INTEGRAL CALCULUS

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 Table of Contents
 Chapter 1 - Fundamental Theorems of Calculus
 Indefinite Integrals
 Properties of Integrals
 Definite Integrals
 General Properties of Definite Integral

 Chapter 2 - Fundamental Integration Formulas

 The General Power Formula
 Logarithmic Functions
 Exponential Functions
 Trigonometric Functions
 Trigonometric Transformation
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
 Chapter 3 - Techniques of Integration
 Integration by Parts
 Integration by Substitution
 Integration of Rational Fractions
 Change of Limits with Change of Variable
 Chapter 4 - Applications of Integration
 Plane Areas in Rectangular Coordinates
 Plane Areas in Polar Coordinates
 Length of Arc in Polar Plane
 Length of Arc in XY-Plane
 Volumes of Solids of Revolution

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  CHAPTER 1 : FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS OF CALCULUS

 Indefinite Integrals

If F(x) is a function whose derivative F'(x) = f(x) on certain interval of the x-axis, then F(x) is called the
anti-derivative of indefinite integral f(x). When we integrate the differential of a function we get that function
plus an arbitrary constant. In symbols we write

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶

Where the symbol ∫, called the integral sign, specifies the operation of integration upon f(x) dx; that is,
we are to find a function whose derivative is f(x) or whose differential is f(x) dx. The dx tells us that the variable
of integration is x.

 Properties of Integral

Integration Formulas

In these formulas, u and v denote differentiable functions of some independent variable (say x) and a, n,
and C are constants.

1. The integral of the differential of a function u is u plus an arbitrary constant C (the definition of an integral).
∫ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 + 𝐶

2. The integral of a constant times the differential of the function. (A constant may be written before the integral
sign but not a variable factor).

∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑢

3. The integral of the sum of a finite number of differentials is the sum of their integrals.

∫(𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑧) = ∫ 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ 𝑑𝑣 + ⋯ ∫ 𝑑𝑧

4. If n is not equal to minus one, the integral of 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 is obtained by adding one to the exponent and divided by
the new exponent. This is called the General Power Formula.

𝑢𝑛+1
∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = + 𝐶; 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1

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1-3 Examples | Indefinite Integrals
Evaluate the following integrals:

Example 1 Example 2

2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 4 ∫(𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 − 6𝑥)4 (4𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 − 6) 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2

Example 3 Example 4
1
∫(1 + 𝑦)𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 ∫ √𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

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Example 5 Example 6
(3𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥
∫3 ∫(1 − 2𝑥 2 )3 𝑑𝑥
√(2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 1)2

 Definite Integral
The definite integral of f(x) is the difference between two values of the integral of f(x) for two distinct
values of the variable x. If the integral of f(x) dx = F(x) + C, the definite integral is denoted by the symbol

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎

The quantity F(b) - F(a) is called the definite integral of f(x) between the limits a and b or simply the
definite integral from a to b. It is called the definite integral because the result involves neither x nor the constant
C and therefore has a definite value. The numbers a and b are called the limits of integration, a being the lower
limit and b the upper limit.

 General Properties of Definite Integral

1. The sign of the integral changes if the limits are interchanged.

𝑏 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

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2. The interval of integration may be broken up into any number of subintervals, and integrate over each
interval separately.
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐

3. The definite integral of a given integrand is independent of the variable of integration. Hence, it makes
no difference what letter is used for the variable of integration.
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑎 𝑎

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 CHAPTER 2 : FUNDAMENTAL INTEGRATION FORMULAS
 The General Power Formula
The General Power Formula as shown in Chapter 1 is in the form :
𝑢𝑛+1
∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = + 𝐶; 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
Thus far integration has been confined to polynomial functions. Although the power formula was studied,
our attention was necessarily limited to algebraic integrals, so that further work with power formula is needed.
The power formula can be used to evaluate certain integrals involving powers of the trigonometric functions.

