WG 15a Structural Systems - Offshore

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ESDEP WG 15A
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE
Lecture 15A.1: Offshore Structures:

General Introduction
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To identify the basic vocabulary, to introduce the major concepts for offshore
platform structures, and to explain where the basic structural requirements for
design are generated.
PREREQUISITES
None.
SUMMARY
The lecture starts with a presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon

exploitation, the basic steps in the development process (from seismic exploration
to platform removal) and the introduction of the major structural concepts (jacket-
based, GBS-based, TLP, floating). The major codes are identified.
For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution phases
are briefly explained: design, fabrication and installation. Special attention is given
to some principles of topside design.
A basic introduction to cost aspects is presented.
Finally terms are introduced through a glossary.
1. INTRODUCTION
Offshore platforms are constructed to produce the hydrocarbons oil and gas. The
contribution of offshore oil production in the year 1988 to the world energy
consumption was 9% and is estimated to be 24% in 2000.
The investment (CAPEX) required at present to produce one barrel of oil per day
($/B/D) and the production costs (OPEX) per barrel are depicted in the table
below.
Condition CAPEX $/B/D OPEX $/B
Conventional
Average 4000 - 8000 5
Middle East 500 - 3000 1
Non-Opec 3000 - 12000 8
Offshore
North Sea 10000 - 25000 5 - 10
Deepwater 15000 - 35000 10 - 15
World oil production in 1988 was 63 million barrel/day. These figures clearly
indicate the challenge for the offshore designer: a growing contribution is required
from offshore exploitation, a very capital intensive activity.
Figure 1 shows the distribution of the oil and gas fields in the North Sea, a major
contribution to the world offshore hydrocarbons. It also indicates the onshore fields
in England, the Netherlands and Germany.
2. OFFSHORE PLATFORMS
2.1 Introduction of Basic Types
The overwhelming majority of platforms are piled-jacket with deck structures, all
built in steel (see Slides 1 and 2).
Slide 1 : Jacket based platform - Southern sector North Sea
Slide 2 : Jacket based platform - Northern sector North Sea
A second major type is the gravity concrete structure (see Figure 2), which is
employed in the North Sea in the Norwegian and British sectors.
A third type is the floating production unit.
2.2 Environment
The offshore environment can be characterized by:
 water depth at location

 soil, at seabottom and in-depth
 wind speed, air temperature
 waves, tide and storm surge, current
 ice (fixed, floes, icebergs)
 earthquakes (if necessary)
The topside structure also must be kept clear of the wave crest. The clearance
(airgap) usually is taken at approximately 1,50 m, but should be increased if
reservoir depletion will create significant subsidence.
2.3 Construction
The environment as well as financial aspects require that a high degree of

prefabrication must be performed onshore. It is necessary to design to limit
offshore work to a minimum. The overall cost of a man-hour offshore is
approximately five times that of an onshore man-hour. The cost of construction
equipment required to handle loads, and the cost for logistics are also a magnitude
higher offshore.
These factors combined with the size and weight of the items, require that a
designer must carefully consider all construction activities between shop
fabrication and offshore installation.
2.4 Codes
Structural design has to comply with specific offshore structural codes. The
worldwide leading structural code is the API-RP2A [1]. The recently issued Lloyds
rules [2] and the DnV rules [3] are also important.
Specific government requirements have to be complied with, e.g. in the rules of

Department of Energy (DoE), Norwegian Petroleum Direktorate (NPD). For the
detail design of the topside structure the AISC-code [4] is frequently used, and the
AWS-code [5] is used for welding.
In the UK the Piper alpha diaster has led to a completely new approach to
regulation offshore. The responsibility for regulatory control has been moved to
the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and the operator has to produce a formal
safety assessment (TSA) himself instead of complying with detailed regulations.
2.5 Certification and Warranty Survey
Government authorities require that recognized bodies appraise the aspects of

structural integrity and issue a certificate to that purpose.
The major certification bodies are:
 Det norske Veritas (DnV)

 Lloyds Register of Shipping (LRS)
 American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
 Bureau Veritas (BV)
 Germanischer Lloyd (GL)
Their requirements are available to the designer [2, 3, 6, 7, 8].
Insurance companies covering transport and installation require the structures to be

reviewed by warranty surveyors before acceptance. The warranty surveyors apply
standards, if available, on a confidential basis.
3. OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT OF AN OIL/GAS

FIELD
3.1 Introduction
The different requirements of an offshore platform and the typical phases of an

offshore development are summarized in [9]. After several initial phases which
include seismic field surveying, one or more exploration wells are drilled. Jack-up
drilling rigs are used for this purpose for water depths up to 100 - 120 m; for
deeper water floating rigs are used. The results are studied and the economics and
risks of different development plans are evaluated. Factors involved in the
evaluation may include number of wells required, fixed or floated production
facilities, number of such facilities, and pipeline or tanker off-loading.
As soon as exploitation is decided and approved, there are four main technical
activities, prior to production:
 engineering and design

 fabrication and installation of the production facility
 drilling of production wells, taking 2 - 3 months/well
 providing the off loading system (pipelines, tankers, etc.).
The drilling and construction interaction is described below for two typical fixed
platform concepts.
3.2 Jacket Based Platform for Shallow Water
First the jacket is installed. The wells are then drilled by a jack-up drilling unit
standing close by with a cantilever rig extending over the jacket. Slide 3 shows a
jack-up drilling unit with a cantilever rig. (In this instance it is engaged in
exploratory drilling and is therefore working in isolation.)
Slide 3 : Cantilevered drilling rig: Self-elevating (jack-up) exploration drilling
platform.
Design and construction of the topside are progressed parallel to the drilling,
allowing production to start soon after deck installation. For further wells, the jack-
up drilling unit will be called once again and will reach over the well area of the
production deck.
As an alternative to this concept the wells are often accommodated in a separate

wellhead platform, linked by a bridge to the production platform (see Slide 1).
3.3 Jacket and Gravity Based Platform for Deep Water
The wells are drilled from a drilling rig on the permanent platform (see Slide 2).
Drilling starts after the platform is built and completely installed. Consequently
production starts between one and two years after platform installation.
In recent years pre-drilled wells have been used to allow an earlier start of the
production. In this case the platform has to be installed exactly above the pre-
drilled wells.
4. JACKETS AND PILE FOUNDATION

4.1 Introduction
Jackets, the tower-like braced tubular structures, generally perform two functions:
 They provide the substructure for the production facility (topside), keeping
it stable above the waves.
 They support laterally and protect the 26-30 inch well conductors and the
pipeline riser.
The installation methods for the jacket and the piles have a profound impact on the
design.
4.2 Pile Foundation
The jacket foundation is provided by open-ended tubular steel piles, with diameters
up to 2m. The piles are driven approximately 40 - 80 m, and in some cases 120 m
deep into the seabed.
There are basically three types of pile/jacket arrangement (see Figure 3):
Pile-through-leg concept, where the pile is installed in the corner legs of the
jacket.
Skirt piles through pile sleeves at the jacket-base, where the pile is installed in
guides attached to the jacket leg. Skirt piles can be grouped in clusters around each
of the jacket legs.
Vertical skirt piles are directly installed in the pile sleeve at the jacket base; all
other guides are deleted. This arrangement results in reduced structural weight and
easier pile driving. In contrast inclined piles enlarge the foundation at the bottom,
thus providing a stiffer structure.
4.3 Pile Bearing Resistance
Axial load resistance is required for bearing as well as for tension. The pile
accumulates both skin friction as well as end bearing resistance.
Lateral load resistance of the pile is required for restraint of the horizontal forces.
These forces lead to significant bending of the pile near to the seabed.
Number, arrangement, diameter and penetration of the piles depend on the

