Paper

LIQUID DROP MODEL OF NUCLEI

Submitted to fulfill the Basic Nuclear Physics Assignment

Created by

Jelita Shaleha Sibarani (4133121020)

Wandi Ginting (4133121058)

BILINGUAL PHYSICS EDUCATION 2013

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCE

UNIVERSITAS NEGERI MEDAN

 LIQUID DROP MODEL OF NUCLEUS

One of the first models which could

describe very well the behavior of the nuclear
binding energies and therefore of nuclear
masses was the mass formula of von
Weizsaecker (also called the semi-empirical
mass formula – SEMF), that was published in
1935 by German physicist Carl Friedrich von
Weizsäcker. This theory is based on the liquid
drop model proposed by George Gamow.
According to this model, the atomic
nucleus behaves like the molecules in a drop of
liquid. But in this nuclear scale, the fluid is
made of nucleons (protons and neutrons),
which are held together by the strong nuclear force. The liquid drop model of the
nucleus takes into account the fact that the nuclear forces on the nucleons on the surface
are different from those on nucleons in the interior of the nucleus. The interior nucleons
are completely surrounded by other attracting nucleons. Here is the analogy with the
forces that form a drop of liquid.
In the ground state the nucleus is spherical. If the sufficient kinetic or binding
energy is added, this spherical nucleus may be distorted into a dumbbell shape and then
may be splitted into two fragments. Since these fragments are a more stable
configuration, the splitting of such heavy nuclei must be accompanied by energy
release. This model does not explain all the properties of the atomic nucleus, but does
explain the predicted nuclear binding energies.
The nuclear binding energy as a function of the mass number A and the number
of protons Z based on the liquid drop model can be written as:
 This formula is called the Weizsaecker Formula (or the semi-empirical mass
formula). The physical meaning of this equation can be discussed term by term.
1. Volume term
Volume term – aV.A. The first two terms describe a spherical liquid drop
of an incompressible fluid with a contribution from the volume scaling with A
and from the surface, scaling with A2/3. The first positive term aV.A is known as
the volume term and it is caused by the attracting strong forces between the
nucleons. The strong force has a very limited range and a given nucleon may
only interact with its direct neighbours. Therefore this term is proportional to
A, instead of A2. The coefficient aV is usually about ~ 16 MeV.
2. Surface term
Surface term – asf.A2/3. The surface term is also based on the strong
force, it is, in fact, acorrection to the volume term. The point is that particles at
the surface of the nucleus are not completely surrounded by other particles. In
the volume term, it is suggested that each nucleon interacts with a constant
number of nucleons, independent of A. This assumption is very nearly true for
nucleons deep within the nucleus, but causes an overestimation of the binding
energy on the surface. By analogy with a liquid drop this effect is indicated
as the surface tension effect. If the volume of the nucleus is proportional to A,
then the geometrical radius should be proportional to A 1/3 and therefore the
surface term must be proportional to the surface area i.e. proportional to A2/3.
3. Coulomb term
Coulomb term – aC.Z2.A-⅓. This term describes the Coulomb repulsion
between the uniformly distributed protons and is proportional to the number of
proton pairs Z2/R, whereby R is proportional to A 1/3. This effect lowers the
binding energy because of the repulsion between charges of equal sign.
4. Asymmetry Term
Asymmetry term – aA.(A-2Z)2/A. This term cannot be described as
‘classically’ as the first three. This effect is not based on any of the fundamental
forces, this effect is based only on the Pauli exclusion principle (no two
fermions can occupy exactly the same quantum state in an atom). The heavier
nuclei contain more neutrons than protons. These extra neutrons are necessary
 for stability of the heavier nuclei. They provide (via the attractive forces between
the neutrons and protons) some compensation for the repulsion between the
protons. On the other hand, if there are significantly more neutrons than protons
in a nucleus, some of the neutrons will be higher in energy level in the nucleus.
This is the basis for a correction factor, the so-called symmetry term.
5. Pairing Term
Pairing term – δ(A,Z). The last term is the pairing term δ(A,Z). This
term captures the effect of spin-coupling. Nuclei with an even number of protons
and an even number of neutrons are (due to Pauli exclusion principle) very
stable thanks to the occurrence of ‘paired spin’. On the other hand, nuclei with
an odd number of protons and neutrons are mostly unstable.
With the aid of the Weizsaecker
formula the binding energy can be calculated
very well for nearly all isotopes. This formula
provides a good fit for heavier nuclei. For light
nuclei, especially for4He, it provides a poor fit.
The main reason is the formula does not consider
the internal shell structure of the nucleus.
In order to calculate the binding energy, the coefficients aV, aS, aC, aA and aP must
be known. The coefficients have units of megaelectronvolts (MeV) and are
calculated by fitting toexperimentally measured masses of nuclei. They usually vary
depending on the fitting methodology. According to ROHLF, J. W., Modern Physics
from α to Z0 , Wiley, 1994., the coefficients in the equation are following:

