine runs properly. It
is very important that this mix is precise. If there is not enough fuel
mixed with the air, the engine runs lean and either will not run or
potentially damages the engine. If there is too much fuel mixed with
the air, the engine runs rich and either will not run (it floods), runs
very smoky, runs poorly (bogs down, stalls easily), or at the very least
wastes fuel.

Diaphragm carburettors
Diaphragm carburettor
The big difference between the float type carburettor and the
diaphragm carburettor is that the latter lacks floats and float
chamber. Because of this, the diaphragm carburettor works in
all positions, which is an absolute necessity for chain saws. The
diaphragm carburettor has been developed and become even smaller
and lighter, whilst at the same time becoming more operationally
reliable. The diaphragm carburettor can be divided into three main
functions:
Diaphragm carburettor´s three main functions
A. Metering function
B. Mixing function
C. Pump function

Pump function
The carburettor contains a fuel pump, the purpose of which is to
pump fuel from the chain saw’s tank to the carburettor. The pump
is a diaphragm pump and as the name indicates, it consists of a
diaphragm (A) which divides a chamber (the pump chamber) into
Negative pressure. Arrow (C) to the left shows inlet
two halves. Fuel is on the one side of the diaphragm, whilst on the valve and arrow (D) shows the outlet valve
other there is air of alternating positive and negative pressure. The
pressure variations come from the engine’s crankcase, where the
piston causes positive and negative pressure by its movement in the
cylinder. The pressure is conducted via a duct (B) (the impulse duct)
to the carburettor’s pump chamber.

The pump diaphragm is drawn downwards when there is negative

pressure in the chamber. The fuel compartment on the other side of
the diaphragm is enlarged and the outlet valve closes. Fuel is sucked
from the tank past the pump diaphragm’s inlet valve which opens
automatically.
27
 Fuel systems
When the piston travel has reversed in the cylinder and is on the way
downward, positive pressure is built up in the crankcase and pump
chamber. The pump diaphragm is then pushed upwards and the
inlet valve is closed. The outlet valve opens, the fuel streams through
a strainer and continues on to the metering function which in this
way is kept full of fuel the entire time.

Metering function
Positive pressure. Arrow (C) shows the inlet valve and
arrow (D) shows the outlet valve The most important components in this function are the metering
chamber, the control diaphragm and the needle valve with lever.
The metering chamber is bordered on one side by a diaphragm (the
control diaphragm) which is equipped with a metal disc and a pin.
The diaphragm is protected by a cover which is equipped with an
air hole so that atmospheric pressure always prevails between the
diaphragm and the cover. The chamber on the other side of the
diaphragm is always filled with fuel. When the fuel is used by the
engine via the carburettor’s delivery system, a vacuum develops in
the chamber and the diaphragm is sucked downwards. Then the
Metering function needle valve’s lever which lies close to the control diaphragm’s pin is
filted, the needle valve opens and fuel fills the metering chamber.

Mixing function
There are two main ducts leading from the metering function. One
leads into the main jet nozzle (A), and the other into three low speed
jets (B). There are two adjustable needle nozzles in order to regulate
the quantity of fuel to the jet systems. One regulates the low speed
capacity (C), and the other the high speed capacity (D). In addition
Mixing function the mixing chamber is equipped with a venturi tube as well as
throttle and choke valves.

28
Fuel systems
The jets are located in different places in the mixing chamber so as
to obtain good carburettor function at different engine speeds. The
main jet is in the centre of the venturi tube while the low speed jet
is placed next to the throttle valve. During start-up the choke flap
is completely closed and the throttle flap almost completely open.
When the piston moves upwards in the cylinder vacuum is formed
in the crankcase, in the mixing chamber. Fuel is drawn up from all
the jets and mixed with the small amount of air which passes the
choke valve. A rich fuel-air mixture is drawn into the cylinder.
Closed choke and open throttle flap during start-up

During idling the choke flap is completely open. The throttle flap
is almost completely closed and in a position just in front of or
immediately in front of the primary jet. The air speed past the flap
is high and the fuel is effectively sucked out of the first jet. Air goes
through the back of the remaining low speed jets and results in air
and petrol mixing inside the fuel chamber next to jets. The air speed
is lower in the venturi tube than at the throttle flap (larger cross-
section area than the throttle flap), and the pressure is normal. This
means that the high speed nozzle does not deliver any fuel.
Choke is open during idling
On acceleration and partial throttle, the throttle flap opens further
and fuel is delivered by the secondary low speed jet as well. The third
jet still takes in air through the rear and the high speed nozzle is
closed.

When the throttle flap is fully open, all the jets are functioning. The
largest negative pressure is in the centre of the venturi tube where the
high speed nozzle is located. Approximately 90% of the fuel at full
throttle is delivered through the high speed nozzle.

Throttle flap opens further on acceleration

Throttle flap fully open

29
 Fuel systems
Preventions
For a trouble free carburettor function, it is also necessary for the
rest of the fuel system to be in impeccable condition. It is important
that the tank’s air vent opens as it should, that the fuel filter (original
Husqvarna) is clean and that the fuel line is undamaged so that the
pump does not draw in air. If these components are damaged in any
way, the engine will receive too little fuel, as the fuel pump output
will be reduced.
Needle valve wear
Leakage at the manifold, nipple for the fuel line or at the pump
gasket results in the fuel pump being partially or completely put
out of operation. The engine is receiving too little fuel. A worn and
leaky needle valve leads to the carburettor flooding. This results in
the engine becoming difficult to start immediately after a stoppage,
as well as rough idling. Flooding can also occur in an engine that is
switched off.

Wear of the needle valve in the lever groove results in irregular idling
of the engine. Irregular idling will also occur if the diaphragm is
Pump gaskets worn on the section (pin or groove) which operates the needle valve’s
lever. The lever of the needle valve is subject to great wear at both the
diaphragm end and the needle valve end. The wear results in irregular
idling. The needle valve’s lever must be correctly adjusted. For Walbro
carburettors, the lever’s outer end must be level with the carburettor
body’s packing level.

