COSMOGENIC NUCLEIDES

Cosmogenic nuclides (or cosmogenic isotopes) are rare nuclides (isotopes) created when a high-
energy cosmic ray interacts with the nucleus of an in situ Solar System atom, causing nucleons (protons
and neutrons) to be expelled from the atom (see cosmic ray spallation). These isotopes are produced
within Earth materials such as rocks or soil, in Earth's atmosphere, and in extraterrestrial items such
as meteorites. By measuring cosmogenic isotopes, scientists are able to gain insight into a range
of geological and astronomicalprocesses. There are both radioactive and stable cosmogenic isotopes.
Some of these radioisotopes are tritium, carbon-14 and phosphorus-32.
Certain light (low atomic number) primordial nuclides (some isotopes of lithium, beryllium and boron)
are thought to have arisen not only during the Big Bang, and also (and perhaps primarily) to have been
made after the Big Bang, but before the condensation of the Solar System, by the process of cosmic ray
spallation on interstellar gas and dust. This explains their higher abundance in cosmic rays as compared
with their ratios and abundances of certain other nuclides on Earth. This also explains the overabundance
of the early transition metals just before iron in the periodic table; the cosmic-ray spallation of iron thus
produces scandium through chromium on one hand and helium through boron on the other.[1] However,
the arbitrary defining qualification for cosmogenic nuclides of being formed "in situ in the Solar System"
(meaning inside an already-aggregated piece of the Solar System) prevents primordial nuclides formed by
cosmic ray spallation before the formation of the Solar System, from being termed "cosmogenic
nuclides"— even though the mechanism for their formation is exactly the same. These same nuclides still
arrive on Earth in small amounts in cosmic rays, and are formed in meteoroids, in the atmosphere, on
Earth, "cosmogenically." However, beryllium (all of it stable beryllium-9) is present[citation
needed]
primordially in the Solar System in much larger amounts, having existed prior to the condensation
of the Solar System, and thus present in the materials from which the Solar System formed.
To make the distinction in another fashion, the timing of their formation determines which subset of
cosmic ray spallation-produced nuclides are termed primordial or cosmogenic (a nuclide cannot belong
to both classes). By convention, certain stable nuclides of lithium, beryllium, and boron are
thought[according to whom?] to have been produced by cosmic ray spallation in the period of
time betweenthe Big Bang and the Solar System's formation (thus making these primordial nuclides, by
definition) are not termed "cosmogenic," even though they were[citation needed] formed by the same process as
the cosmogenic nuclides (although at an earlier time). The primordial nuclide beryllium-9, the only stable
beryllium isotope, is an example of this type of nuclide.
In contrast, even though the radioactive isotopes beryllium-7 and beryllium-10 fall into this series of three
light elements (lithium, beryllium, boron) formed mostly[citation needed] by cosmic ray
spallation nucleosynthesis, both of these nuclides have half lives too short for them to have been formed
before the formation of the Solar System, and thus they cannot be primordial nuclides. Since the cosmic
ray spallation route is the only possible source of beryllium-7 and beryllium-10 occurrence naturally in

the environment, they are therefore cosmogenic.

Cartoon illustrating cosmogenic nuclide exposure ages.

A glacier transports an erratic boulder, and then recedes, exposing it to cosmic rays. Spallation reactions
occur in minerals in the rocks upon bombardment by cosmic rays. By sampling the rocks and separating
certain minerals (such as quartz or pyroxene) and calculating the amount of these minerals (as a ratio to
other, stable, minerals), we can work out how long the rock has been exposed on the earth’s surface.

Cosmogenic nuclides are rare nuclides that form in surface rocks because of bombardment by high-
energy cosmic rays.These cosmic rays originate from high-energy supernova explosions in space.
Wherever we are on Earth, when we are outside, we are constantly bombarded by these cosmic rays.
When particular isotopes in rock crystals are bombarded by these energetic cosmic rays neutrons,
a spallation reaction results. Spallation reactions are those where cosmic-ray neutrons collide with
particular elements in surface rocks, resulting in a reaction that is sufficiently energetic to fragment the
target nucleus[3]. These spallation reactions decrease with depth. Counting the numbers of these isotopes,
normally as a ratio to other isotopes, means that scientists can calculate how long rocks have been
exposed at the Earth’s surface.
These cosmic rays do not penetrate deep into the earth’s surface. This is important for glacial geologists,
as it means that surfaces that have had repeated glaciations with repeated periods of exposure to cosmic
rays can still be dated, as long as they have had sufficient glacial erosion to remove any inherited signal.
Using cosmogenic nuclides in glacial geology

Reconstructing past ice sheet extent

Cosmogenic nuclide samplng an erratic granite boulder with hammer and chisel on James Ross Island,
January 2011
Glacial geologists use this phenomenon to date glacial landforms, such as erratics or glacially transported
boulders on moraines[7] or glacially eroded bedrock. Dating glacial landforms helps scientists understand
past ice-sheet extent and rates of ice-sheet recession.

