Chapter 12 Mechanism of Reaction: Aldol Condensation
Chapter 12 Mechanism of Reaction: Aldol Condensation
Chapter 12 Mechanism of Reaction: Aldol Condensation
MECHANISM OF REACTION
ALDOL CONDENSATION:
An aldol condensation is an organic reaction in which an enol or
an enolate ion reacts with a carbonyl compound to form a β‐
hydroxyaldehyde or β‐hydroxyketone, followed by a dehydration to give a
conjugated enone.
Aldol condensations are important in organic synthesis,
providing a good way to form carbon–carbon bonds.
The Robinson annulation reaction sequence features an aldol
condensation; theWieland‐Miescher ketone product is an
important starting material for many organic syntheses. Aldol
condensations are also commonly discussed in university
level organic chemistry classes as a good bond‐forming reaction
that demonstrates important reaction mechanisms. In its usual
form, it involves the nucleophilic addition of a ketone enolate to
an aldehyde to form a β‐hydroxy ketone, or "aldol" (aldehyde +
alcohol), a structural unit found in many naturally occurring
molecules and pharmaceuticals.
The name aldol condensation is also commonly used, especially
in biochemistry, to refer to the aldol reaction itself, as catalyzed
by aldolases. However, the aldol reaction is not formally a
condensation reaction because it does not involve the loss of a
small molecule.
The reactions between a ketone and a carbonyl compound
lacking an alpha‐Hydrogen(Cross Aldol condensation) is
called Claisen‐Schmidt condensation.
These reactions are named after two of its pioneering
investigators Rainer Ludwig Claisen and J. G. Schmidt, who
independently published on this topic in 1880 and 1881. An
example is the synthesis of dibenzylideneacetone.
MECHANISM:
The first part of this reaction is an aldol reaction, the second part
a dehydration—an elimination reaction. Dehydration may be
accompanied by decarboxylation when an activated carboxyl
group is present.
The aldol addition product can be dehydrated via two
mechanisms; a strong base like potassium t‐butoxide, potassium
hydroxide or sodium hydride in an enolate mechanism, or in an
acid‐catalyzed enol mechanism.
:
TYPES OF CONDENSATIONS
It is important to distinguish the aldol condensation from
other addition reactions to carbonyl compounds.
¾ When the base is an amine and the active hydrogen
compound is sufficiently activated the reaction is called
a Knoevenagel condensation.
¾ In a Perkin reaction the aldehyde is aromatic and the enolate
generated from an anhydride.
¾ A Claisen condensation involves two ester compounds.
¾ A Dieckmann condensation involves two ester groups in
the same molecule and yields a cyclic molecule
¾ A Henry reaction involves an aldehyde and an aliphatic nitro
compound.
¾ A Robinson annulation involves a α,β‐unsaturated ketone and
a carbonyl group, which first engage in a Michael
reaction prior to the aldol condensation.
¾ In the Guerbet reaction, an aldehyde, formed in situ from an
alcohol, self‐condenses to the dimerized alcohol.
¾ In the Japp‐Maitland condensation water is removed not by
an elimination reaction but by a nucleophilic displacement
CLAISEN CONDENSATION
The Claisen condensation (not to be confused with the Claisen
rearrangement) is a carbon–carbon bond forming reaction that
occurs between two esters or one ester and
another carbonylcompound in the presence of a strong base,
resulting in a β‐keto ester or a β‐diketone. It is named
after Rainer Ludwig Claisen, who first published his work on the
reaction in 1881.
TYPES:
The classic Claisen condensation, where only one enolizable
ester is used.
The mixed (or "crossed") Claisen condensation, where an
enolizable ester or ketone and a nonenolizable ester are used.
The Dieckmann condensation, where a molecule with two ester
groups reacts intramolecularly, forming a cyclic β‐keto ester. In
this case, the ring formed must not be strained, usually a 5‐ or 6‐
membered c.
MECHANISM
In the first step of the mechanism, an α‐proton is removed by a
strong base, resulting in the formation of an enolate anion,
which is made relatively stable by the delocalization of electrons.
¾ Next, the carbonyl carbon of the (other) ester is
nucleophilically attacked by the enolate anion.
¾ The alkoxy group is then eliminated (resulting in
(re)generation of the alkoxide), and the alkoxide removes
the newly‐formed doubly α‐proton to form a new, highly
resonance‐stabilized enolate anion.
¾ Aqueous acid (e.g. sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid) is added
in the final step to neutralizethe enolate and any base still
present.
¾ The newly‐formed β‐keto ester or β‐diketone is then
isolated. Note that the reaction requires
a stoichiometric amount of base as the removal of the
doubly α‐proton thermodynamically drives the
otherwise endergonic reaction.