Needle valve lever wear

Walbro carburettor

30
Fuel systems
For Tillotson carburettors, the lever must be adjusted so that its
outer end lies on a level with the bottom surface of the diaphragm
chamber. The lever can easily be adjusted to the right height by
carefully bending it either upwards or downwards. If the lever is set
too high the engine will receive a richer fuel-air mixture. If the lever
is set too low the engine will receive a leaner fuel-air mixture.

For the carburettor to function well, regular and proper cleaning of

the air filter is essential. The needle nozzles should accordingly not
Tillotson carburettor
be adjusted when the air filter starts to become clogged, when the
engine receives a richer fuel-air mixture. Carburettor adjustment with
a clogged filter can cause engine failure. The filter should instead be
cleaned or replaced.

Carburettor adjustment
The carburettor normally only needs adjusting 2-4 times annually.
Adjustment should be carried out by a qualified technician using a
revolution counter in order to easily check that the recommended
maximum is not exceeded. Adjusted upwards or downwards

The setting of the carburettor to a large extent affects the engine’s

working temperature. If the engine’s maximum speed is increased by
setting the carburettor too lean, the temperature of the cylinder will
rise rapidly. The high temperature leads to a great risk of the engine
seizing up due to overheating. If the cylinder has not been properly
cleaned, the critical temperature limit will be reached even more
quickly.

Carburettor nozzle Fixed H nozzle carburettor

With the adjustable carburettor nozzle there is always the risk that
it could be adjusted incorrectly and thereby give a too lean fuel-air
mixture, with serious engine damage as a consequence. In order to
avoid this, carburettors where the adjustable main nozzle has been
replaced with a fixed nozzle are sometimes available. The low speed
nozzle remains adjustable. Using this type of carburettor reduces
engine damages caused by too lean setting of the high speed nozzle.
The engine always receives sufficient fuel even at maximum speed.
The disadvantage with this type of carburettor is that it cannot be
finely adjusted for variations in air pressure, fuel, humidity and
temperature.
31
 Fuel systems
With a so-called Semi-Fix carburettor, the main nozzle can be
adjusted to a certain extent. The main body of fuel passes through
a fixed nozzle (A), while a smaller amount (10-15%) is channeled
through an adjustable nozzle (B). Through this method, excessive
revving and starvation of the fuel-air mixture is largely avoided.
Only minor adjustments can be made for variations in air pressure,
humidity and temperature.

One cause of engine malfunction, particularly in hot weather,

A Semi-Fix carburettor can only be adjusted to a
certain extent
is disruption of the fuel supply caused by vapour bubbles in the
carburettor’s fuel ducts. One way of coming to grips with this
problem is to allow the fuel to flow continuously through the
carburettor. As the fuel pump has a certain over-capacity, some of
the fuel can flow back into the tank whilst simultaneously carrying
possible vapour bubbles with it.

Air filter
After some usage, a gradual blocking of the air filter occurs. The
Vapour bubbles in the carburettor’s fuel ducts fuel-air mixture thereby becomes richer, which eventually means that
the carburettor setting must be changed in order to achieve unaltered
performance. One way to counteract this throttle effect is to let
the carburettor’s diaphragm sense the change in pressure inside the
filter’s cubic capacity via a pipe which is connected to the air hole in
the cover of the diaphragm. By this means, the diaphragm supplies
the correct amount of fuel. If the air pressure reduces, so does the
amount of fuel.

The cause of piston wear and tear and that the cylinder barrel’s
coating being worn out is almost exclusively due to an inadequately-
Inadequately-cleaned air filter
cleaned air filter. It is therefore of the utmost importance that
the air filter is handled in the correct way in order to achieve the
longest possible working life of the cylinder. Different demands are
placed on the efficiency of the air filter, depending on the type of
surroundings where the chain saw is to be used. Washable nylon
filters with different mesh sizes, as well as felt filters in different sizes
are used for normal operating conditions. These filters can be washed
in soapy water. Compressed air should not be used on paper- and
felt filters. The filtration material could be damaged. In extremely
dusty conditions, an oil-impregnated air filter is necessary. It is often
The surrounding decides the type of air filter combined with a paper filter, which is not washable. This takes care
of the small particles which could pass through the so-called pre-
filter.
32
Fuel systems
Centrifugal force
Using centrifugal force during cleaning of the intake air is very
effective. The larger pollutants that are sucked in through the air
intake are flung out by the centrifugal force against the periphery of
the air vortex and further upwards towards and past the cooling fins
of the cylinder. By placing the nozzle immediately next to the outside
edge of the flywheel fins, comparatively clean air can be trapped and
conducted to the carburettor’s air filter. The air is cleaned there once
again before being channeled into the carburettor. This arrangement Using centrifugal force for cleaning is very effective
enables the period between each cleaning of the air filter to be
considerably extended.

Speed limiter
Some diaphragm carburettors fitted to chain saws or power cutters
are equipped with speed limiters. This device consists of a
spring-loaded ball that seals against a seat in a valve housing.
An extra fuel channel is drilled through the seat and runs into the
carburettor’s venturi. The force of the spring that presses the ball Speed limiter
against the seat is carefully tested. When the engine speed exceeds
that permitted, the spring starts to resonance vibrate to such an
extent that the pressure on the ball decreases and the extra fuel
channel opens. The engine then receives more fuel than it needs and
starts to burble (four-stroke). The increase in speed stops.

