Running head: WHAT IS LITERACY?

What is Literacy?

Danielle Capello

Michigan State University

Literacy is a fundamental skill individuals must practice and strengthen throughout their

lifetime. Everyday, people around the world are exposed to a variety of texts, images, videos,

and other media that affect their health, finances, and overall well-being. Individuals with the

literacy skills necessary to analyze and comprehend this useful information are more likely to

achieve success. However, individuals are not born literate. What is literacy, and what does it

mean to be literate? Literacy is an ability that requires strategies and skills that are learned,

practiced, and strengthened throughout an individual’s lifetime. It is my goal as an educator to

teach my students these strategies and strengthen their skills in the classroom, ultimately helping

them be successful in their everyday lives. With this in mind, I have altered my original

definition of literacy to include the specific skills necessary for literacy mastery and overall

individual success. A literate individual must be proficient in three types of literacy: traditional

literacy, scientific literacy, and digital literacy.

Literacy has evolved in the classroom to integrate reading and writing, rather than keep

them as two separate subjects (Raphael & Hiebert, 1996). The basic ability to read and write is

defined as traditional literacy. According to traditional literacy, an individual is able to

accurately read texts that vary in length, depth, and subject. Traditionally literate individuals also

have an extensive vocabulary knowledge. Cultural differences and life experiences influence

individuals’ vocabulary knowledge (Johnson, 2014). For this reason, it is important to recognize

that these diverse backgrounds expose individuals to different words throughout their lifetime.

When faced with unfamiliar vocabulary terms, proficient readers are able to use context clues to

decode the author’s message and comprehend the text. Along with vocabulary, traditionally

literate individuals are experienced in decoding and fluency. Evidence shows that individuals

skilled in decoding, fluency, and vocabulary are more likely to comprehend what they are
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reading. Therefore, individuals must develop and practice these skills to improve their reading

abilities (Lemov, 2010). Traditionally literate individuals are able to comprehend texts by

summarizing the information to identify the meaning and relevance of the texts.

In the classroom, teachers use a variety of strategies to facilitate reading and

comprehension before, during, and after reading texts. Content and important facts may be

introduced before a reading assignment that will activate students’ prior knowledge, and

ultimately help them make sense of the text (Lemov, 2010). During and after a reading, teachers

frequently ask questions about texts to check for student understanding and reveal their

interpretations of the text. Oftentimes, teachers ask evidence-based reasoning questions to have

students use supportive facts from the text when answering a question. Referring to facts from

the text to support an answer or claim reveals a student’s overall understanding of the texts. It

allows teachers to uncover if and how students are grasping the information provided in a text

(Lemov, 2010). Kathryn Au recommends similar strategies to improve reading comprehension:

“predicting, drawing inferences, determining importance, generating questions, and monitoring

comprehension” (Au, 2006, p. 123). These reading strategies are proven to help individuals

understand texts and gain knowledge from the information provided in these texts.

Traditional literacy not only involves reading a text, but also responding to the reading in

the form of writing. It is the ability to communicate one’s point of view, understanding, and

interpretation of texts through writing. While reading, individuals find meaning in texts by

making connections to their prior knowledge, opinions, and beliefs (Johnson, 2010). Thus,

writing is the expression of the connections formed between the reader’s ideas and texts.

Proficient writers create coherent, organized pieces with a clear purpose that is supported by

facts, evidence, and explanations. This is a difficult task for inexperienced writers who lack the
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necessary skills. Anchor charts are a helpful tool when students are developing their writing

skills because they provide students with questions to think about when interpreting and

responding to a text (Johnson, 2010). Teachers can model these strategies and then provide

students the opportunity for independent practice in the classroom.