Example 1 Example 2

Example 3

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  Logarithmic Functions
𝑢𝑛+1
The limitation of the Power Formula ∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑛+1
+ 𝐶; 𝑛 ≠ −1 this makes the right side of the
𝑑𝑢
equation indeterminate. This is where the logarithmic function comes in, note that ∫ 𝑢−1 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ , and we can
𝑢
𝑑𝑢
recall that 𝑑(ln 𝑢) = 𝑢
. Thus,
𝑑𝑢
∫ = ln 𝑢 + 𝐶
𝑢
The formula above involves a numerator which is the derivative of the denominator. The
denominator uu represents any function involving any independent variable. The formula is meaningless

when uu is negative, since the logarithms of negative numbers have not been defined. If we write 𝑢 = −𝑣 v so
that 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑑𝑣, then we have :
𝑑𝑢 −𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
∫ =∫ =∫ = ln 𝑣 + 𝐶 = ln(−𝑢) + 𝐶
𝑢 𝑣 𝑣
When negative numbers are involved, the formula should be considered in the form:
𝑑𝑢
∫ = ln |𝑢 | + 𝐶
𝑢
The integral of any quotient whose numerator is the differential of the denominator is the logarithm of
the denominator.

 Exponential Functions
There are two basic formulas for the integration of exponential functions.
𝑎𝑢
1. ∫ a𝑢 du = ln 𝑎 + C, a > 0, a ≠ 1

2. ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 du = 𝑒 𝑢 + C

Where
u = function, say f(x)
a = constant (example 3, 𝜋 sin 30°, √7)
1
𝑒 = lim (𝑥 + )𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
1
𝑒 = lim (1 + 𝑥)𝑥
𝑥→∞

e = 2.71828182845904. ..

 Trigonometric Functions
Basic Formulas
1. ∫ sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cos 𝑢 + C
2. ∫ cos 𝑢 du = sin 𝑢 + C
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 3. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 du = tan 𝑢 + C
4. ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 u du = − cot 𝑢 + C
5. ∫ sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 du = sec 𝑢 + C
6. ∫ csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢 du = − csc 𝑢 + C

Formulas Derived from Logarithmic Function

7. ∫ tan 𝑢 du = ln(sec 𝑢) + C = −ln(cos 𝑢) + C
8. ∫ cot 𝑢 du = ln(sin 𝑢) + C
9. ∫ sec 𝑢 du = ln(sec 𝑢 + tan 𝑢) + C
10. ∫ csc 𝑢 du = ln(csc 𝑢 − cot 𝑢) + C = −ln(csc 𝑢 + cot 𝑢) + C

The six basic formulas for integration involving trigonometric functions are stated in terms of appropriate
pairs of functions. An integral involving sin 𝑥 and tan 𝑥, which the simple integration formula cannot be applied,
we must put the integrand entirely in terms of sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 or in terms of tan 𝑥 and sec 𝑥. Notice that these
formulas are reverse formulas in Differential Calculus.
The formulas derived from trigonometric function can be traced as follows:

∫ tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
=∫
cos 𝑢
− sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
=∫
cos 𝑢
= ln(cos 𝑢) + 𝐶 → 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
= ln(cos 𝑢)−1 + 𝐶
1
= ln( )+𝐶
cos 𝑢
= ln(sec 𝑢) + 𝐶 → 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
In applying the formula (Example: Formula 1 below), it is important to note that the numerator du is the
differential of the variable quantity u which appears squared inside the square root symbol. We mentally put the
quantity under the radical into the form of the square of the constant minus the square of the variable.
𝑑𝑢 𝑢
1. ∫ 2 2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin 𝑎 + 𝐶 , 𝑎 > 0
√𝑎 −𝑢
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
2. ∫ 𝑎2 −𝑢2 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑎 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑢
3. ∫ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec + 𝐶
𝑢√𝑢2 −𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎

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 CHAPTER 3 - TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
 Integration by Parts
When u and v are differentiable functions of 𝑥, 𝑑(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 or 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑(𝑢𝑣) − 𝑣 𝑑𝑢. When this
is integrated we have:
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

The expression to be integrated must be separated into two parts, one part being u and the other part,
together with 𝑑𝑥, being 𝑑𝑣. The factor corresponding to 𝑑𝑣 must obviously contain the differential of the variable
of integration.
 Integration by Substitution
1. Algebraic Substitution
In algebraic substitution we replace the variable of integration by a function of a new variable. A change
in the variable on integration often reduces an integrand to an easier integrable form.
Example 1 Example 2
(8𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥
∫ ∫ 𝑦 3 √2𝑦 2 + 1 𝑑𝑦
√4𝑥 − 3

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 Example 3
𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
∫
(𝑥 2 + 1)3

2. Trigonometric Substitution
Trigonometric substitution is employed to integrate expressions involving functions of (𝑎2 − 𝑢2 (𝑎2 +
𝑢2 ), and (𝑢2 − 𝑎2 ) where "a" is a constant and "u" is any algebraic function. Substitutions convert the respective
functions to expressions in terms of trigonometric functions. The substitution is more useful but not limited to
functions
Use the following suggestions:

When the integrand involves...