¾ That is, Claisen condensation does not work
with substrates having only one α‐hydrogen because of the
driving force effect of deprotonation of the β‐keto ester in
the last step.
CANNIZZARO REACTION
The Cannizzaro reaction, named after its
discoverer Stanislao Cannizzaro, is a chemical reaction that
involves the base‐induced disproportionation of an aldehyde.
This redox disproportionation of non‐enolizable aldehydes to
carboxylic acids and alcohols is conducted in concentrated base.
α‐Keto aldehydes give the product of an intramolecular
disproportionation in excellent yields.
An interesting variant, the Crossed Cannizzaro Reaction, uses
formaldehyde as reducing agent.
Application:
The reaction is limited to aldehydes lacking alpha hydrogen
centers. Under ideal conditions the reaction produces only 50%
of the alcohol and the carboxylic acid. The latter is obtained only
after acidification of the highly basic reaction mixture, typically
30% base.[5] To avoid the low yields, it is more common to
conduct the crossed Cannizzaro reaction with a sacrificial
aldehyde. In this variation, the reductant is formaldehyde, which
is oxidized to sodium formate and the corresponding alcohol is
obtained in a high yield, although the atom economy is still low.
A solvent‐free reaction has been reported involving grinding
liquid 2‐chlorobenzaldehyde with potassium hydroxide in
a mortar and
pestle.
CROSSED ALDOL CONDENSATION
Crossed aldol condensation is a variation of aldol condensation.
example:
Mechanism
Step 1: The hydroxide ion deprotonates the enolizable
aldehyde reversibly.
Step 2: Enolate ion 1 preferentially adds to the non‐enolizable
aldehyde, which has the sterically less hindered and, therefore,
more accessible carbonyl carbon.
Step 3: Alkoxide ion 2 is protonated by water.
Step 4: Aldol 3 is an enolizable aldehyde. A small amount of it is
converted to the corresponding enolate ion (4) by the hydroxide
ion.
Step 5: Enolate ion 4 loses a hydroxide ion.
Step 1 through 3 are a crossed aldol reaction, steps 4 and 5 a 1,2‐
elimination via E1cB mechanism. Thus, crossed aldol
condensation is crossed aldol reaction followed by 1,2‐
elimination.
Crossed cannizzaro reaction:
When a mixture of formaldehyde and a non enolizable aldehyde
is treated with a strong base, the later is preferentially reduced
to alcohol while formaldehyde is oxidized to formic acid. This
variant is known as crossed Cannizzaro reaction.
E.g. Benzyl alcohol and formic acid are obtained when a
mixture of benzaldehyde and formaldehyde is treated with
alkali.
The reason may be the initial nucleophilic addition of
hydroxide anion is faster on formaldehyde as there are no
electron donating groups on it.
The preferential oxidation of formaldehyde in crossed
Cannizzaro reactions may be utilized in the quantitative
reduction of some aldehydes.
5) α‐keto aldehydes can be converted to α‐hydroxy carboxylic
acids by an intermolecular Cannizzaro reaction.
E.g. Phenylglyoxal undergoes intramolecular cannizzaro reaction
by giving Mandelic acid (α‐hydroxyphenylacetic acid or 2‐
Hydroxy‐2‐phenylethanoic acid)
6) Phthalaldehyde can undergo intramolecular Cannizzaro
reaction by giving (o‐hydroxymethyl) benzoic acid.
BENZOIN CONDENSATION
The Benzoin Condensation is a coupling reaction between two
aldehydes that allows the preparation of α‐hydroxyketones. The
first methods were only suitable for the conversion of aromatic
aldehydes.
Mechanism of Benzoin Condensation
Addition of the cyanide ion to create a cyanohydrin effects an
umpolung of the normal carbonyl charge affinity, and the
electrophilic aldehyde carbon becomes nucleophilic after
deprotonation: A thiazolium salt may also be used as the catalyst
in this reaction .
A strong base is now able to deprotonate at the former carbonyl
C‐atom:
A second equivalent of aldehyde reacts with this carbanion;
elimination of the catalyst regenerates the carbonyl compound
at the end of the reaction:
PERKIN CONDENSATION
The Perkin reaction is an organic reaction developed by William
Henry Perkin that can be used to make cinnamic acids i.e. α‐β‐
unsaturated aromatic acid by the aldol
condensation of aromatic aldehydes and acid anhydrides in the
presence of an alkali salt of the acid.
Several reviews have been written. The reaction of phenylacetic
acid and benzaldehyde with triethylamine and acetic
anhydride to alpha‐phenylcinnamic acid is an example of this
reaction type.
Reaction mechanism
The above mechanism is not universally accepted, as several
other versions exist, including decarboxylation without acetic
group transfer
Knoevenagel condensation
The Knoevenagel condensation reaction is an organic
reaction named after Emil Knoevenagel. It is a modification of
the aldol condensation.