environmental loads and the soil conditions at the location.
4.4 Corrosion Protection
The most usual form of corrosion protection of the bare underwater part of the
jacket as well as the upper part of the piles in soil is by cathodic protection using
sacrificial anodes. A sacrificial anode (approximate 3 kN each) consists of a
zinc/aluminium bar cast about a steel tube and welded on to the structures.
Typically approximately 5% of the jacket weight is applied as anodes.
The steelwork in the splash zone is usually protected by a sacrificial wall thickness
of 12 mm to the members.
5. TOPSIDES
5.1 Introduction
The major functions on the deck of an offshore platform are:
 well control
 support for well work-over equipment
 separation of gas, oil and non-transportable components in the raw product,
e.g. water, parafines/waxes and sand
 support for pumps/compressors required to transport the product ashore
 power generation
 accommodation for operating and maintenance staff.
There are basically two structural types of topside, the integrated and modularized
topside which are positioned either on a jacket or on a concrete gravity
substructure.
5.2 Jacket-based Topsides
5.2.1 Concepts
There are four structural concepts in practice. They result from the lifting capacity
of crane vessels and the load-out capacity at the yards:
 the single integrated deck (up to approx 100 MN)

 the split deck in two four-leg units
 the integrated deck with living quarter module
 the modularized topside consisting of module support frame (MSF) carrying
a series of modules.
Slide 4 shows an integrated deck (though excluding the living quarters and
helideck) being moved from its assembly building.
Slide 4 : Integrated topside during load out
5.2.2 Structural Design for Integrated Topsides
For the smaller decks, up to approximately 100 MN weight, the support structure
consists of trusses or portal frames with deletion of diagonals.
The moderate vertical load and shear per column allows the topside to be
supported by vertical columns (deck legs) only, down to the top of the piles
(situated at approximately +4 m to +6 m L.A.T. (Low Astronomic Tide).
5.2.3 Structural Design for Modularized Jacket-based Topsides
A major modularized topside weighs 200 to 400 MN. In this case the MSF is a
heavy tubular structure (Figure 4), with lateral bracing down to the top of jacket.
5.3 Structural Design for Modularized Gravity-based Topsides
The topsides to be supported by a gravity-based substructure (see Figure 2) are in a

weight range of 200 MN up to 500 MN.
The backbone of the structure is a system of heavy box-girders with a height of

approximately 10 m and a width of approximately 12 - 15 m (see Figure 5).
The substructure of the deck is rigidly connected to the concrete column and acts
as a beam supporting the deck modules. This connection introduces wave-induced
fatigue in the deck structure. A recent development, foreseen for the Norwegian
Troll platform, is to provide a flexible connection between the deck and concrete
column, thus eliminating fatigue in the deck [10].
6. EQUIPMENT AND LIVING QUARTER MODULES

Equipment modules (20-75 MN) have the form of rectangular boxes with one or
two intermediate floors.
The floors are steel plate (6, 8 or 10 mm thick) for roof and lower floor, and
grating for intermediate floors.
In living quarter modules (5-25 MN) all sleeping rooms require windows and
several doors must be provided in the outer walls. This requirement can interfere
seriously with truss arrangements. Floors are flat or stiffened plate.
Three types of structural concepts, all avoiding interior columns, can be

distinguished:
 conventional trusses in the walls.

 stiffened plate walls (so called stressed skin or deck house type).
 heavy base frame (with wind bracings in the walls).
7. CONSTRUCTION
7.1 Introduction
The design of offshore structures has to consider various requirements of

construction relating to:
1. fabrication.
2. weight.
3. load-out.
4. sea transport.
5. offshore installation.
6. module installation.
7. hook-up.
8. commissioning.
A documented construction strategy should be available during all phases of the

design and the actual design development should be monitored against the
construction strategy.
Construction is illustrated below by four examples.
7.2 Construction of Jackets and Topsides
7.2.1 Lift Installed Jackets
The jacket is built in the vertical (smaller jackets) or horizontal position (bigger
jackets) on a quay of a fabrication site.
The jacket is loaded-out and seafastened aboard a barge. At the offshore location
the barge is moored alongside an offshore crane vessel.
The jacket is lifted off the barge, upended from the horizontal, and carefully set
down onto the seabed.
After setting down the jacket, the piles are installed into the sleeves and, driven
into the seabed. Fixing the piles to the jacket completes the installation.
7.2.2 Launch Installed Jackets
The jacket is built in horizontal position.
For load-out to the transport barge, the jacket is put on skids sliding on a straight
track of steel beams, and pulled onto the barge (Slide 5).
Slide 5 : Jacket being loaded onto barge by skidding
At the offshore location the jacket is slid off the barge. It immerses deeply into the
water and assumes a floating position afterwards (see Figure 6).
Two parallel heavy vertical trusses in the jacket structure are required, capable of
taking the support reactions during launching. To reduce forces and moments in
the jacket, rocker arms are attached to the stern of the barge.
The next phase is to upright the jacket by means of controlled flooding of the
buoyancy tanks and then set down onto the seabed. Self-upending jackets obtain a
vertical position after the launch on their own. Piling and pile/jacket fixing
completes the installation.
7.2.3 Topsides for a Gravity-Based Structure (GBS)
The topside is assembled above the sea on a temporary support near a yard. It is
then taken by a barge of such dimensions as to fit between the columns of the
temporary support and between the columns of the GBS. The GBS is brought in a
deep floating condition in a sheltered site, e.g. a Norwegian fjord. The barge is
positioned between the columns and the GBS is then deballasted to mate with and
to take over the deck from the barge. The floating GBS with deck is then towed to
the offshore site and set down onto the seabed.
7.2.4 Jacket Topsides
For topsides up to approximately 120 MN, the topside may be installed in one lift.
Slide 6 shows a 60 MN topside being installed by floating cranes.
Slide 6 : Installation of 60MN K12-BP topside by floating crane
For the modularized topside, first the MSF will be installed, immediately followed
by the modules.
7.3 Offshore Lifting
Lifting of heavy loads from barges (Slide 6) is one of the very important and
spectacular construction activities requiring a focus on the problem when concepts
are developed. Weather windows, i.e. periods of suitable weather conditions, are
required for these operations.
7.3.1 Crane Vessel

Lifting of heavy loads offshore requires use of specialized crane vessels. Figure 7
provides information on a typical big, dual crane vessel. Table 1 (page 16) lists
some of the major offshore crane vessels.
7.3.2 Sling-arrangement, Slings and Shackles
For lifting, steel wire ropes in a four-sling arrangement are used which directly rest
in the four-point hook of the crane vessel, (see Figure 8). The heaviest sling
available now has a diameter of approximately 350 mm, a breaking load of
approximately 48 MN, and a safe working load (SWL) of 16 MN. Shackles are
available up to 10 MN SWL to connect the padeyes installed at the module's
columns. Due to the space required, connecting more than one shackle to the same
column is not very attractive. So when the sling load exceeds 10 MN, padears
become an option.
Table 1 Major Offshore Crane Vessels
Operator Name Mode Type Lifting capacity (Tonnes)

Heerema Thor Monohull Fix 2720
Rev 1820
Odin Monohull Fix 2720
Rev 2450
Hermod Semisub Fix 4536 + 3628 = 8164
Rev 3630 + 2720 = 6350
Balder Semisub Fix 3630 + 2720 = 6350
Rev 3000 + 2000 = 5000
McDermott DB50 Monohull Fix 4000
Rev 3800
DB100 Semisub Fix 1820
Rev 1450
Rev 2450
DB102 Semisub Rev 6000 + 6000 = 12000
Micoperi M7000 Semisub Rev 7000 + 7000 = 14000
ETPM DLB1601 Monohull Rev. 1600
Notes:
1. Rated lifting capacity in metric tonnes.

