QUADRILA

Rebecca McGraw

498 MATHEMATICS TEACHER | Vol. 110, No. 7 • March 2017

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 Students investigate geometric
relationships using such strategies
as dissecting-and-rearranging.

T
he task I share here provides geometry taxes. A method used by the ancient Egyptians
students with opportunities to recall and and Mesopotamians to estimate the area of a
use basic geometry vocabulary, extend four-sided plot of land was to measure each of
their knowledge of area relationships, the four sides, find the average lengths of the
and create area formulas. It is character- opposite sides, and then multiply the averages.
ized by reasoning and sense making (NCTM 2009) Ancient peoples often thought of area in terms
and the “Construct viable arguments and critique of the boundaries of shapes. One advantage of
the reasoning of others” Mathematical Practice this method is that all of the needed measure-
from CCSSI (2010). ments can be taken without walking across
Geometry students should engage in rich the land itself; however, for many shapes, the
mathematical tasks that help them develop sense- method of averaging opposite sides overesti-
making and problem-solving skills while building mates the area of the shape.
knowledge of geometry concepts and vocabulary
(Principles and Standards for School Mathematics For which shapes would the ancient method pro-
[NCTM 2000]; Common Core State Standards for duce accurate area measurements? Students will
Mathematics [CCSSI 2010]). Characteristics of rich discover that the method works only for squares
tasks include multiple entry points, connections and rectangles. Even if time is not spent investigat-
across representations and mathematical concepts, ing the ancient method, it is still useful to share this
multiple solution paths, and interesting and per- connection to the real world with students before
haps surprising results that illuminate important continuing to present the task in the following way:
mathematical ideas.
What if we assume that we can walk across
THE DIAGONAL AND AREA TASK the land, perhaps diagonally from one corner
The following description of how people in ancient to the opposite corner? Can we come up with
civilizations determined the areas of a plot of land a more accurate way to measure the area of
offers one way to introduce the task by making a four-sided shapes? Today, we will explore
connection to real life. (The mathematical method the following statement and question: “Some-
VLAD ARSENIEV/THINKSTOCK

described can be found in Crawford [1971]; see also times, if I know the lengths of the diagonals
Robson [2008].) of a quadrilateral, then I can find its area. Is
this statement true or false?”
Determining area has been a real-life problem
for humankind since ancient times. Finding The goal at this stage is to agree on what is being
the area of a field is important for planting asked and to clarify the meaning of the term diago-

ATERALS:
crops, estimating harvests, and determining nal. Allow students to think about the statement

DIAGONALS AND AREA Vol. 110, No. 7 • March 2017 | MATHEMATICS TEACHER 499
 for a few minutes and then select students to share of the task, each group will have investigated two
their thoughts. Students typically ask questions to four different quadrilaterals, including at least
such as these: “What counts as a diagonal?” “What one for which it is possible to determine the area
kind of quadrilateral?” and “Do we know the side and one for which it is not. It is not necessary that
lengths, too?” According to the given statement, students work through the shapes in a particular
the quadrilateral could be any size or shape and the order. Plan at least 45 minutes for student investi-
side lengths are not known, although it may be pos- gation in small groups.
sible to find the lengths based on the lengths of the Students will need to revisit the definitions of
diagonals. Next, ask students what tools they might terms such as rhombus, isosceles trapezoid, and kite.
use to investigate the statement. Protractors and Rather than front-loading vocabulary practice,
rulers are all that is needed, although software such teachers can create opportunities for practice within
as GeoGebra could be used. the mathematical task by encouraging students to
Working in groups, students should investigate look up definitions as needed and by attaching new
the problem for various quadrilaterals: squares, vocabulary (e.g., mutually bisecting) to student think-
rectangles, rhombuses, kites, and so on. By the end ing. Students will need to be able to calculate the
area of a rectangle with specified length and width.