33
34
Lubrication systems
The lubrication of moving parts in a two-stroke is taken care of by
the oil mixed in the fuel. The oil is mixed effectively with the fuel.
When the fuel-air mixture is sucked into the engine it also contains
very small drops of oil, which effectively lubricate the bearings on the
connecting rod and gudgeon pin as well as the cylinder bore.
The high quality, special two-stroke oils can withstand both high
pressure and temperatures despite only a 2% mixture in the fuel.
With insufficient oil or usage of wrong type oil type, will the engine
suffer great damage. Remember never to use four-stroke oil in a two-
Fuel and oil is mixed
stroke engine as the two types of engine require completely different
oil compositions.

Husqvarna’s approach is to use the perfect blend of synthetic and

highly refined mineral oils. The very best available additives together
with a synthetic lubrication booster give you a cleaner engine with all
the seizure protection of any fully synthetic oil. Husqvarna XP oil is
a special high quality two-stroke oil that has been carefully tested to
withstand the extreme conditions of high temperature and pressure
that oil is subjected to in a two-stroke engine.
Husqvarna XP oil

Husqvarna XP oil
Husqvarna XP oil is the obvious choice for mixing oil with petrol
(2% or 1:50). This oil has extremely good lubrication qualities
on high load engine details like for instance the connecting rod
bearing. Large reciprocating masses (piston and connecting rod)
in combination with high speeds and high loads demands special
lubricating qualities in the oil. The Husqvarna XP oil meets these
demands. The XP oil also gives a cleaner engine and less coating
on the piston and in the crankcase compared to competing oils. In
markets where Husqvarna XP oil is not available Husqvarna High
Performance oil is recommended instead.

35
 Lubrication systems
Chain lubrication
As well as lubricating the moving parts of the engine, the chain on
the chain saw also needs lubrication. With a well working chain
lubrication system and the use of high quality lubricants the life of
both the chain and the guide bar is prolonged. The chain lubrication
system comprises the oil tank and pipes, the filter and the oil pump.
The lubrication system must be designed so that it can lubricate the
saw chain at varying chain speeds and with different lengths of chain.
Old chain saw with manual chain oil pump The oil tank must be dimensioned so that oil almost runs out when
the fuel tank is empty, this is to avoid running the saw without chain
lubrication.

Chain oil pump

Older chain saws can be equipped with either manual or automatic
chain lubrication. In addition the automatic chain lubrication can
also be complemented with a manual chain oil pump, where an
extremely long bar requires additional lubrication.
Automatic chain oil pump
Modern Husqvarna chain saws are equipped with the automatic
chain oil pumps. Operation of the pump is either via the clutch
drum or directly via the crankshaft. In the first instance the pump
remains stationary during idling, and in the latter it operates
continuously.

Crankcase pressure variation

Apart from gear-wheel oil pumps, lubrication systems where the
crankcase pressure variations are utilized for the operation of the oil
Pipe leading to the pump from the oil tank
pump also exist. A diaphragm is influenced by pressure variations
and gives forward and return movement to a pump piston.

Yet another method which builds on pressure variations in the

crankcase is used on certain part-time use saws. The pressure
variations here are channeled through a non-return valve inside the
oil tank where excess pressure consequently builds up. This pressure
pushes the oil out to the chain via ducts in the crankcase and bar.
A disadvantage with this system is that it takes a certain time before
excess pressure builds up in the oil tank and lubrication begins, and
Pressure variations also lubrication continues after the engine has been switched off, as
long as there is excess pressure remaining in the tank.
36
Lubrication systems
Oil pump
The most important component of the lubrication system is the oil
pump which is usually placed on or in the crankcase. There is a pipe
leading to the pump from the oil tank, and from the pump there is
a pipe to the bar. To prevent dirt from entering the pump, there is a
filter connected to the suction pipe.

Husqvarna oil pump construction Adjusting screw for regulating the delivery of oil

All Husqvarna oil pumps for different saw models are built in a
similar way; a pump piston equipped with a gear-wheel operates in
the pump chamber. One end of the pump piston is shaped like a
cam and it is located by a pin in the pump chamber. The piston
is turned by means of a worm gear which is either fixed to the
crankshaft or clutch drum. Most oil pumps are equipped with an
adjusting screw for regulating the delivery of oil. The screw increases
or decreases the pump piston’s stroke by which means the amount of
oil delivered by the pump can be increased or decreased.
The pump piston is turned by the worm gear

Pump piston
The pump piston is turned by the worm gear via the clutch drum
or directly from the crankshaft. Since the piston is equipped at one
end with a cam, it also attains reciprocating movement. At the other
end of the pump piston there is a slot which is placed in a particular
way in relation to the cam. When the slot exposes the inlet port,
the pump piston is in the lower position. When the piston moves
from the lower position, vacuum forms in the inlet duct and oil
is sucked into the pump cylinder. When the piston moves to the
other end position, it turns and the slot exposes the outlet port.
From the end position the pump piston again moves axially and
the oil in the pump cylinder is pushed out through the outlet port.
This movement occurs once every 7th turn of the crankshaft. This
means that the quantity of oil delivered from the pump is directly
proportional to the number of engine revolutions. If the revolution
count is doubled, the oil pump will deliver double the quantity of
oil.

37
 Lubrication systems
Adjustable chain oil pump
Most of Husqvarna chain saws have an adjustable chain oil pump
so that the quantity of oil can be varied for different bar lengths.
Adjustment is done by means of a screw equipped with an eccentric.
The eccentric affects the pump piston’s axial movement (piston
stroke). By turning the screw to different positions, the piston stroke
is altered and the pump consequently delivers different quantities of
oil on each stroke.
Adjustable chain oil pump

Continuously variable oil pump

In order to be able to adjust the oil pump’s capacity beyond the
fixed position, certain models have a continuously variable oil pump.
The principle for this type of adjusting is that a conical screw limits
the movement of the pump piston. The further in the screw is
turned, the shorter the movement of the piston pump becomes, and
the quantity of oil reduces.

