Products

W Hoffmann, Max Rubner-Institut, Kiel, Germany

ª 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction standards for nonfermented market cream combining

fat content and function. Half cream should have a fat
Cream is a comparatively rich emulsion of milk fat. content 10 and <18%, cream 18%, whipping cream
Cream and cream products are sold in many varieties. 28%, heavy whipping cream 35%, even though
In most countries, there exist traditional classes of higher fat creams are less dense and thus lighter per
cream products, mostly divided according to the fat unit volume, and double cream 45%. However, these
content. However, no uniform legal definition and suggestions did not prevail over national legislation.
classification has gained worldwide acceptance. The A new initiative was taken by the Codex Alimentarius
fat content of the different liquid and cultured Milk Commission and the International Dairy Federation
products ranges from 10 to 50%. Often, subclasses (IDF). The revised ‘Codex Standard for Cream and
are used. Coffee, half, light, and single cream usually Cream Products’ (2003) describes cream as ‘‘. . . the fluid
have a fat content of 10–30%, whipping cream has a milk product comparatively rich in fat, in the form of an
fat content of 30–40%, and double cream 45–50%. emulsion of fat-in-skimmed milk, obtained by physical
Cream products are also classified according to their separation from milk. Prepared creams are the milk pro-
thermal treatment. Minimum pasteurization is the best ducts obtained by subjecting cream . . . to suitable
way to preserve cream flavor; however, increasingly, treatments and processes to obtain the characteristic
in several countries, more severe heat treatments are properties as specified below.’’ These prepared creams
practiced for the convenience of extended shelf life at comprise prepackaged liquid cream, whipping and
ambient temperatures. Whereas in-bottle sterilization whipped cream, cream packed under pressure (aerosol
has become less common, ultra-high temperature whipping cream), fermented cream, and acidified cream.
(UHT) heating and pasteurization with temperatures The minimum fat content of all these creams has to be
well above 100  C have gained ground. Nowadays, 10%. National regulations make more distinctions regard-
products such as coffee cream are predominantly ing fat content. Products with a low fat content are
flow-sterilized. Cultured or sour creams hold a special
German ‘coffee cream’ (10% fat), ‘half-and-half cream’
position within the range of cream products, because
(10.5% fat) in the United States, and British ‘half cream’
they belong to a diverse group of fermented products.
(12% fat). Traditional (whipping) cream contains 30%
Hence, regulations and manufacturing processes have
fat in Germany and the Netherlands, whereas the same
been adopted from this group. Cream is also used as
product contains 35% fat in the United Kingdom,
an essential ingredient in other dairy or nondairy
Australia, and New Zealand. The US Food and Drug
products such as ice cream and cream liqueur
Administration makes a distinction between ‘light whip-
(see Cream: Manufacture). In addition, cream is the
ping cream’ (30% fat) and ‘heavy whipping cream’
primary product in the manufacturing process of
(36% fat). Applied heat treatments for the different
butter and butter oil (see Butter and Other Milk Fat
Products: The Product and Its Manufacture). cream products include pasteurization, UHT heating
Some cream products may even be directly used as (135  C), flow sterilization in a UHT plant (<135  C),
spreads. and in-bottle sterilization (see Heat Treatment of Milk:
Sterilization of Milk and Other Products; Ultra-High
Temperature Treatment (UHT): Aseptic Packaging.
Liquid Milk Products: Liquid Milk Products:
Types and Regulations Pasteurized Milk).
Cultured or sour creams are regulated as are
Cream and cream products have a variety of composi- fermented products. Their fat content also ranges from
tions and are normally defined according to fat content 10 to more than 40%. In the United Kingdom and the
and, sometimes, also by function or heat treatment. United States, a minimum fat content of 18% is required.
Until now, the traditional classes of cream products in In countries such as France, Germany, Denmark, and
different countries have not been made uniform. In Sweden, the term ‘crème fraı̂che’ has a different definition
1977, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in each nation’s legislation. ‘Smetana’ is a popular sour
and World Health Organization (WHO) suggested cream product in eastern Europe and Finland. In the