Squares
Drawing a square and its diagonals, students
quickly conclude that the diagonals are cut in half
where they cross and that the diagonals cross at 90°
angles to each other. Students can create arguments
for these conclusions by proving that the diagonals
cut the square into four congruent 45°-45°-90° tri-
angles. At this stage, students may decide to use a
dissect-and-rearrange method to organize the pieces
of the square so that the diagonals become side
lengths of a rectangle whose area is half the product
of the diagonal lengths (see fig. 1).
Alternatively, students could use the Pythagorean
Fig. 1 If I know the lengths of the diagonals of a square, then I can always find the theorem to determine the side lengths of the square
area of the square: Area = d1d2/2. for a given length diagonal, and then multiply to
find the square’s area. In either case, students dis-
cover that, for squares, it is possible to determine
area based upon the lengths of the diagonals.

Rectangles
Students initially may spend time attempting to
determine the rectangle’s side lengths based on a
particular diagonal length, which is a useful struggle
for them to experience. Students’ work provides con-
crete examples of varying areas that can be shared
with the class. Ask each group member to draw,
without looking at other group members’ work, a
rectangle with 10 cm diagonals. Provide scaffolding,
if needed, by suggesting that students draw one 10
cm segment and then draw a right triangle using the
segment as the hypotenuse. The triangle formed will
be half of the rectangle. Asking students to deter-
mine the rectangles’ areas by measuring the side
lengths and multiplying ensures that students realize
that different areas are possible.
Students are often surprised that it is possible
to draw noncongruent rectangles that have equal-
length diagonals (as shown in fig. 2); they may
Fig. 2 Noncongruent rectangles may have equal-length believe that the resulting rectangles have equal area
diagonals. or that the diagonals must not be the same length.

500 MATHEMATICS TEACHER | Vol. 110, No. 7 • March 2017

 Alternatively, students can use the dissect-and-
Fig. 3 If I know the lengths of the diagonals of a rectangle, rearrange method to transform the rectangles into
then I cannot always find the area of the rectangle. nonrectangular parallelograms, each with base d
(see fig. 3). The parallelograms have the same base,
but vary in height and thus in area.

Rhombuses
Unnecessary frustration can lead to fewer oppor-
tunities for students to engage with an otherwise
rich task. After giving students some initial time
for investigation, the teacher might choose to pro-
vide scaffolding for creating accurate drawings. For
example, a rhombus can be constructed quickly
with compass and straightedge or by drawing an
isosceles triangle and then reflecting the triangle
across its base (see fig. 4). Another method for
differentiating instruction would be to provide stu-
dents with predrawn shapes.
Comparing diagonals across differently shaped
rhombuses, students discover that the diagonals of
the rhombus are perpendicular to each other and
are mutually bisecting.

Camila: The lines cross in the middle.

Brooke: Uh huh. And they make a 90.
Fig. 4 Giving instruction about how to create a rhombus Camila: We can make four triangles. They are all
or providing predrawn shapes may help struggling students the same.
avoid unproductive frustration. Brooke: We can just find the areas and add it up.

It is important at this stage to push for justifica-

tion. Not only do students need experience formulat-
Lucas: I think the diagonals are longer in yours. ing arguments for their conclusions, but they also
[points at a long skinny rectangle] need to come to believe that logical argument is at
TEERAWATWINYARAT/THINKSTOCK

Angelica: No, they have to be the same; we the heart of mathematics. A justification could be
measured. similar to this:
Lucas: But your rectangle is longer.
Gerardo: All the rectangles look different. The The two isosceles triangles that form the
diagonals are the same, though. rhombus are congruent (reflection preserves
Angelica: The area? I don’t know. distance), so the diagonal AA′ must be split

Vol. 110, No. 7 • March 2017 | MATHEMATICS TEACHER 501

 in half by the reflection line. This is also true
d1
if the other diagonal is used as the reflection
line, so the diagonals cut each other into equal
1
2 d2 length pieces.

Once the diagonals have been shown to be per-

pendicular and mutually bisecting, students can use
this information to develop a method of finding
the area of a rhombus based on the lengths of the
(a) diagonals. They might use the dissect-and-rearrange
method (fig. 5a) or work directly with a rhombus
without rearranging the triangles (fig. 5b).
1 A third method that students might use to find a
2 d2 formula for the area of a rhombus is surrounding-
and-subtracting. Because its diagonals are perpen-
1
dicular, a rhombus can be surrounded by a rectangle
2 d1
(fig. 5c). The area of the rectangle is the product of
the diagonals, and the area of the rhombus is one-
half that of the rectangle.
Diagonal lengths d1 and d2 Whichever method is used, students discover that
Triangle area = (1/2)(d1/2)(d2/2) = d1d2/8 the area of a rhombus is the product of the diagonals
Rhombus area = 4(d1d2/8) = d1d2/2 divided by two. Because every square is a rhombus,
(b) the formula for a rhombus also applies to squares.

