International Journal of the Humanities

Volume 2, Number 2
Article: HC04-0138-2004

Music Listening and Critical Thinking

Teaching Using a Constructivist Paradigm

Daniel C. Johnson, Assistant Professor of Music Education, Department of
Music, The University of North Carolina at Wilmington, USA

Edited by Tom Nairn and Mary Kalantzis

International Journal of the Humanities
Volume 2, Number 2
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Papers presented at the Second International Conference on New Directions in the Humanities,
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Editors
Tom Nairn, The Globalism Institute, RMIT University, Australia.
Mary Kalantzis, Dean, Education, Language and Community Services,
RMIT University, Melbourne.

Editorial Advisory Board of the International Journal of

the Humanities
Juliet Mitchell, Cambridge University, UK.
Paul James, Globalism Institute, RMIT University, Australia.
Krishan Kumar, University of Virginia, USA.
David Christian, San Diego State University, California, USA.
Giorgos Tsiakalos, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Columbia University, USA.
Mick Dodson, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.
Jeffrey T. Schnapp, Stanford Humanities Laboratory, Stanford University, USA.
Nikos Papastergiadis, The Australian Centre, University of Melbourne, Australia.
Bill Kent, Monash Centre, Prato, Italy.
Felicity Rawlings-Sanaei, Global Movements Centre, Monash University,
Australia.
Chris Ziguras, The Globalism Institute, RMIT University, Australia.
Eleni Karantzola, Department of Mediterranean Studies, University of the
Aegean, Greece.
Bill Cope, Common Ground, Australia.
Music Listening and Critical Thinking
Teaching Using a Constructivist Paradigm
Daniel C. Johnson, Assistant Professor of Music Education, Department of Music, The University of North
Carolina at Wilmington, USA

Abstract
Music, a universal human endeavor, offers a unique perspective on studying the humanities. Studying music
combines the intellectual and emotional meaning listeners make from music, engaging them in aesthetically
focused-activities. In this article, the benefits of teaching music using a methodology based on critical thinking
are discussed. Additionally, the nature of critical thinking as an instructional methodology is explored from
multiple perspectives.
To elevate intellectual standards and to effect a qualitative change in thinking, critical thinking advocates have
encouraged students to think for themselves by guiding students’ reflection on their own experiences, by
developing listening as a critical thinking skill, and by asking probing questions. To reflect the fast-paced
technological changes in contemporary society and education, teachers should impart thinking skills instead of
mere information. As Whitehead suggested, the real goal of education is the development of thought processes
instead of the accumulation of information. Constructivism, an approach emphasizing the meaning students
create in the process of education, is also examined in terms of musical settings.
While human beings are naturally predisposed to create meaning and construct concepts, particular ways in
which we make sense of the world are learned. From constructivist paradigms to educational interventions,
critical thinking is discussed as a movement based both on theory and applied techniques. Among the goals of
this movement is the responsibility to educate independent thinkers and autonomous learners who actively make
their own meaning of the world. Implications for understanding music, critical thinking, and the humanities in
general conclude this paper.
Keywords: Music Listening, Critical Thinking, Constructivism, Education

Introduction Music Listening

Music, a part of every culture on Earth (Etzkorn, Listening to music is an essential part of any musical
1989), plays a meaningful role in both human activity (Hartshorn, 1957), pervades each of the
society and well-being (VanderArk & Ely, 1991). As American “National Standards for Music Education”
such, music offers a unique perspective on studying as contained in the 1994 Standards for Arts
the humanities. Specifically, studying and Education (Reimer, 2003), and is a prerequisite for
experiencing music include the intellectual and musical pursuits (Madsen & Madsen, 1970). Live
emotional meaning listeners make from music, performances, radio, television, analog recordings,
engaging listeners in aesthetically focused-activities, and digital media provide multiple opportunities for
and learning as an act of transformation. music listening. The purposes for listening to music
In the following article, the importance of music are varied, including intrinsic enjoyment, self-
listening and music listening instruction as a motivation, and accompaniment for daily activities
representative of music itself is examined. Critical (personal interviews, March 30, 2003). Among the
thinking is also examined in terms of theoretical most prevalent reasons that people choose to listen
perspectives and applied pedagogical studies in to music are for entertainment, to create a mood, and
musical contexts. The connection between music for ceremonial purposes (O’Brien, 1987). A majority
listening and critical thinking will be developed of students, over two hundred, rank listening to
using several different theoretical perspectives. music first among sixty-two physical, social, and
Finally, results of related research studies in which recreational activities enjoyed during leisure time
students engaged in making meaning from music (Fitzgerald, Joseph, Hayes, & O’Reagan, 1995).
listening using a constructivist paradigm are Even though many secondary students do not
examined along with implications for understanding actively perform music, most students regularly
music, critical thinking, and the humanities in listen to and purchase music (Boal-Palheiros &
general. Hargreaves, 2001). Furthermore, as evidence of their
interest in listening to music, American consumers