920
 Cream | Products 921

United States, the addition of ‘acidified’ to the name Quality Problems

means that the cream is soured with safe and suitable
Coffee Cream
acidifiers such as gluconic acid--lactone, with or
without the addition of lactic acid bacteria. The manu- In many countries, coffee cream is a popular product, which
facturing processes of cultured creams are largely similar is manufactured for long storage either by in-bottle steriliza-
to those of other fermented products (see Fermented tion or by flow sterilization in a UHT plant. It competes with
Milks: Yoghurt: Types and Manufacture). evaporated milk, liquid or foamed whole milk, and liquid or
‘Clotted cream’ (55% fat) is a product that is virtually dried coffee whiteners, which often contain vegetable fats.
unique to South West England and is used for tea and After opening of a briefly shaken cream package, the con-
dessert (with scones and jam). A thin layer of cream is heated sumer expects good sensory properties of the content and
at about 80  C for 1 h (scalding), resulting in a cream crust that the ingredients, that is, fat and protein, have remained in
and a rich, sweet flavor. Similar products are ‘örom’ a homogeneously dispersed state. In a hot coffee beverage, a
(Mongolia), ‘malai’ (India), and ‘kaymak’ (Near and high whitening effect as well as a high coffee stability is
Middle East). Cream liqueurs, which contain an essential demanded. Coffee stability, which is of outstanding impor-
amount of cream, are normally regulated as are spirits. In a tance for the quality of this product, means the degree of
cream liqueur produced in the European Union, 15% of resistance against coagulation or ‘feathering’.
cream with 10% fat is required. Removal of water from Creaming or sedimentation phenomena during sto-
cream by spray-drying yields cream powders with an rage depend on the fat content of cream and on the
extended shelf life if antioxidants are added and adequate conditions of heat treatment and homogenization during
storage conditions are guaranteed. To obtain functional the manufacturing process (see Cream: Manufacture). It
products after reconstitution, incorporation of emulsifiers, is obvious that creaming problems increase with the fat
such as monoacylglycerols, is necessary. Legally, cream content. The fat content is limited to about 20% to obtain
powders normally belong to the group of dry milk a desirable homogenization effect (volume-moment
products (see Dehydrated Dairy Products: Milk Powder: average diameter 0.4–0.6 mm, nearly identical size)
Types and Manufacture). There are many more products because casein is partly bound to the fat as a major con-
with the word ‘cream’ in their designation. Well-known stituent of the newly formed fat globule membrane. The
examples are ice cream, cream cheeses, and cream spreads considerable enlargement of the total fat globule surface
(see Butter and Other Milk Fat Products: Anhydrous Milk after homogenization as a result of the increased globule
Fat/Butter Oil and Ghee; Milk Fat-Based Spreads. Cream: numbers and its reduced diameter requires a sufficient
Manufacture. Ice Cream and Desserts: Ice Cream and amount of casein, that is, a sufficiently high protein/fat
Frozen Desserts: Product Types). ratio. The more the available casein is adsorbed on the fat
During the manufacturing process of liquid cream globules, the more the aggregation of fat/protein com-
products, certain substances can be added if legally per- plexes is favored (due to the higher sensitivity to changes
mitted. Typically, coffee cream contains stabilizing salts in electrical charge). A thermally induced aggregation
such as phosphates and citrates, and the creaming of may occur during in–bottle or flow sterilization of the
whipping cream within the package is delayed by carra- coffee cream. Its extent depends more on the heating
geenan, which also reduces syneresis after whipping. temperature than on the heating time. That is why flow
Cream liqueurs are stabilized by citrate, whereas cultured sterilization is carried out preferably with temperatures
cream products are usually processed without adding below 130  C. In addition, the process of flow sterilization
hydrocolloids. in a UHT plant allows a second two-stage homogeniza-
In the European Union, the legal regulations tion after heating in order to split up aggregates (clusters)
concerning additives have been uniform for some years. formed. A resulting coffee cream with predominantly
The permitted substances in liquid cream comprise phos- nonaggregated fat globules shows a low viscosity, which
phoric acid and mono-, di-, tri-, and polyphosphates, is a desirable characteristic.
lactic acid and lactates, citric acid and citrates, chlorides, The aggregation of fat/protein complexes in hot coffee
alginic acid and alginates, agar-agar, carrageenan, xanthan solutions is affected by the manufacturing process of the
gum, pectins, cellulose and cellulose derivates, starch cream, but also by coffee brand, water ingredients, brew-
derivates, emulsifiers (lecithin and mono- and diacylgly- ing conditions, actual temperature, and other factors.
cerols of edible fatty acids), and the propellants carbon Most coffee solutions have pH values of about 5.0,
dioxide, nitrogen, or dinitrogen monoxide in whipped which is near the isoelectric point of casein. In combina-
creams. Not all of the additives on this extensive list tion with high temperatures and low or very high water
are, however, really helpful or necessary for the produc- hardness, coagulation and aggregation can easily occur.
tion of high-quality cream products, and hence not all When the temperature of a cold coffee solution with
are used. dispersed cream increases, the growing aggregates remain
922 Cream | Products

