Chemistry 10

CHAPTER
9 Chemical Equilibrium
Animation 9.1 : synthesis

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9. Chemical Equilibrium eLearn.Punjab
Students Learning Outcomes

Students will be able to:
• Define chemical equilibrium in terms of a reversible reaction. (Understanding);
• Write both the forward and the reverse reaction and describe the macroscopic
characteristics of each. (Applying);
• Define Law of Mass Action. (Understanding);
• Derive an expression for the equilibrium constant and its units. (Applying);
• State the necessary condition for the equilibrium and the ways that equilibrium can be
recognized. (Understanding) and
• Write the equilibrium constant expression of a reaction.
Introduction
Generally, we presume that most chemical and physical changes proceed to completion. A
complete reaction is one in which all reactants have been converted into products. However,
most chemical reactions do not go to completion because products react themselves to form
the reactants. As a result, after sometime no further change takes place. Quantities of reactants
and products remain unchanged and it seems that the reaction has stopped. In fact, these
reactions do not stop; rather they take place on both directions at equal rate and attain the
equilibrium state. Such reactions are called reversible reactions.Many examples of physical
and chemical equilibrium are found in nature.
We owe our existence to equilibrium phenomenon taking place in atmosphere. We

inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide, while plants consume carbon dioxide and
release oxygen. This natural process is responsible for the existence of life on the Earth.
Many environmental systems depend for their existence on delicate equilibrium phenomenon.
For example, concentration of gases in lake water is governed by the principles of equilibrium.
The lives of aquatic plants and animals are indirectly related to concentration of dissolved
oxygen in water.
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9.1 REVERSIBLE REACTION AND DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
In a chemical reaction, the substances that combine are called reactants and the new substances
formed are called products. For example, when H2 and O2 (reactants) combine they form H2O
(product).
Most of the reactions, in which the products do not recombine to form reactants, are called irreversible
reactions. They are supposed to complete and are represented by putting a single arrow ( )
#
between the reactants and products.
On the other hand, reactions in which the products can recombine to form reactants are called
reversible reactions. These reactions never go to completion. They are represented by a double
arrow ( m) between reactants and products. These reactions proceed in both ways, i.e., they
consist of two reactions; forward and reverse. So, a reversible reaction is one which can be
made to proceed in either direction depending upon the conditions.
3
Let us discuss a reaction between hydrogen and iodine. Because one of the reactants, iodine is
purple, while the product hydrogen iodide is colourless, proceedings of the reaction are easily
observable. On heating, hydrogen and iodine.
vapours in a closed flask, hydrogen iodide is formed. As a result, purple colour of iodine fades as
it reacts to form colourless hydrogen iodide, as shown in figure 9.1.
This reaction is called as forward reaction.

On the other hand, when only hydrogen iodide is heated in a closed flask, purple colour appears
because of formation of iodine vapours. Such as
In this case, hydrogen iodide acts as reactant and produces hydrogen and iodine vapours. This
reaction is reverse of the above. Therefore, it is called as reverse reaction.
When both of these reactions are written together as a reversible reaction, they are represented
as:
Fig. 9.1 Showing establishment of reversible reaction.
4
Let us have another example, when calcium oxide and carbon dioxide react, they produce
calcium carbonate:
On the other hand, when CaCO3 is heated in an open flask, it decomposes to form calcium oxide
and carbon dioxide. CO2 escapes out and reaction goes to completion:
In these two reactions, decomposition is reverse to combination or vice versa. When calcium
carbonate is heated in a closed flask, so that CO2 can’t escape out as shown in figure 9.2. Initially only
decomposition take place on (forward reaction), but after a while CO2 starts combining with CaO
to form CaCO3 (reverse reaction). In the beginning, forward reaction is fast and reverse reaction is
slow. But eventually, the reverse reaction speeds up and both reactions go on at the same rate. At
this stage, decomposition and combination take place at the same rate but in opposite directions,
as a result amounts of CaCO3 , CaO and CO2 do not change. It is written as
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When we think of the term equilibrium, the first word that usually comes to mind is “balance”.
However, the balance may be achieved in a variety of ways.
Thus, when the rate of the forward reaction is the same as the rate of reverse reaction, the
composition of the reaction mixture remains constant, it is called a chemical equilibrium state.
At equilibrium state there are two possibilities.
1. When reaction ceases to proceed, it is called static equilibrium. This happens mostly in
physical phenomenon. For example, a building remains standing rather than falling down
because all the forces acting on it are balanced. This is an example of static equilibrium.
2. When reaction does not stop, only the rates of forward and reverse reactions become
equal to each other but take place in opposite directions. This is called dynamic equilibrium
state. Dynamic means reaction is still continuing. At dynamic equilibrium state:
Rate of forward reaction = Rate of reverse reaction
In a reversible reaction, dynamic equilibrium is established before the completion of reaction.

It is represented graphically in figure 9.3. At initial stage, the rate of forward reaction is very
fast and reverse reaction is taking place at a negligible rate. But gradually forward reaction
slows down and reverse reaction speeds up. Eventually, both reactions attain the same rate,
it is called a dynamic equilibrium state.
Fig. 9.3 Graph showing the rate of forward and reverse reactions and establishment of of equilibrium state
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For example, in case of reaction between hydrogen and iodine vapours, some of the
molecules react with each other to give hydrogen iodide.
At the same time, some of the hydrogen iodide molecules decompose back to hydrogen
and iodine.
In the beginning, as the concentration of the reactants is higher than that of the products,
the rate of the forward reaction is faster than the reverse reaction. As the reaction proceeds,
the concentration of reactants will gradually decrease while that of product will increase,
consequently the rate of the forward reaction will go on decreasing and the reverse reaction
will go on increasing and ultimately the two rates will become equal to each other. Thus, the
equilibrium will set up and concentration of various species (H2,I2,HI) becomes constant. It
is represented as
Macroscopic characteristics of forward and reverse
Forward Reaction Reverse Reaction
1. It is a reaction in which reactants react to 1. It is a reaction in which products react to produce

form products. reactants.
2. It takes place from left to right. 2. It takes place from right to left.
3. At initial stage, the rate of forward reaction is 3. In the beginning, the rate of reverse reaction is
very fast. negligible.
4. It slows down gradually 4. It speeds up gradually.
Macroscopic characteristics of dynamic equilibrium

A few important characteristic features of dynamic equilibrium are given below:
1. An equilibrium is achievable only in a closed system (in which substances can neither
leave nor enter).
2. At equilibrium state, a reaction does not stop. Forward and reverse reactions keep on
taking place at the same rate but in opposite direction.
3. At equilibrium state, the amount (concentration) of reactants and products do not change.
Even physical properties like colour, density, etc. remain the same.
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4. An equilibrium state is attainable from either way, i.e. starting from reactants or
from products.
5. An equilibrium state can be disturbed and again achieved under the given
conditions of concentration, pressure and temperature.
1. Why reversible reactions never complete?

2. What is a static equilibrium, explain with an example.
3. Why the amounts of reactants and products do not change in a reversible
reaction.
9.2 LAW OF MASS ACTION
Guldberg and Waage in 1869 put forward this law. According to this law “The rate at which a
substance reacts is directly proportional to its active mass and the rate of a reaction is directly
proportional to the product of the active masses of the reacting substances”. Generally, an
active mass is considered as the molar concentration having units of mol dm-3, expressed as
square brackets [ ].
For example, consider a reversible reaction of the type
Suppose [A], [B], [C] and [D] are the molar concentrations (mol dm-3) of A, B, C and D
respectively.
According to the Law of Mass Action:
The rate of the forward reaction a [ A ] [ B ]
= kf [ A ] [ B ]
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Similarly,
The rate of the reverse reaction a [ C ] [ D ]
= kr [ C ] [ D ]
where kf and kr are the proportionality constant called specific rate constants of the forward
and the reverse reactions, respectively.
At equilibrium state:
The rate of forward reaction = The rate of reverse reaction
Kc is called equilibrium constant. It is represented as:
Law of Mass Action describes the relationship between active masses of the reactants and
the rate of a reaction.
Derivation of the Expression for Equilibrium Constant for General Reaction
Let us apply the law of Mass Action for a general reaction.
This reaction consists of two reactions; forward and reverse reactions. According
to this law, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the
product of the molar concentrations of its reactants raised to power equal
to their number of moles in the balanced chemical equation of the reaction.
Let us first discuss the forward reaction. A and B are the reactants whereas ‘a’ and ‘b’ are
their number of moles.
The rate of forward reaction according to law of Mass Action is:
where kf is the rate constant for the forward reaction. Similarly, the rate of the reverse reaction
Rr, is directly proportional to the product of [C]c [D]d , where ‘c’ and ‘d’ are the number of
moles as given in the; of [C]c [D]d, where ‘c’ balanced chemical equation. Thus,
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where k r is the rate constant for the reverse reaction . We know that at equilibrium state
the rates of both the reactions are equal.
The rate of forward the reaction = The rate of the reverse reaction
Such as:
Rf = Rr
and putting the values of Rf and Rr
Kf [ A ]a [ B ]b = Kr [ C ]a [ D ]b
By taking the constants on one side and the variables on other side of the equation,
the above equation becomes:
where, is called equilibrium constant.
This expression is for chemical equilibrium constant. All the reversible reactions can be
expressed in this form. Such as:
1. When nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen monoxide, the reversible reaction is as
follows
The rate of forward reaction Rf = Kf [N2] [O2]

The rate of reverse reaction Rr = Kr [NO]2
The equilibrium constant expression for this reaction is:
2. For the reaction of nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia, the balanced chemical
equation is
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For the reaction

The rate of forward reaction Rf = Kf [N2] [H2]3
The rate of reverse reaction Rr = Kr [NH3]2
The expression for the equilibrium constant for this reaction is:
1. Define the Law of Mass Action.

2. How is the active mass represented?
3. What do you mean by equilibrium constant?
4. Point out the coefficients of each in the following hypothetical
reactions:
5. Write the equilibrium constant expressions for the following

reactions:
9.3 EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT AND ITS UNITS

Equilibrium constant is a ratio of the product of concentration of products raised to the
power of coefficient to the product of concentration of reactants raised to the power of
coefficient as expressed in the balanced chemical equation.
It is conventional to write the products as numerator and reactants as denominator. By

knowing, the balanced chemical equation for a reversible reaction we can write the equilibrium
expression. Thus, we can calculate the numerical value of by putting actual equilibrium
concentrations of the reactants and products into equilibrium expression. The value of Kc
depends only on temperature, it does not depend on the initial concentrations of the reactants
and the products. A few problems have been solved to make the concept clear.
Kc has no units in reactions with equal number of moles on both sides of the equation.
This is because concentration units cancel out in the expression for Kc, e.g., for the reaction:
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For reactions in which the number of moles of reactants and product are not equal in the
balanced chemical equation, K of course, have units, e.g., for the reaction
Problem 9.1
When hydrogen reacts with iodine at 25 °C to form hydrogen iodide by a reversible
reaction as follows:
The equilibrium concentrations are:

[H2] = 0.05 mol dm-3; [I2] = 0.06 mol dm-3; and [HI] = 0.49 mol dm-3.
Calculate the equilibrium constant for this reaction.

Solution
Given equilibrium concentrations are;
[H2] = 0.05 mol dm-3; [I2] = 0.06 mol dm-3; and

[HI] = 0.49 mol dm-3.
Write the equilibrium constant expression as
Now, put the values of equilibrium concentrations in equilibrium expression:
Problem 9.2
For the formation of ammonia by Haber’s process, hydrogen and nitrogen react reversibly
at 500 °C as follows
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The equilibrium concentrations of these gases are: nitrogen 0.602 mol dm-3; hydrogen 0.420
mol dm-3 and ammonia 0.113 mol dm-3. What is value of Kc.
Solution
The equilibrium concentrations are
[N2] = 0.602 mol dm-3; [H2] = 0.420 mol dm-3; and [NH3] = 0.113 mol dm-3.
The equilibrium constant expression for this reaction is:
Now put the equilibrium concentration values in the equilibrium expression
Problem 9.3
For a reaction between PCl3 and Cl2 to form PCl5 , the equilibrium constant is 0.13 mol-1
dm3 at a particular temperature. When the equilibrium concentrations of PCI3 and CI2 are
10.0 and 9.0 mol dm-3, respectively. What is the equilibrium concentration of PCI5?
Solution
Now write the balanced chemical equation and equilibrium constant

expression
Now put the known values in above equation and rearrange
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9.4 IMPORTANCE OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT

Knowing the numerical value of equilibrium constant of a chemical reaction, direction
as well as extent of the reaction can be predicted.
1. Predicting Direction of a Reaction
Direction of a reaction at a particular moment can be predicted by inserting the
concentration of the reactants and products at that particular moment in the equilibrium
expression. Consider the gaseous reaction of hydrogen with iodine.
We withdraw the samples from the reaction mixture and determine the concentrations
of H2(g) , I2(g) and HI(g) . Suppose concentrations of the components of the mixture are:
The subscript ‘t’ with the concentration symbols means that the concentrations
are measured at some time t, not necessarily at equilibrium. When we put these
concentrations into the equilibrium constant expression, we obtain a value called the
reaction quotient Qc. The reaction quotient for this reaction is calculated as:
As the numerical value of Qc (8.0) is less than Kc (57.0), the reaction is not at equilibrium.
It requires more concentration of product. Therefore, reaction will move in the forward
direction.
The reaction quotient Qc is useful because it predicts the direction of the reaction by
comparing the value of Qc with Kc .
Thus, we can make the following generalization about the direction of the reaction.
If Qc < Kc ; the reaction goes from left to right, i.e., in forward direction to attain
equilibrium.
If Qc > Kc ; the reaction goes from right to left, i.e., in reverse

direction to attain equilibrium.
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If Qc = Kc ; forward and reverse reactions take place at equal rates i.e., equilibrium has
been attained.
(ii) Predicting Extent of a Reaction

Numerical value of the equilibrium constant predicts the extent of a reaction. It
indicates to which extent reactants are converted to products. In fact, it measures how
far a reaction proceeds before establishing equilibrium state. In general, there are
three possibilities of predicting extent of reactions as explained below.
(a) Large numerical value of Kc: The large value of Kc indicates that at equilibrium
position the reaction mixture consists of almost all products and reactants are
negligible. The reaction has almost gone to completion. For example, oxidation of
carbon monoxide goes to completion at 1000 K.
(b) Small numerical value of Kc: When the Kc value of reaction is small, it indicates that
the equilibrium has established with a very small conversion of reactants to products.
At equilibrium position, almost all reactants are present but amount of products is
negligible. Such type of reactions never go to completion.
For example;
(c) Numerical value of Kc is neither small nor large. Such reactions have comparable
amounts of reactants and products at equilibrium position. For example:
It indicates that the rates of decomposition of N2O4 and combination of NO2 to form
N2O4 are almost comparable to each other.
1. What do you mean by the extent of a reaction?

2. Why the reversible reactions do not go to completion?
3. If a reaction has large value of Kc , will it go to completion and why?
4. Which types of reactions do not go to completion?
5. Why the reaction mixture does not have 50% reactants and 50% products at
equilibrium position?
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Use of atmospheric gases in the manufacture of chemicals.

The two major components of atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen
gases. Both of these gases
constitute 99% of the atmosphere.
These gases are being used to manufacture chemicals since the advent
of 20th century. Nitrogen is used to prepare ammonia, which is further
used to manufacture nitrogenous fertilizers.
Oxygen is used to prepare sulphur dioxide which is further used to
manufacture king of chemicals sulphuric acid.
Key Points
1. Reversible reactions are those in which products recombine to form reactants. These
reactions never complete. They proceed in both ways; i.e., forward and reverse.
2. Dynamic equilibrium state is one at which forward and reverse reactions proceed at
equal rate but in opposite directions so that overall reaction does not stop.
3. Equilibrium constant Kc is a ratio of the product of concentration of products raised
to the power of coefficients to the product of concentration of reactants raised to the
power of coefficients as expressed in the balanced chemical equation.
4. Equilibrium constant has no units when number of moles of reactants and products are
same.
5. By knowing the value of equilibrium constants, the extent of a reaction can be predicted.
6. Reactions having large Kc value, proceed almost to completion.
7. Reactions having small magnitude of Kc indicates that equilibrium state has established
consuming small amount of reactants. Therefore, they never go to completion.
8. Reactions having moderate magnitude have comparable amounts of reactants
and products at equilibrium state.
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Short Questions
1. What are irreversible reactions? Give a few characteristics of them?
2. Define chemical equilibrium state.
3. Give the characteristics of reversible reaction.
4. How is dynamic equilibrium established?
5. Why at equilibrium state reaction does not stop?
6. Why is equilibrium state attainable from either way?
7. What is relationship between active mass and rate of reaction?
8. Derive equilibrium constant expression for the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen
and hydrogen.
9. Write the equilibrium constant expression for the following reactions:
10. How direction of a reaction can be predicted?

11. How can you know that a reaction has achieved an equilibrium state?
12. What are the characteristics of a reaction that establishes equilibrium state at once?
13. If reaction quotient Qc of a reaction is more than Kc , what will be the direction of the reaction?
14. An industry was established based upon a reversible reaction. It failed to achieve products
on commercial level. Can you point out the basic reasons of its failure being a chemist?
Extensive Questions
1. Describe a reversible reaction with the help of an example and graph.
2. Write down the macroscopic characteristics of dynamic equilibrium.
3. State the law of Mass Action and derive the expression for equilibrium constant for a
general reaction.
4. What is the importance of equilibrium constant?
Numericals
1. For the decomposition of dinitrogen oxide (N2O) into nitrogen and oxygen reversible reaction
takes place as follows
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The concentration of N2O, N2 and O2 are 1.1 mol dm-3, 3.90 mol dm-3 and 1.95 mol dm-3
respectively at equilibrium. Find out Kc for this reaction.
2. Hydrogen iodide decomposes to form hydrogen and iodine. If the equilibrium
concentration of HI is 0.078 mol dm-3, H2 and I2 is same 0.011 mol dm-3. Calculate
the equilibrium constant value for this reversible reaction:
3. For the fixation of nitrogen following reaction takes place:
When the reaction takes place at 1500 K, the Kc for this is 1.1 x 10-5. If equilibrium concentrations
of nitrogen and oxygen are 1.7 x 10-3 mol dm-3 and 6.4 x 10-3 mol dm-3, respectively, how
much NO is formed?
4. When nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia, the equilibrium mixture contains
0.31 mol dm-3 and 0.50 mol dm-3 of nitrogen and hydrogen, respectively. If the Kc is 0.50 mol-
2
dm6, what is the equilibrium concentration of ammonia?
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CHAPTER
10 Acid, Bases And Salts
Animation 10.1: Insol Base Preparation

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Animation 10.2: Chemanim

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10. Acid, Bases and Salts eLearn.Punjab

• Define and give examples of Arrhenius acids and bases. (Understanding);
• Use the Bronsted-Lowry theory to classify substances as acids or bases, as proton donors
or proton acceptors. (Applying);
• Classify substances as Lewis acids or bases. (Analyzing);
• Write the equation for the self-ionization of water. (Remembering);
• Given the hydrogen or hydroxide ion concentration, classify a solution as neutral, acidic, or
basic. (Applying) and
• Complete and balance a neutralization reaction. (Applying)
Introduction:

Acids, bases and salts are three distinct classes in which almost all the organic and inorganic
compounds are classified. A famous Muslim Chemist Jabir Bin Hayan prepared nitric acid
(HNO3 ), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4 ). In 1787, Lavoisier named binary
compounds of oxygen such as CO2 and SO2 as acids which on dissolution in water gave acidic
solutions. Later on in 1815, Sir Humphrey Davy discovered that there are certain acids which
are without oxygen, e.g., HCl. Davy proved the presence of hydrogen as the main constituent
of all acids. It was also discovered that all water soluble metallic oxides turn red litmus blue,
which is a characteristics of bases. The word acid is derived from the Latin word ‘Acidus’
meaning sour. The first acid known to man was acetic acid, i.e., in the form of vinegar.
We all have a little concentration of hydrochloric acid in our stomach, which helps to break
down the food. Sometimes, the amount of stomach acid becomes too much, which causes
‘acidity’. This uncomfortable feeling is easily treated by taking an alkaline medicine. The alkali
neutralizes the acid, producing a harmless chemical called a salt.
2
10.1 CONCEPTS OF ACIDS AND BASES
Table 1.2 Acids and bases are recognized by their characteristic properties, such as:
Acids Bases
1. Acids have sour taste. For example, 1. Bases have bitter taste and feel slippery,
unripe citrus fruits or lemon juice. for example, soap is slippery to touch.
2. They turn blue litmus red. 2. They turn red litmus blue.
3. They are corrosive in concentrated 3. They are non-corrosive except concentrated
form. forms of NaOH and KOH.
4. Their aqueous solutions conduct 4. Their aqueous solutions conduct electric
electric current current.
10.1.1 Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases
According to Arrhenius concept (1787):

Acid is a substance which dissociates in aqueous solution to give hydrogen ions. In general,
the ionization of acids take place as follows.
For example, substances such as HC1, HNO3 , CH3 COOH, HCN, etc., are acids because they
ionize in aqueous solutions to provide H+ ions.
On the other hand, base is a substance which dissociates in aqueous solution to give hydroxide ions
The general ionization of bases take place as follows;
3
The substances such as NaOH, KOH, NH4 OH, Ca(OH)2 etc. are bases because these compounds
ionize in aqueous solutions to provide OH ions
Thus, according to Arrhenius Concept:
Acids give H+ ions in water, bases give OH ions in water.
Examples of some important acids and bases are given in Table 10.1.
Table 10.2 Acids and Bases
Acids Bases
Hydrochloric acid, HCI Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
Nitric acid, HNO3 Potassium hydroxide, KOH
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4 Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3
Limitations of Arrhenius Concept

1. This concept is applicable only in aqueous medium and does not explain nature of acids
and bases in non-aqueous medium.
2. According to this concept, acids and bases are only those compounds which contain
hydrogen (H+) and hydroxide (OH ) ions, respectively. It can’t explain the nature of
compounds like CO2, NH3, etc. which are acid and base, respectively.
Although this concept has limited scope yet, it led to the development of more general theories
of acid-base behaviour.
10.1.2 Bronsted-Lowrv Concept
In 1923, the Danish chemist Bronsted and the English chemist Lowry independently
presented their theories of acids and bases on the basis of proton-transfer. According to
this concept:
An acid is a substance (molecule or ion) that can donate a proton (H+) to another substance.
A base is a substance that can accept a proton (H+)from another substance.
For example, HCl acts as an acid while NH3 acts as a base:
4
It is a reversible reaction. In the forward reaction, HCl is an acid as it donates a proton,

-
whereas H2O is a base as it accepts a proton. In the reverse reaction, Cl ion is a base as it
accepts a proton from acid H3O+ ion. CI ion is called a conjugate base of acid HCl and H3O+ion
is called a conjugate acid of base H2O. It means every acid produces a conjugate base and
every base produces a conjugate acid such that there is conjugate acid-base pair. Conjugate
means joined together as a pair.
A conjugate acid is a specie formed by accepting a proton by a base.
A conjugate base is a specie formed by donating a proton by an acid.
Thus, conjugate acid-base pair differs from one another only by a single proton.
Similarly
According to Bronsted-Lowry concept, an acid and a base always work together to transfer
a proton. That means, a substance can act as an acid (proton donor) only when another
substance simultaneously behaves as a base (proton acceptor). Hence, a substance can
act as an acid as well as a base, depending upon the nature of the other substance. For
example, H2O acts as a base when it reacts with HCl as stated above and as an acid when
it reacts with ammonia such as:
Such a substance that can behave as an acid, as well as, a base is called amphoteric.
It has been observed that there are certain substances which behave as acids
though they do not have the ability to donate a proton, e.g.,SO3 . Similarly, CaO behaves
as a base but it cannot accept a proton. These observations prove the limitations of
Bronsted-Lowry concept of acids and bases.
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All Arrhenius acids are Bronsted-Lowry acids,

but except OH other Bronsted-Lowry bases
are not Arrhenius bases
Table 10.3 Conjugate acid-base pairs of common species