2. When the crane vessels are provided with two cranes, these cranes are
situated at the vessels stern or bow at approximately 60 m distance c.t.c.
1. 3. Rev = Load capability with fully revolving crane.
Fix = Load capability with crane fixed.
7.4 Sea Transport and Sea Fastening
Transportation is performed aboard a flat-top barge or, if possible, on the deck of

the crane vessel.
The module requires fixing to the barge (see Figure 9) to withstand barge motions
in rough seas. The sea fastening concept is determined by the positions of the
framing in the module as well as of the "hard points" in the barge.
7.5 Load-out
7.5.1 Introduction
For load-out three basic methods are applied:
 skidding
 platform trailers
 shearlegs.
7.5.2 Skidding
Skidding is a method feasible for items of any weight. The system consists of a
series of steel beams, acting as track, on which a group of skids with each
approximately 6 MN load capacity is arranged. Each skid is provided with a
hydraulic jack to control the reaction.
7.5.3 Platform Trailers
Specialized trailer units (see Figure 10) can be combined to act as one unit for
loads up to 60 - 75 MN. The wheels are individually suspended and integrated
jacks allow adjustment up to 300 mm.
The load capacity over the projected ground area varies from approximately 55 to
85 kN/sq.m.
The units can drive in all directions and negotiate curves.
7.5.4 Shearlegs
Load-out by shearlegs is attractive for small jackets built on the quay. Smaller
decks (up to 10 - 12 MN) can be loaded out on the decklegs pre-positioned on the
barge, thus allowing deck and deckleg to be installed in one lift offshore.
7.6 Platform Removal
In recent years platform removal has become common. The mode of removal
depends strongly on the regulations of the local authorities. Provision for removal
should be considered in the design phase.
8. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
8.1 Introduction
The majority of structural analyses are based on the linear theory of elasticity for
total system behaviour. Dynamic analysis is performed for the system behaviour
under wave-attack if the natural period exceeds 3 seconds. Many elements can
exhibit local dynamic behaviour, e.g. compressor foundations, flare-stacks, crane-
pedestals, slender jacket members, conductors.
8.2 In-place Phase
Three types of analysis are performed:
 Survival state, under wave/current/wind attack with 50 or 100 years

recurrence period.
 Operational state, under wave/current/wind attack with 1 or 5 years
recurrence period, under full operation.
 Fatigue assessment.
 Accidental.
All these analyses are performed on the complete and intact structure. Assessments
at damaged structures, e.g. with one member deleted, and assessments of collision
situations are occasionally performed.
8.3 Construction Phase
The major phases of construction when structural integrity may be endangered are:
 Load-out
 Sea transport
 Upending of jackets
 Lifting.
9. COST ASPECTS
9.1 Introduction
The economic feasibility of an offshore project depends on many aspects: capital

expenditure (CAPEX), tax, royalties, operational expenditure (OPEX).
In a typical offshore field development, one third of the CAPEX is spent on the
platform, one third on the drilling of wells and one third on the pipelines.
Cost estimates are usually prepared in a deterministic approach. Recently cost-

estimating using a probabilistic approach has been developed and adopted in major
offshore projects.
The CAPEX of an installed offshore platform topside amounts to approximately 20

ECU/kg.
9.2 Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)
The major elements in the CAPEX for an offshore platform are:
 project management and design

 material and equipment procurement
 fabrication
 transport and installation
 hook-up and commissioning.
9.3 Operational Expenditure (OPEX)
In the North Sea approximately 20 percent of OPEX are required for offshore
inspection, maintenance and repair (IMR).
The amount to be spent on IMR over the project life can add up to approximately
half the original investment.
IMR is the area in which the structural engineer makes a contribution by effort in
design, selection of material, improved corrosion protection, accessibility, basic
provisions for scaffolding, avoiding jacket attachments dangerous to divers, etc.
10. DEEP WATER DEVELOPMENTS

Deep water introduces a wide range of extra difficulties for the operator, the
designer and constructor of offshore platforms.
Fixed platforms have recently been installed in water of 410 m. depth, i.e.
"Bullwinkle" developed by Shell Oil for a Gulf of Mexico location. The jacket
weighed nearly 500 MN.
The maximum depth of water at platform sites in the North Sea is approximately
220 m at present. The development of the Troll field situated in approximately 305
m deep water is planned for 1993.
In the Gulf of Mexico and offshore California several fixed platforms in water
depths of 250 - 350 m are in operation (Cerveza, Cognac). Exxon has a guyed
tower platform (Lena) in operation in 300 m deep water.
An option for deeper locations is to use subsea wells with flowlines to a nearby
(approximately maximum 10 km) fixed platform at a smaller water depth.
Alternatively subsea wells may be used with flexible risers to a floating production
unit. Subsea wells are now feasible for 300 - 900 m deep water. The deepest wells
have been developed off Brasil in moderate weather conditions.
The tension leg platform (TLP) seems to be the most promising deepwater
production unit (Figure 11). It consists of a semi-submersible pontoon, tied to the
seabed by vertical prestressed tethers. The first TLP was Hutton in the North Sea
and recently TLP-Jolliet was installed at a 530 m deep location in the Gulf of
Mexico. Norwegian Snorre and Heidrun fields have been developed with TLPs as
well.
11. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
 The lecture starts with the presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-
carbon exploitation, the basic steps in the development process (from
seismic exploration to platform removal) and the introduction of the major
structural concepts (jacket-based, GBS-based, TLP, floating).
 The major codes are identified.
 For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution
phases are briefly explained: design, fabrication and installation. Special
attention is given to the principles of topside design.
 A basic introduction to cost aspects is presented.
 Finally terms are introduced within a glossary.
12. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

AIR GAP Clearance between the top of maximum wave and underside of the
topside.
CAISSONS See SUMPS
CONDUCTORS The tubular protecting and guiding the drill string from the
topside down to 40 to 100m under the sea bottom. After drilling it protects the well
casing.
G.B.S. Gravity based structure, sitting flatly on the sea bottom, stable through its
weight.
HOOK-UP Connecting components or systems, after installation offshore.
JACKET Tubular sub-structure under a topside, standing in the water and pile
founded.
LOAD-OUT The operation of bringing the object (module, jacket, deck) from the
quay onto the transportation barge.
PADEARS (TRUNNIONS) Thick-walled tubular stubs, directly receiving slings

and transversely welded to the main structure.
PADEYES Thick-walled plate with hole, receiving the pin of the shackle, welded
to the main structure.
PIPELINE RISER The piping section which rises from the sea bed to topside level.
SEA-FASTENING The structure to keep the object rigidly connected to the barge
during transport.
SHACKLES Connecting element (bow + pin) between slings and padeyes.
SLINGS Cables with spliced eyed at both ends, for offshore lifting, the upper end
resting in the crane hook.
SPREADER Tubular frame, used in lifting operation.