invisible to the naked eye until they have a sufficient size. heat-resistant spores may occur in UHT cream (see
At this temperature, feathering becomes perceptible and Enzymes Indigenous to Milk: Lipases and Esterases.
the whitening power of the cream decreases at the same Psychrotrophic Bacteria: Pseudomonas spp.).
time. After pouring the coffee cream from a small poly- The prolonged shelf life of UHT cream means that
styrene (PS) package into a coffee solution, clearly high demands are made on filling and packaging materi-
defined large white floccules can float on the surface, als. In contrast to pasteurized cream, the UHT product
and this is not a result of feathering. These floccules are must be aseptically filled and packed. Therefore, the
dried particles from inside the package that were formed filling equipment and packaging materials have to be
during storage because PS permits substantial water vapor tolerant to water, steam, hydrogen peroxide, heat, and
permeability (see Packaging). UV light. Whether the whipping cream is pasteurized or
UHT heated, there are some common important factors
that must be taken into consideration. Light and/or
Whipping Cream oxygen may induce oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids,
leading to flavor degradation. The appropriate filling
The whipping of a traditionally pasteurized, continuously conditions should be selected to minimize the oxygen
and sufficiently cooled cream with a fat content of not less content in the package (with small headspace volume)
than 30% is unproblematic if a raw milk of good quality is and in the cream (see Packaging). Homogenized cream
used and the production of cream continues largely with- is particularly susceptible to the action of light. The
out mechanical stress. Each additional percent of fat up to sensitivity of cream to light depends also on the heating
40% reduces whipping time and results in a firmer foam. conditions. UHT heating causes sulfhydryl groups and
Quality defects of raw milk, nonoptimal processing, hydrogen sulfide to be released from -lactoglobulin,
a lower fat content, and, most of all, the demand for initially creating an intense cooked flavor (see
a prolongation of shelf life generally cause problems. Heat Treatment of Milk: Ultra-High Temperature
Raw milk contains enzymes with different activities Treatment (UHT): Aseptic Packaging; Ultra-High
and some of them are responsible for the development of Temperature Treatment (UHT): Heating Systems).
specific flavor compounds and defects in milk and cream. During storage, oxidation of these groups causes the
The native milk lipase, for example, is lipoprotein lipase cooked flavor to disappear and the strong reducing activ-
(LPL) that catalyzes the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols to ity inhibits the development of off-flavor compared with
free fatty acids. The activity of LPL is theoretically suffi- those likely to occur in pasteurized cream. A balanced
cient to cause rancidity in less than 1 min. However, antioxidative/oxidative action of sulfhydryl groups and
liberation of free fatty acids is prevented by an intact oxygen will probably help to ensure cream products of a
milk fat globule membrane. Since the fat globule mem- good sensory quality. But even if well-balanced condi-
brane protects milk fat against lipolysis, the milk must tions can be maintained, light transmission must be kept
be carefully handled to minimize damage to the fat glo- at a low level.
bule membrane. Homogenization of cream produces a UHT whipping cream is expected to have a shelf life
greatly enlarged area of milk fat covered with a new of about 3 months. But particularly during the summer
membrane. This milk fat is vulnerable to the action of period, consumers complain about quality defects.
LPL, and subsequent rancidity occurs if no immediate A short-lived warming up of a cream package to a tem-
pasteurization inactivates this heat-labile enzyme. perature of 30–35  C, as may occur during transport
Lipolytic rancidity is also induced by extracellular bac- without cooling, produces adverse effects after slow
terial lipases of Pseudomonas spp. and other Gram-negative recooling. It not only supports creaming during subse-
psychrotrophs. In many cases, these lipases are not inac- quent storage at 20  C, but may also lead to a distinct
tivated by pasteurization and may even be present in thickening after cooling before whipping. Although not
UHT cream (e.g., lipases of Pseudomonas fluorescens). all the fat is melted after the warming up, this ‘rebodying’
Extracellular proteinases of Gram-negative psychro- is caused by increased size of fat crystals during recooling.
trophs may be also very heat-stable and can show This results in partial coalescence without stirring pro-
activity even after in-bottle sterilization of cream. vided that the fat content is so high that the fat globules
Phospholipases, proteinases, and glycosidasas from psy- are very close together. A continuous storage temperature
chrotrophic Pseudomonas, Citrobacter, and Enterobacter may of 5  C delays creaming and the occurrence of sensory
act synergistically in damaging the fat globule membrane. problems when compared to storage at 20  C. The whip-
The aggregation of fat globules, which produces bitty ping time of the cream is extended as a result of cold
cream, has been linked to the specific activity of phos- storage, but it also results in an increased volume.
pholipase from Bacillus cereus. Psychrotrophic spore Whenever comparative studies or assessments of
formers in raw milk such as Bacillus spp., which cause whipping properties are carried out, standardized tem-
sweet coagulation, can survive pasteurization, and also perature and whipping conditions must be ensured, for
 Cream | Products 923