Parallelograms and Trapezoids

d1
Investigations of parallelogram and trapezoids (isos-
celes and nonisosceles) follow the same process as
the investigation of a rectangle. For example, the
diagonals of a parallelogram are mutually bisecting,
d2
but the angle formed by the diagonals can vary; thus,
the area can vary as well. Giving specific instruc-
tions to students or using predrawn shapes work
well; for example, students could be instructed to
(c) create two parallelograms, one with sides 8 cm and
10 cm and an included angle of 125° and one with
Fig. 5 If I know the lengths of the diagonals of a rhom- sides 12 cm and 4.5 cm and an included angle of
bus, then I can always find the area of the rhombus: 148° (see fig. 6). These parallelograms, with diago-
Area = d1d2/2. nals of equal length, will have different areas.

Kites
Students’ intuition accompanied by careful drawings
can lead them to conjecture that the diagonals of a
kite are perpendicular and that one diagonal bisects
the other. An argument proving this conjecture can
be developed using triangle congruence and proper-
ties of reflections. In figure 7, triangles ABD and
CBD are congruent (side-side-side), so BD is a sym-
metry line of the kite and also the perpendicular
bisector of segment AC.
Thinking of the area of the kite as composed
of four right triangles, students can then use the
dissect-and-rearrange method or the surround-and-
subtract method, or define variables (fig. 7) to deter-
mine a formula for the area of a kite in terms of its
Fig. 6 If I know the lengths of the diagonals of a par- diagonals. Students can then consider whether their
allelogram, then I cannot always find the area of the reasoning and conclusions also hold for nonconvex
parallelogram. kites, or darts.

502 MATHEMATICS TEACHER | Vol. 110, No. 7 • March 2017

GENERALIZATION AND WHOLE-
CLASS DISCUSSION
Once each group of students has thoroughly inves- d1 = AC = 2x
tigated at least two shapes (one for which an area
d2 = BD = y + z
formula can be derived and one for which it can-
not), allot at least thirty minutes for whole-class 1 1 1 1
Areakite = xz + xz + xy + xy
discussion to share findings and generalize across 2 2 2 2
shapes. When the diagonals are perpendicular, we = xz + xy
can always find the area of the shape. When the = x(z + y)
diagonals are not necessarily perpendicular, we 1
cannot always find the area of the shape. The over- = d1 i d2
2
arching generalization that the class can arrive at
by the end of the discussion is this:
Fig. 7 If I know the lengths of the diagonals of a kite, then I can always find the area
In addition to diagonal lengths, the angle of the kite: Area = d1d2/2.
formed by the diagonals of a quadrilateral
must be known in order to determine area. usefulness of whole-class discussion is reinforced.
One way to begin the discussion is to describe the
Prior to whole-class discussion, give students goals, namely, to create a class summary of the
time in their groups to write down what they have discoveries made in each group, to decide if math-
found and any remaining questions they have. ematical generalizations can be made based on the
When students discover that other groups may work of all of the groups, to communicate think-
have answers to their remaining questions, = AC
d1the = BD
d 2 and
ing, to consider one another’s ideas.