SUBSEA TEMPLATE Structure at seabottom, to guide conductors prior to jacket
installation.
SUMPS Vertical pipes from topside down to 5-10 m below water level for intake
or discharge.
TOPSIDE Topside, the compact offshore process plant, with all auxiliaries,
positioned above the waves.
UP ENDING Bringing the jacket in vertical position, prior to set down on the sea
bottom.
WEATHER WINDOW
A period of calm weather, defined on basis of operational limits for the offshore
marine operation.
WELLHEAD AREA Area in topside where the wellheads are positioned including
the valves mounted on its top.
13. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A: Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing
fixed offshore platforms.
American Petroleum Institute 18th ed. 1989.
The structural offshore code, governs the majority of platforms.
[2] LRS Code for offshore platforms.
Lloyds Register of Shipping.
London (UK) 1988.
Regulations of a major certifying authority.
[3] DnV: Rules for the classification of fixed offshore installations.
Det Norske Veritas 1989.
Important set of rules.
[4] AISC: Specification for the design, fabrication and erection of structural steel
for buildings.
American Institute of Steel Construction 1989.
Widely used structural code for topsides.
[5] AWS D1.1-90: Structural Welding Code - Steel.
American Welding Society 1990.
The structural offshore welding code.
[6] DnV/Marine Operations: Standard for insurance warranty surveys in marine

operations.
Det norske Veritas June 1985.
[7] ABS: Rules for building and classing offshore installations, Part 1 Structures.
American Bureau of Shipping 1983.
[8] BV: Rules and regulations for the construction and classification of offshore
platforms.
Bureau Veritas, Paris 1975.
[9] ANON: A primer of offshore operations.
Petex Publ. Austin U.S.A 2nd ed. 1985.
Fundamental information about offshore oil and gas operations.
[10] AGJ Berkelder et al: Flexible deck joints.
ASME/OMAE-conference The Hague 1989 Vol.II pp. 753-760.
Presents interesting new concept in GBS design.
14. ADDITIONAL READING

1. BS 6235: Code of practice for fixed offshore structures.
British Standards Institution 1982.
Important code, mainly for the British offshore sector.
2. DoE Offshore installations: Guidance on design and construction, U.K.

Department of Energy 1990.
Governmental regulations for British offshore sector only.
3. UEG: Design of tubular joints (3 volumes).
UEG Offshore Research Publ. U.R.33 1985.
Important theoretical and practical book.
4. J. Wardenier: Hollow section joints.
Delft University Press 1981.
Theoretical publication on tubular design including practical design

formulae.
5. ARSEM: Design guides for offshore structures welded tubular joints.
Edition Technip, Paris (France), 1987.
Important theoretical and practical book.
6. D. Johnston: Field development options.
Oil & Gas Journal, May 5 1986, pp 132 - 142.
Good presentation on development options.
7. G. I. Claum et al: Offshore Structures: Vol 1: Conceptual Design and Hydri-

mechanics; Vol 2 - Strength and Safety for Structural design.
Springer Verlag, London 1992.
Fundamental publication on structural behaviour.
8. W.J. Graff: Introduction to offshore structures.
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston 1981.
Good general introduction to offshore structures.

9. B.C. Gerwick: Construction of offshore structures.
John Wiley & Sons, New York 1986.
Up to date presentation of offshore design and construction.
10. T.A. Doody et al: Important considerations for successful fabrication of

offshore structures.
OTC paper 5348, Houston 1986, pp 531-539.
Valuable paper on fabrication aspects.
11. D.I. Karsan et al: An economic study on parameters influencing the cost of
fixed platforms.
OTC paper 5301, Houston 1986, pp 79-93.
Good presentation on offshore CAPEX assessment.

Lecture 15A.2: Loads (I) : Introduction
and Environmental Loads
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the types of loads for which a fixed steel offshore structure must be designed.
To present briefly the loads generated by environmental factors.
PREREQUISITES
A basic knowledge of structural analysis for static and dynamic loadings.
SUMMARY
The categories of load for which a pile supported steel offshore platform must be designed
are introduced and then the different types of environmental loads are presented. The loads
include: wind, wave, current, earthquake, ice and snow, temperature, sea bed movement,
marine growth and tide generated loads. Loads due to wind, waves and earthquake are
discussed in more detail together with their idealizations for the various types of analyses.
Frequent references are made to the codes of practice recommended by the American
Petroleum Institute, Det Norske Veritas, the British Standards Institution and the British
Department of Energy, as well as to the relevant regulations of the Norwegian Petroleum
Directorate.
1. INTRODUCTION
The loads for which an offshore structure must be designed can be classified into the
following categories:
1. Permanent (dead) loads.

2. Operating (live) loads.
3. Environmental loads including earthquakes.
4. Construction - installation loads.
5. Accidental loads.
Whilst the design of buildings onshore is usually influenced mainly by the permanent and
operating loads, the design of offshore structures is dominated by environmental loads,
especially waves, and the loads arising in the various stages of construction and installation.
This lecture deals with environmental loads, whilst the other loadings are treated in Lecture
15A.3.
In civil engineering, earthquakes are normally regarded as accidental loads (see Eurocode 8
[1]), but in offshore engineering they are treated as environmental loads. This practice is
followed in the two lectures dealing with loads, Lectures 15A.2 and 15A.3.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
Environmental loads are those caused by environmental phenomena such as wind, waves,
current, tides, earthquakes, temperature, ice, sea bed movement, and marine growth. Their
characteristic parameters, defining design load values, are determined in special studies on
the basis of available data. According to US and Norwegian regulations (or codes of
practice), the mean recurrence interval for the corresponding design event must be 100 years,
while according to the British rules it should be 50 years or greater. Details of design criteria,
simplifying assumptions, required data, etc., can be found in the regulations and codes of
practice listed in [1] - [8].
2.1 Wind Loads
Wind loads act on the portion of a platform above the water level, as well as on any
equipment, housing, derrick, etc. located on the deck. An important parameter pertaining to
wind data is the time interval over which wind speeds are averaged. For averaging intervals
less than one minute, wind speeds are classified as gusts. For averaging intervals of one
minute or longer they are classified as sustained wind speeds.
The wind velocity profile may be taken from API-RP2A [2]:
Vh/VH = (h/H)1/n (1)
where:
Vh is the wind velocity at height h,
VH is the wind velocity at reference height H, typically 10m above mean water level,
1/n is 1/13 to 1/7, depending on the sea state, the distance from land and the averaging time
interval. It is approximately equal to 1/13 for gusts and 1/8 for sustained winds in the open
ocean.
From the design wind velocity V(m/s), the static wind force Fw(N) acting perpendicular to an
exposed area A(m2) can be computed as follows:
Fw = (1/2)  V2 Cs A (2)
where:
 is the wind density (  1.225 Kg/m3)
Cs is the shape coefficient (Cs = 1,5 for beams and sides of buildings, Cs = 0,5 for cylindrical
sections and Cs = 1,0 for total projected area of platform).
Shielding and solidity effects can be accounted for, in the judgement of the designer, using
appropriate coefficients.
For combination with wave loads, the DNV [4] and DOE-OG [7] rules recommend the most
unfavourable of the following two loadings:
a. 1-minute sustained wind speeds combined with extreme waves.