Acid Base Conjugate acid Conjugate base
HNO3(aq) + H2O(I) H3O+(aq) + NO3 (aq)

H2SO4(aq) + H2O(I) H3O+(aq) + HSO4 (aq)
HCN(aq) + H2O(I) H3O+(aq) + CN (aq)
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(I) H3O+(aq) + CH3COO (aq)
H2O(I) + NH3(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH (aq)
H2O(I) + CO32-(aq) HCO3 (aq) + OH (aq)
HCI(I) + HCO3 (aq) H2CO3(aq) + CI(aq)
Problem 10.1
(a) What are conjugate bases of each of the following?
(b) Give the conjugate acids of the following:
(c) Which of the following behave both as Bronsted acids and Bronsted bases?
Solution
(a) Conjugate base (b) Conjugate acid
HS- : S2- OH- : H2O

H3O+ : H2O HCO3- : H2CO3
H2PO4- : HPO42- HPO42- : H2PO4-(aq)
HSO4- : SO42- CH3N2 : CH3NH3+
HF : F-
CH3COOH : CH3COO- CO32- CHO3-
[Al(H2O)6]3+ : [A1 (H2O)5OH]2+ CH3COOH : H3COOH2+
(c) Bronsted acids, as well as, bases are: H2O, HCO3 , HS
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10.1.3 Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases

The Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry concepts of acids and bases are limited to substances
which contain protons. G.N. Lewis (1923) proposed a more general and broader concept of
acids and bases. According to this concept:
An acid is a substance (molecule or ion) which can accept a pair of electrons, while a base is a
substance (molecule or ion) which can donate a pair of electrons.
For example, a reaction between ammonia and boron trifluoride takes place by forming a
coordinate covalent bond between ammonia and boron trifluoride by donating an electron pair
of ammonia and accepting that electron pair by boron trifluoride.
+
The cations (proton itself or metal ions) act as Lewis acids. For example, a reaction between H
+
and NH3 , where H acts as an acid and ammonia as a base.
The product of any Lewis acid-base reaction is a single specie, called an adduct. So, a neutralization
reaction according to Lewis concept is donation and acceptance of an electron pair to form a
coordinate covalent bond in an adduct.
Acids are electron pair acceptors while bases are electron pair donors. Thus, it is evident
that any substance which has an unshared pair of electrons can act as a Lewis base while a
substance which has an empty orbital that can accommodate a pair of electrons acts as Lewis
acid. Examples of Lewis acids and bases are given below:
Lewis acids. According to Lewis concept, the following species can act as Lewis acids:
(i) Molecules in which the central atom has incomplete octet. For example, in BF3 , AICI3 ,
FeCl3 , the central atoms have only six electrons around them, therefore, these can accept an
electron pair.
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(ii) Simple cations can act as Lewis acids. All cations act as Lewis acids since they are
deficient in electrons. However, cations such as Na+, K+, Ca2+ ions, etc., have a very little
tendency to accept electrons. While the cations like H+, Ag+ ions, etc., have a greater
electron accepting tendency therefore, act as Lewis acids.
Lewis bases. According to Lewis concept, the following species can act as Lewis bases:
(i) Neutral species having at least one lone pair of electrons. For example, ammonia,
amines, alcohols etc. act as Lewis bases because they contain a lone pair of electrons:
(ii) Negatively charged species or anions. For example,

chloride, cyanide, hydroxide ions, etc., act as Lewis bases:
Summary of the Concepts.

Concept Acid Base Product
give H+ gives OH salt + H2O
Arrhenius
donate H+ accepts H+ conjugate acid base
Bronsted-Lowry
electron pair electron pair pair
Lewis
acceptor donor adduct
It may be noted that all Bronsted bases are also Lewis

bases but all Bronsted acids are not Lewis acids. According to
Bronsted concept, a base is a substance which can accept a proton,
while according to Lewis concept, a base is a substance which can
donate a pair of electrons. Lewis bases generally contain one or more
lone pair of electrons and therefore, they can also accept a proton
(Bronsted base). Thus, all Lewis bases are also Bronsted bases. On
the other hand, Bronsted acids are those which can give a proton. For
example, HCI, H2 SO4 are not capable of accepting a pair of electrons.
Hence, all Bronsted acids are not Lewis acids.
8
1. What is the difference between Arrhenius base and

Bronsted-Lowry base?
2. What do you mean by neutralization reaction according to
Arrhenius acid-base concept?
3. Prove that water is an amphoteric specie.
4. How can you justify that NH3 is Bronsted-Lowry base but
not Arrhenius base?
5. State and explain the neutralization reaction according to
Lewis concept.
6. Define and give the characteristics of a Lewis acid.
7. Why BF3 behaves as a Lewis acid?
8. Water is an amphoteric specie according to Bronsted- Lowry
concept. What is its nature according to Lewis concept?
10.1.4 General Properties of Acids
Physical Properties
Physical properties of acids have been described in the beginning of the chapter.
Chemical Properties
(i) Reaction with Metals
Acids react explosively with metals like sodium,
potassium and calcium. However, dilute acids (HCl, H2SO4)
react moderately with reactive metals like: Mg, Zn, Fe and Al
to form their respective salts with the evolution of hydrogen
gas.
(ii) Reaction with Carbonates and Bicarbonates

Acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates to form corresponding salts with the
evolution of carbon dioxide gas.
(aq)
3
9
(iii) Reaction with Bases

Acids react with bases (oxides and hydroxides of metal and ammonium hydroxide)
to form salts and water. This process is called neutralization.
(iv) Reaction with Sulphites and Bisulphites

Acids react with sulphites and bisulphites to form salts with the liberation of
sulphur dioxide gas.
(v) Reaction with Sulphides

Acids react with metal sulphides to liberate hydrogen
sulphide gas.
Following acids are called mineral acids.

Hydrochloric acid (HCI)
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4 )
Nitric acid (HNO3)
Uses of Acids
1. Sulphuric acid is used to manufacture fertilizers, ammonium sulphate, calcium
superphosphate, explosives, paints, dyes, drugs. It is also used as an electrolyte in lead
storage batteries.
2. Nitric acid is used in manufacturing of fertilizer (ammonium nitrate), explosives, paints,
drugs and etching designs on copper plates.
3. Hydrochloric acid is used for cleaning metals, tanning and in printing industries.
4 Benzoic acid is used for food preservation.
5 Acetic acid is used for flavouring food and food preservation. It is also used to cure
the sting of wasps.
10
Naturally Occurring Acids

Acid Source
i Citric acid Citrus fruits i.e., lemon, oranges

ii Lactic acid sour milk
iii Formic acid Stings of bees and ants
iv Butyric acid Rancid butter
v Tartaric acid Tamarind, grapes, apples
vi Malic acid Apples
vii Uric acid Urine
viii Stearic acid Fats
10.1.5 General Properties of Bases

Physical Properties
The physical properties of bases have been described in the beginning of the chapter.
Chemical Properties
(i) Reaction with Acids
Bases react with acid to form salt and water. It is a neutralization reaction.
(ii) Reaction with Ammonium Salts

Alkalis react with ammonium salts to liberate ammonia gas:
Animation 10.3: Acidbase reaction

Source & Credit: lem.ch
11
(iii) Precipitation of Hydroxides

Alkalis precipitate insoluble hydroxides when added to solutions of salts of heavy
metals such as copper, iron, zinc, lead and calcium.
Uses of Bases
1. Sodium hydroxide is used for manufacturing of soap.
2. Calcium hydroxide is used for manufacturing of bleaching powder, softening of hard water
and neutralizing acidic soil and lakes due to acid rain.
3. Potassium hydroxide is used in alkaline batteries.
4. Magnesium hydroxide is used as a base to neutralize acidity in the stomach. It is also used
for the treatment of bee’s stings.
5. Aluminium hydroxide is used as foaming agent in fire extinguishers.
6. Ammonium hydroxide is used to remove grease stains from clothes.
12
1. When acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates, which gas evolves ?
2. Which types of salts produce SO2 gas on reacting with acids?
3. Give the uses of sulphuric acid.
4. Name the gas liberated when alkalies react with ammonium salts.
5. Write down the colours of the precipitates formed by reaction of aqueous
caustic soda with solutions of: copper, zinc and ferric salts.
6. Name an alkali used in alkaline batteries.
Stomach acidity
Stomach secretes chemicals in a regular way to digest food. These
chemicals mainly consist of hydrochloric acid along with other salts. Although,
hydrochloric acid is highly corrosive, but stomach is protected from its effects
because it is lined with cells that produce a base. The base neutralizes stomach
acid. The important function of this acid is to break down chemical bonds of
foods in the digestion process. Thus, big molecules of food are converted into
small ones. It also kills the harmful bacteria of certain foods and drinks.
However, sometimes stomach produces too much acid. It causes stomach
acidity also called hyperacidity. Symptoms of this disease are feeling burning
sensation throughout the gastro intestinal track. These feelings sometimes
extend towards the chest, that is called heart burning.
The best prevention from hyperacidity is:
i) Avoiding over-eating and staying away from fatty acids and spicy foods.
ii) Simple and regular eating, remaining in an upright position for about 45
minutes after taking a meal.
iii) Keeping the head elevated while sleeping.
Process of Etching in Art and Industry:
The process of etching on glass is carried out by using a wax stencil. Stencil is placed
on areas of glass or mirror that are to be saved from acid. The glass or mirror is
dipped into hydrofluoric acid. The acid dissolves the exposed part of the glass thus
etching it. This process has been very dangerous because the acid would damage the
skin and tissue of artist’s body. Although, it is dangerous to deal with acid, yet etching
done with acid is very attractive as compared to using other chemicals.
13
10.2 pH SCALE
+
Concentration of hydrogen ion [H ] in pure water is the basis for the pH scale. Water
is a weak electrolyte because it ionizes very slightly into ions in a process called auto-
ionization or self-ionization;
The equilibrium expression of this reaction may be written as
As concentration of water (H2O) is almost constant. The above equation may be

written as
A new equilibrium constant known as ionic product constant of water ‘Kw’ is used instead of
product of equilibrium constant and [H2O]. Therefore,
As we know, one molecule of water produces one H+ ion and one OH ion on dissociation so
As it is difficult to deal with such small figures having negative exponents, so it is convenient
to convert these figures into a positive figure using a numerical system. It is taking the
common (base-10) logarithm of the figure and multiplying it with -1. ‘p’ before a symbol
means’ negative logarithm of the symbol. So ‘p’ before H means negative logarithm of [H+].
Therefore, pH is the negative logarithm of molar concentration of the hydrogen ions. That
is,
14
With reference to this equation, a scale develops according to the molar concentration of
H+ ions that is called pH scale. It ranges from 0 to 14. According to this scale, pH of water is
calculated as:
Similarly
pH value normally varies from 0 to 14. Therefore:
So, the sum of the pH and pOH of the solution is always 14 at

25 °C. Such as;
A solution of a compound of pH 7 or pOH 7 is considered a neutral solution. Solutions of pH less

than 7 are acidic and more than 7 are basic as are also shown in figure 10.1.
[H3O+] pH [OH-] pOH
1x10-14 14.0 1x10-0 0.0
1x10-13 13.0 1x10-1 1.0
1x10-12 12.0 1x10-2 2.0
More Basic
BASIC 1x10-11 11.0 1x10-3 3.0

1x10-10 10.0 1x10-4 4.0
1x10-9 9.0 1x10-5 5.0
1x10-8 8.0 1x10-6 6.0
NATURAL 1x10-7 7.0 1x10-7 7.0
1x10-6 6.0 1x10-8 8.0
More acidic
1x10-5 5.0 1x10-9 9.0

1x10-4 4.0 1x10-10 10.0
ACIDIC 1x10-3 3.0 1x10-11 11.0
1x10-2 2.0 1x10-12 12.0
1x10-1 1.0 1x10-13 13.0
1x10-0 0.0 1x10-14 14.0
Fig. 10.1 pH scale showing relation among [H+] and pH &
pOH sacle showing relation among [OH-] and pOH
15
Since the pH scale is logarithmic, a solution of pH 1 has 10 times higher concentration

of [H+] than that of a solution of pH 2; 100 times than that of a solution of pH 3 and
so on. Hence, low pH value means strong acid while high pH value means a strong
base and vice versa.
Conclusion
(i) pH of a neutral solution is always 7.
(ii) Acidic solutions have pH less than 7.
(iii) Basic solutions have pH value greater than 7.
(iv) pH and pOH values range from 0 to 14.
Uses of pH
(i) It is used to determine acidic or basic nature of a solution.
(ii) It is used to produce medicines, culture at a microbiological particular
concentration of H+ ion.
(iii) It is used to prepare solutions of required concentrations necessary for
certain biological reactions.
10.2.1 Indicators
Indicators are the organic compounds. They have different colours in acidic and alkaline
solutions. Litmus is a common indicator. It is red in acidic solutions and blue in alkaline
solutions.
Each indicator has a specific colour in acidic medium which changes at a specific pH to
another colour in basic medium. For example, phenolphthalein is colourless in strongly
acidic solution and red in strongly alkaline solution. It changes colour at a pH of about
9. This means phenolphthalein is colourless in a solution with pH less than 9. If the pH is
above 9, phenolphthalein is red as is shown in figure 10.2 .
16
figure 10.2.
Fig. 10.2. Colours of indicators at different pH solutions
A few commonly used indicators in titrations are given in Table 10.3

Table 10.4 Few important indicators
Colour in
pH a which Colour in strongly
Indicator strongly acidic
colour changes alkaline solution
solution
Methyl orange red 4 Yellow
Litmus red 7 blue
Phenolphthalein colourless 9 red
Measuring pH of a Solution
(i) Universal Indicator
Some indicators are used as mixtures. The mixture indicator gives different colours at different
pH values. Hence, it is used to measure the pH of a solution. Such a mixed indicator is called
Universal Indicator or simply pH indicator. The pH of solution can be measured by dipping a
piece of Universal Indicator paper in the solution. The pH is then found by comparing the colour
obtained with a colour chart as shown in figure 10.3.
17
Fig. 10.3. Colours of universal indicator
(ii) The pH Meter

The pH of a solution can be measured with a pH meter. It consists of a pH electrode connected
to a meter. The electrode is dipped into the solution and the meter shows the pH either on a
scale or digitally. It is much more reliable and accurate method of measuring pH than Universal
Indicator paper, though the latter is often more convenient.
Problem 10.2
A solution of hydrochloric acid is 0.01M. What is its pH value?
Solution: Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid so it ionizes completely.
That is:
So, its solution also contains 0.01M H ions, i.e., 10 2M.
By putting the values of H+ ions in the above equation:
18
Problem 10.3
Find out the pH and pOH of 0.001M solution of KOH?
Solution: Potassium hydroxide solution is a strong base. It ionizes completely such that one
mole of KOH gives one mole of OH ions.
Therefore, 0.001M solution of KOH produces 0.001M OH ions.
Problem 10.4
Find the pH of 0.01M sulphuric acid?
Solution: Sulphuric acid is a strong dibasic acid. It ionizes completely and its one mole
produces 2 moles of hydrogen ions as presented in equation.
Therefore, 0.01M sulphuric acid will produce 2 x 0.01M hydrogen ions. Hence, hydrogen
ions concentration is
1. Why pure water is not a strong electrolyte?

2. HCI and H2SO4 are strong acids. While their solutions are equimolar, they
have different pH value as calculated in problem 10.2 and 10.4. Why they
have different pH values?
3. Why ionic-product constant of water is temperature dependent?
4. Differentiate between ‘p’ and pH.
19
Areas of work for analytical chemists.

Analytical chemist examine substances qualitatively and quantitatively. They
identify substances and evaluate their properties.
They have a wide area for working ranging from basic research in laboratories
to analytical research in industries. They work in almost all industries including
manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, healthcare, forensics and public protection -
where they test air, water, industrial waste, drugs and food to make sure they
are safe. They ensure the quality of the products in industry.
10.3 SALTS
Salts are ionic compounds generally formed by the neutralization of an acid with a base.

Salts are made up of positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions). A cation is metallic ion
derived from a base, therefore, it is called basic radical. While anion is derived from an acid,
therefore, it is called acid radical.
A salt gets its name from the names of the metal and the acid as shown in Table 10.4.
Table 10.4 Acids and their Salts

Metal Acid Salt name
Sodium (Na) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Potassium (K) Nitric acid (HNO3) Potassium nitrate (KNO3)
Zinic (Zn) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4)

Calcium (Ca) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) Calcium phosphate Ca3 (PO4)2
Silver (Ag) Acetic acid (CH3COOH) Silver acetate (CH3COOAg)
Characteristic properties of salts

(i) Salts are ionic compounds found in crystalline form.
(ii) They have high melting and boiling points.
(iii) Most of the salts contain water of crystallization which is responsible for the shape of the
crystals. Number of molecules of water are specific for each salt and they are written with
the chemical formula of a salt.For example, Copper sulphate CuSO4 .5H2O; Calcium sulphate
CaSO4.2H2O
(iv) Salts are neutral compounds. Although, they do not have equal number of positive and
negative ions, but have equal number of positive and negative charges.
20
10.3.1 Preparation
Salts may be water soluble or insoluble. The methods

used for the preparation of salts are
based on their solubility in water.
Salts may be water soluble or insoluble. The methods
used for the preparation of salts are based on their
solubility in water.
General Methods for the Preparation of Salts
There are five general methods for the preparation
of salts. Four methods make soluble salts but one
prepares insoluble salts.
(i) Preparation of soluble salts
Soluble salts are often prepared in water. Therefore,
they are recovered by evaporation or crystallization.
Animation 10.4: mrtremblaycambridge
Source & Credit: mrtremblaycambridge
(a) By the reaction of an acid and a metal:

(Direct Displacement method)
This is direct displacement method in which
hydrogen ion of acid is replaced by a reactive metal.
Such as calcium, magnesium, zinc and iron, e.g.
(b) By the reaction of an acid and a base:

(Neutralization method)
It is a neutralization reaction in which acid
Animation 10.5: Titolazione
and base react to produce a salt and water. Source & Credit: wikipedia
21
(c) By the reaction of an acid and metallic oxide:

Mostly the insoluble metallic oxides react with dilute acids to form salt and water
(d) By the reaction of an acid and a carbonate:

Dilute acids react with metallic carbonates to produce salts, water and carbon
dioxide gas.
(ii) Preparation of insoluble salts

In this method, usually solutions of soluble salts are mixed. During the reaction exchange of
ionic radicals (i.e., metallic radicals exchange with acidic radicals) takes place to produce two
new salts. One of the salts is insoluble and the other is soluble. The insoluble salt precipitates
(solidify in solution).
1. How are the salts named?

2. Name the salts which are formed when Zn metal reacts with following acids.
a. nitric acid b. phosphoric acid c. acetic acid
3. How will you justify salts are neutral compounds?
4. How many water of crystallizations are present in CuSO4- 5H2O and CaSO4- .2H2O?
5. Name the type of reaction that takes place between an acid and a metal. Which gas would
evolve in the reaction? Explain with an example.
22
10.3.2 Types of Salts
Following are the main classes of salts.

(i) Normal salts (ii) Acidic salts
(iii) Basic salt (iv) Double salts
(v) Mixed salts (vi) Complex salts
(i) Normal or Neutral Salts

A salt formed by the total replacement of ionizable H+ ions of an acid by a positive metal ion or
NH+4 ions is called normal or neutral salt. These salts are neutral to litmus, that is,
(ii) Acidic Salts

These salts are formed by partial replacement of a replaceable H+ ions of an acid by a positive
metal ion.
These salts turn blue litmus red.

Acidic salts react with bases to form normal salts.
(iii) Basic Salts

Basic salts are formed by the incomplete neutralization of a polyhydroxy base by an acid.
23
These salts further react with acids to form normal salts.
(iv) Double Salts

Double salts are formed by two normal salts when they are crystallized from a
mixture of equimolar saturated solutions. The individual salt components retain
their properties. The anions and cations give their respective tests. Mohr’s salt FeSO4
(NH4 )2 SO4 6H2 O; Potash alum K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O; Ferric alum K2SO4 . Fe2(SO4)3
. 24H2O, are examples of double salts.
(v) Mixed Salts
Mixed salts contain more than one basic or acid radicals. Bleaching powder Ca(OCl)
CI, is an example of mixed salts.
(vi) Complex Salts

Complex salts on dissociation provides a simple cation and a complex anion or
vice versa. Only the simple ions yields the characteristics test for cation or anion. For
example:
Potassium ferrocyanide K4 [Fe(CN)6) gives on ionization, a simple cation K+ and
complex anion [Fe (CN)6] 4.
10.3.3 Uses of Salts

Salts have vast applications in industries and in our daily life. Some common salts
and their uses are given in Table 10.5;
24
Table 10.5 Uses of Salts

Name of salts Common and Industrial Uses
It is commonly used as a table salt and for cooking purposes, it is also
Sodium chloride
used for de-icing roads in winter and for the manufacture of sodium
(NaCI)
metal, caustic soda, washing soda.
Sodium carbonate
It is used for the manufacture of glass, detergents, pulp and paper and
Na2CO2) Soda
other chemicals.
ash
Sodium
It is used as cleaning agent for domestic and commercial purposes,
carbonate
for softening of water, in manufacture of chemicals like caustic soda
Na2CO3, 10H2O)
(NaOH), borax, glass, soap and paper.
Washing soda
Sodium sulphate
It is used for the manufacture of glass, paper and detergents.
(Na2SO4)
Sodium silicate It is used for the manufacture of detergents, cleaning agents and
(Na2SiO3) adhesives.
sodium chlorate
It is used for manufacture of explosives, plastics and other chemicals.
(NaCIO3)
Sodium tetraborate It is used for manufacture of heat resistance glass (pyrex), glazes and
(Na2B4O7. 10H2O) enamels, in leather industry for soaking and cleaning hides.
Calcium chloride It is used for de-icing roads in winter, as a drying agent of chemical
(CaCI2) reagents and as freezing agent.
Calcium oxide It is used as drying agent for gases and alcohol and in steel making, water
(CaO) Quick lime treatment and other chemicals like slaked lime, bleaching powder, calcium
carbide. For purification of sugar, a mixture of CaO and NaOH called soda
lime is used to remove carbon dioxide and water vapours from air.
Calcium sulphate Gypsum is used as fertilizer, to prepare plaster of Paris which is used for
(CaSO4. 2H2O) making statues, casts, etc.
Potassium
It is used as fertilizer and for the manufacture of flint glass.
Nitrate (KNO3)
Neutralization Reaction
A reaction between an acid and a base is called a neutralization reaction. It produces a
salt and water. A few balanced chemical reactions are given here:
25
1. Name the types of salts.

