FHMM 1314

Mathematics for Business I

Chapter 1:
Mathematical Functions
Part A
 Topics

Real Numbers
 Set of Real Numbers
 Operations on Real Numbers
 Real Number Intervals
 Absolute Values (Modulus)

Exponents and Logarithms
 Properties of Exponents
 Properties of Logarithms

2
 Topics

Polynomials
 Remainder Theorem
 Factor Theorem

Partial Fractions

3
 Real Numbers
What number system have you been using most of
your life?
⇒ The real number system.

A real number is any number that has a decimal

representation.

4
 Set of Real Numbers
(i) Natural Numbers
Counting numbers (also called positive integers)
N = { 1, 2, 3, …… }
Whole Numbers:
W = {0} ∪ N = {0,1, 2,3,L}

(ii) Integers
Natural numbers, their negatives, and 0.
Z = {……, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, ……}
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 Set of Real Numbers
(iii) Rational Numbers, Q
Numbers that can be represented as a b ,
where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0.
All rational number can be represented by:
(a) terminating decimal numbers
such as 5 2 = 2.5, 1 2 = 0.5, − 3 4 = −0.75
(b) non-terminating repeating decimal numbers
such as − 2 3 = −0.666..., 2 15 = 0.1333 ...

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 Set of Real Numbers
(iv) Irrational Numbers
Numbers which cannot be expressed as a ratio of
two integers. They are non-terminating & non-
repeating decimal numbers.
I = { 2 , e , π , KK }

(v) Real Numbers, R

Rational and irrational numbers.

7
Set of Real Numbers

R
Q I

8
 Real Number Line

Origin

–8 –4 0 4 8

21
− π
4 53

9
 Example 1.1

Change the rational number 0.141414… as a

ratio of two integers.

Answer

10
 Example 1.2
Change the rational number 0.168168168 …
as a ratio of two integers.

Answer

11
 Operations on Real Numbers
(i) Commutative Law

* Addition : a + b = b + a

* Multiplication : a b = b a

12
 Operations on Real Numbers
(ii) Associative Law

* Addition : a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

* Multiplication : a (bc ) = ( ab)c

13
 Operations on Real Numbers
(iii) Distributive Law

(1) a(b + c) = ab + ac

(2) a(b − c) = ab − ac

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 Operations on Real Numbers
(iv) Identity Law

* Addition : a + 0 = 0 + a = a
a + identity = a

* Multiplication : a × 1 = 1 × a = a
a × identity = a

15
 Operations on Real Numbers
(v) Inverse Law

*Addition : a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0

a + inverse = identity

1 1
*Multiplication : a × a = ×a =1
a

a × inverse = identity
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 Real Number Intervals
For any two different real numbers, a and b,
with a < b :

The open interval is defined as the set

(a, b) = {x : a < x < b}
The closed interval is defined as the set
[a, b] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}

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 Absolute Values
The absolute value (or modulus) of a real number, x
is denoted by x .

 x if x ≥ ≥00
x =
 − x if x < 0

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 Absolute Values

x < a ⇔ −a < x < a

x > a ⇔ x < −a , x > a

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 Example 1.3
Find the values of x if

(i) 2x − 3 = 5
(ii) 3x − 1 < 5

(iii) 5 − 2x ≥ 3

(iv) x+2
=3
x
20
 Exponents
For n a natural number (positive integer)
and a any real number,
n
a = a × a × a ×L × a

where n is called the exponent and

a is called the base.

21
 Properties of Exponents
For m, n ∈ Q and a ∈ R+,
m n m+n
i. a × a = a
m n m−n
ii. a ÷ a = a
m n mn
iii. (a ) = a
0
iv. a = 1
1 −n
v. an
=a
22
 Exponential Equation
An equation with a variable in the exponent, is
called an exponential equation.

Property :
x y
** If a > 0 , a ≠ 1 , and a = a , then x = y .
x y
** If a > 0 , a ≠ 1 , and x = y , then a = a .

Note : Both bases must be the same!!

