What Were The Crusades?: Byzantine Empire Roman Empire

The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and
Muslims started primarily to secure control of holy sites considered

sacred by both groups. In all, eight major Crusade expeditions
occurred between 1096 and 1291. The bloody, violent and often
ruthless conflicts propelled the status of European Christians, making
them major players in the fight for land in the Middle East.
What Were the Crusades?

By the end of the 11th century, Western Europe had emerged as a
significant power in its own right, though it still lagged behind other
Mediterranean civilizations, such as that of the Byzantine
Empire (formerly the eastern half of the Roman Empire) and the
Islamic Empire of the Middle East and North Africa.
However, Byzantium had lost considerable territory to the invading

Seljuk Turks. After years of chaos and civil war, the general Alexius
Comnenus seized the Byzantine throne in 1081 and consolidated
control over the remaining empire as Emperor Alexius I.
In 1095, Alexius sent envoys to Pope Urban II asking for mercenary

troops from the West to help confront the Turkish threat. Though
relations between Christians in the East and West had long been
fractious, Alexius’s request came at a time when the situation was
improving.
In November 1095, at the Council of Clermont in southern France, the

Pope called on Western Christians to take up arms to aid the
Byzantines and recapture the Holy Land from Muslim control. This
marked the beginning of the Crusades.
Pope Urban’s plea was met with a tremendous response, both among
the military elite as well as ordinary citizens. Those who joined the
armed pilgrimage wore a cross as a symbol of the Church.
The Crusades set the stage for several religious knightly military
orders, including the Knights Templar, the Teutonic Knights, and the
Hospitallers. These groups defended the Holy Land and protected
pilgrims traveling to and from the region.
Did you know? In a popular movement known as the Children's Crusade (1212), a motley
crew including children, adolescents, women, the elderly and the poor marched all the way
from the Rhineland to Italy behind a young man named Nicholas, who said he had received
divine instruction to march toward the Holy Land.
First Crusade (1096-99)

Four armies of Crusaders were formed from troops of different
Western European regions, led by Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Godfrey of
Bouillon, Hugh of Vermandois and Bohemond of Taranto (with his
nephew Tancred). These groups departed for Byzantium in August
1096.
A less organized band of knights and commoners known as the

“People’s Crusade” set off before the others under the command of a
popular preacher known as Peter the Hermit.
Ignoring Alexius’ advice to wait for the rest of the Crusaders, Peter’s
army crossed the Bosporus in early August. In the first major clash
between the Crusaders and Muslims, Turkish forces crushed the
invading Europeans at Cibotus.
Another group of Crusaders, led by the notorious Count Emicho,

carried out a series of massacres of Jews in various towns in the
Rhineland in 1096, drawing widespread outrage and causing a major
crisis in Jewish-Christian relations.
When the four main armies of Crusaders arrived in Constantinople,

Alexius insisted that their leaders swear an oath of loyalty to him and
recognize his authority over any land regained from the Turks, as well
as any other territory they might conquer. All but Bohemond resisted
taking the oath.
In May 1097, the Crusaders and their Byzantine allies attacked Nicea
(now Iznik, Turkey), the Seljuk capital in Anatolia. The city surrendered
in late June.
The Fall of Jerusalem

Despite deteriorating relations between the Crusaders and Byzantine
leaders, the combined force continued its march through Anatolia,
capturing the great Syrian city of Antioch in June 1098.
After various internal struggles over control of Antioch, the Crusaders
began their march toward Jerusalem, then occupied by Egyptian
Fatimids (who as Shi’ite Muslims were enemies of the Sunni Seljuks).
Encamping before Jerusalem in June 1099, the Christians forced the

besieged city’s governor to surrender by mid-July.
Despite Tancred’s promise of protection, the Crusaders slaughtered

hundreds of men, women, and children in their victorious entrance into
Jerusalem.
Second Crusade (1147-49)

Having achieved their goal in an unexpectedly short period of time
after the First Crusade, many of the Crusaders departed for home. To
govern the conquered territory, those who remained established four
large western settlements, or Crusader states, in Jerusalem, Edessa,
Antioch and Tripoli.
Guarded by formidable castles, the Crusader states retained the upper

hand in the region until around 1130, when Muslim forces began
gaining ground in their own holy war (or jihad) against the Christians,
whom they called “Franks.”
In 1144, the Seljuk general Zangi, governor of Mosul, captured