b. 3-second gusts.
API-RP2A [2] distinguishes between global and local wind load effects. For the first case it
gives guideline values of mean 1-hour average wind speeds to be combined with extreme
waves and current. For the second case it gives values of extreme wind speeds to be used
without regard to waves.
Wind loads are generally taken as static. When, however, the ratio of height to the least
horizontal dimension of the wind exposed object (or structure) is greater than 5, then this
object (or structure) could be wind sensitive. API-RP2A requires the dynamic effects of the
wind to be taken into account in this case and the flow induced cyclic wind loads due to
vortex shedding must be investigated.
2.2 Wave Loads
The wave loading of an offshore structure is usually the most important of all environmental
loadings for which the structure must be designed. The forces on the structure are caused by
the motion of the water due to the waves which are generated by the action of the wind on the
surface of the sea. Determination of these forces requires the solution of two separate, though
interrelated problems. The first is the sea state computed using an idealisation of the wave
surface profile and the wave kinematics given by an appropriate wave theory. The second is
the computation of the wave forces on individual members and on the total structure, from
the fluid motion.
Two different analysis concepts are used:
 The design wave concept, where a regular wave of given height and period is defined
and the forces due to this wave are calculated using a high-order wave theory. Usually
the 100-year wave, i.e. the maximum wave with a return period of 100 years, is
chosen. No dynamic behaviour of the structure is considered. This static analysis is
appropriate when the dominant wave periods are well above the period of the
structure. This is the case of extreme storm waves acting on shallow water structures.
 Statistical analysis on the basis of a wave scatter diagram for the location of the
structure. Appropriate wave spectra are defined to perform the analysis in the
frequency domain and to generate random waves, if dynamic analyses for extreme
wave loadings are required for deepwater structures. With statistical methods, the
most probable maximum force during the lifetime of the structure is calculated using
linear wave theory. The statistical approach has to be chosen to analyze the fatigue
strength and the dynamic behaviour of the structure.
2.2.1 Wave theories
Wave theories describe the kinematics of waves of water on the basis of potential theory. In
particular, they serve to calculate the particle velocities and accelerations and the dynamic
pressure as functions of the surface elevation of the waves. The waves are assumed to be
long-crested, i.e. they can be described by a two-dimensional flow field, and are
characterized by the parameters: wave height (H), period (T) and water depth (d) as shown in
Figure 1.
Different wave theories of varying complexity, developed on the basis of simplifying
assumptions, are appropriate for different ranges of the wave parameters. Among the most
common theories are: the linear Airy theory, the Stokes fifth-order theory, the solitary wave
theory, the cnoidal theory, Dean's stream function theory and the numerical theory by
Chappelear. For the selection of the most appropriate theory, the graph shown in Figure 2
may be consulted. As an example, Table 1 presents results of the linear wave theory for finite
depth and deep water conditions. Corresponding particle paths are illustrated in Figures 3 and
4. Note the strong influence of the water depth on the wave kinematics. Results from high-
order wave theories can be found in the literature, e.g. see [9].
2.2.2 Wave Statistics
In reality waves do not occur as regular waves, but as irregular sea states. The irregular
appearance results from the linear superposition of an infinite number of regular waves with
varying frequency (Figure 5). The best means to describe a random sea state is using the
wave energy density spectrum S(f), usually called the wave spectrum for simplicity. It is
formulated as a function of the wave frequency f using the parameters: significant wave
height Hs (i.e. the mean of the highest third of all waves present in a wave train) and mean
wave period (zero-upcrossing period) To. As an additional parameter the spectral width can
be taken into account.
Wave directionality can be introduced by means of a directional spreading function D(f,),
where  is the angle of the wave approach direction (Figure 6). A directional wave spectrum
S (f,) can then be defined as:
S (f, ) = S(f).D (f, ) (3)

The response of the structure, i.e. forces, motions, is calculated by multiplication of the wave
energy spectrum with the square of a linear transfer function. From the resulting response
spectrum the significant and the maximum expected response in a given time interval can be
easily deduced.
For long-term statistics, a wave scatter diagram for the location of the structure is needed. It
can be obtained from measurements over a long period or be deduced from weather
observations in the region (the so-called hindcast method). The scatter diagram contains the
joint probability of occurrence of pairs of significant wave height and mean wave period. For
every pair of parameters the wave spectrum is calculated by a standard formula, e.g. Pierson-
Moskowitz (Figure 6), yielding finally the desired response spectrum. For fatigue analysis the
total number and amplitude of load cycles during the life-time of the structure can be derived
in this way. For structures with substantial dynamic response to the wave excitation, the
maximum forces and motions have to be calculated by statistical methods or a time-domain
analysis.
2.2.3 Wave forces on structural members
Structures exposed to waves experience substantial forces much higher than wind loadings.
The forces result from the dynamic pressure and the water particle motions. Two different
cases can be distinguished:
 Large volume bodies, termed hydrodynamic compact structures, influence the wave
field by diffraction and reflection. The forces on these bodies have to be determined
by costly numerical calculations based on diffraction theory.
 Slender, hydrodynamically transparent structures have no significant influence on the
wave field. The forces can be calculated in a straight-forward manner with Morison's
equation. As a rule, Morison's equation may be applied when D/L  0.2, where D is
the member diameter and L is the wave length.
The steel jackets of offshore structures can usually be regarded as hydrodynamically