Although writing allows educators to observe how students read and comprehend texts, it

does not reveal the thinking process in which this is done. “Since reading and writing are mental

activities and not subject to observation, talk during the activities, as well as talk about the

activities, is critical for making visible those unobservable mental processes” (Raphael &

Hiebert, 1996, p. 91). Providing students the opportunity to talk about their thinking, typically in

the form of group discussions, was a common theme discussed throughout the semester. The

Expert Study, conducted by Rona F. Flippo, further supports the importance of oral language

when learning how to read and write. The experts in this study agreed that combining reading

with other language processes, such as writing, talking, and listening, facilitates students learning

to read (Flippo, 1999). Therefore, in addition to the ability to read and write, traditional literacy

also includes the use of language to comprehend, reflect on, and discuss texts. Communication,

specifically when explaining phenomena, supporting claims, and publishing results, also plays a

significant role in a science classroom. Literacy and science combine to form another type of

literacy, scientific literacy.

In scientific literacy, individuals accurately read and analyze science-based texts that

contain scientific vocabulary. Once again, vocabulary knowledge directly relates to better

reading comprehension. When reading science-based texts, individuals often come across

unfamiliar scientific vocabulary terms. It is crucial that they are able to use context clues to

define these scientific terms within the texts to gain a deeper understanding of the content. In my
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classroom, each unit begins with a reading activity that I call Reading in Science. Students read a

short text that introduces them to the main ideas and new scientific vocabulary terms. Students

exposed to scientific vocabulary in real readings are more likely to expand their vocabulary

knowledge (Flippo, 1999). Students use context clues and other reading strategies to understand

the meaning and use of the vocabulary term. While reading, students are instructed to summarize

the text and write three statements or questions that arose as they read. The purpose of this

writing component is to check for students’ comprehension of the text. Students then talk with

one another to “summarize, predict, clarify, and ask questions” about the text (Raphael &

Hiebert, 1996, p. 122). During these discussions, students who struggled to comprehend the text

have the opportunity to learn from their classmates by listening to their interpretations of the text.

Reading in Science not only introduces students to the new content, but also provides them the

opportunity to practice their traditional and scientific literacy skills.

Individuals proficient in scientific literacy also use texts and other media to answer

questions, solve problems, and support scientific claims; individuals search for and cite pieces of

evidence to accomplish these tasks. This evidence may exist as texts, images, diagrams, videos,

or data in the form of tables, charts, and graphs. Scientifically literate individuals must be able to

read and analyze data to conclude their findings, which are then written in the form of a lab

report or presentation and communicated to others. “Science cannot advance if scientists are

unable to communicate their findings… A major practice of science is thus the communication

of ideas and the results of inquiry” (National Research Council, 2012, p. 53). Technology is a

beneficial tool that can be used to communicate an individual’s scientific results with the public,

locally and globally. In order to utilize this tool, individuals must be proficient in one final type

of literacy, digital literacy.

Technology provides individuals with a great deal information from the past, present, and

predictions for the future. To access this nearly unlimited virtual library and utilize its

information, individuals must be proficient in another type of literacy, digital literacy. Digital

literacy is the use of technology to read, analyze, and discuss a variety of texts, images, videos,

programs, and platforms. In order to do this, individuals must be able to use computer programs

to search for and cite information from reliable sources. Individuals that are proficient in digital

literacy also use various computer programs on a wide range of electronic devices.

Although students today are known as digital natives, their technological experiences and

skills are limited to entertainment and social media programs (Johnson, 2014). Johnson discusses

a variety of strategies to help students become digitally literate. In summary, students must be

able “to identify important questions, locate relevant information, and crucially evaluate,

synthesize, and communicate information from the Internet” (Johnson, 2014, p. 3). Once

information is accessed in the classroom, students must be able to read and comprehend various

types of texts; therefore, traditional literacy is interwoven with technology to create digital

literacy. Students use a variety of computer programs to create final products (essay,

presentation, lab report, blog post, etc.) and publish them on the Internet. Thus, technology is

used to communicate the comprehended information to others on a local and global scale

(Johnson, 2014).

The communication component of digital literacy provides a purpose for reading and

comprehending specific texts. This idea is supported by a study conducted among secondary

education males. As described in Reading Don’t Fix No Chevys, the majority of males in the

study were more eager to read texts that had a purpose and helped them achieve a task or goal

(Smith & Wilhelm, 2008). The goal in any science experiment is to obtain, analyze, and present
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one’s findings; therefore, requiring students to publish and share their information creates a

purpose or goal for any research and reading activities in the science classroom. In my personal

experience, students put forth more effort when their work is then displayed for and shared with

the community, rather than just their teacher. Students with digital literacy skills are able to use

technology to share their work with others around the world. Digital literacy, along with

traditional literacy and scientific literacy, require the development of skills over time.