Using the Weizsaecker formula, also the mass of an atomic nucleus can be
derived and is given by:
m = Z.mp +N.mn -Eb/c2
where mp and mn are the rest mass of a proton and a neutron, respectively, and Eb is the
nuclear binding energy of the nucleus.From the nuclear binding energy curve and from
235
the table it can be seen that, in the case of splitting a U nucleus into two parts, the
binding energy of the fragments (A ≈ 120) together is larger than that of the original 235U
nucleus.
According to the Weizsaecker formula, the total energy released for such
reaction will be approximately 235 x (8.5 – 7.6) ≈ 200 MeV.

Table of binding energies for some nuclides that calculated according to the
semi-empirical mass formula.

The minimum excitation energy required for fission to occur is known as

the critical energy (Ecrit) or threshold energy.
 CONCLUSION
Liquid-drop model, in nuclear physics, a description of atomic nuclei in which
the nucleons (neutrons and protons) behave like the molecules in a drop of liquid. If
given sufficient extra energy (as by the absorption of a neutron), the spherical nucleus
may be distorted into a dumbbell shape and then split at the neck into two nearly equal
fragments, releasing energy. Although inadequate to explain all nuclear phenomena, the
theory underlying the model provides excellent estimates of average properties of
nuclei.

Problem and Solution of Liquid Drop Model of Nuclei

1. Problem:
What information that given by liquid drop model ?
Solution:
Liquid-drop model, in nuclear physics, a description of atomic nuclei in which
the nucleons (neutrons and protons) behave like the molecules in a drop
of liquid.
2. Problem:
Explain the origin of each additive term in this expression. Pay particular
attention to the exponents in each one, and explain why they are what they are.
Solution:
The semiempirical mass formula, expressed as the binding energy, is as follows:

The origins of the five terms are as follows:

1) Volumetric binding energy, as the number of nuclear bonds increases
proportionally to the number of nucleons.
2) Surface energy reduction, because the nucleons on the free surface aren't
bound to as many neighboring nuclei. The exponent comes from the relation
between the formulas for the volume and surface area of a sphere.
3) Coulomb repulsive energy reduction, because all Z protons each feel the
repulsive force by the other (Z-1) protons. The repulsive forces are in one
direction, or 1/3rd the dimensionality of a sphere.
4) Assymetric energy reduction, stemming from a strong decrease in stability
from unequal numbers of protons and neutrons. Nucleons have energy shell
 levels just like electrons in an atom, and they are most stable when
corresponding shell levels are filled.
5) Pairing energy change, which increases stability for eveneven nuclei (paired,
filled energy levels), and decreases stability for oddodd nuclei (more
unpaired, unfilled energy levels.)
3. Problem:
Why does the δ term in this expression change sign for odd/even nuclei?
Solution:
Because pairing energy change, which increases stability for eveneven nuclei
(paired, filled energy levels), and decreases stability for oddodd nuclei (more
unpaired, unfilled energy levels.)
4. Problem:
40
Use equation 6 to calculate binding energy 20 Ca , what is percentage of
deviation between binding energy that uses mass defect result? Atomic mass
40
20 Ca is 39.96371 u.
Solution:
40
Known: Mass of 20 Ca : 39.96371 u ; Z = 20 ; N = 20
Ask: percentage of deviation?
Solution:
The semiempirical mass formula, expressed as the binding energy, is as follows:

40
The, it is gotten for 20 Ca binding energy by using Ms. Excel calculation is as
follow:
A
Z (Atomic
Periodic (Numbe Volume Surface Coulomb Pauli Binding Eb(tambaha
Number/Pro Etotal
Table r of term Term Term Term Energy n)
ton)
Mass)
- - -
198.094292
Magnesium 24.3120 12 382.914 149.38275 35.342060 0.0948935 2.267417321 200.3617099
6
4 3 8
- - -
339.684959
Kalsium 40.0800 20 631.26 208.46755 83.103698 0.0037844 1.765948146 341.4509075
4
7 9 3
- - -
1380.01 761.191354
Stronsium 87.6200 38 351.14689 231.15451 36.522235 0 761.1913541
5 1
7 3 6

Eb for calcium is: 341.4509075 MeV

 Then, calculation binding energy by defect mass
Δm = [(Z . mP + N . mN) – mi]
Δm = [(20 . 1,0078 + 20 . 1,0087) – 39.96371]
Δm = (20,156 + 20,174) – 39.96371
Δm = 40,33 – 39.96371= 0,36629 sma

E = Δm (931MeV)
Em = 0.36629 (931MeV)
= 341.01599 MeV
Deviation = (Eb-Em) x 100%
= (341.4509075 MeV-341.01599 MeV) x 100%
= 43.5%
5. Problem:
What is the application of binding energy by liquid drop model?
Solution:
One application of binding energy calculation is to determine the
possibility of beta decay. In order for beta decay to occur, the binding energy of
the final nucleus has to be higher than that of the original. Taking Selenium-82
(A=34) and Krypton-82 (A=36) as an example, the binding energy is
approximately -277 MeV and 214 MeV respectively, calculated from the semi-
empirical mass formula above. The decay of Selenium-82 into Krypton-82 is in
fact double beta decay where two electrons are emitted in the process.
EXCERCISES
1. Explain the difference of liquid drop model and Fermi gas model?
Solution:
 The Fermi gas model defines properties of a system of non-interacting
fermions in an infinite potential well. The model predicts gross
properties of various quantum-mechanical systems, for example
electrons in metals, or nucleons in nuclei. The model assumes that all
fermions occupy the lowest energy states available to them up to the
Fermi energy, and that there is no excitation across the Fermi energy (i.e.
zero temperature).
 The Liquid Drop Model treats the nucleus as a liquid. (The nuclear force
is attractive unless the nucleons are squeezed close together. A similar
attractive/repulsive behavior characterizes the force between
molecules.) Nuclear properties, such as the binding energy, are
described in terms of volume energy, surface energy, compressibility, etc,
parameters that are usually associated with a liquid. This model has been
successful in describing how a nucleus can deform and undergo fission.
2. Explain how is free particle model, statistical model, and unification model to
state shell model!
Solution:
Collective model, also called unified model, description of atomic nuclei that
incorporates aspects of both the shell nuclear model and the liquid-drop model to
explain certain magnetic and electric properties that neither of the two separately
can explain. In the shell model, nuclear energy levels are calculated on the basis
of a single nucleon (proton or neutron) moving in a potential field produced by
all the other nucleons. Nuclear structure and behavior are then explained by
considering single nucleons beyond a passive nuclear core composed of paired
protons and paired neutrons that fill groups of energy levels, or shells.
Free particle model, in this model the particle is thought to be moving in the
orbit of a central potential generated by the nucleons in the nucleus. The
interaction between nucleon and nucleon is negligible (e.g.model skin).
 Statistical model, this model assumes that interaction between nucleons is very
large. Nucleons move collectively and are solved statistically. Ex: liquid drop
model, fermi model and collective model.
3. What information that given by liquid drop model?
Solution:
Liquid-drop model, in nuclear physics, a description of atomic nuclei in which
the nucleons (neutrons and protons) behave like the molecules in a drop
of liquid. If given sufficient extra energy (as by the absorption of a neutron), the
spherical nucleus may be distorted into a dumbbell shape and then split at the
neck into two nearly equal fragments, releasing energy. Although inadequate to
explain all nuclear phenomena, the theory underlying the model provides
excellent estimates of average properties of nuclei.
40
4. Use equation 6 to calculate binding energy 20 Ca , what is percentage of
deviation between binding energy that uses mass defect result? Atomic mass
40
20 Ca is 39.96371 u.
Solution:
40
Known: Mass of 20 Ca : 39.96371 u ; Z = 20 ; N = 20
Ask: percentage of deviation?
Solution:
The semiempirical mass formula, expressed as the binding energy, is as follows:

40
The, it is gotten for 20 Ca binding energy by using Ms. Excel calculation is as
follow:
A
Z (Atomic
Periodic (Numbe Volume Surface Coulomb Pauli Binding Eb(tambaha
Number/Pro Etotal
Table r of term Term Term Term Energy n)
ton)
Mass)
- - -
198.094292
Magnesium 24.3120 12 382.914 149.38275 35.342060 0.0948935 2.267417321 200.3617099
6
4 3 8
- - -
339.684959
Kalsium 40.0800 20 631.26 208.46755 83.103698 0.0037844 1.765948146 341.4509075
4
7 9 3
- - -
1380.01 761.191354
Stronsium 87.6200 38 351.14689 231.15451 36.522235 0 761.1913541
5 1
7 3 6
 Eb for calcium is: 341.4509075 MeV
Then, calculation binding energy by defect mass
Δm = [(Z . mP + N . mN) – mi]
Δm = [(20 . 1,0078 + 20 . 1,0087) – 39.96371]
Δm = (20,156 + 20,174) – 39.96371
Δm = 40,33 – 39.96371= 0,36629 sma

E = Δm (931MeV)
Em = 0.36629 (931MeV)
= 341.01599 MeV
Deviation = (Eb-Em) x 100%
= (341.4509075 MeV-341.01599 MeV) x 100%
= 43.5%
5. What is definition of magic number in nuclei?
Solution:
Magic number is nuclides with certain proton and/or neutron numbers are found
to be exceptionally stable. These so-called magic numbers are
2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
6. Determine the number of neutron or proton in 1s; 2p; 2s; 3p; 1h; 2f according to
closed shell equation!
Solution:
No nl 2(2l+1) I 2(2l+1)
1 1s 2 2
2 2p 6 40
3 2s 2 20
4 3p 6 138
5 1h 22 90
6 2f 14 106

So, the sum of neutron and proton in:

 1s is 2
 2p is 40
 2s is 20
 3p is 138
 1h is 90
  2f is 106.

7. Specify the nucleon configuration and the base level spin of

61 73 87
28 Ni
, 32 Ge , and 38 Sr
Solution:
2 4 2 6 4 2 8 5
1 3 1 5 3 1 7 5
61 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
28 Ni 33 = 1 S 1P 1P 1d 1d 2S 1f 1f
2 4 2 6 4 2 8 6 4 2 1
1 3 1 5 3 1 7 5 3 1 9
73 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
32 Ge 41 = 1 S 1P 1P 1d 1d 2S 1f 1f 2P 2P 1g
2 4 2 6 4 2 8 6 4 2 10 1
1 3 1 5 3 1 7 5 3 1 9 7
87 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
38 Sr 51 = 1 S 1P 1P 1d 1d 2S 1f 1f 2P 2P 1g 1g
 REFERENCE
Encyclopedia Britannica. 2017. Liquid Drop-Model. [updated, May 8 th 2017] Available
from: https://www.britannica.com/science/liquid-drop-model. Accessed on May,
20th 2017
Nuclear Power. 2016. Liquid Drop Model of Nucleus. Available from:
http://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-power/fission/liquid-drop-model/.
Accessed on May, 20th 2017
MIT. 2015. Problem Set 2 Solutions. [updated, September 27 th 2015]. Available from:
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/nuclear-engineering/22-01-introduction-to-nuclear-
engineering-and-ionizing-radiation-fall-
2015/assignments/MIT22_01F15_ps2_sol.pdf. Accessed on May, 20th 2017
Stanford University. 2011. The Liquid Drop Model. [updated, February 13 th, 2011].
Available from: http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2011/ph241/chen1/. Accessed
on May, 20th 2017