2. H3 PO4 is a weak acid but its salt (Na3 PO4 ) with strong base NaOH
is neutral. Explain it.
3. How does the basic salts turns into normal salts? Explain with an
example.
4. What are complex salts?
5. Na2SO4 is a neutral salt. What are its uses?
Preservatives in food
Chemicals used to prevent food spoilage are
called preservatives. Food spoiling may be due
to microbial actions or chemical reactions. So
preservatives serve as either anti-microbial or
antioxidants or both.
Manufacturers add preservatives mostly to
prevent spoiling during transportation and
storage of foods for a period of time.
Natural food preservatives are salts, sugar,
alcohol, vinegar, etc. They efficiently control the
growth of bacteria in food. They are used to
preserve meat, fish, etc.
26
Acid Rain
Acid rain is formed by dissolving acidic air pollutants like
oxides of sulphur and nitrogen by rain water. As a result pH of
the rain water decreases, i.e., it becomes acidic. When this acid
rain falls down, it damages animals, plants, buildings, water
bodies and even soil.
Key Points
• Strong acids or bases ionize completely in water while weak acids and bases ionize partially.
• According to Arrhenius concept, acids produce H+ ions in aqueous solution while bases
produce OH- ions in aqueous solution.
• According to Bronsted-Lowry concept, acid are proton donor and bases are proton acceptor,
so this concept is applicable to non-aqueous solutions.
• A substance that can behave as an acid as well as base depending upon the nature of other
substances is called amphoteric.
• According to Lewis concept; acids are electron pair acceptors and bases are electron pair
donors.
• The product of any Lewis acid base reaction is a single specie called adduct.
• “p” scale is the conversion of very small figures into positive figures by taking the common
logarithm of the small figure and multiplying it with-1.
• pH scale is the negative logarithm of concentration of hydrogen ions.
• A substance having pH less than 7 is acidic while a substance having pH more than 7 is
basic. A substance of pH 7 is called neutral.
• Salts are ionic compounds made up of metallic cation and non-metallic anion.
• Different methods for the preparation of soluble and insoluble salts have been discussed.
• Normal salts are made up of cations of strong bases and anions of strong acids.
• Acidic salts are made up of cations of weak bases and anions of strong acids.
27
28
Short Questions
1. Name three common household substances having
a. pH value greater than 7
b. pH value less than 7
c. pH value equal to 7
2. Define a base and explain that all alkalies are bases, but all bases are not alkalies.
3. Define Bronsted-Lowry base and explain with an example that water is a Bronsted-Lowry
base.
4. How can you justify that Bronsted-Lowry concept of acid and base is applicable to non-
aqueous solutions?
5. Which kind of bond is formed between Lewis acid and a base?
6. Why H+ ion acts as a Lewis acid?
7. Name two acids used in the manufacture of fertilizers.
8. Define pH. What is the pH of pure water?
9. How many times a solution of pH 1 will be stronger than that of a solution having pH 2?
10. Define the followings:
i. Normal salt ii. Basic salt
11. Na2SO4 is a neutral salt while NaHSO4 an acid salt. Justify.
12. Give a few characteristic properties of salts.
13. How are the soluble salts recovered from water?
14. How are the insoluble salts prepared?
15. Why is a salt is neutral, explain with an example?
16. Name an acid used in the preservation of food.
17. Name the acids present in:
i. Vinegar ii. Ant sting
iii. Citrus fruit iv. Sour milk
18. How can you justify that Pb(OH)NO3 is a basic salt?
19. You are in a need of an acidic salt. How can you prepare it?
20. Which salt is used to prepare plaster of Paris?
29
Extensive Questions:
1. Define an acid and a base according to Bronsted-Lowry concept and justify with
examples that water is an amphoteric compound.
2. Explain the Lewis concept of acids and bases.
3. What is auto-ionization of water? How is it used to establish the pH of water?
4. Define a salt and give the characteristic properties of salts.
5. Explain with examples how are soluble salts prepared?
6. Give the characteristics of an acidic salt.
7. Give four uses of calcium oxide.
8. You are having a strong acid (HNO3) and strong base (NaOH) on mixing
i. What type of salt you will have?
ii. What type of reaction will it be?
iii. Will it be soluble or insoluble salt?
iv. If it is soluble, how will it be recovered?
9. Explain why:
i. HC1 forms only one series of salts.
ii. H2SO4 forms two series of salts.
iii. H3PO4 form three series of salts.
Give necessary equations.
10. Classify the following salts as soluble or insoluble salts:

i. Sodium chloride ii. Silver nitrate
iii. Lead chloride iv. Copper sulphate
v. Barium sulphate vi. Ammonium chloride
vii. Sodium carbonate viii. Calcium carbonate
ix. Ferric chloride x. Magnesium sulphate
11. Complete and balance the following equations:
30
Numericals
1. Calculate the pH and pOH of 0.2 M H2SO4?
2. Calculate the pH of 0.1 M KOH?
3. Calculate the pOH of 0.004 M HNO3?
4. Complete the following Table.
Solution [H+] [OH] [pH] [pOH]
(i) 0.15 M HI
(ii) 0.040 M KOH
(iii) 0.020 M Ba(OH)2
(iv) 0.00030 M HClO4
(v) 0.55 M NaOH
(iv) 0.055 M HCl
(vii) 0.055 M Ca(OH)2
31
CHAPTER
11 Organic Chemistry
11. Organic Chemistry eLearn.Punjab

• Recognize structural, condensed and molecular formulae of the straight chain hydrocarbons
up to ten carbon atoms. (Understanding);
• Identify some general characteristics of organic compounds. (Remembering);
• Explain the diversity and magnitude of organic compounds. (Understanding);
• list some sources of organic compounds (Applying);
• list the uses of organic compounds (Remembering);
• Recognize and identify a molecule's functional groups. (Understanding);
• Convert alkanes into alkyl radicals. (Applying);
• Differentiate between alkanes and alkyl radicals. (Analyzing);
• Define functional group. (Remembering);
• Differentiate between organic compounds on the basis of their functional groups. (Analyzing)
and
• Classify organic compounds into straight chain, branched chain and cyclic compounds.
(Understanding).
Introduction:
Initially (before 1828), the name organic chemistry was given for the chemistry of compounds
obtained from plants and animals, i.e., from living organism. The word organic signifies life.
Lavoisier showed that compounds obtained from plants were often made of C, H and O
elements while compounds obtained from animals contain elements C, H, N, O, S, P.... etc.
In early 19th century, Swedish chemist Jacob Berzellius put forward the “Vital Force Theory”.
According to this theory, organic compounds could not be prepared in laboratories because
they were supposed to be synthesized under the influence of a mysterious force called Vital
Force, inherent only in living things.
The Vital Force theory suffered death blow in 1828 when Wohler synthesized the first
organic compound urea from inorganic substance by heating ammonium cyanate (NH4CNO):
Later on Vital Force theory was further negated by Kolbe (1845) when he prepared acetic
acid in laboratory.
2
Organic compounds include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes, vitamins, drugs,

pharmaceutical products, fertilizers, pesticides, paints, dyes, synthetic rubbers, plastics,
artificial fibres and many polymers, etc.
11.1 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Today, there are about ten millions of organic compounds and thousands of new organic
compounds are being prepared every year. Therefore, the old definition has been rejected.
A detailed investigation of organic compounds revealed that all of them contain covalently
bonded carbon and hydrogen as their essential constituent. Hence, organic compounds are
hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen only ) and their derivatives, in which covalently
bonded carbon is an essential constituent. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of
hydrocarbons and their derivatives is known as organic chemistry.
3
Though, the oxides of carbon like carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, carbonates,
bicarbonates and carbides are also carbon compounds, they are not treated as organic
compounds because their properties are quite different from those of organic compounds.
Each organic compound has specific formula.
There are four types of formulae of organic compounds:
• Molecular formula
• Structural formula
• Condensed formula
• Dot and cross formula
(i) Molecular Formula

The formula which represents the actual number of atoms in one molecule of the organic
compound is called the molecular formula, e.g., molecular formula of butane is C4H10. It shows:
a. Butane is made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
b. Each molecule of butane consists of 4 carbon atoms and 10 hydrogen atoms.
(ii) Structural Formula

Structural formula of a compound represents the exact arrangement of the different atoms
of various elements present in a molecule of a substance. In a structural formula, single
bond is represented by a single line (-), a double bond by two lines (=) and a triple bond by
three lines ( ) between the bonded atoms. Organic compounds may have same molecular
formulae but different structural formulae, e.g., structural formulae of butane C4H10 are:
(iii) Condensed Formula

The formula that indicates the group of atoms joined together to each carbon atom in a
straight chain or a branched chain is called the condensed formula.
4
(iv) Electronic or Dot and Cross Formula

The formula which shows the sharing of electrons between various atoms in one molecule
of the organic compound is called dot and cross formula or electronic formula.
5
Table 11.1: Names, Molecular, Condensed and Structural Formulae of the first ten
Hydrocarbons
6
11.1.1 Classification of Organic Compounds

All known organic compounds have been broadly divided into two categories depending upon their
carbon skeleton. These are:
(i) Open chain or acyclic compounds.
(ii) Closed chain or cyclic compounds.
(i) Open chain or Acyclic compounds

Open chain compounds are those in which the end carbon atoms are not joined with each
other, in this way they form a long chain of carbon atoms. These chains may be either straight or
branched. For example,
(a) Straight chain compounds are those in which carbon atoms link with each other through a
single, double or triple bonds forming a straight chain such as;
(b) Branched chain compounds are those in which there is a branch along a straight
chain, such as:
Open chain compounds are also called aliphatic compounds.
(ii) Closed chain or Cyclic compounds
Closed chain or cyclic compounds are those in which the carbon atoms at the end of the
chain are not free. They are linked to form a ring. They are further divided into two classes:
(a) Homocyclic or carbocyclic compounds.
(b) Heterocyclic compounds.
7
(a) Homocyclic or Carbocyclic compounds.
Homocyclic or carbocyclic compounds contain rings which are made up of only one kind
of atoms, i.e., carbon atoms. These are further divided into two classes:
• Aromatic compounds
• Alicyclic compounds
Aromatic compounds:
These organic compounds contain at least one benzene ring in their molecule. A benzene
ring is made up of six carbon atoms with three alternating double bonds. They are called
aromatic because of aroma or smell they have. For example:
They are also called benzenoid compounds.
Alicyclic or non-benzenoid compounds:

Carbocyclic compounds which do not have benzene ring in their molecules are called
alicyclic or non-benzenoid compounds. For example,
8
(b) Heterocyclic compounds

Cyclic compounds that contain one or more atoms other than that of carbon atoms in their
rings are called heterocyclic compounds.
The classification may be summarized as follows:
9
11.1.2 Diversity and Magnitude of Organic Compounds

There are a total of 118 elements known today. The number of organic compounds (carbon
compounds) is more than ten million. This number is far more than the number of compounds
of all the remaining elements taken together. The existence
of such a large number of organic compounds is due to the
following reasons:
(i) Catenation: The main reason for the existence of a

large number of organic compounds is that carbon atoms
can link with one another by means of covalent bonds to
form long chains or rings of carbon atoms. The chains can
be straight or branched. The ability of carbon atoms to link
with other carbon atoms to form long chains and large rings
is called catenation. Animation 11. 1: benzene
Source & Credit: campbell
Two basic conditions for an element to exhibit
catenation are:
1. Element should have valency two or greater than two.
2. Bonds made by an element with its own atoms should be stronger than the bonds made by the
element with other atoms especially oxygen.
Both silicon and carbon have similar electronic configurations but carbon shows catenation
whereas silicon does not. It is mainly due to the reason that C-C bonds are much stronger (355 kJ
mol-1) than Si-Si (200 kJ mol-) bonds. On the other hand, Si - O bonds are much stronger (452 kJ
mol-1) than C-O bonds (351 kJ mol-1). Hence, silicon occurs in the form of silica and silicates in nature.
(ii) Isomerism:
Another reason for the abundance of organic compounds is the phenomenon of isomerism.
The compounds are said to be isomers if they have the same molecular formula but different
arrangement of atoms in their molecules or different structural formulae.
Isomerism also adds to the possible number of structures, e.g., molecular formula C5H12 can be
represented by three different structures. Thus, C5H12 has three isomers, as shown below:
10
Number of isomers increases with the increase in number of carbon atoms in the given
molecular formula.
(iii) Strength of covalent bonds of carbon: Due to its very small size, carbon can form
very strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms, hydrogen, oxygen,nitrogen and
halogens. This enables it to form a large number of compounds.
(iv) Multiple bonding: In order to satisfy its tetravalency, carbon can make multiple bonds
(i.e., double and triple bonds). This further adds to the possible number of structures. For
example, two carbons in ethane are linked by a single covalent bond, by a double covalent
bond in ethylene and a triple covalent bond in acetylene.
11.1.3 General Characteristics of Organic Compounds:
Organic compounds have the following general characteristics:

(i) Origin: Naturally occurring organic compounds are obtained from plants and animals.
On the other hand, inorganic compounds are obtained from minerals and rocks.
(ii) Composition: Carbon is an essential constituent of all organic compounds. They are
made up of few elements such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, halogen, sulphur,
etc. On the other hand, inorganic compounds are made up of almost all the elements of
the Periodic Table known so far.
(iii) Covalent linkage: Organic compounds contain covalent bonds, that may be polar or
non-polar, while the inorganic compounds mostly contain ionic bonds.
(iv) Solubility:
Organic compounds having non-polar linkages are generally soluble in organic solvents like
alcohol, ether, benzene, carbon disulphide etc. On the other hand, the inorganic compounds
with ionic bonds are soluble in polar solvents like water.
(v) Electrical conductivity:

Due to the presence of covalent bonds, organic compounds are poor conductors of electricity,
whereas inorganic compounds being ionic in nature, are good conductors of electricity in
molten state or in aqueous solution.
11
(vi) Melting and boiling points: Generally, organic compounds have low melting and boiling points
and are volatile in nature. Inorganic compounds, on the other hand, have comparatively high melting and
boiling points.
(vii) Stability: Since organic compounds have low melting and boiling points, they are less stable than
inorganic compounds.
(viii) Combustibility: Organic compounds with high percentage of carbon are generally combustible. On
the other hand, inorganic compounds are mostly non-combustible.
(ix) Isomerism: A main characteristic of organic compounds which differentiate them from inorganic
substances is their tendency to exhibit the phenomenon of isomerism. Isomerism is rare in inorganic
substance.
(x) Rate of reaction: Due to the presence of covalent linkages, the reactions of organic compounds are
molecular in nature. They are often slow and require specific conditions such as temperature, pressure or
catalyst.
1. Why and how carbon completes its octet?
2. Point out the properties of carbon which are responsible for
formation of long chains of carbon atom compounds.
3. Why are the melting and boiling points of organic compounds
low?
4. Why are the organic compounds poor conductors of electricity?
Test YourSelf 11.1 5. What are the reasons for the formation of millions of organic
compounds?
11.2 SOURCES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Organic compounds are prepared naturally by animals and plants. Animals synthesize two
main groups of organic compounds: proteins and fats. Proteins are meat, mutton, chicken
and eggs, etc. Fats are present in milk, butter, etc. Plants synthesize; carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, vitamins, etc
Moreover, dead plants buried under Earth’s crust are converted through biochemical processes
to coal, petroleum and gas. These materials are the main sources of organic compounds. We
can get thousands of organic compounds by the destructive distillation of coal and fractional
distillation of petroleum.
Details of each source are given in figure below:
12
Fig. 11.1 Sources of organic compounds
11.2.1 Coal
Coal is a blackish, complex mixture of compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It also
contains small amounts of nitrogen and sulphur compounds:
Coal was formed by the decomposition of dead plants buried under the Earth’s crust millions
of years ago. Conversion of wood into coal is called carbonization. It is a very slow biochemical
process. It takes place in the absence of air under high pressure and high temperature over
a long period of time (about 500 millions of years) as shown in figure 11.2. Wood contains
about 40% carbon, so depending upon the extent of carbonization process, four types of coal
are found. These types differ with respect to carbon content, volatile matter and moisture.
Table 11.2 shows the detail of contents of different types of coal and their uses in daily life
and industry.
13
Fig. 11.2 Formation of coal in different stages with the increase of pressure.
Table 11.2 Different types of coal
Type of Coal Carbon Contents Uses

It is inferior quality coal used in
Peat 60 %
kiln.
It is soft coal used in thermal
Lignite 70 %
power stations.
It is common variety of coal
Bituminous 80 %
used as household coal.
It is superior quality hard coal
Anthracite 90 %
that is used in industry.
Coal has become a major source of organic compounds because of destructive distillation.
The strong heating of coal in the absence of air is called destructive distillation. As we know,
coal contains elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. So destructive
distillation of coal provides a large number of organic compounds along with a few inorganic
compounds. These products are:
(i) Coal Gas is a mixture of hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide. It produces heat when
burnt in air. Therefore, it is mainly used as a fuel in industry. It is also used to provide an inert
or reducing atmosphere in various metallurgical processes.
14
(ii) Ammonical Liquor is a solution of ammonia gas in water. It is used to prepare

nitrogenous fertilizers. For example, when it is treated with sulphuric acid, it produces
ammonium sulphate, fertilizer.
(iii) Coal Tar is a thick black liquid. It is a mixture of more than 200 different organic
compounds, mostly aromatic. These compounds are separated by fractional distillation.
Some of the important aromatic compounds are benzene, phenol, toluene, aniline,
etc. These chemicals are used to synthesize drugs, dyes, explosives, paints, varnishes,
plastics, synthetic fibre and pesticides. Besides these valuable chemicals, the black
residue of the coal tar called pitch is obtained. It is used for surfacing of roads and roofs.
(iv) Coke is 98% carbon. It is left behind residue of coal. When coal is subjected to
destructive distillation, it loses all its volatile components and leaves behind a solid residue
called coke. It is mainly used as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals especially
iron. It is also used as fuel.
i. Name the gases which are found in coal gas.

ii. Is coal tar a compound. What is importance of coal tar?
iii. What is coke? For what purpose it is used?
iv. Which is the best quality of coal?
v. What is destructive distillation?
TestYourSelf 11.2
15
11.2.2 Petroleum
Petroleum is a dark brownish or greenish black coloured viscous liquid. It is a complex

mixture of several solid, liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons in water mixed with salts and
earth particles.
Petroleum is a main source of organic compounds. It consists of several compounds mainly
hydrocarbons. These compounds are separated by fractional distillation (separation of
fractions or components depending upon their boiling point ranges). These fractions and
their uses are provided in table 16.1 in chapter 16. Each fraction is not a single compound,
rather each of it consists of different organic compounds.
11.2.3 Natural Gas
It is a mixture of low molecular mass hydrocarbons. The main component about 85% is
methane, along with other gases: ethane, propane and butane. Its origin is similar to
that of coal and petroleum. Therefore, it is found with their deposits as shown in figure
11.3. Natural gas is used as fuel in homes as well as in industries. It is used as fuel in
automobiles as compressed natural gas (CNG). Natural gas is also used to make carbon
black and fertilizer.
Fig. 11.3 Occurrence and drilling of gas.

16
11.2.4 Plants
Living plants synthesize macro-molecules, e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, oils and vitamins.
The basic unit of all types of carbohydrates is glucose which is synthesized by plants through
photosynthesis. Glucose then further polymerizes to form sucrose, starch and cellulose.
Proteins are found in the pulses and beans. Proteins are prepared by the fixation of nitrogen
by bacteria found on the roots of plants. Oils are found in the seeds of plants such as
sunflower, rapeseed, palm, coconut and groundnut. Vitamins are found in apple and citrus
fruits. Besides these major food items, plants also give us gums, rubber, medicines, etc.
11.2.5 Synthesis in Laboratory
Just about two hundred years ago, it was considered that organic compounds could be
synthesized only by plants and animals because they possess ‘Vital Force’, which is very
essential for synthesis of organic compounds. But the synthesis of urea (NH2CONH2)
in laboratory by F.M. Wohler in 1828, opened the discipline on field synthesis of organic
compounds in laboratory. Uptil now more than ten million organic compounds have been
prepared in the laboratories. They range from simple to complex compounds.
They are present in drugs and medicines; flavours and fragrances; plastics and paints; synthetic
fibres and rubber, cosmetics and toiletries and detergents, insecticides and pesticides, etc.
11.3 USES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

No doubt, thousands of organic compounds are synthesized naturally by animals and plants,
but millions of organic compounds are being prepared in the laboratories by the chemists.
These compounds are part of everything from food we eat to the various items we use in
daily life to fulfill our needs.
• Uses as Food: The food we eat daily such as milk, eggs, meat, vegetables, etc., contain
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, etc., are all organic stuff.
• Uses as Clothing: All types of clothing (we wear, we use as bed sheets etc.) are made up of
natural fibres (cotton, silk and wool, etc.) and synthetic fibres (nylon , dacron and acrylic,
etc.) all these are organic compounds.
• Uses as Houses: Wood is cellulose (naturally synthesized organic compound). It is used
for making houses and furniture of all kinds.
17
• Uses as Fuel: The fuels we use for automobiles and domestic purposes are coal, petroleum
and natural gas. These are called fossil fuels. All of these are organic compounds.
• Uses as Medicines: A large number of organic compounds (naturally synthesized by

plants) are used as medicines by us. Most of the life saving medicines and drugs such as
antibiotics (inhibit or kill microorganisms which cause infectious diseases) are synthesized
in laboratories.
• Uses as Raw Material: Organic compounds are used to prepare a variety of materials,
such as rubber, paper, ink, drugs, dyes, paints, varnishes, pesticides, etc.
1. Define petroleum.
2. What types of compounds are synthesized by plants?
3. What is the basic unit of carbohydrates and how is it synthesized?
4. CNG stands for ....
TestYourself 11.3
5. Our existence owes to organic compounds, comment.
11.4 ALKANES AND ALKYLRADICALS
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons or paraffins (para means little, affin means affinity).
Their general formula is C nH2n+2 , where ‘n’ is number of carbon atoms. In case of alkanes
‘n’ ranges from 1 to 40. In this way, alkanes form the most important homologous series of
compounds.
Homologous Series
Organic compounds are divided into groups of compounds having similar chemical properties.
Each group is known as a homologous series. Organic compounds of the same homologous
series have the following properties in common:
1. All members of a series can be represented by a general formula for example general
formulae of alkane, alkenes and alkynes are C nH2n+2 , CnH2n and CnH2n-2 , respectively.
18
2. Successive members of the series differ by one unit of -CH2- and 14 units in their relative
molecular mass.
3. They have similar chemical properties (because they contain the same functional
group).
4. There is a regular change in their physical properties; the melting and boiling points
increase gradually with the increase of molecular masses.
5. They can be prepared by similar general methods.
Hydrocarbons are regarded as parent organic compounds. All other compounds are considered
to be derived from them by substituting one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon by
one or more reactive atom or group of atoms.
Formation of Alkyl Radicals
Alkyl radicals are derivatives of alkanes. They are formed by the removal of one of the hydrogen
atoms of an alkane and are represented by a letter ‘R’. Their name is written by replacing
“ane” of alkane with ‘yl’ Table 11.3 represents first ten alkanes and their alkyl radicals. Their
general formula is CnH2n+1
Table 11.3 Names and Molecular Formulae of Alkanes and their Alkyl Radicals
19
It is better to explain the type of radicals of propane and butane. Propane has a straight chain
structure. When terminal H is removed, it is called n-propyl. When hydrogen from central
carbon is removed, it is called isopropyl, as explained below:
Similarly, different structures of butyl radicals are explained:
11.5 FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
An atom or group of atoms or presence of double or triple bond which determines the characteristic
properties of an organic compound is known as the functional group. The remaining part of
the molecule mainly determines the physical properties such as melting point, boiling
point, density, etc. For example, -OH group is the functional group of alcohols, which gives
characteristics properties of alcohols. The characteristic properties of carboxylic acids are due
to the presence of -COOH group in them. Therefore, functional group of carboxylic acids is
-COOH group.
11.5.1 Functional Groups Containing Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

The organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as functional groups are
alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and esters. Their class name, functional
group, class formula and examples are given in the Table 11.4.
20
(i) Alcoholic Group

The functional group of alcohol is -OH. Their general formula is ROH. Where R is any alkyl
group.
(ii) Ether Linkage

The functional group of ether is C - O - C. Their general formula is
R - O - R` where R and R’ are alkyl groups.
R and R’ may be same or different, such as:
H3C - O - CH3 Dimethyl ether, C2H5 - O - C2H5 , Diethyl ether

H3C - O - C2H5 , Ethyl methyl ether
(iii) Aldehydic Group

Aldehyde family consists of functional group.
Their general formula is RCHO.
Where R stands for H or some alkyl group, such as:
(iv) Ketonic Group
Compounds containing the functional group are called ketones.
They have the general formula where R and R’ are alkyl groups.
They may be same or different, such as:
21
(v) Carboxyl Group
Compounds containing functional group are called carboxylic acids.
Their general formula is where R stands for — H or some alkyl group. Such as:
(vi) Ester Linkage

Organic compounds consisting of RCOOR’ functional group are called esters.
R and R’are alkyl groups. They may be same or
Their general formula is where
different, such as:
22
Table 11.4 Functional groups containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
11.5.2 Functional Group Containing Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen:

The organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen as functional group
are called as amines. Their functional group is -NH2 and their general formula is R-NH2.
Examples of amines are:
23
11.5.3 Functional Group Containing Carbon, Hydrogen and Halogens:

The organic compounds having functional group containing carbon, hydrogen and halogens
are called alkyl halides. Their functional group is R-X. ‘X’ may be F, CI, Br or I.
Table 11.5 Functional group containing carbon, hydrogen and halogens.
11.5.4 Double and Triple Bond:
Hydrocarbon consisting of double bonds between two carbon atoms in their molecules are
called as alkenes, such as:
Hydrocarbon consisting of triple bonds between two carbon atoms in their molecules are
called as alkynes, such as:
11.6 TESTS OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
11.6.1 Test for Unsaturation

(i) Bromine water test:
Dissolve a pinch of the given organic compound in 2.0 cm3 of carbon tetrachloride (CCI4).
Add 2 cm3 of bromine water in it and shake.
Result: Bromine will be decolourised.
24
(ii) Baeyer’s test:

Dissolve about 0.2 g of the organic compound in water. Add to it 2-3 drops of alkaline
KMnO4 solution and shake.
Result: Pink colour will disappear.
11.6.2 Test for Alcoholic Group

(i) Sodium metal test:
Take about 2-3 cm3 of the given organic liquid in a dry test tube and add a piece of sodium
metal.
Result: Hydrogen gas will evolve.
(ii) Ester formation test:

Heat about 1.0 cm3 of the organic compound with 1.0 cm3 of acetic acid and 1-2 drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid.
Result: Fruity smell will be given out
11.6.3 Test for Carboxyl Group
(i) Litmus test:

Shake a pinch of the given compound with water and add a drop of blue litmus solution.
Result: Litmus solution will turn red.
(ii) NaHCO3 solution test:
Take about 2.0 cm3 of 5% NaHCO3 solution and add a pinch of given compound.
Result: CO2 gas with effervescence evolves.
11.6.4 Detection of Aldehydic Group
(i) Sodium bisulphite test:

Shake about 0.2 g or 0.5 cm3 of the given compound with 1-2 cm3 of saturated solution of
sodium bisulphite.
Result: A crystalline white precipitate will be formed.
25
(ii) Fehling’s solution test:

Mix equal volumes of Fehling’s solution A and B in a test tube. Add a pinch of organic
compound and boil for five minutes.
Result: Red precipitate will be formed.
11.6.5 Test for Ketonic Group
(i) Phenyl hydrazine test:

Shake a pinch of the given organic compound with about 2.0 cm3 of phenyl hydrazine
solution.
Result: Orange red precipitate will be formed
(ii) Sodium nitroprusside test:

Take about 2.0 cm3 of sodium nitroprusside solution in a test tube and add 2-3 drops
of NaOH solution. Now add a pinch of the given compound and shake.
Result: Red colour will be formed.
(iii) With Fehling’s solution:
No reaction
11.6.6 Test for Primary Amino Group (-NH2)

(i) Carbyl amine test:
Heat about 0.2 g of the given compound and add 0.5 cm3 of chloroform and add 2-3 cm3 of
alcoholic KOH.
Result: Extremely unpleasant odour will be given out.
11.6.7 Test for Ester

They are recognized by their fruity smell.
i. What is the functional group of an ester?

ii. What is the difference between aldehydes and ketones?
iii. Give the functional groups of alkenes and alkynes.
iv. How is an alcohol tested?
Test Yourself 11.4 v. How is a ketonic group is tested?
26
Pharmaceutical chemists work towards the partial and total

synthesis of effective drugs
Synthesis of effective drugs to control the epidemics and fatal
diseases is the need of the society. The responsibility to synthesize
effective drugs is of pharmaceutical chemists. They can evaluate the
efficiency and safety of these drugs. They make the drugs more and
more effective by reducing their side effects and enhancing potency.
Key Points
• Organic compounds are compounds of carbon and hydrogen and their derivatives.
• Compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. They are alkanes,
alkenes and alkynes.
• Organic compounds are molecular compounds having covalent bonding.
• They form homologous series of compounds, thus their properties resemble within a
series.
• Sources of organic compounds are animals, plants, coal, petroleum and natural gas.
• Dead plants buried under Earth’s crust are converted into coal; petroleum and gas. Coal
is blackish solid material.
• Coal is of four types, i.e peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite.
• Destructive distillation of coal produces; coal gas, ammonical liquor; coal tar and coke.
• Petroleum is a dark brownish or greenish black coloured viscous liquid consisting of
several compounds. These compounds are separated by fractional distillation.
• Natural gas is a mixture of low molecular mass hydrocarbons. It is mainly used as fuel.
• Living plants synthesize macro-molecules (carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins).
• Organic compounds can also be synthesized in laboratories ranging from the simplest
compounds to complex ones.
• Organic compounds have wide range of uses. They are used as food, clothing, housing
fuel, medicines and to prepare a variety of materials.
• Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, alkyl radicals are derivatives of alkanes which are
represented by ‘R’.
• An atom or a group of atoms that provide characteristic properties to an organic
compound is called functional group.
• Depending upon the functional groups, organic compounds are classified as alcohols,
ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines and alkyl halides.
27
CONCEPT DIAGRAM
28
Short Questions:
1. What is meant by the term catenation? Give an example of a compound that displays
catenation.
2. How is coal formed?
3. What is the importance of natural gas?
4. Justify that organic compounds are used as food.
5. How are alkyl radicals formed? Explain with examples.
6. What is the difference between n-propyl and isopropyl radicals ? Explain with structure.
7. Explain different radicals of butane.
8. Define functional group with an example.
9. What is an ester group? Write down the formula of ethyl acetate.
10. Write down the dot and cross formulae of propane and n-butane?
11. Define structural formula. Draw the structural formulae of n-butane and isobutane.
12. Write classification of coal.
13. What are heterocyclic compounds? Give two examples.
14. Why are benzene and other homologous compounds of benzene called aromatic
compounds?
1. (a) How is coal formed? What are the different types of coal?
(b) Write down the composition and uses of different types of coal.
2. (a) What is destructive distillation of coal?
(b) Name the different types of the products obtained by the destructive distillation of
coal.
3. Write a detailed note on functional groups of alkenes and alkynes. How are they identified
from other compounds?
4. Give some uses of organic compounds in our daily life.
5. Write down the characteristics of homologous series.
6. Why are organic compounds numerous?
7. What are amines? Explain the different types of amines giving an example of each type.
How primary amino group is identified?
8. Describe the functional group of an alcohol. How are alcoholic groups identified?
9. Differentiate between aldehydic and ketonic functional groups. How are both identified
from each other?
10. Encircle the functional groups in the following compounds. Also give the names of the
functional groups?
29
11. What are the general properties of organic compounds?

12. Write a detailed note on classification of organic compounds.
30
CHAPTER
12 Hydrocarbons
Animation 12.1: Hydrocarbons

Source & Credit: chemwiki
12. Hydrocarbon eLearn.Punjab

• Explain why a systematic method of naming chemical compounds is necessary. (Analyzing);
• Characterize a hydrocarbon. (Understanding);
• Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. (Understanding);
• Name of alkanes upto decane. (Remembering);
• Draw electron cross and dot structures of simple alkanes. (Applying);
• Write a chemical equation to show the preparation of alkanes from hydrogenation of
alkenes and alkynes and reduction of alkyl halides (Remembering);
• Draw structural formulae of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes upto 5 carbon atoms
(Understanding);
• Write a chemical equation to show the preparation of alkenes from dehydration of
alcohols and dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides (Remembering);
• Write a chemical equation to show the preparation of alkynes from dehalogenation of
1,2- dihalides and tetrahalides (Remembering);
• Write chemical equations showing halogenation for alkanes, alkenes and alkynes
(Remembering) and
• Write a chemical equations showing reaction of KMnO4 with alkenes and alkynes
(Remembering);
Introduction:
The simplest class of organic compounds is hydrocarbons (compounds consisting of only

carbon and hydrogen elements). Carbon is the only element capable of forming stable,
extended chains of atoms bonded through single, double, or triple bonds. Hydrocarbons
are divided into four general classes, depending upon the nature of bonds present in their
molecules. These are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and aromatics. Each carbon atom of a
hydrocarbon has four bonds.
Hydrocarbons are further classified as saturated and unsaturated. The members of
these classes have different chemical properties because of different nature of bonds
present in them. However, their physical properties are similar because of comparable
electronegativities of carbon and hydrogen. Thus, they are almost nonpolar and insoluble
in water. They dissolve readily in non polar solvents. They are gases or volatile liquids
and their volatility decreases with the increase of molecular mass. That is the reason low
molecular mass hydrocarbons are gases at room temperature, such as: CH4 and C2H6.
Moderate molecular mass hydrocarbons are liquids, such as, C6H14; while higher molecular
mass hydrocarbons are solids.
2
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons. They are not only major sources of energy but also are raw materials
used to make thousands of consumer products. Hydrocarbons are the starting materials for
the synthesis of organic chemicals of commercial importance. These chemicals are essential for
making plastics, synthetic rubbers, synthetic fibres and fertilizers, etc.
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are those compounds which are made up of only carbon and hydrogen elements.
Hydrocarbons are regarded as the parent organic compounds since other organic compounds
are considered to be derived from them by the replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by
other atoms or group of atoms.
Types of Hydrocarbons
On the basis of structure, hydrocarbons are divided into two main classes:
(i) Open chain or Aliphatic hydrocarbons: These are the compounds in which the first and the
last carbon are not directly joined to each other. The open chains of carbon may be straight or
branched.
For example
Types of open chain hydrocarbons

Open chain hydrocarbons have been further subdivided into saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
(a) Saturated hydrocarbons
The hydrocarbon in which all the four valencies of carbon atoms are fully satisfied (saturated) by
single bonds with other carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms are called saturated hydrocarbons.
Saturated hydrocarbons are also called alkanes. Thus, an alkane is a hydrocarbon in which
the carbon atoms are connected by only single covalent bond (there are no double or triple
covalent bonds in alkanes).
Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) are all saturated hydrocarbons
because they contain only carbon-carbon single bonds, as shown below:
3
The general formula of saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2 , where n is the number of carbon
atoms in one molecule of the alkane.
(b) Unsaturated hydrocarbons:
The hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are linked by a double or a triple bond are
called unsaturated hydrocarbons. The compounds in which two carbon atoms are linked by a
double bond are called alkenes. For example, ethene and propene.
These compounds have general formula CnH2n and functional group >C= C<.
4
The hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are linked by a triple bond are called alkynes. For
example, ethyne and propyne.
They have general formula CnH2n-2 and functional group C C

(ii) Closed chain or Cyclic hydrocarbons: Compounds having rings of carbon atoms in their
molecules are called closed chain or cyclic hydrocarbons, e.g. benzene (C6H6), cyclobutane and
cyclohexane.
1. Why are hydrocarbons considered as parent organic compounds?

2. What is the difference between a straight and a branched chain hydrocarbons?
3. Give the general formulae of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons,
Test 4. Define unsaturated hydrocarbons with examples.
yourself 12.1
5
12.1 ALKANES
The simplest hydrocarbons are alkanes. In these compounds, all the bonds of carbon atoms
are single that means valencies of carbon atoms are saturated. Therefore, they are least
reactive. That is the reason, alkanes are called paraffins (para means less, and affins means
affinity or reactivity).
Alkanes form a homologous series of compounds in which each successive member of the
series differs by a CH2 group but they have similar structures and similar chemical properties.
The first member of the series is methane (CH4), next ethane (C2H6), then next propane (C3H8)
and so on as given in the previous chapter Table 11.3. The electron cross and dot structures
of simple alkanes are presented as follows:
Sources of Alkanes
1.
1. The main sources of alkanes are petroleum and natural gas.
2. Methane forms about 85% of natural gas.
3. All the alkanes are obtained commercially by the fractional distillation of crude petroleum.
4. Marsh gas is formed by the bacterial decay of vegetable matter contains mostly methane.
5. Fuel gases obtained from coal gas contain alkanes in small amounts.
6. Methane occurs in gobar gas, sewage gas and biogas which are formed by the decomposition
of cattle dung, excreta and plant wastes.
12.1.1 Preparation of Alkanes
As we know, alkanes form a series of homologous compounds. So, their methods of preparation and
chemical properties are similar. Although, there are many methods of preparation, but only two methods
are discussed here.
6
12.1.1.1 Hydrogenation of Alkenes and Alkynes

Hydrogenation means addition of molecular hydrogen in alkenes and alkynes. As we know, alkenes
and alkynes are unsaturated compounds, so they have the capacity to add up atoms in them.
This reaction is carried out in the presence of nickel catalyst at 250 °C to 300 °C. However, in the
presence of catalyst platinum or palladium, the reaction takes place at room temperature, such
as:
12.1.1.2 Reduction of Alkyl Halides
Reduction means addition of nascent hydrogen. In fact, it is a replacement of a halogen

atom with a hydrogen atom. This reaction takes place in the presence of Zn metal and
HCl.
Physical Properties of Alkanes.
1. Alkanes form a homologous series of compounds. First four members of the series are
gases. The alkanes consisting of C5 to C10 are liquids while higher members of the series
are solids.
2. They are nonpolar, therefore, they are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
3. The density of alkanes increases gradually with the increase of molecular size.
4. The melting and boiling points of alkanes increase regularly with the increase of molecular
sizes. This is because of increase of attractive forces between the molecules of alkanes.
5. The alkanes become more viscous as their molecular sizes increase.
6. Alkanes become less flammable, i.e. more difficult to burn with the increase of
molecular sizes.
7
12.1.2 Chemical Reactions

Alkanes are least reactive compounds being saturated hydrocarbons. However, they give
reactions at high temperatures. Here we will discuss only two reactions of alkanes.
12.1.2.1 Halogenation
Alkanes give only substitution reactions. A reaction in which one or more hydrogen atoms
of a saturated compound are replaced with some other atoms (like halogen) is called a
substitution reaction. These reactions are a characteristic property of alkanes. Alkanes
react fairly with halogens in diffused sunlight only. In dark there is no reaction. In direct
sunlight, reaction is explosive and carbon is deposited.
In diffused sunlight, a series of reactions take place and at each step one hydrogen atom is
substituted by halogen atoms, so that all the hydrogen atoms are substituted one by one by
halogen atoms.
8
12.1.2.2 Combustion
Alkanes burn in the presence of excess of air or oxygen to produce a lot of heat, carbon
dioxide and water. This reaction takes place in automobile combustion engines, domestic
heaters and cooking appliances. It is highly exothermic reaction and because of it alkanes
are used as fuel.
In the limited supply of oxygen, there is incomplete combustion. As a result, carbon

monoxide is produced that creates suffocation and causes death.
3CH 4 + 2O 2 
→ 2CO + 2H 2 O + heat
Uses of Methane and Ethane
(i) Natural gas that is chiefly methane is used as domestic fuel.
(ii) Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used as automobile fuel.
(iii) These gases are used in the manufacture of chemicals such as carbon black, methyl
alcohol, ethyl alcohol, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride,formaldehyde and acetaldehyde.
These chemicals are used in daily life, such as carbon black is used in the manufacture
of shoe polishes, printers ink and as a filler in rubber industry.Chloroform is used as a
solvent for rubber, waxes, etc., and for anaesthesia.
Carbon tetrachloride is used as an industrial solvent and in dry cleaning.
1. Which is the simplest alkane?

2. Give the structural formula: isopentane and
isobutane
3. Why the burning of alkanes require sufficient supply
of oxygen?
Test 4. What do you mean by halogenation? Give the
reaction of methane with chlorine in bright sunlight.
yourself 12.2
9
12.2 ALKENES
The simplest alkene is ethene having formula C2H4. These compounds are also known as
olefins (a Latin word meaning oil forming) because first members form oily products when
react with halogens.
A few alkenes with their molecular, condensed, structural and cross and dot formulae are
given in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Molecular, Condensed, Structural and Electronic Formulae of Alkenes
Occurrence
(i) Alkenes being more reactive than alkanes, seldom occur free in nature.
(ii) Lower alkenes occur in coal gas in minute quantities.
(iii) Ethylene is present in natural gas sometimes to the extent of 20%.
(iv) Alkenes are produced in large amounts by cracking of petroleum.
10
12.2.1 Preparation of Alkenes
Alkenes are prepared by the removal of small atoms (H,OH,X) from the adjacent carbon atoms
of the saturated compounds, so as to create a double bond between carbon atoms.
12.2.1.1 Dehydration of Alcohols
Dehydration is removal of water. Ethene is prepared by heating a mixture of ethanol and excess
of concentrated sulphuric acid at 180°C. In first step, ethyl hydrogen sulphate is formed which
decomposes on heating to produce ethene, which is collected over water.
12.2.1.2 Dehydrohalogenation of Alkyl Halides
On heating, ethyl bromide with alcoholic KOH, ethene is formed. Removal of hydrogen and
halogen takes place from adjacent carbon atoms to create a double bond.
Physical Properties of Alkenes
(i) The first member of the alkenes is ethene. It is a colourless gas with pleasant odour.
(ii) Alkenes are nonpolar, therefore, they are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
(iii) The first member of the series ethene is slightly less dense than air.
(iv) Alkenes are flammable hydrocarbons.
On complete combustion, they form carbon dioxide and water with release of energy.
However, their flame is smokier than alkanes having a similar number of carbon atoms.
(v) Their melting and boiling points gradually increase with the increase of molecular sizes of
the compounds in the series.
11

Alkenes are reactive compounds because the electrons of the double bond are easily available
for reaction. These compounds have the tendency to react readily by adding other atoms,
to become saturated compounds. As a result, the double bond is converted into a single
bond that is more stable. Thus, addition reactions are characteristic property of unsaturated
compounds. These are the reactions in which the products are formed by the addition of
some reagents like H2,Cl2, etc., to an unsaturated organic compound. In the process, one of
the bonds of a double bond gets broken and two new single bonds are formed.
12.2.2.1 Hydrogenation of Alkenes

Hydrogenation means addition of molecular hydrogen to an unsaturated hydrocarbon in the
presence of a catalyst (Ni, Pt) to form saturated compound.
On industrial scale, this reaction is used to convert vegetable oil into margarine (Banaspati
ghee).
12.2.2.2 Halogenation of Alkenes

Halogenation means addition of halogen like chlorine or bromine. Bromination of
alkenes is very important reaction . When bromine water (a solution of bromine in
water having red-brown colour) is added to ethene in an inert solvent like carbon
tetrachloride, its colour is discharged at once.
In the reaction, double bond of ethene is converted into a single bond by the addition
of a molecule of bromine. This reaction is used to identify the unsaturation of an organic
compound.
12.2.2.3 Hydrohalogenation of Alkenes
Dry gaseous hydrogen halides (HI, HBr and HC1) react with alkenes to produce alkyl
halides.
12
The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is HI > HBr > HCl

12.2.2.4 Oxidation of Alkenes with KMnO4
Alkenes decolourize the pink colour of acidified dilute solution of potassium permanganate
because the double bond electrons react with MnO4- ion, which further goes on to form MnO2
and ethene glycol (1,2-ethanediol). Such as, there is addition of 2 two ‘hydroxyl groups’ at the
double bond.
This reaction is also used to test the unsaturation in an organic compound.

Uses of Ethene (Ethylene)
Ethene is used:
(i) for artificial ripening of fruits;
(ii) as a general anaesthetic;
(iii) for manufacture of polythene: Polythene is a plastic material used in packaging, toys, bags,
etc;
(iv) as a starting material for the manufacture of a large number of compounds such as
ethylene oxide, ethyl alcohol, ethylene glycol,diethyl ether, etc.; ethylene oxide is used as a
fumigant, ethylene glycol is used as an anti-freeze, diethyl ether and ethyl alcohol are used as
solvents and
(v) for making poisonous mustard gas which is used in chemical warfare.
Fast and leads
13
i. Why are alkenes reactive?

ii. How can you prepare propene from propyl alcohol?
iii. Give a test used to identify unsaturation of an organic compound.
Testyourself 12.3
iv. Give a few uses of ethene.
12.3 ALKYNES
The simplest alkyne is acetylene, with molecular formula C2H2. Alkynes are also called
acetylenes because of the name of the first member of the series is acetylene.
Molecular, condensed, structural and dot and cross formulae of a few alkynes are given in
Table 12.2.
Table 12.2 Molecular, Condensed, Structural and Electronic Formulae of Alkynes
Occurrence: Acetylene does not occur free in nature. Traces of acetylene are present in coal
gas (about 0.06%).
14
12.3.1 Preparation of Alkynes

Alkynes are prepared by the following methods.
12.3.1.1 Dehydrohalogenation of Vicinal Dihalides
When a vicinal dihalide is heated with alcoholic KOH, two hydrogen atoms along with two
halogen atoms are removed from two adjacent carbon atoms with the formation of a
triple bond between the adjacent carbons:
12.3.1.2. Dehalogenation of Tetrahalides
When alkyl tetrahalides are heated with Zinc dust, the elimination of halogen atoms takes
place to form ethyne.
Physical Properties
1. Alkynes also form a series of compounds. Its first member is acetylene. It is a colourless gas
with faint garlic odour.
2. Acetylene is slightly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such a benzene, alcohol,
acetone, ether, etc.
3. Acetylene is slightly lighter than air.
4. Alkynes are also flammable. They produce smokier flames than those of alkanes and alkenes.
Alkynes are reactive compounds because of presence of a triple bond. A triple bond consists of
two weak bonds and a strong bond. When alkynes react with other substances, two weak bonds
are readily broken one by one and addition takes place easily. The addition reactions of alkynes
resemble those of alkenes.
12.3.2.1 Addition of Halogen
Chlorine and bromine adds to acetylene to form tetrachloroethane and tetrabromoethane,
respectively. When bromine water is added to acetylene, red-brown colour of bromine water is
discharged rapidly due to formation of colourless tetrabromoethane.
15
This reaction is used to identify the unsaturation of alkynes.
12.3.2.2 Oxidation with KMnO4 .