23
 Example 1.4
Solve (a) x
9 = 27
2 x −1 x +3
(b) 32 = 128
x 9
(c) ( 0 .6 ) =
25

Answer: (a) x = 3/2, (b) x = 26/3, (c) x = 2

24
 Example 1.5
Solve the equations:
2 x −3 x
(a ) 2 − 5(2 ) + 32 = 0
2 x +1 x
(b) 5 − 6(5 ) + 1 = 0

25
 Example 1.6
p q r
If 2 = 3 = 48 , show that pq = r ( 4 q + p ) .

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 Natural Exponential Base
Definition of e :
n

As n becomes larger and larger, 1 +  becomes

1
 n
closer and closer to the number e, whose approximate
value is 2.71828...
n
 1
e = lim 1 + 
n →∞
 n
Alternatively,
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1
e = + + + + +K = ∑
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! k =0 k !
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 Natural Exponential Base
10

8
y = 2x
6
y = 3x
4
y = ex
2

0
-2 -1 0 1 2
x
x
** e is between 2 x and 3x , because e is between 2 and 3.
** All three graphs have y-intercept (0, 1).
x x x
** For x > 0 , the graphs show that 3 > e > 2 .
** For x < 0 , the graphs show that 3 x < e x < 2 x.
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 Logarithms
Definition of logarithm :
For a > 0, a ≠ 1, and x > 0,
n
x=a means loga x = n
0
** 1 = a ⇔ log a 1 = 0
1
** a = a ⇔ log a a = 1
When a=10 => common logarithm
When a=e => natural logarithm
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 Properties of Logarithms

i. log a xy = log a x + log a y

x
ii. log a y = log a x − log a y

p
iii. log a x = p log a x

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 Properties of Logarithms

log b c
iv. log a c =
log b a

1
v. log a b =
log b a

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 Example 1.7
(a) Solve log 2 x − log 2 ( x − 3) = 1

(b) Find x in term of b, given that

log b 2 x − log b ( x + 2b ) = 1

32
 Example 1.8
Solve the equation
2
log (19 x + 4) − 2 log x − 2 = 0

Note: log x = lg x = log10 x

33
 Example 1.9
Solve the equations:
(a) log 2 x + log x 8 = 4
(b) log 4 x + 12 log x 4 = 7
(c) log 3 x = 4 log x 3

34
 Example 1.10
Find the smallest integer of n such that
−n
3(1 − 3 ) > 2.999

35
 Example 1.11
Given that x = 3+ y
2
2 lg x y = 3 + lg x − lg y
Find the values of x and y.

Answers: x = 5, y = 2
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 Polynomial
A polynomial in x is an expression :

P( x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + an−2 x n−2 + LL + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0

where n is a positive integer (degree of polynomial)
a0 , a1 , a2 , K, an are constants (coefficients
of polynomial)
1
Note: A polynomial does not contain terms like x ,
x

37
 Example 1.12
Using long division, find the quotient when
2
3x + 2 x − 1
is divided by x +1.
 Example 1.12
Solution: Using long division,

3x − 1
2
x + 1 3x + 2 x − 1
2
3x + 3x
− x −1
− x −1
 Example 1.13
Using long division, find the quotient when
3 2
2 x − 9 x + 15
is divided by 2x − 5 .
 Example 1.14
Determine the quotient and remainder when
3 2
2x − 7x − 9x + 38 is divided by ( x − 3) .

41
 Equal Polynomials
Two polynomials are equal if

(i) Both polynomials are of the same degree,

and

(ii) The coefficients in both polynomials are

identical.

42
 Example 1.15
Find the constants A, B and C, such that
2
x − 5x +12 = A(x −1)(x − 2) + B(x +1)(x −1) + C(x − 2)(x + 3)

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 Factors of a Polynomial
Consider the following :
3 2
P ( x) = x − 6 x + 11x − 6 = ( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3)

P(x) is expressed as the product of three linear

polynomials.

These linear polynomials are known as the factors
of P(x).

The process of finding the linear polynomials is
known as factorization.
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 Zeros of a Polynomial
A number a is known as a zero of a
polynomial P(x) if P ( a ) = 0 .
If (x – a) is a factor of polynomial P(x),
then a is a zero of P(x).

45
 The Remainder Theorem
In general, if P(x) [a polynomial of degree n]
is divided by (x – a) :

The quotient, Q(x), is a polynomial of

degree (n – 1), and

The remainder, R, is a constant.

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 The Remainder Theorem

P( x) = Q( x) ⋅ ( x − a) + R

When x = a , note that P(a) = R .

This means :
When a polynomial P(x) is divided by
(x – a), the remainder is P(a).
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 Example 1.16
Find the remainder when the polynomial
3 2
P(x) = 2x + 7x − 5x − 4 is divided by ( x + 3 ) .