The basic principle states that a rock on a moraine originated from underneath the glacier, where it was
plucked and then transported subglacially. When it reaches the terminus of the glacier, the boulder will be
deposited. Glacial geologists are often interested in dating the maximum extents of glaciers or rates of
recession, and so will look for boulders deposited on moraines.

Once exposed to the atmosphere, the boulder will begin to accumulate cosmogenic nuclides. Assuming
that the boulder remains in a stable position, and does not roll or move after deposition, this boulder will
give an excellent Exposure Age estimate for the moraine. The exposure age therefore provides an estimate
of the length of time a rock surface has been exposed at the Earth’s surface.
Rates of ice-sheet thinning

We can use cosmogenic nuclide dating to work out how thick ice sheets were in the past and to
reconstruct rates of thinning. This is crucial data for numerical ice sheet models.

As well as using cosmogenic nuclide dating to work out the past extent of ice sheets and the rate at which
they shrank back, we can use it to work out ice-sheet thicknesses and rates of thinning[5, 6]. Sampling
and dating boulders in a transect down a mountain will rapidly establish how thick your ice sheet was and
how quickly it thinned during deglaciation.

Many mountains have trimlines on them, and are smoothed and eroded below the trimline, and more
weathered with more evidence of periglaciation above the trimline. Trimlines can therefore also be used
to reconstruct past ice sheet thickness. However, this can be difficult, as thermal boundaries within the ice
sheet may mean that it is more erosive lower down than higher up, and that cold, non-erosive ice on the
tops of mountains may leave in tact older landscapes. Cosmogenic nuclide dating can also be used in this
context to understand past ice-sheet thicknesses and changes in subglacial thermal regime.
Sampling strategies cosmogenic nuclide dating

Sampling strategy is the most important factor in generating a reliable exposure age. Several factors can
affect cosmogenic nuclide dating: rock type, attenuation of cosmic rays, topographic shielding, post-
depositional movement, and burial and cover by snow, vegetation or earth.
Choosing the correct rock type

Granite – the author’s favourite rock. Photo credit: Mike Hambrey

Geologists must ensure that they choose an appropriate rock. Granite and sandstone boulders are
frequently used in cosmogenic nuclide dating, as they have large amounts of quartz, which yields
Beryllium-10, a cosmogenic nuclide ideal for dating glacial fluctuations over Quaternary timescales.

Beryllium-10 (10Be) does not occur naturally in quartz, and once it forms following spallation it becomes
trapped by quartz’s regular crystal lattice. For a rock to be suitable for cosmogenic nuclide dating, quartz
must occur in the rock in sufficient quantities and in the sufficient size fraction. A general rule of thumb is
that you should be able to see the quartz crystals with the naked eye.
Attenuation of cosmic rays

Bethan Davies sampling a boulder for cosmogenic nuclide dating in Greenland. Photo credit: Dr David
Roberts

Because cosmic rays become attenuated with depth through the rock, scientists are only interested in
collecting the upper few centimetres of a rock’s surface. Rock samples may be collected with a hammer
and chisel or with a rock saw. This can take a very long time!
Stable position

Frost heave in periglacial environments can repeatedly bury and exhume boulders, resulting in a complex
exposure age.

One of the largest errors in cosmogenic nuclide dating comes from a poor sampling strategy. Because
cosmic rays only penetrate the upper few centimetres of a rock, movement of a boulder downslope can
result in large errors in the age calculated. Before sampling a rock, geologists must take detailed and
careful measurements of the landsurface, and satisfy themselves that the rock is in a stable position, has
not rolled, slipped downslope, been repeatedly buried and exhumed during periglacial rock cycling within
the active layer (frequently a problem with small boulders), and has not been covered with large amounts
of soil, snow or vegetation.

Signs of subglacial transport

Scratches (striations) on a sandstone boulder show that it has undergone subglacial transport and erosion.

Geologists must also be sure that the rock has undergone sufficient glacial erosion to remove any rock
that might have previously been exposed at the Earth’s surface, and so have accumulated cosmogenic
nuclides. They want to sample a rock that they are sure has undergone subglacial transport. They will
therefore sample boulders that are subrounded, faceted, bear striations, or show other signs of subglacial
transport.