Ethyne is oxidized by alkaline KMnO4. And four hydroxyl groups add to the triple bond,
such as:
This intermediate product eliminates water molecules to form

glyoxal, which is further oxidized to form oxalic acid.
Uses of Acetylene
(i) Acetylene produces oxy-acetylene flame with oxygen. It is a highly exothermic
reaction. Heat released is used for welding purposes.
(ii) Acetylene is used to prepare other chemicals, such as alcohols, acetaldehyde and
acids.
(iii) It is used for the ripening of fruits.
(iv) It is used for the manufacturing of polymer products like polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl
acetate and synthetic rubber like neoprene.
(v) It is polymerized to form benzene, which is used as raw material to form a variety
of organic compounds.
i. Why the alkynes are called acetylenes?
ii. How is tetrabromoethane prepared from acetylene?
iii. How can you prepare acetylene from tetrachloroethane?
iv. What is the difference between glycol and glyoxal?
v. Write the formula of oxalic acid.
Test
yourself 12.4
16
Hydrocarbons as Fuel
The main constituents of fuels (coal, petroleum and natural gas) are hydrocarbons.
When hydrocarbons are burnt in air the reaction is called combustion. It is highly
exothermic reaction, i.e. it produces a lot of heat. The basic combustion reaction
is
The heat energy thus produced is used to meet needs of energy in homes,
transportation, as well as in industries.
Hydrocarbons as Feed Stock in Industry
Hydrocarbons are not only used as fuel in automobiles or industries, they also
act as raw materials in many industries.
(i) Petrochemical Industry:
The organic compounds prepared from hydrocarbons (petroleum and natural
gas) are called petrochemicals. Some of the important petrochemicals are, methyl
alcohol, ethyl alcohol, formic acid, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, ethylene,
butadiene, benzene, toluene, etc.
(ii) Plastic Industry:
Hydrocarbons are used as raw materials for the preparation of a large variety of
synthetic polymers, called plastics like polythene, polyester. These can be given any
shape when soft and on hardening make a durable article to be used in common life.
For example, crockery items (cups, glass, jug, plates, spoons) furniture items (chair,
table, stool) automobile parts,electric and sewages items and a lot of other household
items.
(ii) Rubber Industry:
Hydrocarbons are used to prepare synthetic rubber. Such as, acetylene is used
to prepare butadiene rubber used for making footwear, tyres and toys. Similarly,
a good quality rubber neoprene is prepared from chloroprene.
(iv) Synthetic fibre Industry:
Hydrocarbons are used to prepare synthetic fibres like nylon, rayon, polyesters.
These fibres have better qualities like greater strength, good elasticity, resistance
to wear and tear. So clothes made of synthetic fibres are long lasting than that of
natural fibres.
(v) Synthetic detergents:
Long chain hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum are used to make synthetic
detergents and washing powders. These detergents are sodium salts of alkyl
hydrogen sulphate. These detergents have better and stronger cleaning
properties than that of soaps. They can be used even in hard water.
17
Key Points
• Hydrocarbons are organic compounds of carbon and hydrogen elements. They are
alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
• Open chain hydrocarbons are classified as saturated and unsaturated.
• Saturated hydrocarbons consist of each carbon atom having its tetravalency fully satisfied
by single bonds. They are called alkanes and have general formula CnH2n+2.
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons consist of double and triple bonds. Compounds consisting
of double bonds are called alkenes. They have general formula CnH2n. While compounds
consisting of triple bond are called alkynes. They have general formula CnH2n-2.
• Alkanes are named with respect to number of carbon atoms ending with a suffix ‘ane’.
• Alkanes are prepared by hydrogenation of alkenes or alkynes and reduction of alkyl
halides.
• The important reactions of alkanes are combustion and halogenation. Combustion of
alkanes produce a lot of energy that is the reason alkanes are used as fuel.
• Alkenes are prepared by dehydration of alcohols and dehydrohalogenation of alkyl
halides.
• Alkenes give important reactions like halogenation and oxidation. Oxidation of alkene
produces important compound, glycol.
• Alkynes are prepared by the dehydrohalogenation of vicinal dihalides and dehalogenation
of tetrahalides.
• Important reaction of acetylene is oxidation that produces oxalic acid.
SKILLS:
Boiling point of alcohol
The boiling point of an
alcohol (ethyl alcohol)
at normal atmospheric
pressure can be
determined by using a
set up as shown in figure.
18
When alcohol is heated, temperature rises up until it reaches upto 78°C. From there onward,
even the heating process goes on but the temperature remains constant. This is the boiling
point of alcohol. It is to be noted that temperature does not change during the boiling
process.
Concept Diagram
19
Short Questions
1. Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
2. A compound consisting of four carbon atoms has a triple bond in it. How many hydrogen
atoms are present in it?
3. Why are the alkanes called ‘paraffins’?
4. What do you know about hydrogenation of alkenes?
5. How are alkyl halides reduced?
6. Why are the alkanes used as fuel?
7. How can you prepare ethene from alcohol and ethyl bromide?
8. Identify propane from propene with a chemical test.
9. Why are the alkenes called ‘olefins’?
10. Why alkane can’t be oxidized with KMnO4 solution?
11. What are the addition reactions? Explain with an example.
12. Justify that alkanes give substitution reactions.
13. Both alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons. State the one most significant
difference between them.
14. Write the molecular, dot and cross and structural formula of ethyne.
15. Why are hydrocarbons soluble in organic solvents?
16. Give the physical properties of alkanes.
17. How can you identify ethane from ethene?
18. Why colour of bromine water discharges on addition of ethene in it?
19. State one important use of each:
(i) Ethene (ii) Acetylene
(iii) Chloroform (iv) Carbon tetrachloride
1. What type of reactions are given by alkanes? Explain with reference to halogenations of
alkanes.
2. Alkanes are a source of heat. Explain it.
3. Prepare the following as directed:
(i) ethane from ethene;
(ii) acetylene from tetrahalide;
(iii) carbon tetracholride from methane;
(iv) ethylene glycol from ethene;
(v) 1,2-dibromoethane from ethene and
(vi) glyoxal from acetylene
20
4. Explain the oxidation of acetylene.

5. Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions. Also, name the
products that are formed.
(i) A mixture of ethyne and hydrogen is passed over heated nickel
(ii) Ethyne is treated with chlorine
(iii) Ethyne is burnt in air
(iv) Ethyne is passed through bromine water
6. Explain briefly:
(i) Why butane undergoes substitution reactions?
(ii) There are millions of organic compounds.
(iii) Acetylene undergoes addition reactions in two stages.
(iv) Alkynes are more reactive than alkanes.
21
CHAPTER
13 Biochemistry
Animation 13.1: Biochemistry

Source and Credit: News Bureau
13. Biochemistry eLearn.Punjab

• Distinguish between mono-, di-and trisaccharides. (Understanding);
• Describe the bonding in a protein. (Understanding);
• Explain the sources and uses of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. (Understanding);
• Differentiate between fats and oils. (Applying); describe the importance of nucleic
acids. (Understanding) and
• Define and explain vitamins and their importance. (Understanding).
Introduction
Biochemistry is a field that has a great importance today. It deals with the naturally
occurring macromolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and
vitamins. These macromolecules are synthesized by living organisms from simple
molecules present in the environment. Macromolecules are essential for us as they
are reservoirs of energy. For example, carbohydrates we eat, provide us energy. Lipids
are major source of energy. They are stored in the body to provide emergency energy
supplies. They help us to work during tough times. Proteins not only provide us energy,
they help us to stay strong by forming new bones and muscular tissues. Moreover,
proteins protect us against the diseases. Nucleic acids are responsible for transmitting
genetic information from generation to generation.
13.1 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are macromolecules defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. They have

general formula Cn(H2O)n.
Carbohydrates are synthesized by plants through photosynthesis process from carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and green pigment chlorophyll.
2
The glucose is further polymerized to form starch and cellulose. Carbohydrates are classified
as
1. Monosaccharides 2. Oligosaccharides 3. Polysaccharides
13.1.1 Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars which cannot be hydrolyzed. They consist of 3 to
9 carbon atoms. Therefore, they are classified according to the number of carbon atoms
in their molecules as trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, and so on. The important
monosaccharides are hexoses like glucose and fructose, etc. Glucose is a pentahydroxy
aldehyde while fructose is pentahydroxy ketone having the open chain structures as follows
and general formula C6H12O6
Monosaccharides are white crystalline solids. They are soluble in water and have sweet
taste. They cannot be hydrolyzed. They are reducing in nature, therefore, these are called
reducing sugars.
13.1.2 Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides give 2 to 9 units of monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Therefore, they are

classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, etc., depending upon the
number of units they produce on hydrolysis. The most important oligosaccharides are
disaccharides like sucrose. On hydrolysis, sucrose produces one unit of glucose and
one unit of fructose.
3
These carbohydrates are white, crystalline solids easily soluble in water. They are also
sweet in taste. They may be reducing or non-reducing.
13.1.3 Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are macromolecular carbohydrates consisting of hundreds to thousands

of monosaccharides. Examples of polysaccharides are starch and cellulose. They are
amorphous solids. They are tasteless and insoluble in water. They are non-reducing in
nature.
13.1.4 Sources and Uses of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates range from simple to complex ones. They have varied sources and uses.
Sources of simple sugars e.g. glucose, fructose and galactose are fruits, vegetables, honey
and cereals.
Disaccharides are sucrose, lactose and maltose. Sucrose is found in sugar beet, sugar cane
and fruits.
Lactose consisting of glucose and galactose is the main sugar in milk and dairy products.
Maltose, a disaccharide of two glucose molecules is found in cereals.
Polysaccharides are starch and cellulose. Starch is found in cereal crops; wheat, barley, maize,
rice, etc. Cotton is pure cellulose.
Our body uses carbohydrates in the form of glucose. Glucose is the only form of carbohydrates
that is used directly by muscles for energy. It is important to note that brain needs glucose as
an energy source, because it cannot use fat for this purpose.
Besides, the energy providing materials, carbohydrates also provide the following usage to
our body.
1. They regulate the amount of sugar level in our body. Low sugar level in body results in
hypoglycemia.
4
2. They provide essential nutrients for bacteria in intestinal

tract that helps in digestion.
3. Dietary fibre helps to keep the bowel functioning properly.
4. Fibre helps in lowering of cholesterol level and regulates blood pressure.
5. Carbohydrates protect our muscles from cramping.
Carbohydrates as source of energy:

Carbohydrates provide 17 kilojoules of energy per gram. We take carbohydrates as food.
Long chains of starch (carbohydrates) are broken down into simple sugars (glucose) by
digestive enzymes. The glucose is absorbed directly by small intestine into the blood stream.
Blood stream transports the glucose to its place of use, e.g., muscles.
Fig. 13.1 Showing carbohydrates as a source of energy.
1. Define carbohydrates.
2. Give the characteristics of disaccharides.
3. Give the balanced equation for the formation of
glucose.
4. Draw the structure of glucose.
5. Give the balanced equation for the hydrolysis of
Test
Yourself 13.1 sucrose.
The use of dextrose in drips:

Dextrose is crystallized glucose (natural sugar found in starchy foods). It provides simple
carbohydrates to the body that can be easily broken down and processed. Dextrose
solution is available in several concentrations. For example, five percent dextrose solution
(D5W) consists of 5 grams of dextrose in each 100 ml of solution. It is used to provide fluid
replacement and energy to the body.
5
It contains approximately 170 calories of energy, but does not contain electrolytes.
Therefore, electrolytes are added according to requirements in solution. Dextrose is given
to patients directly into vein called intravenous (IV) therapy. It is commonly called drip
system. It is the fastest way to deliver fluids, electrolytes and medications throughout the
body. It prevents air entering into blood stream.
13.2 PROTEIN
Proteins are highly complicated nitrogenous compounds made up of amino acids. Proteins
consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. They are polymers of amino
acids. Amino acids are linked with each other through peptide
linkage
Protein has more than 10,000 amino acids. All proteins yield amino acids upon hydrolysis.
Proteins are present in all living organisms. They make up bulk of the non-bony structure
of the animal bodies. They are major component of all cells and tissues of animals.
About 50% of the dry weight of cell is made up of proteins. They are found in muscles,
skin, hair, nails, wool, feathers, etc.
Amino acids
Amino acids are organic compounds consisting of both amino and carboxyl groups.
They have the general formula:
Side chain ‘R’ is different for different amino acids. There are 20 amino acids. Ten out of
twenty amino acids can be synthesized by human body. These amino acids are called non-
essential amino acids. While the other ten which cannot be synthesized by our bodies are
called essential amino acids. Essential amino acids are required by our bodies and must be
supplied through diet.
6
13.2.1 Amino acids are Building Blocks of Proteins:
Two amino acids link through peptide linkage. Peptide linkage (bond) is formed by the
elimination of water molecule between the amino group of one amino acid and carboxyl acid
group of another, such as:
When thousands of amino acids polymerize they form protein.

13.2.2 Sources and Uses of Proteins:
Proteins make up more than 50% of the dry weight of animals. Each protein has its
source and carries out a specific function. Sources and uses of protein are as follows:
1. Sources of animal’s proteins are meat, mutton, chicken, fish, eggs. These are used
as food by human beings as they are essential for the formation of protoplasm.
2. Enzymes are proteins that are produced by the living cells. They catalyze the
chemical reactions taking place in the bodies. They are highly specific and have
extraordinary efficiency. Many enzymes are used as drugs. They control the bleeding
and treat blood cancer.
3. Hides are proteins. These are used to make leather by tanning. Leather is used to
make shoes, jackets, sports items, etc.
4. Proteins are found in bones. When bones are heated they give gelatin. Gelatin is
used to make bakery items.
5. Plants also synthesize proteins, such as pulses, beans, etc. These are used as food.
1. Which elements are found in proteins?

2. How are amino acids bonded with each other?
3. Give the general formula of amino acid.
4. What do you mean by non-essential amino acids?
Test
Yourself 13.2
7
13.3 LIPIDS
Lipids are macromolecules made up of fatty acids. Lipids include oils and fats. Oils and fats are
esters of long chain carboxylic (fatty) acids with glycerol. These esters are made of three fatty
acids, therefore, they are called triglycerides. General formula of triglycerides is as under.
Oils exist in liquid form at room temperature. They are triglycerides of unsaturated fatty
acids. While fats exist in solid form at room temperature. They are triglycerides of saturated
fatty acids.
13.3.1 Fatty Acids

Fatty acids are building blocks of lipids. They are long chain saturated or unsaturated
carboxylic acids. Examples are:
These acids form esters (oils or fats) with glycerol in the presence of mineral acids.
13.3.2 Sources and Uses of Lipids

Fats and oils are high energy foods. They are source of vitamins A, D and E. They are used to
build brain cells, nerve cells and cell membranes. They are insoluble in water but soluble in
organic solvents. The fats stored in the body insulate it as they are poor conductor of heat
and electricity.
Fats and oils are synthesized naturally by animals, plants and marine organisms.
1. Animal fats are found in adipose tissue cells. Animals secrete milk from which butter and
ghee is obtained. Butter and ghee are used for cooking and frying of food, for preparing
bakery products and sweets.
8
2. Animal fats are used in soap industry.

3. Plants synthesize oils and store them in seeds, such as sunflower oil, coconut oil,
groundnut oil and corn oil. These oils are used as vegetable oils or ghee for cooking and
other purposes.
4. Marine animals like salmon and whales are also source of oils. These oils are used as
medicines, e.g. cod liver oil.
i. What is the difference between ghee and oil?

ii. Give the characteristics of fats.
iii. Give the sources and uses of animal fats.
iv. Plants are source of oils, justify.
Test
Yourself 13.3
Hydrogenation of vegetable oil:

Vegetable oils are triester of glycerol and fatty acids of unsaturated long
chains. These oils are hydrogenated in the presence of nickel catalyst at 250
to 300 °C to form vegetable ghee.
9
13.4 NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are essential components of every living cell. They are generally long chain
molecules made up of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three components;
nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate group. There are two types of
nucleic acids:
13.4.1 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

DNA consists of deoxyribose sugar. Its structure was discovered by J. Watson and F. Crick in
1953. It is long double stranded molecule consisting of two chains. Each chain is made up of
sugar, phosphate and a base. The sugar and phosphate groups make the backbone of the
chains and two chains are linked through bases. The chains are wrapped around each other
in a double helix form as shown in figure 13.2.
Fig. 13.2 DNA Structure
DNA is the permanent storage place for genetic information in the nucleus of a cell. It
carries and stores all genetic informations of the cell. It passes these informations as
instructions from generation to generation how to synthesize particular proteins from
amino acids. These instructions are ‘genetic code of life’. They determine whether an
organism is a man or a tree or a donkey and whether a cell is a nerve cell or a muscle cell.
The sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA determines the protein development in new
cells. The function of the double helix formation of DNA is to ensure that no disorder takes
place.
10
DNA carries genes that controls the synthesis of RNA. Errors introduced into the genes
synthesize faulty RNA. It synthesizes faulty proteins that do not function the way they are
supposed to. This disorder causes genetic diseases.
13.4.2 Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

It consists of ribose sugar. It is a single
stranded molecule. It is responsible for
putting the genetic information to work
in the cell to build proteins. Its role is
like a messenger.
RNA is synthesized by DNA to transmit
the genetic information. RNA receives,
reads, decodes and uses the given
information to synthesize new proteins.
Thus RNA is responsible for directing
the synthesis of new proteins.
13.5 VITAMINS
In 1912 Hopkins noticed that in addition to carbohydrates, proteins and fats there are other
substances needed for normal growth. Although these substances were needed in small
quantity, yet these substances were called Accessory Growth Factors. Later Funk proposed
the name Vitamin for these substances. He discovered Vitamin Bi (Thiamin).
13.5.1 Types of Vitamins

Vitamins are divided into two types:
(i) Fat Soluble Vitamins
The vitamins which dissolve in fats are called fat soluble vitamins. These are vitamin A, D, E
and K. If these vitamins are taken in large quantity, they accumulate in the body and cause
diseases. For example, accumulation of vitamin D in the body causes bone-pain and bone-
like deposits in the kidney. However, their deficiency also causes diseases. Sources, uses
and diseases because of deficiency are provided in the Table 13.1.
11
Table 13.1: Sources, uses and diseases due to deficiency of some fat soluble vitamins.
No Vitamin Sources Uses Diseases
Dairy products, eggs, oils
Maintain the health of the
and fats, fish. It can also Night
epithelium and acts on the
i Vitamin A be obtained from the beta- blindness, eye
retina’s dark adaptation
carotene found in green inflammation.
mechanism.
vegetables, carrots and liver.
Has a role in the
Fish liver, dairy products, oils
absorption of calcium,
and fats, Vitamin D is formed
ii Vitamin D which is essential for the Rickets
in the skin when it is exposed
maintenance of healthy
to sunlight.
bones.
(ii) Water Soluble Vitamins

The vitamins that dissolve in water are called water soluble vitamins. These vitamins are B
complex (this include 10 vitamins) and vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Water soluble vitamins are
rapidly excreted from the body. Hence, these vitamins are not toxic even if taken in large
quantity. However, their deficiency causes disease.
13.5.2 Importance of Vitamins
1. Each vitamin plays an important role in the healthy development of our body.
2. Natural vitamins are organic food substances found only in
plants and animals. Our body is unable to synthesize vitamins.
Because of this, they must be supplied either directly in the diet or by way of dietary
supplements. They are absolutely necessary for our normal growth.
3. Vitamins cannot be assimilated without ingesting food. This is why, it is suggested that
vitamins must be taken with meal. They help to regulate our body’s metabolism.
1. What are the disadvantages of fats

soluble vitamins?
2. What are advantages of water soluble
vitamins?
3. Give examples of fats soluble vitamins.
4. What are the components of nucleotide?
Test 5. What is the function of DNA ?
Yourself 13.4
6. Why is RNA called a messenger?
12
Commercial uses of enzymes.

Enzymes are used on commercial scale for different purposes.
Common types of enzymes and their role in industry is described as:
1. Enzymes present in the yeast are commercially used for the fermentation of
molasses and starch to produce alcohol (Ethanol). These enzymes are diastase,
invertase and zymase.
2. Microbial enzymes are used in detergents (powder or liquid). Lipases decompose
fats into more water soluble compounds. Amylase removes starch based stains.
Cellulase degrades cellulose to glucose, a water soluble compound. Bacterial
proteases break down protein stains on the clothes. Thus, enzymes containing
detergents clean effectively and remove all stains and dirt.
3. Enzymes are used for the purification of fruit juices. They are added to fruit
that has been crushed like grapes. This increases the yield of the juice extracted
by removing suspended particles. It also improves the colour derived from the
fruit skins.
4. Amylase enzymes are used in bread making because they can yield more starch
of the flour. Even they are efficient enough to convert starch to sweet glucose
syrup. This can be used as sweetner in the food as well as bread making.
5. Lactase enzyme is used to increase sweetness in ice cream. As lactose in milk is
broken down to galactose and glucos ,which are sweeter than lactose.
6. In the dairy industry, some enzymes are used for the production of cheeses,
yogurt and other dairy products while others are used to improve texture or
flavours of the product.
13
Key Points
• Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. They are classified as
monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.
• Monosaccharides are unhydrolyzable consisting of 3 to 9 carbon atoms. They are sweet,
crystalline solids soluble in water.
• Oligosaccharides hydrolyze to give 2 to 9 units of monosaccharides. They are also sweet,
crystalline solids soluble in water.
• Polysaccharides consist of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides. They are tasteless,
amorphous solids insoluble in water.
• Carbohydrates are naturally synthesized macromolecules. They are found in fruits,
vegetables, cereal foods and milk.
• Carbohydrates are main source of energy.
• Proteins are nitrogenous compounds made up of amino acids. Thousands of amino acids
are bonded through peptide linkage to form proteins.
• Sources of animal proteins are meat, butter, chicken, fish and eggs.
• Proteins are used by human beings as they are essential to form protoplasm.
• Lipids are macromolecules made up of fatty acids. They are oils and fats.
• Fatty acids are long chain saturated or unsaturated carboxylic acids.
• Lipids are high energy compounds. They are synthesized naturally by animals, plants and
microorganisms.
• Nucleic acids are long chain molecules made up of nucleotides.
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a long double stranded molecule and is responsible for
transmitting genetic information to next generations.
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a single stranded molecule. It is responsible for formation of
proteins.
• Vitamins are necessary growth factors. They are divided into two types:
• Fat soluble (A, D, E and K) and water soluble vitamins (B complex and vitamin C).
• Vitamins play a significant role for proper growth and development of our body.
SKILLS:
Solubility of starch and sugar: solubility of starch and sugar in water can be checked
in laboratory as well as at home. Starch is insoluble in water while sugar is soluble in
water forming a clear solution in water.
Denaturing of Protein Denaturing of protein means precipitation or coagulation of protein.
It can be carried out by heating or changing pH. A simple common method for denaturing of
protein is boiling of an egg. White viscous fluid (albumen) present in an egg is protein. When
egg is boiled for a few minutes, albumen coagulates i.e. solidifies.
14
CONCEPT DIAGRAM
15
Short Answer Questions

1. How plants synthesize carbohydrates?
2. Give the characteristics of monosaccharides.
3. What is the difference between glucose and fructose?
4. Give an example of a disaccharide. How is it hydrolyzed into monosaccharides?
5. Give the characteristics of polysaccharides.
6. Where are the proteins found?
7. Describe the uses of carbohydrates.
8. Lactose is disaccharide; which monosaccharides are present in it?
9. Why are the ten amino acids essential for us?
10. How are proteins formed?
11. How is gelatin obtained?
12. Give the general formula of the lipids.
13. Name two fatty acids with their formulae.
14. Give the types of vitamins.
15. What is the significance of vitamins?
16. Describe the sources and uses of vitamin A.
17. Justify that water soluble vitamins are not injurious to health.
18. What do you mean by genetic code of life?
19. What is the function of DNA?
20. How do you justify that RNA works like a messenger?
Long Answer Questions

1. What are carbohydrates? How monosaccharides are prepared? Give their characteristics.
2. Explain oligosaccharides.
3. What are polysaccharides? Give their properties.
4. Explain the sources and uses of proteins.
5. Explain that amino acids are building blocks of proteins.
6. Explain the sources and uses of lipids.
7. Give the importance of vitamins.
8. Describe the sources, uses and deficiency symptoms of water soluble vitamins.
16
CHAPTER
14 Environmental Chemistry I
The Atmosphere
Animation 14.1: Atmospheric Chemistry

Source & Credit: Wikipedia
14. ENVIRONMETAL CHEMISTRY 1:THE ATMOSPHERE eLearn.Punjab

• Define atmosphere. (Remembering);
• Explain composition of atmosphere. (Understanding);
• Differentiate between stratosphere and troposphere. (Analyzing);
• Summarize the compounds of stratosphere and troposphere. (Understanding);
• Describe major air pollutants.(Understanding);
• Describe sources and effects of air pollutants. (Understanding);
• Explain ozone formation. (Understanding);
• Describe acid rain and its effects (Understanding);
• Describe ozone depletion and its effects. (Understanding) and
• Describe global warming. (Understanding).
Introduction
Our planet the Earth has four natural systems; lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and
biosphere. The knowledge and understanding of these systems is necessary for us to live on the
Earth.
In this chapter, we will focus only on atmosphere. The study of composition of atmosphere provides
us the knowledge about significance of gases present in the atmosphere. Atmosphere is divided
into four regions. Each region has its natural characteristics.
Animation 14.2 : Earth cycle

Source & Credit: Oakland
2
But human activities are disturbing the natural system. Because of these activities our atmosphere
is gradually changing. The effects of these changes will be discussed in this chapter. A lot of efforts
are being made worldwide to control the negative effects of pollution.
14.1 COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere is the envelope of different gases around the Earth. It extends continuously from the
Earth’s surface outwards without any boundary. About 99% of atmospheric mass lies within 30
kilometres of the surface and 75% lies within the lowest 11 kilometres. Percentage composition
of atmosphere by volume is shown in Table
14.1
Table 14.1 Composition of dry

air
Gas % by Volume
Nitrogen 78.09
Oxygen 20.94
Argon 0.93
Carbon
0.03
dioxide Animation 14.3: Global change
Source & Credit: ABC Science
• Sunlight has short wavelength radiations.