transparent. The wave forces on the submerged members can therefore be calculated by
Morison's equation, which expresses the wave force as the sum of an inertia force
proportional to the particle acceleration and a non-linear drag force proportional to the square
of the particle velocity: (4)
where
F is the wave force per unit length on a circular cylinder (N)
v, |v are water particle velocity normal to the cylinder, calculated with the selected wave
theory at the cylinder axis (m/s)
are water particle acceleration normal to the cylinder, calculated with the selected wave
theory at the cylinder axis (m/s2)
 is the water density (kg/m3)
D is the member diameter, including marine growth (m)
CD, CM are drag and inertia coefficients, respectively.
In this form the equation is valid for fixed tubular cylinders. For the analysis of the motion
response of a structure it has to be modified to account for the motion of the cylinder [10].
The values of CD and CMdepend on the wave theory used, surface roughness and the flow
parameters. According to API-RP2A, CD  0,6 to 1,2 and CM  1,3 to 2,0. Additional
information can be found in the DNV rules [4].
The total wave force on each member is obtained by numerical integration over the length of
the member. The fluid velocities and accelerations at the integration points are found by
direct application of the selected wave theory.
According to Morison's equation the drag force is non-linear. This non-linear formulation is
used in the design wave concept. However, for the determination of a transfer function
needed for frequency domain calculations, the drag force has to be linearized in a suitable
way [9]. Thus, frequency domain solutions are appropriate for fatigue life calculations, for
which the forces due to the operational level waves are dominated by the linear inertia term.
The nonlinear formulation and hence time domain solutions are required for dynamic
analyses of deepwater structures under extreme, storm waves, for which the drag portion of
the force is the dominant part [10].
In addition to the forces given by Morison's equation, the lift forces FD and the slamming
forces FS, typically neglected in global response computations, can be important for local
member design. For a member section of unit length, these forces can be estimated as
follows:
FL = (1/2)  CL Dv2 (5)
FS = (1/2)  Cs Dv2 (6)
where CL, CS are the lift and slamming coefficients respectively, and the rest of the symbols
are as defined in Morison's equation. Lift forces are perpendicular to the member axis and the
fluid velocity v and are related to the vortex shedding frequency. Slamming forces acting on
the underside of horizontal members near the mean water level are impulsive and nearly
vertical. Lift forces can be estimated by taking CL  1,3 CD. For tubular members Cs  .
2.3 Current Loads
There are tidal, circulation and storm generated currents. Figure 7 shows a wind and tidal
current profile typical of the Gulf of Mexico. When insufficient field measurements are
available, current velocities may be obtained from various sources, e.g. Appendix A of DNV
[4]. In platform design, the effects of current superimposed on waves are taken into account
by adding the corresponding fluid velocities vectorially. Since the drag force varies with the
square of the velocity, this addition can greatly increase the forces on a platform. For slender
members, cyclic loads induced by vortex shedding may also be important and should be
examined.
2.4 Earthquake Loads
Offshore structures in seismic regions are typically designed for two levels of earthquake
intensity: the strength level and the ductility level earthquake. For the strength level
earthquake, defined as having a "reasonable likelihood of not being exceeded during the
platform's life" (mean recurrence interval ~ 200 - 500 years), the structure is designed to
respond elastically. For the ductility level earthquake, defined as close to the "maximum
credible earthquake" at the site, the structure is designed for inelastic response and to have
adequate reserve strength to avoid collapse.
For strength level design, the seismic loading may be specified either by sets of
accelerograms (Figure 8) or by means of design response spectra (Figure 9). Use of design
spectra has a number of advantages over time history solutions (base acceleration input). For
this reason design response spectra are the preferable approach for strength level designs. If
the design spectral intensity, characteristic of the seismic hazard at the site, is denoted by
amax, then API-RP2A recommends using amax for the two principal horizontal directions and
0,5amax for the vertical direction. The DNV rules, on the other hand, recommend amax and 0,7
amax for the two horizontal directions (two different combinations) and 0,5 amax for the
vertical. The value of amax and often the spectral shapes are determined by site specific
seismological studies.
Designs for ductility level earthquakes will normally require inelastic analyses for which the
seismic input must be specified by sets of 3-component accelerograms, real or artificial,
representative of the extreme ground motions that could shake the platform site. The
characteristics of such motions, however, may still be prescribed by means of design spectra,
which are usually the result of a site specific seismotectonic study. More detail of the analysis
of earthquakes is given in the Lectures 17: Seismic Design.
2.5 Ice and Snow Loads
Ice is a primary problem for marine structures in the arctic and sub-arctic zones. Ice
formation and expansion can generate large pressures that give rise to horizontal as well as
vertical forces. In addition, large blocks of ice driven by current, winds and waves with
speeds that can approach 0,5 to 1,0 m/s, may hit the structure and produce impact loads.
As a first approximation, statically applied, horizontal ice forces may be estimated as follows:
Fi = CifcA (7)
where:
A is the exposed area of structure,
fc is the compressive strength of ice,
Ci is the coefficient accounting for shape, rate of load application and other factors, with
usual values between 0,3 and 0,7.
Generally, detailed studies based on field measurements, laboratory tests and analytical work
are required to develop reliable design ice forces for a given geographical location.
In addition to these forces, ice formation and snow accumulations increase gravity and wind
loads, the latter by increasing areas exposed to the action of wind. More detailed information
on snow loads may be found in Eurocode 1 [8].
2.6 Loads due to Temperature Variations
Offshore structures can be subjected to temperature gradients which produce thermal stresses.
To take account of such stresses, extreme values of sea and air temperatures which are likely
to occur during the life of the structure must be estimated. Relevant data for the North Sea are
given in BS6235 [6]. In addition to the environmental sources, human factors can also
generate thermal loads, e.g. through accidental release of cryogenic material, which must be
taken into account in design as accidental loads. The temperature of the oil and gas produced
must also be considered.
2.7 Marine Growth
Marine growth is accumulated on submerged members. Its main effect is to increase the wave
forces on the members by increasing not only exposed areas and volumes, but also the drag
coefficient due to higher surface roughness. In addition, it increases the unit mass of the
member, resulting in higher gravity loads and in lower member frequencies. Depending upon
geographic location, the thickness of marine growth can reach 0,3m or more. It is accounted
for in design through appropriate increases in the diameters and masses of the submerged
members.
2.8 Tides
Tides affect the wave and current loads indirectly, i.e. through the variation of the level of the
sea surface. The tides are classified as: (a) astronomical tides - caused essentially from the
gravitational pull of the moon and the sun and (b) storm surges - caused by the combined
action of wind and barometric pressure differentials during a storm. The combined effect of
the two types of tide is called the storm tide. Tide dependent water levels and the associated
definitions, as used in platform design, are shown in Figure 10. The astronomical tide range
depends on the geographic location and the phase of the moon. Its maximum, the spring tide,
occurs at new moon. The range varies from centimetres to several metres and may be
obtained from special maps. Storm surges depend upon the return period considered and their
range is on the order of 1,0 to 3,0m. When designing a platform, extreme storm waves are
superimposed on the still water level (see Figure 10), while for design considerations such as
levels for boat landing places, barge fenders, upper limits of marine growth, etc., the daily
variations of the astronomical tide are used.
2.9 Sea Floor Movements
Movement of the sea floor can occur as a result of active geologic processes, storm wave
pressures, earthquakes, pressure reduction in the producing reservoir, etc. The loads
generated by such movements affect, not only the design of the piles, but the jacket as well.
Such forces are determined by special geotechnical studies and investigations.
 Environmental loads form a major category of loads which control many aspects of
platform design.
 The main environmental loads are due to wind, waves, current, earthquakes, ice and
snow, temperature variations, marine growth, tides and seafloor movements.
 Widely accepted rules of practice, listed as [1] - [13], provide guideline values for
most environmental loads.
 For major structures, specification of environmental design loads requires specific
studies.
 Some environmental loads can be highly uncertain.
 The definition of certain environmental loads depends upon the type of analysis used
in the design.
4. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 8: "Structures in Seismic Regions - Design", CEN (in preparation).
[2] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms", American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th ed., 1989.
[3] OCS, "Requirements for Verifying the Structural Integrity of OCS Platforms"., United
States Geologic Survey, National Centre, Reston, Virginia, 1980.
[4] DNV, "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures", Det
Norske Veritas, Oslo, 1977 (with corrections 1982).
[5] NPD, "Regulation for Structural Design of Load-bearing Structures Intended for
Exploitation of Petroleum Resources", Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, 1985.
[6] BS6235, "Code of Practice for Fixed Offshore Structures", British Standards Institution,
London, 1982.
[7] DOE-OG, "Offshore Installation: Guidance on Design and Construction", U.K., Dept. of
Energy, London 1985.
[8] Eurocode 1: "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures", CEN (in preparation).
[9] Clauss, G. T. et al: "Offshore Structures, Vol 1 - Conceptual Design and

Hydromechanics", Springer, London 1992.
[10] Anagnostopoulos, S.A., "Dynamic Response of Offshore Structures to Extreme Waves

including Fluid - Structure Interaction", Engr. Structures, Vol. 4, pp.179-185, 1982.
[11] Hsu, H.T., "Applied Offshore Structural Engineering", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston,
1981.
[12] Graff, W.J., "Introduction to Offshore Structures", Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1981.
[13] Gerwick, B.C. Jr., "Construction of Offshore Structures", John Wiley, New York, 1986.
Table 1 Results of Linear Airy Theory [11]
Phase  = kx -  t Deep water Finite water depth
Relative water depth d/L d/L  0,5 d/L < 0,5
Velocity potential 
a cos  a cos 
Surface elevation z
 ga ekz cos 
Dynamic pressure
pdyn =
Water particle velocities
a  ekz cos 
horizontal u =
a  ekz sin 
vertical w =
Water particle
accelerations
a 2 ekz sin 
horizontal u' =
-a 2 ekz cos 
vertical w' =
Wave celerity c
co = c=
=
Group velocity
cgr = cgr =
cgr=
= =
Circular
frequency  = Lo = L=
Wave length L
ko = kd tanh kd =
=
Wave number k
=
Water particle
displacements
horizontal  -a ekz sin 
vertical  a ekz cos 
Elliptical orbits
Particle trajectories Circular orbits
Where  a =
Lecture 15A.3: Loads (II) - Other Loads
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present and briefly describe all loads, except environmental loads, and the load
combinations for which a fixed offshore structure must be designed.
PREREQUISITES
A basic knowledge of structural analysis for static and dynamic loadings.
SUMMARY
The various categories of loads, except environmental, for which a pile-supported

steel offshore platform must be designed are presented. These categories include
permanent (dead) loads, operating (live) loads, loads generated during fabrication
and installation (due to lifts, loadout, transportation, launching and upending) and
accidental loads. In addition, the different load combinations for all types of loads,
including environmental, as required (or suggested) by applicable regulations (or
codes of practice) are given.
The categories of loads described herein are the following:
1. Permanent (dead) loads