A Knoevenagel condensation is a nucleophilic addition of
an active hydrogen compound to a carbonyl group followed by
a dehydration reaction in which a molecule of water is
eliminated (hence condensation). The product is often an alpha,
beta conjugated enone.
APPLICATION
A Knoevenagel condensation is demonstrated in the reaction
of 2‐methoxybenzaldehyde 1 with the barbituric
acid 2 in ethanol using piperidine as a base. The resulting
enone 3 is a charge transfer complex molecule.
The Knoevenagel condensation is a key step in the commercial
production of the antimalarial drug lumefantrine (a component
of Coartem)
The initial reaction product is a 50:50 mixture of E and Z
isomers but because both isomers equilibrate rapidly around
their common hydroxyl precursor, the more stable Z‐isomer can
eventually be obtained.
A multicomponent reaction featuring a Knoevenagel
condensation is demonstrated in this MORE
synthesis with cyclohexanone, malononitrile and 3‐amino‐1,2,4‐
triazole
REFORMATSKY REACTION
The Reformatsky reaction is an organic
reaction which condenses aldehydes (or ketones),
1, with α‐halo esters,
2, using a metallic zinc to form β‐hydroxy‐esters,
3. It was discovered by Sergey Nikolaevich Reformatsky.
Mechanism of the Reformatsky Reaction
Organozinc compounds are prepared from α‐halogenesters in
the same manner as Grignard Reagents. This reaction is possible
due to the stability of esters against organozincs. Due to the very
low basicity of zinc enolates, there is hardly any competition
from proton transfer, and the scope of carbonyl addition
partners is quite broad. In presence of ketones or aldehydes, the
organozinc compounds react as the nucleophilic partner in an
addition to give β‐hydroxy esters.
An ester‐stabilized organozinc reagent Compared to
organolithiums and organomagnesium halides (Grignard
reagents), the organozinc halide reagents used in the
Reformatsky Reaction are relatively stable, and many are
available commercially.
WITTIG REACTION
The Wittig reaction or Wittig Olefination is a chemical
reaction of an aldehyde or ketone with a triphenyl phosphonium
ylide to give an alkene and triphenylphosphine oxide.
MICHAEL ADDITION
The Michael reaction or Michael addition is the nucleophilic
addition of a carbanion or another nucleophile to an α,β‐
unsaturated carbonyl compound. It belongs to the larger class
ofconjugate additions. This is one of the most useful methods for
the mild formation of C‐C bonds.[4] Many asymmetric variants
exist.
• The reaction is the addition of an enolate of a ketone or
aldehyde to an α,β‐unsaturated carbonyl compound at the
β carbon. A newer definition, proposed by Kohler, is the
1,4‐addition of a doubly stabilized carbon nucleophile to an
α,β‐unsaturated carbonyl compound.
• Some examples of nucleophiles include beta‐
ketoesters,malonates, and beta‐cyanoesters. The resulting
product contains a highly useful 1,5‐dioxygenated pattern.
The reaction mechanism is 1 (with R an alkoxy residue) as the
nucleophile
Deprotonation of 1 by base leads to carbanion 2 stabilized by
its electron‐withdrawing groups. Structures 2a to 2c are
three resonance structures that can be drawn for this species,
two of which have enolate ions. This nucleophile reacts with
the electrophilic alkene 3 to form 4 in a conjugate addition
reaction. Proton abstraction from protonated base (or
solvent) by the enolate 4 to 5 is the final step.
The course of the reaction is dominated by orbital, rather
than electrostatic, considerations. The HOMO of
stabilized enolates has a large coefficient on the central
carbon atom while the LUMOof many alpha, beta unsaturated
carbonyl compounds has a large coefficient on the beta
carbon. Thus, both reactants can be considered soft. These
polarized frontier orbitals are of similar energy, and react
efficiently to form a new carbon‐carbon bond.
Like the aldol addition, the Michael reaction may proceed via
an enol, silyl enol ether in the Mukaiyama‐Michael addition,
or more usually, enolate nucleophile. In the latter case, the
stabilized carbonyl compound is deprotonated with a strong
base (hard enolization) or with a Lewis acid and a weak base
(soft enolization). The resulting enolate attacks the
activated olefin with 1,4‐regioselectivity, forming a carbon‐
carbon bond. This also transfers the enolate to
the electrophile. Since the electrophile is much less acidic
than the nucleophile, rapid proton transfer usually transfers
the enolate back to the nucleophile if the product is
enolizable; however, one may take advantage of the new
locus of nucleophilicity if a suitable electrophile is pendant.
Depending on the relative acidities of the nucleophile and
product, the reaction may be catalytic in base. In most cases,
the reaction is irreversible at low temperature.