International Journal of the Humanities, Volume 2, Number 2 • www.Humanities-Journal.com

Copyright © Common Ground • ISSN 1447-9508 (Print) • ISSN 1447-9559 (Online)
Paper presented at the Second International Conference on New Directions in the Humanities,
Monash University Centre in Prato, Italy, 20-23 July 2004 • wwwHumanitiesConference.com
International Journal of the Humanities, Volume 2, Number 2

spend approximately $40 billion annually on the Music Listening and Critical Thinking
purchase of recorded music and listening equipment Understanding music listening is of fundamental
worldwide according to 2001-2002 data reported by importance in understanding how music is
the Recording Industry Association of America. The experienced. Bamberger (1972, 1982) suggested that
variety of reasons for listening to music as well as understanding music and learning music are both
the amount of time and money spent listening acts of problem solving through listening.
support the idea that people value listening to music. Bamberger (1991) also proposed that elementary-
During the second half of the twentieth century, aged students organize sound as it occurs. Listening,
listening to music has been shown to have increasing then, is a process during which listeners make
importance in the lives of adults and children (Boal- meaning from sounds and develop ways of
Palheiros & Hargreaves, 2001). Multimedia and understanding music, including developing new
digital technologies have changed the nature of ways of understanding the same music (Bamberger,
listeners’ musical experiences and expanded the 1994). Bamberger’s work in music cognition
range of listening possibilities. Since music has included repeated listenings to music that resulted in
become more accessible to listeners, more often, and conceptually reorganizing the listener’s perception
in more places, musical experiences have become and accommodating new understandings of the same
more individualized (Frith, 1996), as reflected in music. Metacognitive processes during listening, or
listeners’ personal choices of music. Listeners can “reflection-in-action” (Bamberger, 1991), involved
choose from many musical styles and genres, alternatively reflecting from an experience and
spanning the gamut from classical and romantic reflecting on an experience. Bamberger’s work
pieces to rock and rap music. Even within a given includes the exploration of musical self-knowledge
genre of music, listeners can select a recording from and intuitions, beginning from the premise that
the multitude of recordings available. listeners’ knowledge of music is based on lifelong
While listening to music, the listener is constantly experiences with music. In Developing Musical
making judgments and decisions, consciously or Intuitions (2000), Bamberger asserted that music is
unconsciously, about what is being heard. These what we make of it, because each listener creates his
decisions include personal likes and dislikes, as well or her own musical understanding through
as preferences for a particular musical style and imagination and experience.
performance medium. Listeners also make decisions Despite advances in the study of music listening
about how to direct their focus of attention during and music cognition, the act of listening to music
listening, a central issue in developing listening has often taken a secondary role in music education.
skills (Prince, 1972). For example, college students Music educators have often focused on performance
have reported attending to the lyrics, the melody, the preparation and instrumental skills through drill and
rhythm, and the bass line in their favorite music practice instead of developing listening skills. Music
(personal interviews, March 30, 2003). The act of listening seldom plays an integral role in daily music
consciously choosing to listen to music involves a education because of the lack of teachers’ training
considerable number of thought processes and and resources, pressures to prepare for
decisions. Understanding the human thought process performances, and inadequate means of assessment
during music listening can provide invaluable (Bundra, 1993). Haack wrote, “music listening is
insights into the process of musical thinking. among the last and least studied aspects of music”
Furthermore, as the anthropologist Levi-Strauss (1992, p. 451). Learning to play instruments, to read
asserted, “if we can explain music, we may find the and write notation, and to perform in ensembles
key for all human thought” (cited in Gardner, 1983, often occupies the majority of music instructional
p. 123). time; however, some scholars believe that
Listening to music may involve thinking about instrumental performance skills and repeated
musical style, patterns, and meaning. Serafine (1983, practice “not only greatly impede the growth of
1986) suggested that listening involves thinking musical sensitivity, they [also] distort and obscure
about music in active, cognitive processes, in which the goals of musical development” (Gaston, 1963, p.
listeners develop their own understandings of music. 64). Madison (1966) also noted that reliable
She proposed that specific cognitive processes are evidence of music listening skills is difficult to
generic (independent of musical style) and have a obtain, and that listening is consequently often
direct correlation to patterns or organization in the overlooked or neglected as an instructional
music. In her research, she examined cognitive objective.
operations in temporal and non-temporal processes. Yet listening skills are an essential part of all other
She found that children of different developmental musical skills, because the primary purpose of music
levels as well as adults process music in different is to be heard and shared (Haack, 1992). Baldwin
ways. Her work has raised important questions about (1936) and Reimer (1989, 2003) also support the
the developmental nature of music listening and importance of simply listening to music, as it allows
students’ musical understanding. for music appreciation and musical experience