Continuously variable oil pump with conical screw

Chain life expectancy
The working life of the saw chain largely depends on how effective
the lubrication is. In order to improve lubrication, certain of the
longer bar types have a diagonal oil duct. These bars have the
additional designation Jet Lube. The duct is bored at a 45° angle
forwards from the oil hole in the bar mount.

This gives the following advantages:

• The slope of the duct in the direction of the chain’s

Longer bar types have a diagonal oil duct
rotation means that it does not become clogged with dirt
so easily. The drive link pulls the oil out of the duct.
• The outlet hole in the bar groove is oval, which means a
larger contact surface (about 500%) for the oil against the
drive link.

38
Lubrication systems
H-marked chain
To make the lubrication of the chain on the saw and the bearing
surfaces even more effective, all Husqvarna’s H-marked chains have
a special side link. These links have a depression on the inside
between the bearing pins. The depression acts as an oil reservoir
and distributes oil to the drive links’ sides as well as lubricating the
bearing pins. This improved lubrication results in:

• Longer working life of bar and chain. Husqvarna’s H-marked chains have a special side link
• Improved cutting capacity.

Pump spindle
Damage to the pump spindle is prevented by using plastic material
for the oil pump’s gear wheel. The plastic material causes the gear
to break before the spindle is damaged in the event of pump failure.
The same function as the shearpin on a boat propeller.

Stationary during idling Plastic material prevent damage on the pump spindle

To reduce the consumption of chain oil, the oil pump is stationary

during idling on most of Husqvarna’s chain saws. Another advantage
is that oil spillage on and round the chain saw is avoided. Better for
the environment.

Dirt in the oil ducts

The most common fault if all other parts are perfect is that dirt
collects in the oil ducts. On the suction side, dirt can collect in the Oil pump is stationary during idling
filter, and on the delivery side, dirt can for example be pressed into
the hole in the bar mount. It is important that the sides and groove
of the bar are cleaned before installation. The air tightness of the
lubrication system must be correct throughout, otherwise the pump
will suck in air and output will be reduced. The oil pump must be
able to produce a certain positive or negative pressure. If this is the
case, the oil pump is functioning correctly.

Dirt in the oil ducts is a common problem

39
40
Ignition systems
Purpose of ignition system
The purpose of the ignition system is to produce a high voltage pulse
that generates a spark between the spark plug electrodes at exactly
the right moment, i.e. just before the piston reaches top dead centre
(TDC), the pre-ignition position (A). In order to make the engine
easy to start, and to operate satisfactorily at high speed, the ignition
setting must be correct.
Pre-ignition position
The spark ignites the fuel-air mixture, which results in a sharp rise
in pressure in the combustion chamber of the cylinder, which forces
the piston down. In order to exploit this rise of pressure as effectively
as possible, the mixture must be ignited before the piston reaches
top dead centre (TDC). The reason is that the combustion begins
around the spark plug electrodes where the flame front then advances
at a speed of 10-25 m/s (33-82 f/s) and ignites the rest of the fuel-air
mixture.

In order to get the greatest amount of power from the engine,

attempts are made to reach the highest combustion pressure
immediately after the piston has passed top dead centre (TDC) and Fuel-air mixture forces the piston down
is on the way down. Both too early and too late ignition results in
power losses, temperature rise in the cylinder and increased bearing
stress (with premature ignition). This primarily applies to breaker
systems where the pre-ignition is easily changed, for example, when
the breaker contacts are worn and the contact gap increases.

Right timing
Curve A: The combustion pressure reaches maximum before the
piston reaches top dead centre (TDC) with too much pre-ignition
Combustion pressure versus ignition
(approximately 40°). The pressure counteracts the piston’s upward
travel. The result is a loss in power.

Curve B: Correct pre-ignition (approximately 26°). The combustion

pressure reaches its maximum immediately after the piston has
passed TDC. Maximum power is attained.

Curve C: The combustion pressure reaches its maximum long

after the piston has passed TDC as the fuel-air mixture was ignited
immediately after top dead centre. The result is a loss in power.

41
 Ignition systems
The Contact Breaker System
A contact breaker ignition system consists of the following
components:

•Flywheel with built-in magnet

•Ignition coil
•Breaker mechanism
•Condenser
Ignition system components
In addition there is also a short circuit switch and a lubrication cloth
which lubricates and keeps the cam profile clean. The contact breaker
ignition system can theoretically be divided into the following main
parts:

•Generator
•Breaker mechanism with condenser
•High tension transformer (ignition coil)

When the flywheel with its built-in permanent magnet rotates, a

Rotation of the flywheel creates a current
current is induced in the ignition coil. This is connected to the
ignition coil’s primary winding coil and breaker mechanism. The
current will move within the closed circuit as long as the breaker
points are closed.

When the current has reached its maximum value, the breaker
points are opened by the cam. Through this change in the magnetic
field which then occurs in the iron core of the ignition coil, very
high tension is induced in the ignition coil’s secondary winding.
The secondary winding is connected to the sparking plug and a
Breaker points are opened by the cam
spark arises between its electrodes. The tension in the secondary
winding is approximately 12.000 - 15.000 volts. In order to avoid the
formation of sparks between the contact breaker points and achieve
a rapid break in the flow of current in the primary circuit, there is a
condenser connected parallel to the breaker points.

This is what the current curve looks like in the ignition coil’s
primary winding at a particular engine speed and without the
contact breaker points being connected. The height of each block
corresponds here to 2 amperes and their length to 2 milli-seconds.
The current curve shows the course during three consecutive
Current curve during three consecutive revolutions revolutions.

42
Ignition systems
Transistor Ignition System
A transistor ignition system consists of the following components:

•Flywheel with built-in permanent magnet

•Ignition coil
•Electronic unit (ET box)
•Short circuit switch

The electronic unit consists of a circuit card with a number of Transistor ignition system components
soldered components. The entire circuit card is encased in plastic to
protect it from damp and dirt.