As previously stated, literacy is not an innate ability; it must be learned and strengthened

over time. I, however, cannot recall a time when I did not possess this ability. My parents

encouraged reading and writing at a young age. We read stories, drew picture books, sang songs,

and even created our own stories and songs. This practice of family literacy was a common

occurrence in my house. The mission statement of the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family

Literacy describes family literacy as “The child’s first school is the home. The parent is the

child’s first teacher. The child’s first subject is reading” (Barbara Bush Foundation for Family

Literacy, 2018). I developed foundational literacy skills at a young age due to family literacy. Its

practices also influenced my appreciation for literacy.

As I got older, I was exposed to a variety of texts, images, and videos on a daily basis

throughout my K-12 education. In elementary school, I remember reading twice a day. First, we

read a book of our choice independently. Second, we gathered around the teacher and followed

along in our books as she read us a story. During this reading time my teacher paused to ask

questions and had us make predictions about the story. Students were encouraged to participate

in the class discussion to explain their opinions, predictions, and interpretations of the text.

In high school, I had time to read school-related texts or interest-based texts, but not both.

I chose to read texts for school to increase my comprehension of the material, that in turn,
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increased my class performance. Thus, a positive feedback loop was created. Earning good

grades established a purpose for reading texts for school and helped me reach my ultimate goal

of being accepted to Michigan State University. I was fortunate to have strong systems of

support that taught and strengthened my ability to read, write, and communicate with others

around the world. Throughout the course of this class, I realize that I am my students’ system of

support. It is my responsibility as their teacher to provide opportunities for my students to

develop and practice literacy skills. For this reason, literacy and science are integrated in my

daily lessons.

I work in the West Bloomfield School District, which has expanded its STEAM program

from the middle schools to the high school. This program is moving away from a project-based

learning approach and toward the three-dimensional approach of the Next Generation Science

Standards (NGSS), which I have implemented in my classroom. The goal of the Next Generation

Science Standards is to “provide students with new learning experiences that engage them with

fundamental questions about the world and how scientists have investigated and found answers

to those questions” (National Research Council, 2012). The science and engineering process

requires students to be proficient in traditional, scientific, and digital literacy.

Each unit begins with a phenomenon that students experience; these engaging and

relevant phenomena are in the form of texts, images, videos, and other media. Students work

individually when asking questions and making observations and predictions about the

phenomenon. Denise Johnson explains, “students who learn to ask questions and inquire will

continue to be stimulated by new information as adults” (Johnson, 2014, p. 120). She explains

that learning to ask questions is an important skill in critical thinking. All of these skills taught

and practiced in the initial phase of this three-dimensional learning approach are fundamental
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skills that will help students be successful in the future. After students form their initial

predictions, they collaborate in small groups to discuss their thinking and come up with possible

explanations for the phenomenon. This is followed by a gallery walk with the entire class. A

gallery walk requires students to create a visual representation of their thoughts and explanations

that are then shared with their classmates. During this time, all students and the teacher have the

opportunity to hear how students interpreted and comprehended the original phenomenon.

Students analyze and evaluate one another’s explanation until a final explanation (modifying an

existing explanation or creating a new explanation) is synthesized and agreed upon by the class.

The entire process repeats with a new phenomenon, until a final explanation for all phenomena

has been formed.

This three-dimensional learning approach provides students the opportunity to develop

and strengthen their literacy skills. Students observe, predict, and explain various texts, images,

videos, and models independently. They practice reading comprehension, basic writing skills,

and accurately using scientific vocabulary throughout this process. Collaboration in small groups

and the gallery walk also incorporate an important part of literacy into the classroom: language.