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 Music Listening and Critical Thinking

without the concerns and limitations of performance. described the active and persistent consideration of
The ability to listen to music intelligently can be belief or knowledge. His writings served to provide
taught, especially using structured pedagogical the basis for subsequent authors who defined critical
approaches (Haack, 1969). At the end of the thinking in a variety of ways.
twentieth century, the general music movement Along with increased access to music and
began to focus more attention on the learning and information, social and technological changes have
teaching of listening skills (Haack, 1992); music demanded a higher quality of thought at the turn of
educators made considerable progress by including the twenty-first century to understand and apply the
analytical and perceptive listening activities and wealth of available information (Paul, 1993).
lessons in music series textbooks and curriculum Critical thinking, then, is “the essential foundation
guides (Haack, 1990). If the central challenge and for adaptation to the everyday personal, social, and
contribution of general music curricula is to provide professional demands of the twenty-first century”
musical experiences that are “intensely involved, (Paul, 1993, p. xi). To elevate intellectual standards
perceptive, feelingful, creative, richly significant, and to effect a qualitative change in thinking, critical
and satisfying” (Reimer, 1970, p. 120), then music thinking advocates such as Paul have encouraged
listening is an important educational goal that students to think for themselves by guiding students’
deserves attention in the classroom. To this end, an reflection on their own experiences, by developing
innovative pedagogy in the form of critical thinking listening as a critical thinking skill, and by asking
offers promise for advancing both teachers’ and probing questions. Learning to listen to music,
students’ musical understanding. however, has not been explored by music educators
using such a pedagogy.
Critical Thinking As discussed above, the instruction of music
In the twenty-first century, listeners have listening skills has traditionally taken a diagnostic
unprecedented access to a wealth of music and and prescriptive approach including visual guides
information via the internet and other digital media. and knowledge-level questions often related to
As a result, discriminating consumers need to select music theory. For example, in Music for Young
from an increasing amount of music and information Americans (1966), Berg recommended teaching
according to their personal preferences. In response program music in terms of composers’ feelings
to the volume of recorded music and information, suggested by their use of melody, rhythm, form, and
listening to music has become a passive activity other musical elements; authors such as Berg gave
(O’Brien, 1987), and “children are learning not to few opportunities for students to express their own
listen” [italics in original] (Sims, 1990, p. 38). thoughts or feelings in response to music listening.
Similarly, Meyers (1986) asserted that students’ Textbook authors approached music listening as
abilities to understand and process information have music appreciation, including the acquisition of
not kept pace with the amount of resources musical vocabulary and an understanding of music
identified in his text on teaching critical thinking in historical contexts.
skills. As ever-advancing technology is likely to A contrasting approach to music listening
provide even greater amounts of information in the instruction, based on verbal descriptions,
coming years, music educators’ pedagogical focus emphasized the listener’s personal response to music
needs to shift from content to cognition. To reflect listening (Bamberger, 2000). By highlighting the
technological changes, teachers should impart importance of listening experiences apart from
thinking skills instead of mere information theoretical and historical information, Bamberger
(Knowles, 1980); in other words, “in an age where and Brofsky (1975) stimulated the listener’s powers
textbooks are often outdated before they are off the of critical observation and independent judgment. In
press . . . the goals and aims of education inevitably active listening, as advocated by Bamberger and
must change” (Meyers, 1986, pp. 1-2). Whitehead Brofsky, the listener’s perspective of the music is
suggested that the real goal of education is the “personally involved, questioning, and critical” (p.
development of thought processes instead of the xix). In other words, Bamberger and Brofsky
accumulation of information (1929/1967). While prescribed no fixed way of listening but encouraged
human beings are naturally predisposed to create the listener to discover personally relevant meaning
meaning and construct concepts (Hunt, cited in in the music. Instead of relying on terminology and
Meyers, 1986), Meyers wrote, “the specific ways in music theory to inform the listener, Bamberger
which we make sense of the world are learned” (2000) also advocated addressing musical thinking
(1986, p. 11). through inquiry and analysis. Such an approach to
In education, critical thinking and its instruction music listening and music education lends itself to
have taken many forms. These include both critical thinking and higher order thinking skills.
generalizable and context-specific approaches that Higher order thinking, including analysis, synthesis,
embrace self-constructed meaning and discovery and evaluation (Bloom, 1956), provides a theoretical
(Kim, 1993; Kurfiss, 1988; Meyers, 1986). Using basis for critical thought (Olson, 2000) and can be
the term “reflective thinking,” Dewey (1933) first applied to music listening activities in the classroom.