 (𝑎2 − 𝑢2 ), try 𝑢 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃

 (𝑎2 + 𝑢2 ), try 𝑢 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃
 (𝑢2 − 𝑎2 ), try 𝑢 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃

 Integration of Rational Fractions

Partial Fraction
𝑃(𝑥)
Functions of x that can be expressed in the form𝑄(𝑥)), where both P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials of x, is

known as rational fraction. A rational fraction is known to be a proper fraction if the degree of P(x) is less
than the degree of Q(x). Example of proper fraction is...
2𝑥 2 + 4x − 5
5𝑥 3 + 6x 2 − 2x − 1
A rational fraction is said to be an improper fraction if the degree of P(x) is greater than or equal to the
degree of Q(x). Examples are...
3x2 −2x+1 4x2 −2x+3
and
2x2 +6 3x+2
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 Improper fraction may be expressed as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction. For example:

12x 2 − 13x − 9 5
= 3x + 2 +
4x − 7 4𝑥 − 7
𝑥−4
Proper fraction such as can be expressed as the sum of partial fraction, provided that the
2𝑥 2 −4x
denominator will factorized.
Integration of any rational fraction depends essentially on the integration of a proper fraction by
expressing it into a sum of partial fractions. There are four cases that may arise in dealing with integrand
involving proper fraction.

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 CHAPTER 4 - APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
 Plane Areas in Rectangular Coordinates
There are two methods for finding the area bounded by curves in rectangular coordinates. These are...

1. by using a horizontal element (called strip) of area, and

2. by using a vertical strip of area.

The strip is in the form of a rectangle with area equal to length × width, with width equal to the differential
element. To find the total area enclosed by specified curves, it is necessary to sum up a series of rectangles
defined by the strip.

Using Horizontal Strip

From the figure, the area of the strip is 𝑥𝑑𝑦, where 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑅 − 𝑥𝐿 . The total area can be found by running this strip
starting from 𝑦1 going to 𝑦2 . Our formula for integration is...
𝑦1 𝑦2
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ (𝑥𝑅 − 𝑥𝐿 ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑦2 𝑦1

Note that 𝑥𝑅 is the right end of the strip and is always on the curve 𝑓(𝑦) and 𝑥𝐿 is the left end of the strip and is
always on the curve 𝑔(𝑦) . We therefore substitute 𝑥𝑅 = 𝑓(𝑦) and 𝑥𝐿 = 𝑔(𝑦) prior to integration.

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Using Vertical Strip

We apply the same principle of using horizontal strip to the vertical strip. Consider the figure
below.

The total area is...

𝑥2 𝑥2
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑦𝑈 − 𝑦𝐿 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥1 𝑥1

Where
𝑦𝑈 = 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦𝐿 = 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 = 𝑔(𝑥)
The steps in finding the area can be outlined as follows:
1. Sketch the curve
2. Decide what strip to use and define its limits
3. Apply the appropriate formula based on the strip then integrate

Example 1
Find the area bounded by the curve y = 9 − 𝑥 2 and the x − axis.

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Example 2
Find the area bounded by the curve 𝑎2 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , the x-axis and the line 𝑥 = 2𝑎

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Example 7
The figure shown below is composed of arc of circles with centers at each corner of the square 20 cm
by 20 cm. Find the area inside the square but outside the region commonly bounded by the quarter
circles. The required area is shaded as shown in the figure below.

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Example 8
Arcs of quarter circles are drawn inside the square. The center of each circle is at each corner of
the square. If the radius of each arc is equal to 20 cm and the sides of the square are also 20 cm. Find
the area common to the four circular quadrants. See figure below.

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  Plane Areas in Polar Coordinates
The fundamental equation for finding the area enclosed by a curve whose equation is in polar coordinates
is...
1 𝜃2
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
2 𝜃2
Where θ1 and θ2 are the angles made by the bounding radii.

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 The formula above is based on a sector of a circle with radius r and central angle dθ. Note that r is a
polar function or r = f(θ). See figure above.

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