Edessa, leading to the loss of the northernmost Crusader state.
News of Edessa’s fall stunned Europe and caused Christian

authorities in the West to call for another Crusade. Led by two great
rulers, King Louis VII of France and King Conrad III of Germany, the
Second Crusade began in 1147.
That October, the Turks annihilated Conrad’s forces at Dorylaeum, the

site of a great Christian victory during the First Crusade.
After Louis and Conrad managed to assemble their armies at

Jerusalem, they decided to attack the Syrian stronghold of Damascus
with an army of some 50,000 (the largest Crusader force yet).
Damascus’ ruler was forced to call on Nur al-Din, Zangi’s successor in
Mosul, for aid. The combined Muslim forces dealt a humiliating defeat
to the Crusaders, decisively ending the Second Crusade.
Nur al-Din added Damascus to his expanding empire in 1154.
Third Crusade (1187-92)

After numerous attempts by the Crusaders of Jerusalem to capture
Egypt, Nur al-Din’s forces (led by the general Shirkuh and his
nephew, Saladin) seized Cairo in 1169 and forced the Crusader army
to evacuate.
Upon Shirkuh’s subsequent death, Saladin assumed control and

began a campaign of conquests that accelerated after Nur al-Din’s
death in 1174.
In 1187, Saladin began a major campaign against the Crusader

Kingdom of Jerusalem. His troops virtually destroyed the Christian
army at the battle of Hattin, taking back the important city along with a
large amount of territory.
Outrage over these defeats inspired the Third Crusade, led by rulers
such as the aging Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (who was drowned
at Anatolia before his entire army reached Syria), King Philip II of
France, and King Richard I of England (known as Richard the
Lionheart).
In September 1191, Richard’s forces defeated those of Saladin in the

battle of Arsuf, which would be the only true battle of the Third
Crusade.
From the recaptured city of Jaffa, Richard reestablished Christian

control over some of the region and approached Jerusalem, though he
refused to lay siege to the city.
In September 1192, Richard and Saladin signed a peace treaty that

reestablished the Kingdom of Jerusalem (though without the city of
Jerusalem) and ended the Third Crusade.
Fourth Crusade: The Fall of
Constantinople
Though Pope Innocent III called for a new Crusade in 1198, power
struggles within and between Europe and Byzantium drove the
Crusaders to divert their mission in order to topple the reigning
Byzantine emperor, Alexius III, in favor of his nephew, who became
Alexius IV in mid-1203.
The new emperor’s attempts to submit the Byzantine church to Rome

was met with stiff resistance, and Alexius IV was strangled after a
palace coup in early 1204.
In response, the Crusaders declared war on Constantinople, and the

Fourth Crusade ended with the devastating Fall of Constantinople,
marked by a bloody conquest, looting and near-destruction of the
magnificent Byzantine capital later that year.
Final Crusades (1208-1271)

Throughout the remainder of the 13th century, a variety of Crusades
aimed not so much to topple Muslim forces in the Holy Land but to
combat any and all of those seen as enemies of the Christian faith.
The Albigensian Crusade (1208-29) aimed to root out the heretical

Cathari or Albigensian sect of Christianity in France, while the Baltic
Crusades (1211-25) sought to subdue pagans in Transylvania.
A so-called Children’s Crusade took place in 1212 when thousands of

young children vowed to march to Jerusalem. Although it was called
the Children’s Crusade, most historians don’t regard it as an actual
crusade, and many experts question whether the group was really
comprised of children. The movement never reached the Holy Land.
In the Fifth Crusade, put in motion by Pope Innocent III before his
death in 1216, the Crusaders attacked Egypt from both land and sea
but were forced to surrender to Muslim defenders led by Saladin’s
nephew, Al-Malik al-Kamil, in 1221.
In 1229, in what became known as the Sixth Crusade,
Emperor Frederick II achieved the peaceful transfer of Jerusalem to
Crusader control through negotiation with al-Kamil. The peace treaty
expired a decade later, and Muslims easily regained control of
Jerusalem.
From 1248 to 1254, Louis IX of France organized a crusade against