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For the purposes of this discussion, critical thinking processes may also be utilized in musical
thinking in music may be defined as musical contexts for a variety of classroom music listening
understanding through reflection and participation in activities. Music listening, therefore, may be one
a constructivist model of education. Critical thinking form of learning particularly well suited to
skills used to developing musical understanding constructed meanings and reflection through critical
includes: analyzing, synthesizing, comparing and thinking.
contrasting, developing criteria for judgment, The issue of generalizability is a central theme in
sequencing, making connections, recognizing the critical thinking literature (Younker, 2002).
patterns, and evaluating musical information through Ennis (1987) offered a definition of critical thinking
active listening, reasoning, and reflection based generalizable to multiple subject areas. He wrote
upon affective responses and prior musical that critical thinking is “reasonable reflective
experiences. thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe
Critical thinking is both a major goal in education or do” (p. 10). What may be considered sound
(D’Angelo, 1971) as well as a universal term in reasoning in one field, however, may not be valid in
educational theory and practice (Richardson, 1998). another (McPeck, 1981, 1990). McPeck instead
The process of critical thinking begins with suggested that critical thinking implies specific
comprehending information that has been presented. content knowledge and is the appropriate use of
Critical thinking includes thinking for one’s self, “reflective skepticism” (1981, p. 7). Similarly,
using inductive and deductive reasoning skills Siegel (1997) suggested that there are two types of
(Bloom, 1956; Ennis, 1962; Sternberg, 1985) and is thinking abilities: subject-neutral and subject-
“reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on specific; both types include elements of logic and
deciding what to believe or do [with newly acquired reason applicable to different subjects, as well as
information]” (Ennis, 1987, p. 10). Instruction in judgments and evaluations dependent on specific
critical thinking, as defined in this study, assists content knowledge. While subject-neutral principles
students in learning new material and encourages employ a logical approach to verify the correctness
students to think for themselves. of an answer, subject-specific principles use a
Great thinkers including Plato, Aristotle, and psychological approach to investigate the process of
Descartes advocated an approach to education based determining an answer (McDaniel & Lawrence,
on reason and inquiry using reflective, “Socratic” 1990).
questions based on the student’s reasoning and In music, Woodford (1995) suggested that critical
thinking abilities. By using reflective questions, thinking encompasses elements of both
scholars and teachers developed students’ minds generalizable and subject-specific approaches. Other
through logical reasoning. The development of researchers have regarded critical thought processes
inductive and deductive reasoning skills gave rise to involved in musical contexts as higher-order
the modern definition of critical thinking (Black, thinking skills. Artistic disciplines are particularly
1952). well suited to promote higher-order thinking skills
Meyers (1986) suggested critical thinking is the (Paul, 1985). Because thoughts are not emotion-free
ability to generalize and invent new possibilities, nor are emotions thoughtless (Dressel, 1988), both
while Brookfield (1987) characterized critical affect and cognition play a part in higher-order
thinking as questioning assumptions underlying thinking, especially in the arts.
habitual ways of thinking. Siegel (1988) suggested The idea of critical thinking instruction in music
that critical thinking requires understanding the role education was supported in Dimensions of Musical
of reason in actions and beliefs, while Paul (1993) Thinking (Boardman, 1989). This volume was
articulated five dimensions of critical thinking (i.e. published in response to Dimensions of Thinking: A
elements of reasoning, intellectual abilities, modes Framework of Curriculum and Instruction (Marzano
of reasoning, traits of mind, and intellectual et al., 1988), which addressed the concern that high
standards). Two broad components of critical school graduates were not sufficiently prepared to
thinking emerge from an analysis of the various use higher-order thinking skills independently. In
critical thinking definitions: the abilities necessary to Marzano’s text, the authors identified one goal of
think critically, and the attitudes and habits that education as the development of competent thinkers
characterize intellectual independence (Younker, who can learn and make use of knowledge
2002). independently. Musical independence is a central
Critical listening, a skill involved in critical goal of music education (Boardman, 1989; Wiggins,
thinking, is an active process (Paul, 1993) which 2001), and critical thinking is essential ingredient for
could positively affect students’ music listening an education supporting intellectual autonomy and
skills. The processes of comparing, evaluating, self-determination (Paul, 1985). Critical thinking
reflecting, judging, and classifying have been instruction in music listening is therefore an
reported as evidence of critical thinking by Bundra important avenue for developing competent and
(1993) and Richardson (1998) in musical contexts. independent musical thinkers.
While often applied in other disciplines, critical