Thyristor Ignition System

(Condenser Ignition System)
A condenser ignition system consists of the following components:

•Flywheel with built-in permanent magnet

•Ignition coil Circuit card
•Electronic module
•Short circuit switch

There are two different types of electronic module. One type,

which is mounted with the ignition coil on the crankcase under the
flywheel, and one type which is mounted outside the flywheel. Both
types operate in the same way. It is only the overall design of the
chain saw that determines which type is the most suitable.

Condenser ignition system components

Two types of electronic module

43
 Ignition systems
Cables
If the cable from the electronic unit to the ignition coil is earthed
by mistake, for example by being trapped during the installation of
the starter assembly, the thyristor will be damaged. Similar damage
will be incurred if electrical contact occurs between the primary
cable and the short circuit cable. It is therefore important that the
cables are correctly fitted during servicing. The ignition cable must
always be connected to the sparking plug or the short circuit switch
The thyristor will be damaged if the ignition cable is must be on when the flywheel rotates, otherwise the thyristor will be
earthed by mistake
damaged.

Flywheel
When the flywheel is delivered as a spare part, it is supplied with a
metal plate covering the magnet. The purpose of this metal plate is
to short circuit the magnet so that it does not lose its magnetism,
which could be the case if several flywheels were to lie against one
another in a spare parts storage area. To fix the flywheel in the right
position on the crankshaft, a separate Woodruff key has traditionally
A metal plate covers the magnet during transport
come into use. As an alternative to the separate key, a flywheel with
a moulded key is now also available. Installation of the flywheel
is simplified, and one spare part is eliminated. It is still necessary
however to carefully centre the key and keyway during installation.

A flywheel with a moulded key

44
Ignition systems
Spark plug
The purpose of the spark plug is to ignite the fuel-air mixture in
the cylinder with a spark. The spark is generated when electricity
travels across the electrode gap. In order for this to work properly, the
electricity must be at a very high voltage when travelling across the
electrode gap. Voltage at the spark plug can be anywhere from 40.000
to 100.000 volts. The spark plug must have an insulated passageway
for this high voltage to travel down to the electrode, where it can The electrode gap (A) of a two-stroke engine spark
jump the gap and, from there, be conducted into the engine block plug should be 0.5 mm (0.02 inch).
and grounded. The plug also has to withstand the extreme heat and
pressure inside the cylinder, and must be designed so that deposits
from fuel additives do not build up on the plug. For the engine to
work properly, it is important that the correct spark plug with the
right properties is used. The most important properties to consider
are the electrode gap, the heat range and the thread length.

Electrode gap
The electrode gap (A) of a two-stroke engine spark plug should be 0.5 Correct heat range
mm (0.02 inch). If the gap is too large it puts unnecessary stress on
the other components of the ignition system, and if it is too small it
produces a weak spark, which leads to slower ignition of the fuel-
air mixture. If the electrodes are worn down by more than 50% the
spark plug should be replaced.

Heat Range
In order for the engine to work properly, the spark plug must have
the correct heat range. Under normal conditions the spark plug’s
insulator nose adopts a specific temperature that can vary within
a limited range. When the upper limit (A) is exceeded (the auto
ignition limit) auto ignition occurs (knocking). This phenomenon
can start to occur at approximately 900°C. The ideal working
temperature (the temperature of the insulator nose) lies around
500 – 900°C. When the lower level is not reached during normal
operations, oil and soot deposits are not burnt off of the insulator
nose, and an electrically conductive deposit can form resulting in
faulty ignition. The lower temperature limit (B) is usually called the
self-cleaning temperature and lies with regard to oil and soot at
400 – 500°C.

45
 Ignition systems
The length of the insulator nose determines whether a spark plug
has a low thermal rating (hot or soft) or a high thermal rating (cold
or hard). A spark plug with a low thermal rating has a long insulator
nose (A) with a large heat-absorbing surface. When the thermal rating
is high the insulator nose (B) is short with a small heat-absorbing
surface. The higher the thermal rating the greater the plug’s resistance
to auto ignition and the less the resistance to soot and oil build-up.

A = Large heat-absorbing surface Thread length

B = Small heat-absorbing surface
The spark plug must have the correct thread length. If the thread
is too short it will not fill the full threaded length of the hole in
the cylinder head. The unused thread will be coated in soot, which
will prevent a spark plug with the correct thread length from being
tightened properly. This means that the spark plug gasket will not
have sufficient contact area, which will reduce heat dissipation from
the spark plug. The result is that the spark plug will overheat and
cause pre-ignition. If the spark plug thread is too long it will project
into the combustion chamber and this again will result in
The spark plug must have the correct thread length pre-ignition.

When the spark plug seal is missing the risk of auto ignition is high
resulting in inferior heat transfer from the spark plug to the cylinder
head. Besides, it can also be difficult to unscrew the spark plug when
used for a period of time.

46
Drive systems
All Husqvarna engine powered applications have a system for
transmitting the power generated by the engine to movement on one
or more attached components such as a lawn mower knife, chain saw
chain, wheels on a tractor etc. Depending on an application’s engine
type and area of use the method for transmitting power differs.

Sliding clutch
A sliding clutch is used on electric chain saws to prevent overloading
An electric chain saw uses a sliding clutch
the transmission components. The clutch consists of single flat
washer and three domed washers pressing against each other. If the
cutting attachment comes to a sudden stop it overcomes the friction
between the washers and the engine shaft can rotate without suffering
damage.

Centrifugal clutch
A centrifugal clutch is used to transmit power between the engine
shaft and the attachment. The clutch disengages when the engine is
Centrifugal clutch
idling so that the chain does not move. When the engine speeds up
(because the operator has pulled the throttle trigger to begin cutting),
the clutch engages so that the chain can cut.