2. Operating (live) loads
3. Fabrication and installation loads
4. Accidental loads
The major categories of environmental loads are not included. They are dealt with
in Lecture 15A.2.
1. PERMANENT (DEAD) LOADS

Permanent loads include the following:
a. Weight of the structure in air, including the weight of grout and ballast, if
necessary.
b. Weights of equipment, attachments or associated structures which are

permanently mounted on the platform.
c. Hydrostatic forces on the various members below the waterline. These forces
include buoyancy and hydrostatic pressures.
Sealed tubular members must be designed for the worst condition when flooded or
non-flooded.
2. OPERATING (LIVE) LOADS

Operating loads arise from the operations on the platform and include the weight of
all non-permanent equipment or material, as well as forces generated during
operation of equipment. More specifically, operating loads include the following:
a. The weight of all non-permanent equipment (e.g. drilling, production), facilities

(e.g. living quarters, furniture, life support systems, heliport, etc), consumable
supplies, liquids, etc.
b. Forces generated during operations, e.g. drilling, vessel mooring, helicopter

landing, crane operations, etc.
The necessary data for computation of all operating loads are provided by the
operator and the equipment manufacturers. The data need to be critically evaluated
by the designer. An example of detailed live load specification is given in Table 1
where the values in the first and second columns are for design of the portions of
the structure directly affected by the loads and the reduced values in the last
column are for the structure as a whole. In the absence of such data, the following
values are recommended in BS6235 [1]:
a. crew quarters and passageways: 3,2 KN/m2
b. working areas: 8,5 KN/m2
c. storage areas: H KN/m2
where
 is the specific weight of stored materials, not to be taken less than 6,87KN/m3,
H is the storage height (m).
Forces generated during operations are often dynamic or impulsive in nature and
must be treated as such. For example, according to the BS6235 rules, two types of
helicopter landing should be considered, heavy and emergency landing. The
impact load in the first case is to be taken as 1,5 times the maximum take-off
weight, while in the second case this factor becomes 2,5. In addition, a horizontal
load applied at the points of impact and taken equal to half the maximum take-off
weight must be considered. Loads from rotating machinery, drilling equipment,
etc. may normally be treated as harmonic forces. For vessel mooring, design forces
are computed for the largest ship likely to approach at operational speeds.
According to BS6235, the minimum impact to be considered is of a vessel of 2500
tonnes at 0,5 m/s.
3. FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION LOADS

These loads are temporary and arise during fabrication and installation of the
platform or its components. During fabrication, erection lifts of various structural
components generate lifting forces, while in the installation phase forces are
generated during platform loadout, transportation to the site, launching and
upending, as well as during lifts related to installation.
According to the DNV rules [2], the return period for computing design
environmental conditions for installation as well as fabrication should normally be
three times the duration of the corresponding phase. API-RP2A, on the other hand
[3], leaves this design return period up to the owner, while the BS6235 rules [1]
recommend a minimum recurrence interval of 10 years for the design
environmental loads associated with transportation of the structure to the offshore
site.
3.1 Lifting Forces
Lifting forces are functions of the weight of the structural component being lifted,
the number and location of lifting eyes used for the lift, the angle between each
sling and the vertical axis and the conditions under which the lift is performed
(Figure 1). All members and connections of a lifted component must be designed
for the forces resulting from static equilibrium of the lifted weight and the sling
tensions. Moreover, API-RP2A recommends that in order to compensate for any
side movements, lifting eyes and the connections to the supporting structural
members should be designed for the combined action of the static sling load and a
horizontal force equal to 5% this load, applied perpendicular to the padeye at the
centre of the pin hole. All these design forces are applied as static loads if the lifts
are performed in the fabrication yard. If, however, the lifting derrick or the
structure to be lifted is on a floating vessel, then dynamic load factors should be
applied to the static lifting forces. In particular, for lifts made offshore API-RP2A
recommends two minimum values of dynamic load factors: 2,0 and 1,35. The first
is for designing the padeyes as well as all members and their end connections
framing the joint where the padeye is attached, while the second is for all other
members transmitting lifting forces. For loadout at sheltered locations, the
corresponding minimum load factors for the two groups of structural components
become, according to API-RP2A, 1,5 and 1,15, respectively.
3.2 Loadout Forces
These are forces generated when the jacket is loaded from the fabrication yard onto
the barge. If the loadout is carried out by direct lift, then, unless the lifting
arrangement is different from that to be used for installation, lifting forces need not
be computed, because lifting in the open sea creates a more severe loading
condition which requires higher dynamic load factors. If loadout is done by
skidding the structure onto the barge, a number of static loading conditions must be
considered, with the jacket supported on its side. Such loading conditions arise
from the different positions of the jacket during the loadout phases, (as shown in
Figure 2), from movement of the barge due to tidal fluctuations, marine traffic or
change of draft, and from possible support settlements. Since movement of the
jacket is slow, all loading conditions can be taken as static. Typical values of
friction coefficients for calculation of skidding forces are the following:
 steel on steel without lubrication............................................ 0,25

 steel on steel with lubrication............................................... 0,15
 steel on teflon.................................................................. 0,10
 teflon on teflon................................................................. 0,08
3.3 Transportation Forces
These forces are generated when platform components (jacket, deck) are
transported offshore on barges or self-floating. They depend upon the weight,
geometry and support conditions of the structure (by barge or by buoyancy) and
also on the environmental conditions (waves, winds and currents) that are
encountered during transportation. The types of motion that a floating structure
may experience are shown schematically in Figure 3.
In order to minimize the associated risks and secure safe transport from the
fabrication yard to the platform site, it is important to plan the operation carefully
by considering, according to API-RP2A [3], the following:
1. Previous experience along the tow route

2. Exposure time and reliability of predicted "weather windows"
3. Accessibility of safe havens
4. Seasonal weather system
5. Appropriate return period for determining design wind, wave and current
conditions, taking into account characteristics of the tow such as size,
structure, sensitivity and cost.
Transportation forces are generated by the motion of the tow, i.e. the structure and
supporting barge. They are determined from the design winds, waves and currents.
If the structure is self-floating, the loads can be calculated directly. According to
API-RP2A [3], towing analyses must be based on the results of model basin tests
or appropriate analytical methods and must consider wind and wave directions
parallel, perpendicular and at 45 to the tow axis. Inertial loads may be computed
from a rigid body analysis of the tow by combining roll and pitch with heave
motions, when the size of the tow, magnitude of the sea state and experience make
such assumptions reasonable. For open sea conditions, the following may be
considered as typical design values:
Single - amplitude roll: 20
Single - amplitude pitch: 10
Period of roll or pitch: 10 second
Heave acceleration: 0,2 g
When transporting a large jacket by barge, stability against capsizing is a primary

design consideration because of the high centre of gravity of the jacket. Moreover,
the relative stiffness of jacket and barge may need to be taken into account together
with the wave slamming forces that could result during a heavy roll motion of the
tow (Figure 4) when structural analyses are carried out for designing the tie-down
braces and the jacket members affected by the induced loads. Special computer
programs are available to compute the transportation loads in the structure-barge
system and the resulting stresses for any specified environmental condition.
3.4 Launching and Upending Forces
These forces are generated during the launch of a jacket from the barge into the sea
and during the subsequent upending into its proper vertical position to rest on the
seabed. A schematic view of these operations can be seen in Figure 5.
There are five stages in a launch-upending operation:
a. Jacket slides along the skid beams
b. Jacket rotates on the rocker arms
c. Jacket rotates and slides simultaneously
d. Jacket detaches completely and comes to its floating equilibrium position
e. Jacket is upended by a combination of controlled flooding and simultaneous