Egypt. This battle, known as the Seventh Crusade, was a failure for
Louis.
The Mamluks
As the Crusaders struggled, a new dynasty, known as the Mamluks,
descended from former slaves of the Islamic Empire, took power in
Egypt. In 1260, Mamluk forces in Palestine managed to halt the
advance of the Mongols, an invading force led by Genghis Khan and
his descendants, which had emerged as a potential ally for the
Christians in the region.
Under the ruthless Sultan Baybars, the Mamluks demolished Antioch

in 1268. In response, Louis organized the Eighth Crusade in 1270. The
initial goal was to aid the remaining Crusader states in Syria, but the
mission was redirected to Tunis, where Louis died.
Edward I of England took on another expedition in 1271. This battle,

which is often grouped with the Eighth Crusade but is sometimes
referred to as the Ninth Crusade, accomplished very little and was
considered the last significant crusade to the Holy Land.
The Crusades End

In 1291, one of the only remaining Crusader cities, Acre, fell to the
Muslim Mamluks. Many historians believe this defeat marked the end
of the Crusader States and the Crusades themselves.
Though the Church organized minor Crusades with limited goals after
1291—mainly military campaigns aimed at pushing Muslims from
conquered territory, or conquering pagan regions—support for such
efforts diminished in the 16th century, with the rise of the Reformation
and the corresponding decline of papal authority.
Effects of the Crusades
While the Crusades ultimately resulted in defeat for Europeans, many
argue that they successfully extended the reach of Christianity and
Western civilization. The Roman Catholic Church experienced an
increase in wealth, and the power of the Pope was elevated after the
Crusades ended.
Trade and transportation also improved throughout Europe as a result

of the Crusades. The wars created a constant demand for supplies
and transportation, which resulted in ship-building and the
manufacturing of various supplies.
After the Crusades, there was a heightened interest in travel and

learning throughout Europe, which some historians believe may have
paved the way for the Renaissance.
Among followers of Islam, however, the Crusaders were regarded as

immoral, bloody and savage. The ruthless and widespread massacre
of Muslims, Jews and other non-Christians resulted in bitter
resentment that persisted for many years. Even today, some Muslims
derisively refer to the West’s involvement in the Middle East as a
“crusade.”
There’s no question that the years of bloody conflict brought by the

Crusades had an impact on Middle East and Western European
nations for many years, and still influence political and cultural views
and opinions held today.
Sources:
Timeline for the Crusades and Christian Holy War to c.1350: United
States Naval Academy.
The Crusades: A Complete History: History Today.
The Crusades: LordsAndLadies.org.
Crusades: New Advent.
What Were the Crusades and How Did They Impact Jerusalem?: Bible
History Daily.

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The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and

Muslims started primarily to secure control of holy sites considered

What Were the Crusades?

However, Byzantium had lost considerable territory to the invading

In 1095, Alexius sent envoys to Pope Urban II asking for mercenary

In November 1095, at the Council of Clermont in southern France, the

First Crusade (1096-99)

A less organized band of knights and commoners known as the

Another group of Crusaders, led by the notorious Count Emicho,

When the four main armies of Crusaders arrived in Constantinople,

The Fall of Jerusalem

Encamping before Jerusalem in June 1099, the Christians forced the

Despite Tancred’s promise of protection, the Crusaders slaughtered

Second Crusade (1147-49)

Guarded by formidable castles, the Crusader states retained the upper

In 1144, the Seljuk general Zangi, governor of Mosul, captured

News of Edessa’s fall stunned Europe and caused Christian

That October, the Turks annihilated Conrad’s forces at Dorylaeum, the

After Louis and Conrad managed to assemble their armies at

Nur al-Din added Damascus to his expanding empire in 1154.

Third Crusade (1187-92)

Upon Shirkuh’s subsequent death, Saladin assumed control and

In 1187, Saladin began a major campaign against the Crusader

In September 1191, Richard’s forces defeated those of Saladin in the

From the recaptured city of Jaffa, Richard reestablished Christian

In September 1192, Richard and Saladin signed a peace treaty that

The new emperor’s attempts to submit the Byzantine church to Rome

In response, the Crusaders declared war on Constantinople, and the

Final Crusades (1208-1271)

The Albigensian Crusade (1208-29) aimed to root out the heretical

A so-called Children’s Crusade took place in 1212 when thousands of

From 1248 to 1254, Louis IX of France organized a crusade against

Under the ruthless Sultan Baybars, the Mamluks demolished Antioch

Edward I of England took on another expedition in 1271. This battle,

The Crusades End

Trade and transportation also improved throughout Europe as a result

After the Crusades, there was a heightened interest in travel and

Among followers of Islam, however, the Crusaders were regarded as

There’s no question that the years of bloody conflict brought by the

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