• Solar energy absorbed by the Earth surface is transformed into heat energy
which is of longer wavelength.
• On the average, there is total 32% reflection of light: 6% being reflected
from the Earth’s surface and 26% being reflected back into space because
of clouds, gases and dust particles in the atmosphere. 18% of sunlight is
Do you know absorbed by atmospheric gases.
• The remaining 50% reaches upto the Earth and is absorbed by it.
• This energy is radiated as heat energy of longer wavelength which is absorbed
by water vapours and CO2 in atmosphere.
3
14.2 LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere consists of four spheres (layers) extending from the surface of the Earth upwards.
The concentration of the component gases decreases gradually upwards, that results in gradual
decrease of pressure. But temperature of the atmosphere does not change in a gradual way. It
varies in a complex way as shown in figure 14.1.
Fig.14.1 Different spheres of atmosphere
Depending upon the temperature variation, atmosphere is divided into four regions.
4
Temperature decreases from 17°C

to -58°C regularly in the lowest layer
extending upto 12 km. This layer of
atmosphere is called troposphere.
Above this layer lies the stratosphere
that extends upto 50 km. In this layer,
temperature rises upto 2°C. Beyond
the stratosphere lies the mesosphere,
covering upto 85 km. In this region, again
temperature decreases down to -93°C.
Beyond 85 km lies the thermosphere, in
which temperature goes on increasing
upwards.
Animation14.4: Layers
Source & Credit: espere
Characteristics of the four regions of the atmosphere are provided in the Table 14.2.
We will discuss the reasons of variations of temperature and other phenomenon in troposphere
and stratosphere in detail.
5
14.2.1 Troposphere
The major constituents of troposphere are nitrogen and oxygen gases. These two gases comprise
99 % by volume of the Earth’s atmosphere. Although, concentration of carbon dioxide and water
vapours is negligible in atmosphere, yet they play a significant role in maintaining temperature
of the atmosphere. Both of these gases allow visible light to pass through but absorb infrared
radiations emitted by the Earth’s surface. Therefore, these gases absorb much of the outgoing
radiations and warm the atmosphere. As the concentration of gases decreases gradually with the
increase of altitude, correspondingly temperature also decreases at a rate of 6°C per kilometre.
This is the region where all weathers occur. Almost all aircrafts fly in this region.
.
Animation14.5: Atmosphere
Source & Credit:World Nuclear Association
14.2.2 Stratosphere
This region is next to troposphere and extends upto 50 kilometres. In this region, temperature
rises gradually upto 2°C. The presence of ozone (due to absorption of radiation) in this region is
responsible for the rise of temperature in stratosphere. Within this region, temperature increases
as altitude increases, such as lower layer temperature is about -58°C and upper layer is about 2°C.
Thus, stratosphere is layered in temperature as shown in figure 14.2. Since ozone in the upper
layer absorbs high energy ultraviolet radiations from the Sun, it breaks down into monoatomic (O)
and diatomic oxygen (O2 ).
6
The mid stratosphere has less UV light passing

through it. Here O and O2 recombine to form ozone
which is an exothermic reaction. Ozone formation
in this region results in formation of ozone layer.
Thus, ozone layer exists in mid stratosphere.
The lower stratosphere receives very low UV

radiations, thus monoatomic oxygen is not found
here and ozone is not formed here.
Fig. 14.2 Troposphere and stratosphere

regions
1. What do you mean by atmosphere?

2. What is the difference between atmosphere and environment?
3. Name the major constituents of troposphere.
4. How is the temperature of atmosphere maintained?
5. Where does the ozone layer exists?
6. Why is the temperature of upper stratosphere higher?
Test yourself 14.1
14.3 POLLUTANTS
A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil. Three factors determine the
severity of a pollutant, its chemical nature, concentration and persistence. These pollutants
are being created and discharged to the environment by human activities. They make the
environment (air, water or soil) harmful to life. So the pollutants are those substances which
cause pollution. While contaminants are those substances that make something impure.
The harmful substances present in air are called air pollutants. Even a beneficial substance beyond
a specific concentration may be harmful. Air pollutants change the weather, badly affect the
human health, damage the plants and destroy buildings.
7
14.3.1 Types of Pollutants

Major air pollutants are classified as primary pollutants and
secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants are the waste or
exhaust products driven out because of combustion of fossil
fuels and organic matter. These are oxides of sulphur (SO2
and SO3 ); oxides of carbon (CO2 and CO); oxides of nitrogen
(specially nitric oxide NO); hydrocarbon (CH4 ); ammonia and
compounds of fluorine. Secondary pollutants are produced by
various reactions of primary pollutants. These are sulphuric acid, Animation 14.6: Sick earth
carbonic acid, nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid, ozone and peroxy Source & Credit: Oracle
acetyl nitrate (PAN).
14.3.2 Sources of Air Pollutants
As you know 99% of atmosphere consists of N2 and O2 . Although, other gases are minor constituents,
they can have major effects on our environment. Because atmosphere determines the environment
in which we live. So, these minor constituents are safe upto a concentration limit. But in some
areas this limit has been crossed considerably during the last 60 years because of human activities.
Different sources of air pollutants are described as:
(i) Oxides of Carbon (CO2 and CO)
Sources of oxides of carbon are as follows:
• Both of these gases are emitted due to volcanic eruption and decomposition of organic matter
naturally.
• However, the major source for the emission of these gases is the combustion of fossil fuels
(coal, petroleum and natural gas). Fossil fuels burnt in combustion engine of any type of
automobile, kiln of any industry or open air fires emit CO2 and CO.
Animation 14.7: Air pollution

Source & Credit:Thinkquest
8
• Forest fires and burning of wood also emit CO2 and CO. Especially, when supply of oxygen is
limited, emission of CO dominates.
Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
The CO2 forms a layer around the Earth like an envelope. It allows the heat rays of the
Sun to pass through it and reach upto the Earth. These rays are reflected from the
Earth surface and go back to upper atmosphere as shown in figure 14.3(a). Normal
concentration of CO2 layer retains enough heat to keep the atmosphere warm. So, normal
concentration of CO2 is necessary and beneficial for keeping the temperature warm.
Otherwise, the Earth would have been uninhabitable. The Earth’s average temperature
would be about -20°C, rather than presently average temperature 15°C. CO2
is not an air pollutant. Rather, it is an essential gas for plants as O2 is essential
for animals. Plants consume CO2 in photosynthesis process and produce O2.
While animals use O2 in respiration and give out CO2 . In this way, a natural balance exists
between these essential gases as represented here.
But this balance is being disturbed

by emitting more and more CO2 in air
through different human activities.
Animation 14.8: Indicator of global warming

Source & Credit: rollins.edu
9
Although, CO2 is not a poisonous gas, yet its increasing

concentration due to burning of fossil fuels in different
human activities is alarming. CO2 in the atmosphere acts
like a glass wall of a green house. It allows UV radiations
to pass through it but does not allow the IR radiations to
pass through it. It traps some of the infrared radiations
emitted by the Earth.
Hence, increased concentration of CO2 layer absorbs the
infrared radiations emitted by the Earth’s surface that Animation14.9 : Plant activity
Source & Credit: Next.cc
prevents heat energy escaping from the atmosphere.
It helps to stop surface from cooling down during

night. As the concentration of CO2 in air increases,
less heat energy is lost from the surface of the Earth.
Therefore, the average temperature of the surface
gradually increases. This is called greenhouse
effect as shown in figure 14.3(b). This effect is
proportional to amount of CO2 in air. Greater is
amount of CO2 , more is trapping of heat or warming.
Due to increased warming this phenomenon is also
called global warming.
Animation14.10: Greenhouse effect
Source & Credit: elte
and
Fig.14.3: Greenhouse effect

10
Effects of global warming

1. Accumulation of carbon dioxide in air is resulting in
increasing atmospheric temperature about 0.05 °C
every year.
2. It is causing major changes in weather patterns.
Extreme weather events are occurring more commonly
and intensely than previously.
3. It melts glaciers and snow caps that are increasing flood
risks and intense tropical cyclones.
4. Sea-level is rising due to which low lying areas are liable
to be submerged, turning previously populated areas
no longer habitable.
Fig. 14.4: Effect of global warming
Animation 14.11 : Catalytic converter

Source & Credit: chemwiki
CO is an air pollutant. It is a health hazard being highly poisonous gas.

Being colourless and odourless, its presence cannot be noticed easily and
readily. When inhaled, it binds with the haemoglobin more strongly than
oxygen. Thus, hindering the supply of oxygen in body. Exposure to higher
concentration of CO causes headache and fatigue. If inhaled for a longer
time it results in breathing difficulties and ultimately death. This is the reason
Do you know why burning is not allowed in closed places. It is advised to switch off coal or
gas heaters, cooking range, etc., before going to sleep.
11
Converters should be used in automobile exhaust so that theyconvert CO to CO2

and oxides of nitrogen NOx to N2 . before it enters in air. Catalytic converters
as shown in figure 14.5 are attached to automobile exhausts. When hot gases
pass through the converters, harmful pollutants are converted to harmless
substances. Such as, carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide, unburn
hydrocarbons are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, while oxides of nitrogen
are reduced to nitrogen.
Do you know
Fig.14.5: Catalytic Converter Used in automobile vehicles.

(ii) Sulphur Compounds:
Naturally occurring sulphur containing compounds are emitted in the bacterial decay of organic
matter, in volcanic gases and forest fires. But the concentration of sulphur containing compounds
in the atmosphere because of natural sources is very small as compared to the concentration of
those compounds emitted by fossil fuel combustion in automobiles and industrial units. About
80% of the total SO2 is released by the combustion of coal and petroleum products as shown in
figure 14.6.
burnt
Fig.14.6: Formation of SO3 and SO2 on combustion of fossils fuel and causing air pollution
12
Effects of SO2:
(i) SO2 is a colourless gas having irritating smell. It causes
suffocation, irritation and severe respiratory problems to
asthmatic people.
(ii) SO2 forms sulphuric acid which damages buildings and
vegetations. Detail of it will be discussed in section 14.4.
To control pollution because of SO2 , it is necessary to
remove sulphur from fossil fuels before they are burnt.
(iii) Nitrogen Compounds (NOx):
Naturally occurring oxides of nitrogen, mainly nitric
oxide (NO), are produced by the electrical lightening in
air. Animation 14.12 : precipitation
Source & Credit: indiana.edu
Combustion of fossil fuels in internal combustion

engines, in thermal power stations and factories
where huge amount of coal is burnt, NO is formed
by the direct combination of nitrogen and oxygen
Animation 14.13 : Nitrates as shown in figure 14.7.
Source & Credit:outdoors
13
However, it quickly reacts with air to form nitrogen dioxide. NO2 is highly toxic gas.
Fig.14.7: Formation of NO and NO2 on combustion of fossils fuel and causing air pollution
Mixture of these gases represented as NOx enters in the air through automobile exhaust and
chimneys of thermal power station and factories. It irritates breathing passage. These oxides
form nitric acid combining with water vapours in air. Nitric acid is a component of acid rain.
Its effects will be discussed in section 14.4.
i) What do you mean by an air pollutant?

ii) Name three primary air pollutants.
iii) Identify as primary or secondary air pollutant.
SO2, CH4, HNO3,NH3,H2SO4,O3
iv) Why is CO2 called a greenhouse gas?
v) Why are the flood risks are increasing?
vi) Comment: burning in open air is preferred.
Test yourself 14.2
vii) How are sulphur containing compounds are emitted naturally?
viii) How does combustion of fossil fuels in internal combustion engine
produce oxides of nitrogen?
14
Role of Government to control pollution:

Causing air pollution through auto-exhaust is almost the most common air
polluting act which an average citizen commits daily for hours without considering
its consequences. Poisoning the air is creating a big problem that has local, regional
and global effects.
Government should do short term as well as long term planning to preserve the
natural world, because without a healthy natural environment, there will be no
healthy human, plant, or animal.
(i) First of all, quality of fuel must be improved by adding anti-knocking agents in
fuels. At the same time, automobiles combustion engines must be efficient so that
they should burn the fuel completely. No unburned hydrocarbon molecules (fuel)
should come out of the exhaust. So government must guide the people to use
converters in auto- exhausts.
(ii) Fossil fuels produce a number of air pollutants because of impurities and
complex molecule nature of hydrocarbons. Government should promote the
use of alternative fuels such as methanol, ethanol and bio-diesel. These fuels are
less polluting than hydrocarbons fuel, as their molecules are simple, and burn
completely in the engine. Their burning produces less carbon monoxide, soot and
other pollutants.
(iii) The government must plan to avoid using carbon dioxide producing fuels as it
is a greenhouse gas. It should go to battery-powered electric vehicles.
(iv) Government should provide efficient transport in the big cities, so that people
should avoid using their own vehicles.
14.4 ACID RAIN AND ITS EFFECTS
As you have studied, burning of fossil fuels produces oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in air. Rain
water converts SO2 into H2SO4 and NOx to HNO2and HNO3 . Normal rain water is weakly acidic
because it consists of dissolved CO2 of the air. Its pH is about 5.6 to 6. But rain water on dissolving
air pollutants (acids) becomes more acidic and its pH reduces to 4 .Thus, acid rain is formed on
dissolving acidic air pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide by rain water.
Figure 14.8 shows how oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are converted into acids. These acids
dissolve in rain water and damage soil, animals, plants and aquatic life.
15
Fig. 14.8 Acid rain formation and its effects
Effects of acid rain

(i) Acid rain on soil and rocks leaches heavy metals (Al, Hg,
Pb, Cr, etc) with it and discharges these metals into rivers
and lakes. This water is used by human beings for drinking
purpose. These metals accumulate in human body to a
toxic level. On the other hand, aquatic life present in lakes
also suffers because of high concentration of these metals.
Especially high concentration of aluminium ions clogs the
fish gills. It causes suffocation and ultimately death of fish.
(ii) Acid rain attacks the calcium carbonate present in the
marble and limestone of buildings and monuments. Thus,
these buildings are getting dull and eroded day by day. Animation 14. 14: Forest
Source & Credit:umich
(iii) Acid rain increases the acidity of the soil. Many crops
and plants cannot grow properly in such soil. It also increases the toxic metals in the soil that poison
the vegetation. Even old trees are affected due to acidity of soil. Their growth is retarded. They get
dry and die.
(iv) Acid rain directly damages the leaves of trees and plants, thus limiting their growth. Depending
upon the severity of the damage, plants growth can be hampered. Plants capability to resist cold or
diseases reduces and ultimately they die as shown in figure 14.9
16
(i) How is acid rain produced?

(ii) Why does acid rain damage buildings?
(iii) How is aquatic life affected by acid rain?
(iv) Why are plants dying day by day? Comment.
Test yourself 14.3
14.5 OZONE DEPLETION AND ITS EFFECTS
Ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen consisting of three oxygen

atoms. It is formed in atmosphere by the association of an oxygen
atom with an oxygen molecule in the mid of stratosphere.
Ozone is present throughout the atmosphere. But its maximum

concentration called ozone layer lies in stratosphere region about
Figure 14.9: Effect of acid rain on
25 to 30 km away from the Earth’s surface. This layer surrounds plants
the globe and protects Earth like a shield from harmful ultraviolet
radiations of sunlight as shown in figure 14.10. Otherwise, ultraviolet radiations would cause skin
cancer. Thus ozone layer in stratosphere is beneficial for life on the Earth.
Fig 14.10:(a) Ozone layer (b) Depletion of ozone layer
17
Under normal conditions ozone concentration in stratosphere remains nearly constant through
a series of complex atmospheric reactions. Two reactions that maintain a balance in ozone
concentrations are as follows:
But this ozone layer is being depleted through various chemical reactions.
However, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs ) (used as refrigerants in air

conditioners and refrigerators) are major cause of depletion of ozone
layer. These compounds leak in one way or other escape and diffuse
to stratosphere. Ultraviolet radiations break the C-Cl bond in CFCI3
and generates chlorine free radicals as:
These free radicals are very reactive. They react with ozone to form oxygen as:
A single chlorine free radical released by the

decomposition of CFCs is capable of destroying upto
many lacs of ozone molecules. The region in which ozone
layer depletes is called ozone hole.
Animation 14.15: Ozone layer

Source & Credit:ucar
Signs of ozone depletion were first noticed over Antarctica in 1980s. Since 1990s depletion
has also been recorded over the Arctic, as well.
18
Effects of Ozone Depletion

Even minor problems of ozone depletion can have major effects.
i. Depletion of ozone enables ultraviolet radiations of Sun to reach to the Earth, that can cause
skin cancer to human beings and other animals.
ii. Decreased ozone layer will increase infectious diseases like malaria.
iii. It can change the life cycle of plants disrupting the food chain.
iv. It can change the wind patterns, resulting in climatic changes all over the
world. Especially, Asia and Pacific will be the most affected regions,facing climate induced
migration of people crisis.
i. Justify, ozone is beneficial for human

kind.
ii. Why is ozone depleting in atmosphere?
iii. What do you mean by ozone hole?
Test yourself 14.4
iv. Where is the ozone layer found?
Incineration of waste material causes air pollution

Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the burning of solid
waste at high temperatures between 650° C to 1100° C in incinerators.
Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80-85% and convert
the waste materials into ash, flue gases and heat. Although, the volume of
solid waste is reduced effectively by incineration, it produces highly poisonous
gases and toxic ash. The flue gases include, dioxins, furans, sulphur dioxide,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrochloric acid and a large amount of
particulate matter.
Key Points
• Atmosphere is the envelope of different gases around the Earth.
• Atmosphere is divided into four regions; troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and
thermosphere.
• Troposphere is just above Earth’s surface and extends upto 12 kilometre.
• Stratosphere is next to troposphere and extends upto 50 km. In this region, temperature
rises upwards because of presence of ozone layer.
• Mesosphere is next to stratosphere and extends up to 85 km.
• Thermosphere lies beyond mesosphere.
• Natural sources of air pollutants are volcanic eruption and decomposition of organic matter.
19
• Source of air pollutants because of human activities are burning of fossil fuel in combustion
engines of automobiles, kilns of industries, open air fires and forest fires.
• CO2 forms a layer around Earth, that absorbs the infrared radiations emitted by Earth surface.
Thus, heating up the atmosphere is called greenhouse effect.
• CO is highly poisonous gas so it is health hazard.
• SO2 is also health hazard and forms sulphuric acid by combining with water vapours in air. It is
also a component of acid rain.
• Acid rain consists of H2SO4and HNO3 that reduces the pH of rain water to 4.
• Ozone layer lies in stratosphere about 25 to 30 km away from Earth’s surface.
• Ozone layer protects Earth like a shield from harmful ultraviolet radiations of sunlight.
• Chlorofluorocarbons destroy ozone molecules, depleting the ozone called ozone hole.
• Depletion of ozone enables ultraviolet radiations of the Sun to reach the Earth; causing infectious
diseases; changing the life cycle of plants, wind patterns.
SKILLS:
Filtration of suspended impurities
Filtration is separation of insoluble solid particles (sand, clay, dust or precipitates) from a liquid.
It is carried out by filtering a mixture. A filter paper is first folded half way, then another fold is
made, so that a filter paper gets four folds. This folded filter paper is placed in a filter funnel in
such a way that on one side there are three layers and on the other side there is one layer as
shown in the figure.The mixture (sand in water or chalk in water) is poured into the filter paper
as shown in the figure.
Filtrate passes through the filter paper and is collected in a conical flask. The solid particles
(residue) deposit on the filter paper. It is then dried.
20
Concept Diagram
21
Short Answer Questions

1. Explain the phenomenon of decreasing temperature in troposphere.
2. Differentiate between primary and secondary air pollutants.
3. State the major sources of CO and CO2 emission.
4. CO2 is responsible for heating up atmosphere, how?
5. CO is a hidden enemy, explain its action.
6. What threats are there to human health due to SO2 gas as air pollutant?
7. Which air pollutant is produced on anaerobic decomposition of organic matter?
8. How does acid rain increase the acidity of soil?
9. Point out two serious effects of ozone depletion.
10.How is ozone layer formed in stratosphere?
11.Why does 75% of the atmospheric mass lie within the troposphere?
12.How ozone layer is being depleted by chlorofluorocarbons?
Long Answer Questions

1. Write down the significance of atmospheric gases.
2. Give the characteristics of troposphere. Why temperature decreases upwards in this sphere?
3. What are the characteristics of stratosphere? Why does temperature increase upwards in this
sphere?
4. CO2 is necessary for plants but why is its increasing concentration alarming for us?
5. Why is CO considered a health hazard?
6. Define acid rain. How is it formed and what are its effects?
7. Compounds of sulphur are air pollutants. Describe the sources of these compounds along with
their effects.
8. Where does ozone layer lie in atmosphere? How is it depleting and how can we prevent its
depletion?
9. Oxides of nitrogen cause air pollution. Describe the sources of these compounds.
22
CHAPTER
15 Water
Animation 15.1: Reuse of water