which special regulations exist in many countries. stage of whipping. This stage is initiated by a steep
Usually, whipping time and overrun, and firmness and increase of power consumption of the whipping device.
leakage of the foam are measured. Most devices used to At the end point, probably only insufficient free fat glo-
test whipping are modifications of the one originally bules and small clumps remain in the serum phase for the
described by Mohr and Baur in 1937. It consists of two stabilization of newly formed bubble surfaces. The whole
hexagonal, cylindrically arranged wire baskets rotating process of foam formation results in a partly coalesced fat
at a constant speed. The cream, which is stored for 24 h globule network, which stabilizes the air cells, traps the
at 4  C, is whipped in standardized cooled (5  C) cups serum phase, and forms the characteristic stiff texture
until there is no appreciable increase in the load (Figure 1). This applies to pasteurized or low-pressure-
required to turn the blades. Percent overrun is calcu- homogenized (max. 3 MPa) UHT whipping cream with a
lated as the volume difference after and before whipping, fat content of about 30% and with or without viscosity
divided by the volume of unwhipped cream and multi- raising additives. Prolonged whipping would result in too
plied by 100. An overrun of not less than 80% is large clumps of fat globules leading to rupture of bubble-
desirable. Firmness can be equated with the length of enclosing lamella, initiation of bubble coalescence, and a
time needed by a standardized plunger to penetrate the reduction in overrun. The irreversible phase inversion
foam to a defined depth. When using a texture analyzer, into a greasy water-in-oil emulsion becomes visible as
the average force required to move the plunger at a butter granules.
constant speed within the foam yields a more sensitive Homogenization creates smaller and more stable fat
indicator of firmness. For determining serum leakage, a globules which are stabilized by an interface of adsorbed
formed square block (defined edge length) of the proteins covering an increased total surface area. Such fat
whipped cream is placed on a special sieve in a room globules that are in direct contact with air bubbles do not
of constant temperature and humidity. After 2 h, the lose their globule membrane so that no partial coales-
quantity of dripped liquid is measured. cence occurs. The secondary membrane exposes the so-
Development of the whipped cream structure depends
called calcium-sensitive regions of the micellar caseins,
on interactions between fat globules and between fat
increasing the reactivity of fat globules. The resulting
globules and air bubbles. This leads to the build up of a
foam structure is stabilized by casein on the surface of
matrix in which bubbles are stabilized, and the majority of
fat globules via calcium bridges. Its development and
globules are clumped. A prerequisite for effective whip-
stability are not comparable with that of nonhomogenized
ping of the cream is that part of the fat is solid and a space-
whipped cream (see Cream: Manufacture). Supporting the
filling network of mainly long and slender platelets is
formed within the fat globules. Hence, deep cooling and
a sufficient cooling time of the cream are indispensable.
The initial stage of whipping involves adsorption of
soluble whey proteins and -casein at the gas–liquid
interface. This protein layer is not strong enough to
stabilize a foam structure of large and still rather unstable
air cells. However, it makes it easier to incorporate more
air into the system until the maximum overrun is
achieved. This first stage corresponds more or less to
the formation of a protein foam. During the second stage
of whipping, the bubbles are reduced in size, and the
overrun remains approximately constant. In the end, the
proteins are going to be replaced by strongly hydrophobic
fat compounds of damaged fat globules. Induced by the
mechanical stress, fat globules with slightly protruding fat
crystals may collide with an unstable air bubble, and a
bridging process occurs. The vigorous flow results also in
a more frequent collision of fat globules with protruding
crystals which have lost segments of the natural mem-
brane, leading to conjunction of these globules via crystal
bridging and released liquid fat as ‘viscous glue’. This
partial coalescence results in an irreversible deposition
of single fat globules or fat aggregates at the hydrophobic Figure 1 Transmission electron micrograph of whipped cream.
air/serum interface. The highly dynamic transformation A, air cell; C, cut fat globule membrane with crystallized fat; F, fat
of free fat globules into clumps finally leads to the third globule; IF, impression of fat globule.
924 Cream | Products