48
 Example 1.17
When the polynomial
f(x) = kx4 + 4x3 – 6x2 + 7x +11
is divided by (x – 3), the remainder is 248. Find
the value of k.

49
 Example 1.18
4 3 2
The polynomial ax − 5x + bx − 7x +1 leaves a
remainder of –8 when it is divided by (x – 1),
11
and a remainder of 2
when divided by
(2x + 1). Determine the values of a and b .

50
 Example 1.19
The polynomial P(x) gives a remainder of 3
when it is divided by (x + 1), and a remainder
of 1 when divided by (x – 1). Find the
2
remainder when P(x) is divided by ( x − 1 ) .

51
 The Factor Theorem
In general, if P(x) is divided by (x – a) :

The remainder, R = P(a), is a constant.

If (x – a) is a factor of P(x), then the

remainder is zero, i.e. R = P(a) = 0 .

(x – a) is a factor of P(x) if and only if P(a) = 0.

52
 Example 1.20
Using the factor theorem, show that (2x – 1) is
a factor of f (x) where f ( x) = 6 x3 + 23x 2 − 5x − 4 .
Hence, factorize f (x) completely and solve the
equation f (x) = 0 .

53
 Example 1.21
3 2
The polynomial 2 x − 3ax + ax + b has a factor
(x – 1), and when divided by (x + 2), its
remainder is –54. Find the values of a and b
and then factorize the polynomial.

54
 Example 1.22
The polynomial f(x) = 2x4 – x3 – ax2 – bx – 30
has factors (x – 5) and (x + 2).
(a) Find the values of a and b.
(b) Solve the equation f(x) = 0.

55
 Example 1.23
The polynomial f(x) = 6x4 – 7x3 + ax2 + bx – 12
has a factor (x – 1) and leaves a remainder of
– 50 when divided by (x + 1). Find the values of
a and b.

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 Fractional Function
If f (x) is a polynomial of degree m, and g(x) is a
polynomial of degree n, where m < n , then
f ( x)
h( x ) = is a proper fractional function.
g (x
( x)

However, if m ≥ n , then
f ( x)
h( x) = is an improper fractional function.
g ( x)
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 Partial Fractions
A partial fraction of polynomials is defined as :
constant or polynomial (numerator)
polynomial (denominator)
where

(1) The numerator is of smaller degree than the

denominator.

(2) The denominator cannot be factorized (or

reduced) further.
58
 Partial Fractions

Denominator with linear factors :

For each linear factor (ax + b) in the

denominator of a proper fractional function,
A
there exists a partial fraction in the form .
ax + b

59
 Example 1.24
2x − 3
Express in partial fractions.
( x − 1)( x − 2 )

60
 Example 1.25

Express
− 7x in partial fractions.
2x2 − 5x − 3

61
 Partial Fractions

Denominator with quadratic factors :

For each quadratic factor ( ax 2 + bx + c )

in the denominator of a proper fractional
function, there exists a partial fraction
Ax + B
in the form 2
.
ax + bx + c

62
 Example 1.26
3x + 4
Express 2
in partial fractions.
( x + 2 )( x − x + 1)

63
 Example 1.27
x−5
Express 2
in partial fractions.
( x − 1 )( x + 1)

64
 Partial Fractions

Denominator with repeated linear factors :

For each repeated linear factor such as ( ax + b) 2

in the denominator, there exists two partial
A B
fractions in the form + 2
.
ax + b ( ax + b )

65
 Example 1.28
x−2
Express in partial fractions.
( x − 1) 2

66
 Example 1.29
2
x +1
Express 2
in partial fractions.
( x − 1)( x + 1)

67
 Example 1.30
2x + 3
Express 2 in partial fractions.
x (1 − x )

68
 Partial Fractions

Improper Fraction Functions :
[ Degree of numerator f(x) greater than or
equal to denominator g(x) ]

f ( x )  a polynomial   a proper 
=   +  
g ( x )  OR a constant   fractional function 

[can then be expressed in partial fractions]

69
 Example 1.31
2
x + 2x + 3
Express in partial fractions.
( x + 1)( x − 1)

70
 Example 1.32
3 2
Express
x + 2 x − x − 1 in partial fractions.
x 2 + 3x + 2

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 Example 1.33
2
3x − 5x + 1
Express in partial fractions.
2
3x(x + 1)

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