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 Music Listening and Critical Thinking

In “The Behavior of Listeners” (1980) and “The concepts, is an essential tool for heightening
Acquisition of Music Listening Skills” (1992), awareness about the way music works” (p. 109).
Haack reviewed over two hundred studies on music By proposing an analytical view of the factors
listening and formulated a number of conclusions influencing the listening experience, LeBlanc (1980)
about this body of research. Haack (1980) suggested that the way listeners process music has
summarized music listening research in four major an important impact on the overall listening
areas: physiological (including verbal), experience. LeBlanc proposed an eight-level
psychological, sociological, and developmental- hierarchy of factors influencing the listening
educational. The majority of music listening experience. LeBlanc placed the listener’s mental
research has been descriptive or experimental, processes on the third level from the top, above
usually taking a quantitative, positivistic approach. musical training, auditory sensitivity, basic attention,
Summarizing his findings, Haack (1992) highlighted and numerous other factors. At this level of the
“the importance of verbal imagery and the value of hierarchy, he suggested that listeners formulate and
verbal skills in teaching and learning about music tests hypotheses, imagine extramusical associations,
listening” (p. 461). Particularly important to the and prepare to make judgments about the music
current discussion is Haack’s finding that there is an being heard. The effect of enhancing listeners’
increased interest among researchers in verbal thought processes may positively influence their
aspects of teaching music listening skills, as well as listening experience more directly than many other
the expectation that verbal responses to music are factors. LeBlanc’s hierarchy, therefore, supports the
valuable resources for future research. Of particular potential impact and influence that Critical Thinking
interest is Haack’s recommendation that future Instruction has on music listening.
studies strengthen cooperation between researchers In a developmental study, Bundra (1993) also
and educators to result in more practical applications investigated factors relating to students’ music
of empirical findings. listening experiences by studying verbal responses
Haack concluded that several findings were to music listening examples. Bundra used verbal
common to both his 1980 and 1992 reviews of protocol analysis (thinking out-loud) to collect
literature. Specifically relevant to the current descriptive data on differences in children’s
discussion is the observation that, “there remains a reflections on music listening by age, gender, and
timely need for applied research into the three C’s of musical background. She found that children were
cognitive style, creativity, and critical thinking vis-à- able to describe their own thoughts while listening to
vis music-listening behaviors” (1992, p. 462). music, to make and express judgments about the
Considering the existing literature on music listening music, and to articulate their ideas about the
research, there is an opportunity to investigate listening process.
instructional methods that impart “truly imaginative, Bundra’s findings are consistent with those made
thoughtful, and feelingful listening” (p. 462). by Richardson (1988) who also studied children’s
Haack’s findings are consistent with other mental processes during music listening. Richardson
researchers’ findings on music listening pedagogy found that during music listening experiences,
and recommendations for classroom applications, children engaged in prediction, comparison,
including those offered by Reimer. evaluation, reflection, and recognition of musical
Reimer’s (1970) theoretical view of music material. She suggested that four distinct, nonlinear
listening as an active process is also important to the processes contribute to making musical judgments
current discussion. Reimer described the act of during music listening, i.e. “expectation,
listening as an active process during which listeners comparison, prediction, and evaluation” (p.134).
explore and analyze the music for themselves. Using a paradigm of four roles to describe the ways
According to Reimer, perceiving or listening expert musicians think reflectively in a musical
intensely is a creative process for listeners, and they experience (i.e. performer, conductor, arranger, and
are more affected by the expressive qualities of the listener/critic), Richardson based her definition of
music with each successive listening. In other musical thinking on Dewey’s idea of reflective
words: thinking. In reflective thinking, Dewey (1933)
identified a fund of experiences, which provides a
the experience of the work is both a sharing and a
discovering. In this sense, it is also a creative experience basis of prior academic knowledge, practical
for the perceiver, in that the new experiences of feeling experience, affective reactions, and imagination.
are made possible as he grasps more and more of the Accordingly, Richardson termed her verbal protocol
work’s expressive subtleties [italics in original](p. 67). analysis methodology as a “philosophical,
speculative approach” (p. 28). In a later study,
Richardson (1998) found common thinking skills
Reimer also indicated that using verbal among participants from three different populations
descriptions and conceptual explanations could while listening to music. She found that classifying,
enhance a listener’s experience and understanding of elaborating, comparing, predicting, and evaluating
music. He wrote, “descriptive use of language, or were among the cognitive skills associated with