surface layers with other surface-active substances (emulsi- A neck-plug resulting from ordinary creaming only can
fiers) decreases the formation of clusters and increases the be mostly redispersed by gentle shaking or even pouring,
tendency to clumping. Then homogenization at higher pres- whereas a more solid kind of plug is not redispersible and
sure may be applied. thus unacceptable to the consumer. An essential aspect of
Cream can also be aerated by means of suitable pro- this neck-plug is its fatty solid-like cohesive structure. So,
pellants resulting in an overrun of such aerosol products while creaming remains the prerequisite, considerable var-
in the range of 300–500%. The resulting microstructure iations in storage temperature, especially if accompanied
shows a clearly increased amount of fat globules, which by excessive mechanical agitation, may cause an appreci-
adsorb at the interfaces of air bubbles. Concurrently, able destabilization. The formation of a solid neck-plug
agglomeration of the fat globules and the corresponding may be similar in origin to the churning of cream into
network of different air bubbles is substantially reduced butter or to the thickening of whipping cream after a short
compared with regular whipped cream. The common warming up at 30–35  C and subsequent cooling to 5  C
structure is modified insofar as there is a reduction in (rebodying, see above). Finally, the oil-in-water emulsion
the dimensions of the lamellae between air bubbles. The is partially converted into a butter-like water-in-oil
very low level of partial coalescence and the high solu- emulsion. Other physical and chemical factors may also
bility of the propellants decrease the stability of such contribute to neck-plugging.
foam. At the bottom of the bottle, a slightly granular pre-
cipitate is occasionally observed. This deposit is
composed of calcium and citrate, and is a direct result of
Cultured Cream the addition of trisodium citrate. High ambient tempera-
tures during storage of cream liqueur accelerate the
During the manufacturing process of cultured cream production of such crystalline material. The extent of
(see Cream: Manufacture), incubation may take place in deposition can be reduced by lowering the amount of
the retail package or in a fermentation tank. One disadvan-
citrate, but at the same time this increases the probability
tage of in-tank souring is that the product will once more
of subsequent gelation and separation of serum. Hence, it
come into contact with the manufacturing equipment,
follows that the manufacturer has to assess carefully the
which seriously raises the risk of reinfection. Apart from
composition of and production process for cream liqueurs
that, the viscosity of the cream after fermentation decreases
(see Cream: Manufacture).
during mechanical treatment till packaging. Therefore, the
Finally, it must be taken into consideration that cream
necessity of adding hydrocolloids increases. Set-style
liqueur is basically unstable in the presence of lemonade
products have a markedly thicker consistency, but have
or acidic mixers, because casein coagulates at its isoelec-
a tendency to become slightly inhomogeneous during
tric point (around pH 4.6). The presence of traces of
the long fermentation period at ambient temperature.
tannins and polyphenolic compounds in added spirits
Direct acidified sour cream lacks the fine flavor of
cultured cream in the first 2 weeks after production. during the manufacture of cream liqueur may also
However, during the following shelf life, enzymes from destabilize sodium caseinate emulsions. When using
the culture can start producing an ‘aged’ flavor as a result white wine in the formulation of liqueur, the acidity can
of proteolysis. be neutralized by the addition of sodium hydrogen
carbonate.