This type of drive system offers several advantages, including:

• Smooth engagement during brief take-up phase before

maximum grip is achieved between the clutch shoes and
the clutch drum.
• The clutch provides overload protection if the attachment
comes to a sudden stop.
• Partial increase in the rotating mass helps the engine to run
more smoothly and steadily, particularly when idling.

47
 Drive systems
The centrifugal clutch has centrifugal weights (clutch shoes) that are
mounted on a hub so that they are free to slide outwards. The clutch
hub is threaded onto the engine drive shaft. There may be two or
three clutch shoes, which are held together by springs.

As the speed of the engine increases, the clutch shoes are pushed
outwards by centrifugal force. When this is sufficiently high it
overcomes the spring force, and the shoes engage the clutch drum
and drive it round, and once the drum starts turning, so does the
Clutch shoe type 1 chain. This takes place at an engine speed of around 3600–4600 rpm.

The clutch shoes are manufactured of sintered metal and on some

models are fitted with a friction lining. In principle there are two
different ways to support the clutch shoes on the hub:

1. One end of the shoe is supported around a pivot pin on the

clutch hub.
Type 1 is often used on, for example, clearing saws and trimmers that
have a relatively low engine output.

Clutch shoe type 2A

2. The shoe may then slide between two guide plates that are either:
2 A is completely straight and run perpendicularly to the centre of
the axle.
2 B is curved and angled to the centre of the axle.
Type 2 A is used on large clearing saws, small and medium chain
saws.
Type 2 B is used on large chain saws with a high output. This
design also gives a specific servo-effect on the clutch and in doing so
increases the pressure against the clutch drum.

Clutch shoe type 2B

48
Protective equipment
Kickback
In the early sixties, as chain saws were getting lighter and more
manageable, the use of chain saws changed from felling trees to also
including limbing. This change of use dramatically increased the
number of kickback accidents. Kickback is caused when the teeth
on the saw chain do not cut into the timber as normal, but jam and
start to climb. The upward and backward forces at the tip of the bar
result in the chain saw being thrown upwards and backwards at the
same time as it turns around its own centre of gravity. This leads to Kickback situation
the saw’s guide bar and chain is thrown backwards in a rotational
movement towards the logger causing severe injuries on the logger’s
face, arms or upper body. Husqvarna looked very seriously at this
trend and have taken several safety measures to prevent injuries
caused by kickback accidents.

Kickback causes
Chain saws from the sexties completely lacked vibration dampening
devices. Vibrations and forces during kickback propagated directly The teeth of the chainsaw jams
out to the operator’s hands. The forces on the saw’s handle became
so great that the operator could no longer hold the saw in position.
Another contributing factor to this was the operators did not hold
the handle so firmly in order to reduce the unpleasant vibrations.

Kickback solutions
Towards the end of the sixties different solutions started to emerge
to prevent the effects of kickback accidents. Initially protection
consisted of a fending loop placed in front of the chain saw’s loop
Fending loop
handle. In the event of kickback the loop hit the operator’s wrist and
the bars upward swing was stopped.

49
 Protective equipment
The introduction of vibration dampened chain saws with a separate
engine and tank unit have also helped to reduce the number of
kickback accidents. Vibration dampening results in the forces
generated during kickback being gradually and not instantaneously
transferred to the handle section, as a large part of the kickback
energy is taken up by the vibration dampening rubber element. The
characteristics of the rubber element and its position at the time of
kickback are very important.

Vibration dampened chain saws with a separate engine

and tank unit
The forces in the operator’s hands become smaller the heavier the
handle section is in relation to the bar and the engine unit, as a
specific part of the engine unit’s kinetic energy from the kickback
is used to put the heavier handle section in motion. Another
contributing cause to the number of accidents falling in connection
with the introduction of vibration dampened chain saws was due to
the operator being able to hold the handle more firmly without being
irritated by the vibrations from the engine.

Chain brake principle

Chain brake development
The main purpose of the chain brake is to stop the chain as fast as
possible in the case of a kickback accident. At the beginning of the
1970’s the first chain brakes were introduced. These acted on the
clutch drum via a link system and were released when the operator’s
hand contacted the hand guard. Today there are several different
types of chain brakes on the market.

In 1971 Jonsered presented the world’s first mass-produced chain

brake. A brake-block which was pressed against the clutch drum by a
spring, which in its turn was released by a link system, was used.
Brake band around the clutch drum

Brake band
To avoid point loading and bending of the crankshaft, modern
saws use a brake band around the clutch drum. Once again this
construction uses a pre-tensioned spring to supply the force. The
brake band is tightened by a linkage system that is activated when
the hand guard is pushed forwards. The brake band principle is used
on most modern chainsaws.

50
Protective equipment
The release impulse for the chain brake previously came from
the operator’s hand when it contacted the hand guard. The hand
therefore had to be in a certain position on the front handle in order
for the chain brake to be released. So that the chain brake can be
released in all operating positions, we now have an automatic release
system.

Swed-o-Matic
Automatic release system
The first automatic release mechanism was named Swed-o-Matic. This
system used the slight movement which occurred between the engine
and the tank unit at the initiation of kickback. This design was
made possible by the introduction of vibration damping using elastic
dampers. The engine and chain brake moved upwards during the first
hundredths of a second, while because of inertia the tank remains
in the original position. This resulted in the release mechanism on
the chain brake contacting the handle and the brake being released.
Braking took place very quickly and the operator normally did not
have time to recognize the kickback before the chain has stopped.
Swed-o-Matic reduced the angle of kickback
The Swed-o-Matic also helped to reduce the angle of kickback i.e. the
angle between the work piece and the saw’s highest position during a
kickback. A free moving chain saw without the Swed-o-Matic swings
up to 90°, while the kickback angle for a saw with the Swed-o-Matic
is only one third of that - about 30°. One contributing factor to
the angle of kickback being so small is that the flywheel’s rotation
energy helps to subdue it, as it moves in the opposite direction to the
upward angle.