Source & Credit : hongkongirport
15. Water eLearn.Punjab

• Describe the occurrence of water and its importance in the environment including industry.
(Analyzing);
• Review our dependence on water and its importance of maintaining its quality. (Analyzing);
• Describe the composition and properties of water. (Understanding);
• Differentiate among soft, temporary and permanent hard water. (Analyzing);
• Describe methods for eliminating temporary and permanent hardness of water. (Applying);
• Identify water pollutants.(Analyzing);
• Describe industrial wastes and household wastes as water pollutants. (Understanding);
• Describe the effects of these pollutants on life. (Understanding) and
• Describe various types of waterborne diseases. (Understanding)
Introduction
Throughout history, importance and significance of water has been recognized by mankind. Its
importance is because of two reasons. First, it is an essential and major component of each and
every living cell. For example, human body consists of about 70% water. Secondly, it provides
an environment for animals and plants that live in water. So, all living organisms owe their life
to water.
We use water in daily life for drinking, cooking and washing purposes. Quality of drinking water
has remained a major factor in determining human health and welfare since ages. Since World
War II, there has been a rapid production and use of synthetic chemicals. Many of these chemicals
(fertilizers and pesticides run off from agriculture lands and industrial discharge from industrial
units) have polluted water supplies. Besides this, there is also a threat to groundwater from waste
chemical dumps and landfills.
Currently, waterborne toxic chemicals pose the greatest threat to the supplies of water especially
in urban areas. Use of this water is causing waterborne diseases. So use of polluted water is a
concern of every citizen. Therefore, understanding the sources and effects of water pollution is
essential for controlling this alarming threat.
2
Occurrence of Water
The oceans contain about 97% of world’s water. The rest of the water is in the form of
glaciers, ice caps, groundwater and inland water (rivers, lakes, streams). It is also present
in atmosphere in the form of water vapours. Sea water is unfit for drinking and agricultural
purposes due to high percentage of dissolved salts.
Only 0.2% of the total water on the Earth is potable, i.e. fit for drinking purposes.
15.1PROPERTIES OF WATER
Water is composed of two elements: oxygen and hydrogen. One atom of oxygen combines with
two atoms of hydrogen to form one molecule of water. Pure water is a clear, colourless, odourless
and tasteless liquid with following properties:
1. It is neutral to litmus.
2. Its freezing point is 0°C and boiling point is 100 °C at sea level.
3. Its maximum density is 1 gcm-3 at 4°C.
4. It is excellent solvent for ionic as well as molecular compounds.
5. It has unusually high heat capacity about 4.2 Jg-1K-1, which is about six times greater than that
of rocks. This specific property of water is responsible for keeping the Earth’s temperature
within limits. Otherwise, day time temperature would have been too high to bear and night time
temperature would have been too low to freeze everything.
6. It has high surface tension. This unique property of water is responsible for its high capillary
3
action. Capillary action is the process by which water rises up from the
roots of plants to leaves. This process is vital for the survival of the
land plants.
15.2 WATER AS SOLVENT
Water is the universal solvent because it can dissolve almost all the
minerals. Its ability to dissolve substances is because of two unique
properties of water:
(i) Polarity of water molecule;
(ii) Exceptional hydrogen bonding ability.
Animation 15.2: Capilary action

Source & Credit : vision
Polar nature of water

Water molecule has polar structure, i.e. one
end of the molecule is partially positive while
the other end is partially negative because of
Animation 15.3: water as solvent electronegativity difference between oxygen
Source & Credit : csbsju
and hydrogen atoms.
All other polar substances are soluble in water,
because the positive end of

the substance is attracted by
the negative end (Od-) of the
water and negative end of the
substance is attracted by the
positive end (Hd+) of the water.
The electrostatic attractions
among the ions are overcome
by the ion-dipole forces of
attraction between ion and
water molecules.
Animation 15.4: Hydrogen bonding
Source & Credit : simplebooklet
4
In this way, positive and negative ions of the compounds are pulled apart as shown in figure 15.1.
Ultimately, these oppositely charged ions are surrounded by water molecules, thus separated and
kept in solution. For example, most of the salts like NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4 , etc. are soluble in water.
On the other hand, many covalent substances like benzene, ether, octane, etc., which do not have
polar ends or bonds are not attracted by water molecules. Therefore, non-polar compounds do not
dissolve in water.
Fig. 15.1 Dissolving process of a polar substance in water.
Extensive hydrogen bonding ability
Water molecule is composed of oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Because of two O—H bonds and two
lone pairs, one H2O molecule can form hydrogen bonding with four other H2O molecules, which are
arranged tetrahedrally around the H2O molecule as shown in Figure 15.2.
This unique behaviour of water enables it to dissolve

many polar non-ionic compounds having hydroxyl
group (-OH), like alcohols, organic acids, glucose,
sugar, etc. by forming hydrogen bonds with them.
Fig. 15.2 Hydrogen bonding of water molecule.
5
Animation 15.5: Hydrogen bonding of water

molecule.
Source & Credit : elmhurst
i. What is capillary action ?

ii. Point out two properties of water that make it an excellent
solvent.
iii. Why is the water molecule polar?
iv. Explain why nonionic polar compounds are soluble in
Test YourSelf 15.1 water?
15.3 SOFT AND HARD WATER
Soft water
Soft water is that water which produces good lather with soap.
Hard water
Hard water is that water which does not produce lather with soap.Causes of hardness in water.
The rain water while coming down absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The water mixed
with carbon dioxide, when passes through the beds of the soil, converts insoluble carbonates of
calcium and magnesium into soluble bicarbonates. It may also dissolve chlorides and sulphates
of calcium and magnesium. These salts make the water hard.
6
Thus, rain water dissolves many salts of divalent cations like Mg2+, Ca2+, and anions like Cl- , SO42- ,
HCO3- and CO32- for example, gypsum (CaSO4 .2H2O) and limestone (CaCO3 ). These salts make the
water hard. Gypsum is sparingly soluble in water, while limestone is insoluble in water. However,
in the presence of carbon dioxide small quantity of limestone is soluble in water according to the
above chemical reaction.
15.3.1 Types of Hardness of Water

Hardness is of two types:
(i) Temporary hardness is because of presence of bicarbonates
of calcium and magnesium.
(ii) Permanent hardness is because of presence of sulphates
and chlorides of calcium and magnesium.
Animation 15.6 water softening

Source & Credit : unem
Animation 15.7: Water cycle

Source & Credit : southeasttexaswater
7
15.3.2 Method of Removing Hardness

The removal of Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions which are responsible for the hardness is called water
softening.
(i) Removal of temporary hardness
(a) By boiling
Temporary hardness of water is easily removed by boiling the water. On boiling,
calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 decomposes to produce insoluble calcium carbonate,
which precipitates out of the solution.
(b) Clark’s method

A chemical method to remove temporary hardness is by the addition of slaked lime Ca(OH)2 .
A calculated amount of lime water is added to temporary hard water.
Thus, once the magnesium and calcium ions precipitate out water becomes soft.
(ii) Removal of permanent hardness

Permanent hardness can only be removed by using chemicals. Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+)
are removed as insoluble salts by adding washing soda (Na2CO3 ) or sodium zeolite.
(a) By using washing soda: The addition of washing soda removes the calcium and magnesium
ions as the insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates, respectively.
8
b) Using Sodium Zeolite (an ion Exchanger) Sodium zeolite is a naturally occurring resin of sodium
aluminium silicate NaAl(SiO3)2 , which can also be prepared artificially. It is used for softening of
water at domestic as well as on industrial scale.
When water is passed through resin, sodium ions of the resin are exchanged with the unwanted
Fig. 15.3 Ion exchange for removal of hard water ions
calcium and magnesium ions of the hard water as shown in figure 15.3.
When resin is fully used up it can be regenerated by flushing it with concentrated solution of NaCl.
The reverse process takes place because of high concentration of sodium ions.
9
Disadvantages of Hard Water

(i) Hard water consumes large amount of soap in washing purposes.
(ii) Drinking hard water causes stomach disorders.
(iii) Hard water is unfit for use in steam engines, boilers and turbines because insoluble calcium
and magnesium salts deposit inside. They are called scales. They are bad conductors of heat and
hence more fuel is used. Insoluble calcium and magnesium sulphates not only reduce the efficiency
of the engine but also cause the boiler to burst.
i. Which salts are responsible for hardness of water?

ii. Explain the chemistry of removing the temporary hardness by
boiling water.
iii. What is the principle of removing permanent hardness of water?
iv. How does addition of Na2CO3 remove permanent hardness of
water?
v. How does sodium zeolite soften water?
Test YourSelf 15.2 vi. What do you mean by boiler scales? How are they removed?
Hard water hampers the cleaning action of soap.

Soap is the sodium salt of a long chain carboxylic acid (fatty acid).
Hard water contains salts of magnesium and calcium. These ions
react with the soap molecule to form an insoluble precipitate of
calcium and magnesium salts of fatty acids called scum. As a result,
a large amount of soap is wasted in scum formation. Thus, it reduces
the efficiency of soap.
10
15.4 WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is a contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and ground water).
Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies
without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
Industrial Effluents
Industrial units are installed to produce the desired substances (chemicals, cloth, leather goods,
paper, plastic items, petrochemicals and rubber items) on commercial scale to meet the needs
of the society. But unfortunately all the industrial units discharge their wastes (chemicals and
solid materials) either to open ground or to water channels. This is called industrial effluent. The
industrial effluent may be highly toxic organic chemicals, inorganic salts, heavy metals, mineral acids, oil
and greases, etc. On the other hand, water used as cleaning agent in industries is directly discharged
out. This water contains all kinds of toxic chemicals and detergents.
When these effluents and used water enter lakes, streams, rivers or oceans, they either get dissolved
or float suspended in water. Even they get deposited on the bed. This results in the pollution of
water, i.e.
1. They deteriorate the quality of water.
2. They reduce the quantity of dissolved oxygen which ultimately affects aquatic life and ecosystem
Animation 15.8: Liquid pollution

Source & Credit : flexiblelearning
11
3. They can also seep down and affect the groundwater deposits.They contaminate the water
deposits. When this water is used by human beings, it causes serious diseases like cancer and
gastro. This polluted water damages soil, crops, plants and animals.
4. Heavy metals like cadmium, lead and mercury are toxic and health hazards for human
beings. Acute cadmium poisoning causes high blood pressure, kidney damage and destruction
of red blood cells. Acute lead poisoning causes dysfunction of kidneys, liver, brain, central
nervous system and reproductive system. Mercury poisoning causes neurological damage.
Domestic Effluents
Use of detergents is increasing day by day for cleaning purposes in houses and industries. It is
because, detergents have strong cleaning action than that of soap even in hard water. They can
work even in acidic solutions. But they have a major disadvantage over the soaps, as some of
the detergents are non-biodegradable (cannot be decomposed by microorganisms like bacteria).
When household water containing these detergents is discharged in streams, ponds, lakes and
rivers, it causes water pollution.
The detergent remains in the water for a long time and makes the water unfit for aquatic life.
The phosphate salts present in detergents cause rapid growth of algae in water bodies, which
floats over the surface of water. These plants ultimately die and decay. Decaying plants being
biodegradable consume oxygen gas present in water. Thus, depletion of oxygen gas results in
death of aquatic life.
Domestic sewage contains a wide variety of dissolved and suspended impurities. They include
food and vegetable waste, garbage, cans, bottles, chemical soaps, washing powder, etc. It also
contains disease causing microbes. All these substances add to water pollution.
Agricultural Effluents
Water pollution due to agricultural waste is because of use of fertilizers and pesticides. Fertilizers
are used to make up the deficiency of nitrogen, phosphorus, etc. of the soil because of intensive
cultivation of crops in the recent years.
On the other hand, pesticides are used either directly to kill or control the growth of pests.
Pests may be weeds, herbs, insects, fungi, viruses, etc. They all damage crops and transmit diseases
both to human beings and animals.
12
Agricultural effluents have dual effects:

1. Intensive cultivation of crops causes these
chemicals from fertilizers and pesticides to seep
into the groundwater commonly called leaching
process. The high nitrate contents in ground
water is mainly because of irrigation run-off from
agricultural fields.
2. Run-off from the agricultural land (where fertilizers
and pesticides have been used) enters into ponds,
streams or rivers. This water contains nitrate (NO3-
) and phosphate (PO43-) salts. These substances
result in a rapid growth of algae, floating over the
Animation 15.9: water cycle
surface of water. They prevent the sunlight and Source & Credit : usgs
air (oxygen) to reach upto aquatic life. When algae
dies, bacteria consume oxygen of the water for
decomposition of algae. As a result oxygen depletes in the water. Aquatic animals feel suffocation
and ultimately die due to insufficient supply of oxygen.
Effects of Water Pollution

Water pollution has the following effects:
1. It is hazardous to human health. Drinking polluted water can cause cholera, typhoid and
diarrhea.
2. The use of polluted water is not only devastating for people but also for animals and birds.
3. It causes rapid growth of algae. Death and decomposition of algae causes deficiency of oxygen
in water that affects organism living in water.
4. It is damaging aquatic life, thus breaking a link in food chain.
5. It reduces the aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers.

6. It is unfit for cleaning or washing purposes.
i. What is an industrial waste?

ii. How does water use as a cleaning agent in industries causes
pollution?
Test yourself iii. Why is the use of detergents increasing day by day?
15.3
iv. How decaying plants consume oxygen?
v. What is the function of fertilizers?
vi. How do the pesticides cause water pollution?
13
15.5 WATERBORNE INFECTIOUS DISEASES
Diseases that spread because of drinking polluted water or eating food prepared with polluted water
are called waterborne infectious diseases. Water pollution may be due to toxins or microorganisms.
Toxins are arsenic, mercury, calcium, lead and many organic chemicals. Microorganisms are
viruses, bacteria, protozoa and worms.
Lack of proper sanitation facilities is the main cause of rapidly spreading waterborne diseases. A
few common diseases are mentioned here:
(i) Diarrheal diseases
Intestinal diseases, such as cholera, that may cause dangerous dehydration. Diarrhea may be
caused by viruses, bacteria or parasites.
(ii) Dysentery
Dysentery is an intestinal disease which is typically caused by certain bacteria or parasites. It is
characterized by severe diarrhea that may be accompanied by blood or mucous.
Animation 15.10 : Typical hydrolic dam

Source & Credit : Usgs
(iii) Cholera
Cholera is an acute infection caused by the bacteria Vibrios cholerae, which may be found in water
contaminated by human feaces. Cholera causes severe diarrhea and can be fatal.
14
(iv) Cryptosporidium
Waterborne microorganism (protozoa) that causes gastrointestinal illness (cryptosporidiosis)
including diarrhea and vomiting. These tiny pathogens are found in surface water sources like
reservoirs, lakes and rivers.
(v) Fluorosis
Fluorosis is a disease caused by the consumption of excess fluoride. Fluorosis can cause bones and
teeth damage.
(vi) Hepatitis
It is liver inflammation commonly caused by one of five viruses called hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E.
Hepatitis A and E can be transmitted by contaminated water.
(vii) Hookworm
Hookworm is a parasitic worm that infects the small intestine. Severe cases can result in anemia
and stunted growth in children. Hookworm larvae enter the body through the skin, often via the
feet. Spread by poor sanitary conditions, hookworms infect about one billion people worldwide per
annum.
(viii) Jaundice
Jaundice is caused by an excess of bile pigments in the blood. Liver ceases to function and eyes turn
yellow. Patient feels weakness and fatigue.
(ix) Typhoid
A dangerous bacterial disease often spread by contaminated water or by food prepared with
contaminated water.
Prevention of waterborne diseases

Waterborne diseases can be prevented by taking the following measures:
(i) Provision of safe water: Drinking water must be properly treated and purified.
(ii) Disposal of sewage: There must be adequate sanitary disposal of sewage. Any type of waste
must not be thrown or discharged directly in water supplies or reservoirs.
15
(iii) Control of toxic chemicals: Chemical contamination can cause acute illness, but often toxic
contaminants are slow poisons and carcinogens.There must be a strict control over the use of
pesticides and other chemicals.
i. Define water borne diseases

ii. What is dysentery?
iii. Which bacteria causes the cholera?
Test yourself iv. What do you mean by fluorosis?
15.4
v. What is hepatitis?
Chemistry of swimming pool cleanliness

Swimming pools are cleaned by chlorination process. It is the addition
of chlorine solution in swimming pools. Chlorine kills bacteria and other
microorganisms. Cl2 itself does not kill rather it dissociates in water to
form hypochlorous acid (HOCI) and hydrochloric acid
HOCl further ionizes to produce hypochlorite and proton
Both the products HOCI and OCl kill bacteria and microorganisms
Key Points
• Water is an excellent solvent, has high specific heat capacity, high surface tension and high
capillary action.
• Water is universal solvent because of its polarity and hydrogen bonding ability.
• Soft water produces lather with soap.
• Hard water does not produce lather with soap.
• Hardness is of two types: temporary and permanent.
• Temporary hardness is because of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. This hardness can
be removed by boiling or by addition of slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) in water.
• Permanent hardness is because of presence of carbonates and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium. This hardness can be removed by treating water with washing soda and sodium
zeolite.
• Used water is called waste water or sewage.
• Water pollution is caused by affecting water quality by pollutants.
• Industrial effluents are one of the main causes of water pollution. It includes high toxic organic
chemicals, inorganic salts, heavy metals, mineral acids, oil and greases, etc.
16
• Household water in the sewage from toilets, baths, kitchens, etc. consists of detergents used for
cleaning purposes. Detergent being non-biodegradable causes rapid growth of aquatic plants.
When these plants die and decay, they consume O2 present in the water. Thus, aquatic life is
badly affected because of scarcity of O2.
• Agricultural effluents consist of fertilizers and pesticides. These substances provide nitrate
and phosphate ions for rapid growth of aquatic plants. When these plants die and decay, their
decomposition process consumes O2 of water. Thus, depletion of O2 causes damage to the
aquatic life.
• Waterborne diseases are those diseases that spread because of drinking polluted water. These
diseases spread because of lack of proper sanitation arrangements. These diseases can be
prevented by using safe water, properly disposing sewage and controlled use of toxic chemicals
SKILLS:
Quality of Water
Good quality water is colourless, odourless and tasteless. Hardness of water can be checked by
washing. Soft water produces lather with water. Pure water has least conductivity.
Boiling point of water
Water boils at 100°C.
Distillation of impure water
Impure water can be purified by simple distillation apparatus as shown in figure. Distillation process
involves boiling of a liquid and then condensing the vapours.
Impure water is taken in a distillation flask. It is boiled. Water vapours rise and enter the condenser.
The vapours condense while passing through condenser. Thus, they are changed back into pure
water, which is called distillate (distilled water).The distillate is collected in a beaker. The impurities
remain behind in the distillation flask.
17
18
Short Questions
1. How water rises in plants?
2. Which forces are responsible for dissolving polar substances in water?
3. Why are non-polar compounds insoluble in water?
4. How does water dissolve sugar and alcohol?
5. How does limestone dissolve in water?
6. Differentiate between soft and hard water.
7. What are the causes of hardness in water?
8. What are the effects of temporary hardness in water?
9. Mention the disadvantages of detergents.
10. What is the difference between biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances?
11. How detergents make the water unfit for aquatic life?
12. Why are pesticides used?
13. What are the reasons of waterborne diseases?
14. How waterborne diseases can be prevented?
Extensive Questions
1. How polarity of water molecule plays its role to dissolve the substances?
2. Explain the methods of removing permanent hardness.
3. Explain the water pollution because of industrial waste.
4. Justify the statement: household water is the reason of water pollution.
5. Explain that agricultural effluents are fatal for aquatic life.
6. Explain five important waterborne diseases. How can these be prevented?
7. Give some disadvantages of hard water.
8. What is water pollution? Describe the effects of using polluted water.
9. Explain the reasons, why water is considered a universal solvent.
10. Write a note on the treatment of sewage water.
19
CHAPTER
16 Chemical Industries
Animation 16.1: Jaw Crushing

Source & Credit: ZDZK
16. CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES eLearn.Punjab

• Describe some metallurgical operations. (Applying);
• Make a list of raw materials for Solvay process. (Applying);
• Outline the basic reactions of Solvay process. (Analyzing);
• Develop a flow sheet diagram of Solvay process. (Creating);
• Describe the composition of urea. (Understanding);
• Develop a flow sheet diagram for the manufacture of urea. (Creating);
• List the uses of urea. (Remembering);
• Define petroleum. (Remembering);
• Describe the formation of petroleum and natural gas. (Understanding);
• Describe the composition of petroleum. (Remembering) ;
• Describe briefly the fractional distillation of petroleum. (Applying).
Introduction
Chemical industries are established to meet the needs of modern societies. Metallurgy is the science
of extracting metals from ores. Metals have played a major role in progress of societies. Since ages
metals are used for making tools, machines and other items. In the modern age, although polymers
have taken the place of metals, yet the importance of metals cannot be ignored.
Baking soda (NaHCO3 ) and washing soda (Na2CO3 ) are used in daily life for different purposes.
Solvay’s process for the manufacturing of baking and washing soda from common salt will be
discussed in detail.
Fertilizers are vital for the growth and development of plants and crops. One of the important
fertilizers urea, is used to enhance the productivity of crops. Hence, the synthesis of urea has been
explained here.
In the modern age of communication, petroleum industry has a great significance. Petroleum
products are used as fuel, solvent and lubricants. Petrochemicals are used to manufacture a variety
of household items, plastics, detergents, rubber,etc.
2
Pakistan industrial base was very weak at the

time of independence. At the time of partition,
there were 921 big industrial units in India, out
of these only 34 came to the share of Pakistan.
After the independence, government made
a lot of policies and encouraged the private
sector to establish industrial units. Chemical
industry was rapidly developed because the
chemicals are used for the manufacturing of
ammunitions, fertilizers and other substances
of daily use.
Animation 16.2: Mining

Source & Credit: wikia
A lot of steps and measures are taken to
set up corporations to facilitate loans and
technical know-how for the rapid development
of industries. Pakistan is now producing chemicals, fertilizers, cement, steel, heavy engineering
machines and tools.
16.1 BASIC METALLURGICAL OPERATIONS
First of all lets know definitions of terms used in metallurgical operations.
Minerals
The solid natural materials found beneath the Earth’s surface, which contains compounds of metals
in the combined state along with earthly impurities, are called minerals.
Ores
Those minerals from which the metals are extracted commercially at a comparatively low cost with
minimum effort are called ores of the metals. For example: ores of copper are; copper glance (Cu2S)
and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). Hence, all ores of the metals are minerals, but all minerals are not ores.
3
Gangue
The earthly and other impurities associated with the minerals are known as gangue.
Metallurgy
The process of extraction of a metal in a pure state on a large scale from its ore by physical or
chemical means is called metallurgy.
The processes involved in metallurgy for extraction of a metal in the pure state from its ore are:
(i) concentration of the ore;
(ii) extraction of the metal, and
(iii) refining of the metal.
(i) Concentration of the Ore
The process of removal of gangue from the ore is technically known as concentration and the
purified ore is called the concentrate. Concentration of the crushed ore is carried out by the following
methods:
(a) Gravity separation
Gravity separation is based on the differences in densities of the metallic ore and the gangue particles. In
the process, the powdered heavy metal bearing ore settles down on agitation in a stream of water,
while the lighter gangue particles are carried away by the water as shown in figure 16.1.
4
Fig. 16.1 Gravity separation
(b) Froth flotation process