According to Edwards and Mercer, “[language] provides a medium for teaching and learning”

and “is one of the materials from which the child constructs a way of thinking” (Raphael &

Hiebert, 1996, pg. 90). Language allows teachers and other classmates to see how and why

students form explanations from their observations, which is typically an unobservable process

since it is done within the student’s mind (Au, 2006). This three-dimensional learning approach

also supports Diane DeFord’s belief that “learners have a responsibility to inquire, interrogate,

and position themselves in the world with a critical stance. [As educators, we must] encourage
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student investigations, taking a ‘problem-posing’ rather than a ‘problem-solving’ stance to

curriculum” (Flippo, 1999, loc. 2120).

Literacy in science has also been the main goal of my Professional Learning Community

(PLC) for the 2017-2018 school year. Focusing on science-based SAT reading passages, our

general goal was to increase student scores on these SAT reading passages. We chose three

science-based SAT reading passages to administer to students throughout the school year. Each

passage contained at least one chart or graph that supported the text. The questions assessed the

following skills: decoding and fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and evidence-based

reasoning. After administering the first passage, we compiled student data based on the number

of questions students got correct and incorrect. We analyzed the results of the whole class and

subgroups (race and gender). After analyzing our results, we concluded that the majority of our

students of all races and genders struggled with comprehension questions and evidence-based

reasoning questions.

My Professional Learning Community discussed strategies, with our individual classes

and with one another, that are helpful when facing these types of questions. We created a list of

four strategies to teach, model for, and practice with our students before the next SAT passage.

We followed Kathryn Au’s approach to teach these comprehension strategies in the classroom. I

explained the purpose for each strategy, used a think-aloud while modeling how to use each

strategy, and coached students as they practiced using each strategy to answer questions on the

first SAT passage they already took (Au, 2006).

Figure 1.1 - Second SAT Passage Class Data

Within this same week, students were given a second SAT reading passage. The passage

and specific questions were different from the first passage; however, the questions assessed the

same reading skills. Students were expected to use the strategies we learned and practiced in

class when answering these questions. Once again, we collected and analyzed our data. Figure

1.1 shows our overall data analysis for the second SAT reading passage. Our results showed an

increase in student scores in all subgroups. We concluded that students used the comprehension

strategies taught and practiced in class, and we inferred that these strategies helped their

performance. We will continue practicing these comprehension strategies in the classroom to

further increase our students’ ability to read and comprehend science-based texts.

Literacy skills are developed and strengthened throughout an individual’s lifetime. I

believe that a literate individual must be proficient in traditional literacy, digital literacy, and

scientific literacy. Literacy and science are integrated in my classroom lessons and activities that

include, but are not limited to lessons composed of phenomena (the NGSS three-dimensional

approach), research papers and lab reports, SAT reading passages, and Reading in Science

activities. These activities facilitate the development of my students’ literacy skills, ultimately

helping them to become better readers, writers, and communicators. There are a variety of texts

and other media that contain information about our ever-changing world. Individuals with

literacy skills are able to read and interpret this information to gain knowledge. Therefore,
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literacy is an important skill that gives individuals the opportunity to learn about important issues

affecting our everyday lives, essentially helping them be successful.

Works Cited
Au, Kathryn H. (2006). Multicultural issues and literacy achievement. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy. (2018). Our mission. Retrieved from
https://www.barbarabush.org/our-story/our-mission/

Flippo, R. F. (1999). What do the experts say?: Helping children learn to read. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.

Flippo, R. F. (2012, Editor). Reading researchers in search of common ground: The expert study
revisited. Second Edition. New York: Routledge.

Johnson, Denise (2014). Reading, writing, and literacy: Teaching with online texts, tools, and
resources, K-8. New York: Teachers College Press.

Lemov, D. (2010). Teach Like a Champion: 49 Techniques that put students on the
path to college. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

National Research Council. (2012). A framework for K-12 science education practices,
crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

Raphael, T., & Hiebert, E. H. (1996). Creating an integrated approach to literacy instruction.
Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College.

Smith, M. W., & Wilhelm, J. D. (2008). Reading don’t fix no chevys: Literacy in the lives of
young men. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.