The Swed-o-Matic was a big step forward when it came to reducing

the number of kickback accidents. The design could be improved
further, it could be more operationally dependable and with more
reliable adjustments. The next step therefore was to make the brake
fully automatic.

51
 Protective equipment
Inertia-release chain brake
In 1981 the first inertia-release chain brake was introduced on
model 133. The principle was simple. In case of a swift momentary
movement (e.g. kickback), a weight attempts to remain in its
position. This fact was used for construction of the new brakes
which were fitted with a weight placed near the release mechanism.
In its method of operation, it can be compared with the trigger
mechanism of a gun.
First inertia-release chain brake was introduced 1981
The further development of the inertia-release brake lead to the
weight, which was previously placed near the release mechanism,
being moved right to the top on the hand guard. By this means it
could be made lighter by retained release energy. The strain on the
hand guard’s bearing was reduced, which resulted in a longer working
life. The release mechanism was shaped like a knee. The release time
for the chain brake is currently the same as when the first chain brake
was introduced.

Release mechanism Right hand guard

To protect the loggers’ right hand, the lower part of the rear handle
has been widened with a streamlined design. In this way injuries
to the right hand are prevented, especially when the chain breaks,
but also during limbing work when the hand can easily come into
contact with branches. The underside of the handle is completely
smooth so that the chain saw can easily slide along the tree-trunk.

Chain catcher
Right hand guard The chain on the chain saw seldom breaks. If this happens all the
same, the chain is effectively stopped by the chain catcher. This is
located on the front part of the crankcase under the bar mount.

Chain catcher

52
Protective equipment
Throttle lock
The throttle lock has the task of preventing accidents caused by
activating the throttle unintentionally. The mechanism is designed so
that the throttle cannot be moved if the hand does not have a firm
grip around the rear handle.

Guard, safety stop

Throttle lock
A blade on a power cutter rotates at a periphery speed of 80 – 100
m/s (262-328 f/s). At these high speeds a large number of personal
injuries can occur if the blade for some reason should become
damaged. For this reason a solid guard is fitted over the blade and
loose, flying objects can be caught. A safety pin is placed in the
cutting arm to prevent the guard from rotating with the blade during
a failure. The pin enters a countersink in the guard and limits its
movement.

The arrow shows the safety pin

53
54
Personal
protective equipment
Protective clothing should be in highly visible colours. Protective
equipment must be tested in accordance with applicable EU
directives and standards (CE approved). Countries outside the
EU may require tests in accordance with other national standards.
These requirements may vary between different countries. More
information is available from your Husqvarna servicing dealer.

Helmet with hearing protector and

visor Helmet with hearing protector and visor

The helmet is designed to protect you from falling branches and

impact. The visor should cover your entire face in order to protect
against scrapes and flying chips and saw dust. Hearing protection
guards against harmful loud noises. The inserts in the hearing
protector become worn out with time. It is important that you
replace them on a regular basis.

Jacket
Jacket
The jacket should be full coverage, ventilated and in highly visible
colours.

Protective trousers
The protective trousers should be fitted with saw protection that
satisfies the EU directive (CE approved) or other national directives.
The trousers should be discarded if the protective layers have been
damaged by a saw. The textile fibres in the protective trousers are
designed to stop the motion of the chain.
Protective trousers

The textile fibres in the protective trousers are

designed to stop the motion of the chain.

55
 Personal
protective equipment
Protective boots
Boots and ankle boots should be equipped with protective toecaps,
saw protection and non-slip soles in accordance with the EU directive
(CE approved) or other national directives.

Protective gloves
Protective gloves should always be worn for protection against cuts
Protective boots
and scrapes, oils and fuel.

First aid kit

You should always have a first aid kit available and accessible. A first
aid box must always be on-site in the felling area. Gloves with saw
protection on the left glove also protect you against the saw chain.

Communication in event of accident

Protective gloves
In the event of an accident, you must be able to call for help quickly.
Always have a whistle and a mobile phone/communication radio at
the felling site.

For your own sake, never omit any part of the protective equipment!

First aid kit

56
Ergonomics
Vibration damping did not appear on hand-held machines until the
mid-sixties. By then machines were becoming increasingly lighter,
which meant that vibration became more noticeable to the user since
the damping mass of the machines was reduced.

Occupational injury white fingers

As chainsaws became lighter the vibration from the saw was more
and more absorbed by the person holding the saw instead of the Occupational injury white fingers
saw itself. This led to a dramatic increase of vibration injuries. It
was soon concluded that the vibration from chainsaws was directly
related to the so-called white fingers injury. This is an injury where
the chain saw operator’s fingers turn white due to poor blood
circulation. This leads to a sensation of numbness in the hands and
arms.

Husqvarna’s LowVib system

Husqvarna’s chain saws are developed to insulate the handlebars LowVib system - Engine unit and handle unit isolated
from each other by vibration dampers
from the engine. The engine’s moving parts are produced of low
weight material that results in minimal gyro forces, which also
decreases the saw’s vibration. Husqvarna’s two-mass, anti-vibration
construction uses springs or rubber to separate the engine from
the handles, a system called LowVib. The user’s hands and arms
experience significantly reduced vibrations from the engine, bar or
chain.

57
 Ergonomics
As of the introduction of model 394 XP in 1992, the traditional
rubber dampers have been replaced in favour of springs. Through
careful testing of the placing of the four springs, not only were lower
vibration values obtained, but also a longer working life. The rubber
dampers are inclined to be affected by petrol and oil, which results
in varied vibration damping and a shorter working life.

Reciprocating counterweights
Traditional chain has a relatively large contact surface against
the bar causing vibrations Several engine manufacturers have succeeded in reducing engine
vibration by using rotating or reciprocating counterweights. The
principle is to make the counterweight move in the opposite
direction to the piston so that the reciprocating forces are cancelled
out.