d1 = AC d 2 = BD
d1 = AC d 2 = BD

1
area( ABCD ) = area(ABC ) + area(ADC ) area( ABCD ) = area( EFGH )
2
1 1 11
= (x + w )• y + (x + w )• z
area( ABCD ) =2area(ABC ) +2area(ADC ) area( ABCD )==2 AC area• (BD
EFGH )
2
11 11
area( ABCD )===area ( x( x+
( z1)( x(+ADC
w) •) •( y)y+++area
+wABC w ) • z) area( ABCD )== 1daread 2 (•EFGH
=22 1AC BD
)
22 2 2
11 ( x + w ) • y + 1 ( x + w ) • z 1
=== 21AC • BD
( x + w ) • ( y +2z ) = 1AC • BD
= 2 d1d 2
22 2
1
11( x + w ) • ( y + z ) 1
=
== 2d1AC d • BD = dd
2 1 2
22 2
1
= 1AC • BD
= 2 d d2
Fig. 8 Multiple strategies can2be1 used to find an area formula for an irregular quadrilateral with perpendicular diagonals.
1
= d1d 2
2 Vol. 110, No. 7 • March 2017 | MATHEMATICS TEACHER 503
 and (2) the identity sin = sin (180 – ) for a given
value in degrees—allows additional extension.
With this information, students can find a formula
for the area of a triangle in terms of two sides and
the sine of the included angle. They can then use
this formula to find a formula for the area of any
quadrilateral in terms of the lengths of the diago-
nals and the angle formed by the diagonals (fig. 9).
When the diagonals are perpendicular, the included
angle measures 90 , and the more general area for-
mula reduces to (1/2)d1d2.
For any convex quadrilateral, divided into four triangles, with
A SETTING FOR ACTIVE PARTICIPATION
d1 = x + w, d2 = y + z, Geometry students need rich, engaging tasks that
A1 = (1/2) xz sin , build knowledge while allowing for review of
A2 = (1/2) xy sin(180 – ) = (1/2) xy sin( ), vocabulary, measurement, and shape relationships.
A3 = (1/2) yw sin , The quadrilateral diagonal task provides opportuni-
A4 = (1/2) wz sin(180 – ) = (1/2) wz sin( ); ties for students to apply important principles and
results, such as the Pythagorean theorem or the
We find equivalence of areas by dissection; solve challenging
problems; use triangle relationships and congruence
areaquad = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 conditions to justify conclusions; develop robust
= (1/2) sin (xz + xy + yw + wz) mental images of shapes by examining nonstandard
= (1/2) sin [x(z + y) + w(y + z)] representations of quadrilaterals; pose conjectures;
= (1/2) sin (x + w)(y + z) and generalize findings. In addition to these valu-
= (1/2) sin d1d2. able mathematical outcomes, I have found that this
task truly engages students and helps to set norms
Fig. 9 The area of a convex quadrilateral is determined by the lengths of its diago- and expectations including active participation in
nals and the measure of the angle formed by the diagonals. Subtraction of areas problem solving, reasoning, and communication.
would be needed for a nonconvex quadrilateral.
REFERENCES
To engage students in critically examining one Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI).
another’s claims, gather the various findings on the 2010. Common Core State Standards for Math-
whiteboard without judging their correctness with ematics. Washington, DC: National Governors
respect to the mathematics itself or the way a find- Association Center for Best Practices and the
ing is stated. Ask students to spend approximately Council of Chief State School Officers. http://
ten minutes in their groups deciding whether www.corestandards.org/wp-content/uploads/
they would agree or disagree with each statement Math_Standards.pdf
and why. Students might also consider whether Crawford, Dorothy J. 1971. Kerkeosiris: An Egyptian
they think a statement would benefit from being Village in the Ptolemaic Period. London: Cambridge
reworded in some way. University Press.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
EXTENSIONS BASED ON PERPENDICULAR (NCTM). 2000. Principles and Standards for School
DIAGONALS AND TRIGONOMETRY Mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM.
The discussion can be extended with these ques- ———. 2009. Focus in High School Mathematics:
tions: “Is it possible for a quadrilateral to have per- Reasoning and Sense Making. Reston, VA: NCTM.
pendicular diagonals and not be a kite? If so, can I Robson, Eleanor. 2008. Mathematics in Ancient Iraq:
find its area based only on the lengths of the diago- A Social History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
nals?” Students can draw a pair of perpendicular University Press.
diagonals in such a way as to create an irregular
quadrilateral and, based on their previous work,
attempt to find an area formula. Two methods for REBECCA MCGRAW, rmcgraw@math
determining the area are shown in figure 8. .arizona.edu, is a faculty member in the
Some knowledge of trigonometry—specifically, Department of Mathematics at the
(1) the definition of the sine of an acute angle in University of Arizona. She teaches
a right triangle as the ratio of the length of the side mathematics and education courses and conducts
opposite the angle and the length of the hypotenuse, research on the teaching and learning of mathematics.

504 MATHEMATICS TEACHER | Vol. 110, No. 7 • March 2017