Accounting for variable production rates

Bethan Davies cosmogenic nuclide sampling a sandstone boulder on a moraine. Photo credit: Ian Hey

Cosmogenic nuclide production rates vary according to latitude and elevation. These factors must be
measured by the scientist, and are accounted for in the calculation of the exposure age.

Topographic shielding, for example by a nearby large mountain, also affects the production rate of
cosmogenic nuclides. This is because the cosmic rays, which bombard Earth at a more or less equal rate
from all sectors of the sky, will be reduced if the view of the sky is shielded – for example, by a large
mountain that the rays cannot penetrate. Scientists must therefore carefully measure the horizon line all
for 360 degrees all around their boulder.

Difficulties in cosmogenic nuclide dating

Solifluction lobes on the Ulu Peninsula. Solifluction is common in periglacial environments, and can
result in rolling, burial and movement of boulders on slopes.

As mentioned above, sampling strategy is the most import factor in generating a reliable cosmogenic
nuclide age. Post-depositional processes, such as rolling, burial, exhumation or cover with vegetation can
result in interruption of the accumulation of cosmogenic nuclides and a younger than expected age.

Alternatively, if the boulder has not undergone sufficient erosion to remove previously accumulated
cosmogenic nuclides, it will have an older than expected age. This is called inheritance. This can be a
particular problem in Antarctica, where cold-based ice may repeatedly cover a boulder, preventing the
accumulation of cosmogenic nuclides, without eroding or even moving the rock. Rocks can therefore be
left in a stable position or moved slightly, without having suffiicient erosion to remove cosmogenic
nuclides from a previous exposure. This can result in a complex exposure history. This is typically
characterised by spread of exposure ages across a single landform. Dating just one boulder from a
moraine may therefore be an unreliable method to rely on. Scientists may also screen for complex
exposure by using two different isotopes, such as aluminium and beryllium (26Al and 10Be).
Calculating an exposure age

Production of cosmogenic nuclides

The cosmogenic nuclide concentration in a rock is proportional to the length of time that it has been
exposed on the earth’s surface[3]. The Production Rate of cosmogenic nuclides varies spatially, but is
generally assumed to have remained constant at a particular location. Published production rates are
available for different parts of the Earth.
Glacial geologists target elements that only occur in minerals in rocks, such as quartz, through cosmic-ray
bombardment, such as aluminium and beryllium (26Al and 10Be). Beryillium-10 is used most widely, as it
has the best determined production rate and can be measured at low concentrations[3]. Chlorine ( 36Cl) can
also be used to date the exposure age of basalt lavas[4].
Extraction of quartz
Bethan Davies using HF to dissolve rocks for cosmogenic nuclide dating. Note the personal protection
equipment!

The first stage in the calculation of a cosmogenic nuclide exposure age is to extract the quartz from a
rock. This is quite an involved process and means using some quite dangerous chemicals, such as HF
(Hydrogen Flouride). HF is an acid with a pH of about 3, but the small molecule is easily absorbed by
your skin. Once absorbed, it reacts vigorously with the calcium in your bones, forming Calcium Flouride
which may then be deposited in your arteries. All in all, not a substance you want to get on your skin!
Scientists must therefore take strong precautions before using this chemical.

The first stage is to crush the rock (or rock fragments) in a jaw crusher. The crusher must be perfectly
clean to avoid contamination. The crushed rock is then sieved to the right size. Magnetic seperation
removes particles with lots of iron (such as micas), leaving you (if you sampled granite, for example) with
a 100 g sample of sand, comprising mostly feldspar and quartz.

Preparation for AMS measurement

Feldspar is removed by placing the sample in Hexafloursilicic acid or HF on a shaking table for around 2
weeks. The acids are changed daily. The more durable quartz is left behind. Atmospheric 10Be, which
contaminates the sample, is removed by dissolving the outer third of the rock in 16% HF. After testing the
purity, the remaining quartz is dissolved in 40% HF (now it’s really time for the thick rubber gloves!). A
series of chemical precipitations leaves you with Beryllium Oxide (BeO), a white powder. It is mixed
with Niobium (NB) and pressed into a copper cathode. This is now ready to be analysed by the
Accelerator Mass Spectrometer (AMS).
Calculation of an exposure age
Once the ratio of cosmogenic to naturally occuring isotopes has been calculated, the production rate is
used to calculate an exposure age. This varies with altitude and latitude. Topographic shielding and
shielding by snow, vegetation or soil is also taken into account. There are a number of
online calculators that can be used to calculate the exposure age.