Chain vibration
During development work on damping engine vibration,
Husqvarna LowVib chain Husqvarna’s technicians also turned their attention towards the
chain and how this generates vibrations during cutting. A traditional
chain has a relatively large contact surface against the bar. Each time
a cutting link cuts wood, it hammers against the bar. The resulting
vibrations vary in intensity, depending on the type of wood and if
the timber is frozen or not.

Husqvarna LowVib chain

In order to reduce the cutting link’s hammering against the bar, a
new link with a new profile and a smaller bar contact surface was
LowVib chain
constructed. The shape of the new cutting link causes the power
which arises when the link meets the wood to be directed into the
length of the chain instead of going down into the bar. With this
type of chain, which has been named the Husqvarna LowVib, chain
vibration during sawing in soft wood has been reduced by up to
30%.

58
Environment
Husqvarna E-TECH
In 1996 Husqvarna presented a new, improved two-stroke engine as
a part of the company’s efforts to produce engines that emit smaller
amounts of hazardous substances. The new engine was given the
designation E-TECH and was first used in new trimmer and brush
cutter models. More stringent environment regulations in the USA,
which primarily involve a lowering of the hydrocarbons, nitrous
oxides and carbon monoxide content, brought about the new engine
design. Environment degradation is reduced through decreasing the E-TECH engine
amount of unburned gases (flushing losses) in the exhaust fumes.
Comparison between an E-TECH engine model and the three year
older engine design model 125 show that the CO content has been
halved and the hydrocarbons and nitrous oxide contents have been
reduced by close to 70%. In addition a powerful increase in output is
gained.

A = Air consisting of: 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 1% others

B = Fuel consisting of: hydrocarbons (petrol), two-stroke oil (2%)
C = Exhaust fumes consisting of: hydrocarbons (HC),
Muffler with catalytic converter
nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO),
carbon dioxide (CO2), particles (PM)
D = Fuel-air mixture consisting of: 92% air, 8% petrol

Catalytic exhaust emission control

A catalytic converter has the task of facilitating chemical reactions
between other substances without actually taking part in the process.
This fact is utilised for example to clean exhaust fumes from
combustion engines. The engine’s fuel consists primarily of carbon
and hydrogen, which is mixed with air in the carburettor. The
intake air consists to 1/5 of oxygen (O2) and 4/5 nitrogen (N2). The
nitrogen does not normally take part in the combustion, but goes
straight through the engine without being affected. The oxygen is
mainly used in the engine’s combustion process. Only a small part
remains for afterburning in the catalytic converter. Nitrogen oxides
(NOx) are formed with the combustion of nitrogen at very high
pressures and temperatures. When the combustion is incomplete
(deficit of oxygen) poisonous carbon monoxide (CO) is formed.
With the right amount of oxygen, carbon dioxide (CO2) is formed,
which is not poisonous.

59
 Environment
When exhaust emission control demands are discussed it is primarily
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide that are
included. The catalytic converter has been designed to reduce the
amounts of these substances in the exhaust fumes. In this carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons are combusted into carbon dioxide
and water. The amount of carbon dioxide can not be affected in
any other way than by lowering fuel consumption or the use of fuel
with a lower carbon content. Nitrogen does not normally affect the
catalytic converter’s combustion process. The oxygen that remains
Catalytic converter after combustion in the engine is consumed in the catalytic
converter.

Environmental Provisions
In tandem with the impaired environment and the increase in
environmental awareness (not least on account of the sorting of waste
in many countries) environmental provisions on a number of fronts
have come about. California has been a forerunner when it concerns
legislation regarding exhaust emissions from combustion engines.

CARB 1
CARB is an abbreviation for California Air Resources Board, which
is an agency that has established the regulations which prescribe that
the discharge of hydrocarbons shall be reduced by 30%. In addition,
limit values have been stated for nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon
dioxide (CO2). These regulations only apply in California from
August 1, 1995 but do not apply to chain saws above 45 cm3 and
clearing saws above 40 cm3.

EPA 1
EPA is an abbreviation for the Environmental Protection Agency.
These regulations regulate exhaust emissions from combustion
engines smaller than 25 hp and came into force on January 1, 1998.
In principle the regulations involve the same limitations as in CARB
1.

60
Environment
EU 1
All products placed on the EU market after February 11, 2005 must
fulfil the EU 1 exhaust requirements, which correspond to EPA 1.

CARB 2
From January 1, 2000 the CARB 1 regulations have been tightened
yet further. New to these regulations is that limitations have also
The regulations above will continue until new come
been introduced for the particle content (PM) in exhaust fumes. In into force
addition, the amounts of HC and NOx have been combined into
one limit value and at the same time been reduced significantly.
The limits apply to the average level of the product range from a
manufacturer. EPA is expected to follow suit with its regulations by
introducing a second stage.

EPA 2
Beginning January 1, 2002 EPA has introduced a phase-in
programme for below 50 cc engines to reach much stricter emission The regulations above will continue until new come
into force
limits by 1 January, 2005. The limits apply to the manufacturer’s
product range average. The same applies for engines above 50 cc, but
with the phase-in period delayed by 2 years, i.e. 2004-2007. Engine
families below 5000 units per year may remain certified according to
EPA 1 three years after the last phase-in year, i.e. until end of 2007
and 2009 respectively.

EU 2
New tighter limits according to EPA 2 will be introduced in the EU The regulations above will continue until new come
starting in August 2007 for certain products below 50cc. By August into force

2011 virtually all products must fulfil the EU 2 requirements.

CARB 3
From January 1, 2005, CARB is expected to further reduce the
HC+NOx exhaust limits, which means harmonisation with the EPA.
From 2007 CARB is expected to introduce regulations for fuel tank
permeation and, for non-handheld products, also evaporation.

61
 115 01 49-26 GB 2011-05

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