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music listening. Richardson advocated using without any further instruction from the researcher.
questioning strategies to encourage students to label, Four categories of descriptors emerged from the
identify, describe, and articulate their thinking while participants’ written and verbal responses to the
listening to music. music (i.e. musical terms, affective, associative, and
Music listening is an important component of other). Examples of each category included “fast,”
general music instruction (Baldridge, 1984). In his “slow,” and “loud” in the musical term category;
study of music listening activities, however, “nice,” “pretty,” and “scary” in the affective
Baldridge reported that most music teachers category; “Alice in Wonderland,” “riding in a car,”
assumed their students were listening as opposed to and “Louisiana trip” in the associative category; and
assigning specific listening objectives. Similarly, “different” in the other category. Even though
Crook, Reimer, and Walker (1981) emphasized the musical terms were most often used as descriptive
need for effective music listening instruction. and sorting data, Johnson suggested that affective
Addressing students in the Silver Burdett text Music, and associative descriptors of music be included in
they wrote, “sometimes, when you listen, the music music listening instruction. Johnson’s investigation
fills your thoughts and your feelings. That’s the way is relevant to the current discussion with respect to
composers and performers hope you will listen to the ways musical examples are conceived and
their music, musically. But sometimes listening is organized by listeners. The descriptors provided by
nonmusical” [italics in original] (p. 108). Tait and the subjects in Johnson’s study served as the model
Haack (1984) highlighted the importance of for the four dependent measures on the “Listening
instruction and its effect on enhancing students’ and Thinking” instrument (i.e. Musical Term,
music listening experiences. Tait and Haack Affective, Associative, and Total response scores).
described sharing feelings and thoughts through the In addition, Johnson used a verbally based
medium of music. Nye (1979) and Madsen and methodology, which is relevant to the current
Kuhn (1978), however, reported that music listening discussion of music, education, and the humanities
instruction often emphasized the elements of music in general. Because his study linked verbal
instead of student responses to music. descriptions of music listening to a constructivist
In addition, other researchers have reported approach, Johnson encouraged students to express
experimental findings on music listening while their own thoughts and interpretations of music in
investigating contrasting methods of music listening creative and personally-relevant ways.
instruction. In one such experimental study on fifth- Implications of previous studies include
grade students’ verbal responses to music, Johnson recognizing that music listening instruction has
(2003a) reported that critical thinking instruction historically been based on acquiring musical
(CTI) had a significant and positive effect on fifth- terminology without much regard for reflective or
grade students’ written responses to music listening higher-order thought processes. Research in music
examples as compared to activity-based instruction listening instruction has focused on teaching
(ABI) instruction without critical thinking questions. technical music vocabulary, open-ended essay
Subjects’ responses were analyzed as either musical responses, and the effect of participation in
terms, affective, or associative responses; responses performing ensembles. As Whitaker (1996) wrote,
were scored using a word-count methodology by there is a need to move beyond academic knowledge
three independent judges. CTI subjects demonstrated and other prerequisite experiences for successful
greater gains in musical term, associative, and total problem solving (e.g. affective reactions and
response scores from pretest to posttest than did ABI imagination). There is also a need to challenge
subjects; p = 0.001, 0.004, and 0.001, respectively. students with problems that have multiple solutions
After sixteen lessons, CTI subjects demonstrated and demand more from them than rote performance
higher musical term, affective, associative, and total or the application of technique “to encourage
response scores than did ABI subjects. Significant thoughtful, reflective musical autonomy in our
main effect within group differences were also found students, regardless of age level” (Whitaker, 1996, p.
such that CTI subjects demonstrated significantly 13). Music educators advocating for curricular
higher musical term, affective, associative, and total inclusion must demonstrate that music involves
response scores on the posttest as compared to the sequential study, not merely activities (Lehman,
pretest, while no significant main effect differences 1994). In addition to creating, presenting, and
were found in ABI subjects’ response scores. perceiving in the arts, essential components of the
Implications include designing music listening educational process are analysis and synthesis.
instruction to incorporate critical thinking skills. These processes support higher-order thinking and
Students’ descriptions of music during a music promote the experience of the arts as expressions of
listening task were also investigated by Johnson critical thought.
(2003b) in a qualitative study. Johnson presented
fifth-grade instrumentalists with a problem-solving
task based on music listening. The participants
sorted fifteen short musical examples into groups