Froth flotation process is based on the wetting
characteristic of the ore and the gangue particles
with oil and water, respectively.
The ore particles are preferentially wetted by oil
and the gangue particles by water. The whole
mixture is agitated with compressed air. Hence,
oil coated ore particles being lighter come to the
surface in the form of froth that can be skimmed
as shown in figure 16.2.
(c) Electromagnetic separation Fig. 16.2 Froth flotation process
Electromagnetic separation is based on the separation

of magnetic ores from the non-magnetic impurities by means of electromagnets or magnetic separators.
The powdered ore is dropped over a leather belt moving over two rollers, one of which is magnetic.
The non-magnetic ore falls first and the magnetic ore gets attracted and falls farther away as shown
in figure 16.3.
Fig 16.3: Magnetic separation

5
(ii) Extraction of the metal from the concentrated ore

The metal is isolated from the concentrated ore by chemical reduction or electrolytic processes.
Chemical methods of reduction of ore involve following methods:
(a) Roasting: It is a process of heating the concentrated ore to a high temperature in excess of air.
For example; copper pyrite (CuFeS2) is strongly heated in excess of air to convert it into a mixture
of cuprous sulphide and ferrous sulphide (Cu2S + FeS), while impurities react with oxygen to form
2 volatile oxides. Such as
(b) Smelting: It is further heating of the roasted ore with sand flux and coke in the presence of
excess of air in a blast furnace as shown in figure 16.4. It is highly exothermic process, therefore,
a small amount of coke is required in the process. In the process, first ferrous sulphide oxidizes to
form ferrous oxide which reacts with sand to form iron silicate slag (FeSiO3). It being lighter, rises to
the top and is removed from the upper hole.
Fig. 16.4 Blast furnace for smelting of copper
6
On the other hand, cuprous sulphide also oxidizes to form cuprous oxide which reacts with unreacted
ferrous sulphide to form ferrous oxide and cuprous sulphide. In this way, cuprous sulphide and
ferrous sulphide form a mixture (Cu2S.FeS). This molten mixture is called matte. It is withdrawn
from the lower hole. It contains about 45% of copper.
(c) Bassemerization:
It is the further heating of the molten matte in a pear shaped bessemer converter as shown in
figure 16.5. It is fixed on a pivot, so that it can be tilted in any direction. Molten matte is mixed with
sand and heated with a hot blast of air through twyers. Ferrous sulphide is oxidized to form ferrous
oxide. Which reacts with sand to form slag (FeSiO3) that floats on the top.
(s) (s)
(s)
On the other hand, cuprous sulphide is oxidized to form cuprous oxide, which again reacts with
remaining cuprous sulphide to form metallic copper.
(s)
(s) (s)
Fig. 16.5 Bessemer converter used for bessemerization of copper.
7
The molten metal is shifted from the converter to sand moulds and is allowed to cool. The dissolved
gases escape out forming blisters on the surface of the solid copper. Therefore, it is called blister
copper. It is about 98% pure copper. It is further refined by electrolysis.
(iii) Refining or purification of the metal
Refining the impure metal by electrolysis is the most widely used process of refining metals. For
example, electrolytic refining of copper is carried out in an electrolytic tank having copper sulphate
solution in it as shown in figure 16.6. Two electrodes; one of impure copper metal that acts as
anode and the other of pure copper metal that acts as cathode are suspended in the electrolytic
solution.
On passing the electric current through the solution, anode (impure copper) dissolves to provide
Cu2+ ions to the solution. These Cu2+ ions are discharged by gaining of electrons from the cathode.
Thereby copper atoms deposit on the cathode, making it thick block
of pure copper metal as is shown in figure 16.6. The impurities like gold and silver settle down as
anode mud.
Fig. 16.6 Electrorefining of copper.
In the process, impure copper from the anode dissolves and goes into the copper sulphate
solution. Side by side, pure copper ions from the solution deposit on the cathode. Thus,
cathode becomes a pure copper metal. The impurities like gold and silver settle down as
anode mud.
8
Fig. 16.7 Flow sheet diagram for extraction of copper
i. Define concentration process used in metallurgy of copper.

ii. Why a small amount of coke is required in the smelting process? How is slag
formed during smelting.
iii. Why is lime added in the smelting process?
iv. How are slag and matte removed from the blast furnace?
v. What is difference between slag and matte?
Test yourself 16.1 vi. Mention the chemical reactions for the formation of metallic copper in the
bessemerization process.
vii. What is blister copper?
viii. Why anode is eaten up in electrorefining process?
iv. What do you mean by anode mud?
16.2 MANUFACTURE OF SODIUM CARBONATE BY SOLVAY’S

PROCESS
Principle of Solvay’s process lies in the low solubility of sodium bicarbonate at low temperature i.e.
at 15°C. When CO2 is passed through an ammonical solution of NaCl called ammonical brine only
NaHCO3(s) precipitates.
16.2.1 Raw Materials

The raw materials needed for this process are cheap and easily available. They are in abundance,
such as,
(i) Sodium chloride (NaCl) or brine.
(ii) Limestone (CaCO3).
(iii) Ammonia gas (NH3).
9
Basic Reactions
The process consists of the following steps:
(i) Preparation of ammonical brine:
First of all, ammonical brine is prepared by dissolving ammonia gas in sodium chloride solution
(brine).
(ii) Carbonation of ammonical brine:
Ammonical brine is fed into carbonating tower and carbon dioxide is passed through it. Following
reactions take place in the carbonating tower.
The temperature of the mixture is lowered to 15°C and precipitates of NaHCO3 are obtained.
(iii) Filtration of precipitates:

The milky solution from the carbonating tower is filtered to get sodium bicarbonate. It is used as a
baking soda.
(iv) Calcination:
Sodium bicarbonate is heated to get sodium carbonate.
CO2 is again used in tower. It is about half of CO2 needed in the process.
(v) Preparation of carbon dioxide and slaked lime:

CO2 is prepared by heating limestone in a lime kiln. Then, it is carried to carbonating tower
Quick lime (CaO) formed in lime kiln is slaked with water. Then, it is pumped to the ammonia
recovery tower.
10
(vi) Ammonia recovery tower:

Ammonia is recovered in this tower from ammonium chloride solution produced in the carbonated
tower and calcium hydroxide formed in lime kiln.
In fact, all ammonia is recovered in this tower and is reused in the process. There are minor losses
of ammonia in the process which are compensated by using some fresh ammonia.
Fig. 16.8: Flow sheet diagram of Solvay’s Process for the manufacturing of sodium carbonate.
Advantages of Solvay’s process

(i) It is a cheap process as raw materials are available at very low prices.
(ii) Carbon dioxide and ammonia are recovered and reused.
(iii) Process is pollution free, because the only waste is calcium chloride solution.
(iv) Sodium carbonate of very high purity is obtained.
(v) Consumption of fuel is very less since no solution is to be evaporated.
Pakistan is self-sufficient as far as demand of sodium carbonate is concerned. Imperial

Chemical Industries (ICI) Khewra (Jhelum) is producing enough sodium carbonate. This unit
was established in 1944 in Khewra because abundant raw material sodium chloride is available
here. Sindh alkalies limited was established near Karachi in 1966. Sodium carbonate and sodium
bicarbonate are important industrial chemicals and are used by many industries.
11
i. Why only NaHCO3 precipitates, when CO2 is passed through the ammonical
brine?
ii. Which raw materials are required for the formation of sodium carbonate?
iii. How is CO2 prepared in the Solvay’s process?
iv. Give the reaction of formation of ammonia in the process.
Test yourself 16.2 v. Give the advantages of Solvay’s process.
Role of technology in the production of common chemicals.

Technology is considered a consequence of science and engineering.Common
chemicals such as acids, alkalies, salts, soaps, detergents, etc. are being
produced on commercial scale by chemists or chemical engineers since centuries.
Technology began to influence human efforts to produce common chemicals
since people began using different tools and machineries.
Now it is because of use of technology that needs of people are being fulfilled. Use
of technology has increased the production with improved quality of products.
16.3 Manufacture of Urea
Urea is nitrogenous fertilizer. It consists of 46.6% nitrogen. It is white crystalline compound, highly
soluble in water. It is used for the manufacturing of important chemicals, but its major (about 90%)
use is as a fertilizer.
16.3.1 Raw Materials

The raw materials for the manufacturing of urea are:
(i) Ammonia (NH3) (ii) Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Ammonia is prepared by the “Haber’s process”. One volume of nitrogen (from air) and three volumes
of hydrogen (obtained by passing methane and steam over heated nickel catalyst) is passed over
iron catalyst at 450°C and 200 atm pressure.
12
16.3.2 Process
Manufacturing of urea involves three stages:
(I) Reaction of ammonia and carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is passed through liquid ammonia
under high pressure to form ammonium carbamate.
(ii) Urea formation: When ammonium carbamate is evaporated with the help of steam, it dehydrates
to form urea.
(iii) Granulation of urea: At this stage, liquid urea is evaporated to form granules. When liquid
urea is sprayed from top of a tower under pressure and a hot current of air is introduced from the
base, it evaporates to form granules. This is stored to be marketed.
Fig. 16.9 Flow sheet diagram of Urea
Importance and Status of Urea
It is white crystalline organic compound. Its importance is because of following usage:

(i) Urea is widely used world over in the agriculture sector both as a fertilizer and animal feed
additive. About 90% of urea is used as fertilizer. It has the highest nitrogen percentage, i.e. much
higher than other nitrogenous fertilizers. It is harmless and is useful for all types of crops and soils.
13
It is non-toxic, non-explosive, therefore, can be stored safely. But it is very soluble in water and
hygroscopic, therefore, storage requires better packing.
(ii) It is used as a raw material for the manufacture of many important compounds.
(iii) It is used to make explosives.
(iv) It is used in automobile systems to reduce the NOx pollutants in exhaust gases.
There are about six urea manufacturing units in Pakistan. The major four are Fauji Fertilizer company;
Engro Chemicals; Fauji Fertilizer, Bin Qasim and Dawood Hercules company. Fauji Fertilizer is the
biggest fertilizer manufacturer with 59% market shares. Government provides an indirect subsidy
to manufacturers but this industry is still facing supply shortfall problems. The price of urea has
grown since the last gears.
i. What happens when ammonium carbamate is heated with steam?

ii. How many stages are involved in the formation of urea?
iii. What is the percentage of nitrogen in urea?
Test yourself 16.3
Interesting information
Crops need phosphorus
and nitrogen to grow well.
Although, there is 78%
nitrogen in air yet it can’t
be assimilated directly by
plants. Therefore, fertilizers
are used to provide these
essential elements to soil and
ultimately plants.
14
Natural Fertilizers are better than Synthetic Fertilizers.

Fertilizer is a substance added to soil to improve plants’ growth and yield.
Natural Fertilizers contain all natural biodegradable materials from livestock
and human waste and foliage of plants. These materials are decomposed by
bacteria Decomposed materials contain useful nutrient for plants. Organic matter
is essential part of fertile soil. Uses of natural fertilizers return the nutrients and
organic matter of soil.
• They improve the soil condition to support plant growth.
• They improve the porosity of the soil to make it capable of absorbing water.
Thus improves crops production.
• They improve the structure of soil which in turn allows more air to get to plant
roots.
• The chance of water shortage because of the moisture holding capacity of soil
increases.
• Natural fertilizers practically do not contain toxic chemicals. Thus, they do not
damage the soil and crops yield increase.
Chemical Fertilizers include one or more of the three elements most important
for plant nutrition; nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
• They release the nutrients very fastly.
• Their effects are short lived, so they are required again and again, after short
intervals may be 4 to 6 times in a year.
• Use of synthetic fertilizers may cause over fertilization resulting in burning of
plants instead of greening them.
16.4 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
16.4.1 Petroleum
Petroleum is a natural product found under the Earth’s crust trapped in rocks. Petroleum means
rock oil. It is a complex mixture of several gaseous, liquid and solid hydrocarbons having water,
salts and earth particles with it. It is lighter than water and is insoluble in it.
16.4.2 Origin of Petroleum

Petroleum was formed by the decomposition of dead plants and animals buried under Earth’s
crust millions of years ago. It is believed that millions of years ago living plants and animals in the
seas died. Their bodies sank and buried under mud and sand.
15
Then decomposition process took place in the absence of air because of high pressure, temperature
and bacterial effects. This process took millions of years for completion. Thus, remains of dead
plants and animals were converted into a dark brownish viscous crude oil. It was trapped between
two layers of impervious rocks, as shown in figure 16.10.
Fig. 16.10 Occurrence of petroleum
Being lighter and insoluble in water it floats over the water and forms an oil trap. The gaseous
products accumulated over the petroleum are found as natural gas.
Petroleum is extracted by drilling holes (oil wells) into Earth’s crust where the oil is found. When
a well is drilled through the rocks, natural gas comes first with a great pressure. For some time
crude oil also comes out by itself due to gas pressure. When gas pressure subsides, then crude oil
is pumped out.
The crude oil is refined in the refineries. Refining process is the separation of crude oil mixture into
various useful products (fractions). It is carried out by a process called fractional distillation. The
principle of fractional distillation is based upon separation of substances depending upon their
boiling points. The substances having low boiling points boil out first, leaving behind others. Then
next fraction of slightly higher boiling point boils out.
16
This process remain continue until a residue is left behind. The vapours of each fraction are
collected and condensed separately. The fractional distillation of petroleum is carried out in a tall
fractionating tower as shown in figure 16.11
Fig 16.11 Fractional distillation of petroleum.
The crude oil is heated in a furnace upto a temperature of 400°C under high pressure. Then vapours
are passed through a fractionating column from near its bottom as shown in figure 16.11. Hot
vapours rise up in the column and gradually cool down and condense. Such that vapours of higher
boiling point fraction (350—400°C) condense first in the lower part of the tower, while vapours
of medium and lower boiling point fractions rise upwards in the tower and condense gradually
with respect to their boiling points at different levels. In this way, crude oil is separated into six
hydrocarbon fractions as discussed below. Each fraction has its specific boiling range, composition
and uses.
16.4.3 Important Fractions of Petroleum
Each fraction is not a single compound. Rather each one is a mixture of hydrocarbons having
different number of carbon atoms in it. The name of each fraction, its molecular composition,
boiling range and uses are given in the following table 16.2:
17
Table 16.2 Fractions of Petroleum

Name Composition Boiling range Uses
As a fuel, as such in the form of LPG, used

for the production of carbon black (needed
Petroleum Gas C1 to C4 up to 250 C
in tyre industry) and hydrogen gas (needed
to form NH3 used to manufacture fertilizer).
Used as laboratory solvent and for dry

Petroleum Ether C5 to C7 30 to 800 C
cleaning purposes.
Used as a fuel in motor cycles, motor cars
and other light vehicles. It is more volatile
Gasoline or Petrol C7 to C10 80 to 1700 C
than kerosene oil. It is also used for dry
cleaning.
Used as domestic fuel, a special grade of it is
Kerosene oil C10 to C12 170 to 2500 C
used as jet fuel.
Fuel for buses, trucks railway engines,

Diesel oil C13 to C15 250 to 3500C
tubewell engines and other heavy vehicles.
Used in ships and industries to heat boilers

Fuel oil C15 to C18 350 to 4000 C
and furnaces.
The residual oil, which does not vapourize under these conditions is collected and heated above
400°C for further fractional distillation. The four fractions of residual oil are: lubricants; paraffin
wax; asphalt and petroleum coke.
Interesting information
The diesel fuel sold in winter is
different mixture of hydrocarbons
from the mixture sold in summer.
This is because diesel sets rather
like Vaseline at a little below 00 C
and will not work as a fuel. More
of the lighter fractions are added
in winter to prevent this.
18
i. Define petroleum.
ii. How petroleum is extracted?
iii. What is principle of fractional distillation?
Test
iv. In how many fractions crude oil is separated?
yourself 16.4
v. What do you mean by a fraction of petroleum?
Different types of fire require different methods to extinguish.

The things needed to start and sustain fire are:
Fuel: The substance that burns in the combustion process, e.g. wood, oil and
electricity.
Heat: The energy component of the fire when it comes in contact with fuel, it
provides the energy necessary for ignition and sustaining combustion process.
Air(oxygen): it is essential component for combustion process.
A self-sustained chemical chain reaction is a complex reaction that requires fuel,

oxygen and heat energy to come together in a very specific way.
Fire can be put out by taking away any of the above-mentioned components.
When fuels are different, they require different techniques to put them out.
Wood fire can be extinguished by throwing water on it. Water uses large amount
of heat for evaporation process, so it absorbs huge amount of heat and deprives
the wood fire of heat and it is not possible for fire to be sustained.
Oil fires can’t be put out with water because oil and water do not mix. Oil being
lighter than water, floats and spreads over it. The fire also spreads along with
water. To put out oil fire, oxygen needs to be cut off. This can be controlled by
throwing sand, table salt or baking soda on the flames.
Electric fire is much stronger than other fires because its source of heat is electrical
energy. It requires cut off oxygen supply to put it out. Oxygen supply can be
controlled by using fire extinguishers.
19
Chemistry as a career in industry.

By studying chemistry one can be a professional chemist. He studies the
composition and properties of available chemicals. Then he develops methods to
manufacture new substances on commercial scale to meet the needs of society.
He also designs and develops instruments and techniques to make the production
more and more economical.
Chemists can have working opportunities in almost all fields of industry depending
upon their areas of specialization.
Organic chemists have career in pharmaceutical, petroleum, petrochemicals,

cosmetic, polymer and plastic
industries.
Inorganic chemists work in metallurgical industries; manufacturing industries like

textile, cement, sugar and chemicals; manufacturing plants like fertilizer, acids
and caustic soda.
Physical chemists have working opportunities in energy transformation industries.

They develop new and better energy sources. They explore renewable energy
fields. Analytical chemists work in almost all fields of industry. They identify the
materials, measure their quantities and control the quality of the products. They
evaluate the efficiency and devise techniques to enhance the production. They
have working scope from food and beverage
industry to paints and varnish industry. They work even in generating units. Besides
these major career opportunities there are many other types of chemists such as
biochemists, food chemists, material chemists, etc.
20
Good communication skills promote the sale.

Communication is the exchange of information to others through audio, video,
print or electronic media.
Good communication skills help ensure the efficient operation of all levels of an
organization, from lowest to highest, whereas poor communication skills often
result In inefficiency. Successful business leaders know, inefficiency equals a loss
of productivity and consequently, a loss of profits.
Moreover, communication can make the difference between success and failure
for a company. Therefore, in the field of chemical industry good communication
skills are also vital.
Key Points
• Metallurgy is technique by which metals are extracted from their ores.
• Concentration is a separating technique in which mineral is separated from gangue.
• Sodium carbonate is manufactured by Solvay’s process. The raw materials used in this process
are sodium chloride, carbon dioxide and ammonia.
• Ammonical brine is prepared by dissolving ammonia gas in sodium chloride
• solution. When this solution is carbonated; first NH4HCO3 forms, which reacts with NaCI to form
NaHCO3.
• NaHCO3 on heating produces Na2CO
• Urea is manufactured from ammonia and carbon dioxide. First Ammonia and
• carbon dioxide react to form ammonium carbamate. On evaporation, it dehydrates to form
urea.
• Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons. It forms by the decomposition of dead animals
and plants buried under the Earth’s crust.
• Crude oil is pumped out and then refined in the refineries. Refining is carried out by fractional
distillation on heating crude oil at 400°C.
• The important fractions of petroleum are; petroleum gas, petroleum ether, petrol, kerosene oil,
diesel and fuel oil.
• The residual oil is heated above 400°C to produce lubricants, paraffin wax, asphalt and petroleum
coke.
21
Concept Diagram
22
Short Questions
1. What role is played by pine oil in the froth flotation process?
2. Name the various metallurgical operations.
3. How is roasting carried out?
4. Explain process of electrorefining.
5. What are the advantages of Solvay’s process?
6. What is the principle of Solvay’s process?
7. What happens when ammonical brine is carbonated?
8. How NaHCO3 is converted to Na2CO3 ?
9. How is ammonia recovered in the Solvay’s process?
10. How is ammonia prepared for the synthesis of urea?
11. Describe the formation of petroleum.
12. What is refining of petroleum and how is it carried out?
13. Give a use of kerosene oil?
14. Describe the difference between diesel oil and fuel oil?
15. Write down the names of four fractions obtained by the fractional distillation of residual oil?
16. What is the difference between crude oil and residual oil?
17. Which petroleum fraction is used in dry cleaning?
Extensive Questions
1. Describe in detail the various processes involved in the concentration of ore. Explain your answer
with the help of diagrams?
2. Explain the process of roasting with reference to copper?
3. Write a detailed note on Ammonia Solvay’s process?
4. Write a note on fractional distillation of petroleum?
5. How urea is manufactured? Explain showing the flow sheet diagram?
6. How crude oil is refined? Explain two important fractions of petroleum along with their usage?
7. Write a note in detail on smelting and bessemerization, giving a specific example?
23

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CHAPTER

Animation 9.1 : synthesis

Students Learning Outcomes

We owe our existence to equilibrium phenomenon taking place in atmosphere. We

9.1 REVERSIBLE REACTION AND DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

This reaction is called as forward reaction.

Fig. 9.1 Showing establishment of reversible reaction.

In a reversible reaction, dynamic equilibrium is established before the completion of reaction.

Macroscopic characteristics of forward and reverse

Forward Reaction Reverse Reaction

1. It is a reaction in which reactants react to 1. It is a reaction in which products react to produce

Macroscopic characteristics of dynamic equilibrium

1. Why reversible reactions never complete?

9.2 LAW OF MASS ACTION

For example, consider a reversible reaction of the type

Kc is called equilibrium constant. It is represented as:

where, is called equilibrium constant.

The rate of forward reaction Rf = Kf [N2] [O2]

For the reaction

1. Define the Law of Mass Action.

5. Write the equilibrium constant expressions for the following

9.3 EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT AND ITS UNITS

It is conventional to write the products as numerator and reactants as denominator. By

The equilibrium concentrations are:

Calculate the equilibrium constant for this reaction.

[H2] = 0.05 mol dm-3; [I2] = 0.06 mol dm-3; and

Write the equilibrium constant expression as

Now, put the values of equilibrium concentrations in equilibrium expression:

The equilibrium constant expression for this reaction is:

Now put the equilibrium concentration values in the equilibrium expression

Now write the balanced chemical equation and equilibrium constant

Now put the known values in above equation and rearrange

9.4 IMPORTANCE OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT

If Qc > Kc ; the reaction goes from right to left, i.e., in reverse

(ii) Predicting Extent of a Reaction

1. What do you mean by the extent of a reaction?

Use of atmospheric gases in the manufacture of chemicals.

9. Write the equilibrium constant expression for the following reactions:

10. How direction of a reaction can be predicted?

3. For the fixation of nitrogen following reaction takes place:

10 Acid, Bases And Salts

Animation 10.1: Insol Base Preparation

Animation 10.2: Chemanim

Students Learning Outcomes

10.1 CONCEPTS OF ACIDS AND BASES

10.1.1 Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases

According to Arrhenius concept (1787):

Thus, according to Arrhenius Concept:

Acids give H+ ions in water, bases give OH ions in water.

Limitations of Arrhenius Concept

10.1.2 Bronsted-Lowrv Concept

It is a reversible reaction. In the forward reaction, HCl is an acid as it donates a proton,

All Arrhenius acids are Bronsted-Lowry acids,

Table 10.3 Conjugate acid-base pairs of common species

HNO3(aq) + H2O(I) H3O+(aq) + NO3 (aq)

(b) Give the conjugate acids of the following:

HS- : S2- OH- : H2O

(c) Bronsted acids, as well as, bases are: H2O, HCO3 , HS