Cream Liqueur
See also: Butter and Other Milk Fat Products:
The cream liqueurs that are commercially available Anhydrous Milk Fat/Butter Oil and Ghee; Milk Fat-Based
have typical shelf lives of several years when stored in Spreads; The Product and Its Manufacture. Cream:
sealed bottles under ambient conditions. Very occasion- Manufacture. Dehydrated Dairy Products: Milk Powder:
ally, however, defects such as the formation of a cream Types and Manufacture. Enzymes Indigenous to Milk:
or fat plug in the neck of the bottle can occur after Lipases and Esterases. Fermented Milks: Yoghurt: Types
prolonged storage. One explanation is that insufficiently and Manufacture. Heat Treatment of Milk: Sterilization of
severe homogenization conditions were used (see Cream: Milk and Other Products; Ultra-High Temperature
Manufacture). There is no analogy between the beha- Treatment (UHT): Aseptic Packaging; Ultra-High
vior of double cream in liqueur and pure double cream, Temperature Treatment (UHT): Heating Systems. Ice
for which even slight homogenization results in aggre- Cream and Desserts: Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts:
gation of the fat globules. By contrast, it is difficult to Product Types. Liquid Milk Products: Liquid Milk
overhomogenize a cream liqueur because the fat to protein Products: Pasteurized Milk. Packaging. Psychrotrophic
ratio is about 5, but about 25 in pure double cream. Bacteria: Pseudomonas spp.
 Cream | Products 925

Further Reading Goff HD (2007) Structure-engineering of ice-cream and foam-based

foods. In: McClements DJ (ed.) Understanding and Controlling the
Anderson M and Brooker BE (1988) Dairy foams. In: Dickinson E and Microstructure of Complex Foods. Cambridge: Woodhead.
Stainsby G (eds.) Advances in Food Emulsions and Foams, Hoffmann W and Buchheim W (2006) Significance of milk fat in
pp. 221–256. London: Elsevier Applied Science. cream products. In: Fox PF and McSweeney PLH (eds.)
Banks W and Muir DD (1988) Stability of alcohol-containing emulsions. Advanced Dairy Chemistry, Vol. 2: Lipids, 3rd edn.,
In: Dickinson E and Stainsby G (eds.) Advances in Food Emulsions pp. 365–374. New York: Springer.
and Foams, pp. 257–283. London: Elsevier Applied Science. IDF (1988) Fermented milks: Science and technology. International Dairy
Buchheim W (1986) Ultrastructural aspects and physico-chemical Federation Bulletin No. 227. Brussels: IDF.
properties of UHT-treated coffee cream. Food Microstructure IDF (1992) Monograph on the pasteurization of cream. International
5: 181–192. Dairy Federation Bulletin No. 271. Brussels: IDF.
Buchheim W (1991) Mikrostruktur von aufschlagbaren Emulsionen. IDF (1996) UHT cream. International Dairy Federation Bulletin No. 315.
Kieler Milchwirtschaftliche Forschungsberichte 43: 247–272. Brussels: IDF.
Codex Alimentarius Commission (2003) Codex standard for cream and Kessler HG (2002) Food and Bio Processing – Dairy Technology.,
prepared creams. CODEX STAN A-9-1976 Rev. 1-2003. Rome: Munich: A. Kessler. pp. 385–424.
FAO; WHO. Smiddy MA, Kelly AL, and Huppertz T (2009) Cream and related
Dickinson E, Narhan SK, and Stainsby G (1989) Stability of products. In: Tamime AY (ed.) Dairy Fats and Related products,
alcohol-containing emulsions in relation to neck-plug formation in pp. 61–85. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
commercial cream liqueurs. Food Hydrocolloids 3: 85–100. Van Aken GA (2001) Aeration of emulsions by whipping. Colloids and
Early R (1998) Liquid milk and cream. In: Early R (ed.) The Technology of Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 190: 333–354.
Dairy Products, 2nd edn., pp. 1–49. London: Blackie Academic & Walstra P, Wouters JTM, and Geurts TJ (2006) Dairy Science and
Professional. Technology, 2nd edn., pp. 447–466. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.