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Conclusion issues from numerous scholars’ perspectives. From

In conclusion, the importance of music and music constructivist paradigms to educational
listening in terms of constructivist instructional interventions, critical thinking was also discussed as
strategies were examined in the above discussion. a movement based both on theory and applied
The experience of listening to music is a central techniques. Among the goals of this movement is the
component of the human experience. In particular, responsibility to educate independent thinkers and
the way listeners engage with music plays a central autonomous learners (Paul, 1993).
role in the overall musical experience. In this In summary, the nature of musical thought may be
discussion, music listening as a constructivist inherently linked to creating meaning in the
experience and instructional strategies were listener’s experience. Therefore, a pedagogical
examined with particular attention to critical approach making use of higher-order thinking and
thinking as an effective avenue to increase listeners’ constructivist strategies may result in more effective
perceptions and responses. Both music listening and teaching of music and music listening.
written descriptors of music were combined to Experimenting with music as a context for reflective
generate a unique perspective on two distinct yet thinking, researchers have developed new
related pursuits in the humanities, i.e. music and understandings regarding pedagogy and musical
language. problem solving. As critical thinking may be a
Researchers have investigated generalizable useful tool in music and because educating for
critical thinking skills as well as their applications in musical independence is a central goal of music
music and related fields. With an appreciation for education (Boardman, 1989; Wiggins, 2001), critical
the complexity of thought processes, several authors thinking instruction may assist listeners to think
have underscored the importance of context in autonomously in music. Further research is
critical thinking. The definition of critical thinking necessary to explore the efficacy of critical thinking
and its generalizability were discussed as two central instruction in music listening.

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About the Author

Daniel C. Johnson, Ph.D., teaches courses in elementary music education and is a multi-instrumentalist with
fifteen years of teaching experience. His research is focused on music cognition, critical thinking, and music
listening. Dr. Johnson is a frequent presenter at state, regional, national, and international conferences. His
articles have been published in The Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, Contributions to
Music Education, The TUBA-ITEC Journal, The Australian Band and Orchestra Directors' Association Journal,
and on-line at Musicstaff.com. His first book, Musical Explorations: Fundamentals Through Experience, is
published by Kendall-Hunt.

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