lifting by a derrick barge.
The loads, static as well as dynamic, induced during each of these stages and the
force required to set the jacket into motion can be evaluated by appropriate
analyses, which also consider the action of wind, waves and currents expected
during the operation.
To start the launch, the barge must be ballasted to an appropriate draft and trim
angle and subsequently the jacket must be pulled towards the stern by a winch.
Sliding of the jacket starts as soon as the downward force (gravity component and
winch pull) exceeds the friction force. As the jacket slides, its weight is supported
on the two legs that are part of the launch trusses. The support length keeps
decreasing and reaches a minimum, equal to the length of the rocker beams, when
rotation starts. It is generally at this instant that the most severe launching forces
develop as reactions to the weight of the jacket. During stages (d) and (e), variable
hydrostatic forces arise which have to be considered at all members affected.
Buoyancy calculations are required for every stage of the operation to ensure fully
controlled, stable motion. Computer programs are available to perform the stress
analyses required for launching and upending and also to portray the whole
operation graphically.
4. ACCIDENTAL LOADS
According to the DNV rules [2], accidental loads are loads, ill-defined with respect
to intensity and frequency, which may occur as a result of accident or exceptional
circumstances. Accidental loads are also specified as a separate category in the
NPD regulations [4], but not in API-RP2A [3], BS6235 [1] or the DOE-OG rules
[5]. Examples of accidental loads are loads due to collision with vessels, fire or
explosion, dropped objects, and unintended flooding of bouyancy tanks. Special
measures are normally taken to reduce the risk from accidental loads. For example,
protection of wellheads or other critical equipment from a dropped object can be
provided by specially designed, impact resistant covers. According to the NPD
regulations [4], an accidental load can be disregarded if its annual probability of
occurrence is less than 10-4. This number is meant as an order of magnitude
estimate and is extremely difficult to compute. Earthquakes are treated as an
environmental load in offshore structure design.
5. LOAD COMBINATIONS
The load combinations used for designing fixed offshore structures depend upon
the design method used, i.e. whether limit state or allowable stress design is
employed. The load combinations recommended for use with allowable stress
procedures are:
a. Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus maximum live loads,
appropriate to normal operations of the platform.
b. Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus minimum live loads,
appropriate to normal operations of the platform.
c. Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus maximum live loads,
appropriate for combining with extreme conditions.
d. Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus minimum live loads,
appropriate for combining with extreme conditions.
Moreover, environmental loads, with the exception of earthquake loads, should be

combined in a manner consistent with their joint probability of occurrence during
the loading condition considered. Earthquake loads, if applicable, are to be
imposed as a separate environmental load, i.e., not to be combined with waves,
wind, etc. Operating environmental conditions are defined as representative of
severe but not necessarily limiting conditions that, if exceeded, would require
cessation of platform operations.
The DNV rules [2] permit allowable stress design but recommend the semi-
probabilistic limit state design method, which the NPD rules also require [4].
BS6235 permits both methods but the design equations it gives are for the
allowable stress method [1]. API-RP2A is very specific in recommending not to
apply limit state methods. According to the DNV and the NPD rules for limit state
design, four limit states must be checked:
1. Ultimate limit state
For this limit state the following two loading combinations must be used:
Ordinary: 1,3 P + 1,3 L + 1,0 D + 0,7 E, and
Extreme : 1,0 P + 1,0 L + 1,0 D + 1,3 E
where P, L, D and E stand for Permanent (dead), Operating (live),

Deformation (e.g., temperature, differential settlement) and Environmental
loads respectively. For well controlled dead and live loads during fabrication
and installation, the load factor 1,3 may be reduced to 1,2. Furthermore, for
structures that are unmanned during storm conditions and which are not
used for storage of oil and gas, the 1,3 load factor for environmental loads -
except earthquakes - may be reduced to 1,15.
2. Fatigue limit state
All load factors are to be taken as 1,0.
3. Progressive Collapse limit state
4. Serviceability limit state
The so-called characteristic values of the loads used in the above combinations and
limit states are summarized in Table 2, taken from the NPD rules.
 In addition to environmental loads, an offshore structure must be designed
for dead and live loads, fabrication and installation loads as well as
accidental loads.
 Widely accepted rules of practice, listed in the references, are usually
followed for specifying such loads.
 The type and magnitude of fabrication, transportation and installation loads
depend upon the methods and sequences used for the corresponding phases.
 Dynamic and impact effects are normally taken into account by means of
appropriate dynamic load factors.
 Accidental loads are not well defined with respect to intensity and
probability of occurrence. They will typically require special protective
measures.
 Load combinations and load factors depend upon the design method to be
used. API-RP2A is based on allowable stress design and recommends
against limit state design, BSI favours allowable stress design, while DNV
and NPD recommend limit state design.
7. REFERENCES
[1] BS6235, "Code of Practice for Fixed Offshore Structures", British Standards
Institution, London, 1982.
[2] "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Offshore Structures", Det
Norske Veritas (DNV), Oslo, 1977 (with corrections 1982).
[3] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing

Fixed Offshore Platforms", American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th
ed., 1989.
[4] "Regulation for Structural Design of Load-bearing Structures Intended for

Exploitation of Petroleum Resources", Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD),
1985.
[5] DOE-OG, "Offshore Installation: Guidance on Design and Construction", U.K.

Department of Energy, London 1985.
1. OCS, "Requirements for Verifying the Structural Integrity of OCS
Platforms"., United States Geologic Survey, National Centre, Reston,
Virginia, 1980.
2. Hsu, H.T., "Applied Offshore Structural Engineering", Gulf Publishing Co.,
Houston, 1981.
3. Graff, W.G., "Introduction to Offshore Structures", Gulf Publishing Co.,
Houston, 1981.
4. Gerwick, B.C. Jr., "Construction of Offshore Structures", John Wiley, New
York, 1986.
Table 1 Minimum design live load specification
Loads to be taken into account For portions of the structure For the structure as a
(kN/m2) whole
Zone considered Flooring and Other (3)

joists components
Process zone (around wells and 5 (1) 5 (1) 2.5

large-scale machines)
Drilling zone 5 (1) 5 (1) 2.5
Catwalks and walking platforms 3 2.5 1

(except emergency exits)
Stairways (except emergency 4 3 0

exits)
Module roofing 2 1.5 1
Emergency exits 5 5 0
STORAGE
Storage floors - heavy 18 12 8 (2)
Storage floors - light 9 6 4 (2)
Delivery zone 10 10 5
Non-attributed area 6 4 3
(1) Accumulated with a point load equal to the weight of the heaviest part likely to
be removed, with a minimum value of 5 kN. Point loads are assumed as being
applied to a 0,3m  0,3m surface.
(2) Applied on the entirety of the flooring surface (including traffic).
(3) This column gives the loads to be taken into account for the structure's overall
calculation. These values are the input for the computer runs.
Table 2 Characteristic Loads according to NPD [4]

LOAD TYPE LIMIT STATES FOR TEMPORARY PHASES LIMIT STATES
Progressive Collapse
Abnormal Damage
Serviceability Fatigue Ultimate Serviceability Fatigue
effects condition
DEAD EXPECTED VALUE
LIVE SPECIFIED VALUE
DEFORMATION EXPECTED EXTREME VALUE
ENVIRONMENTAL Dependent Expected Value dependent on measures Dependent Expected
on load taken on load
operational history operational history
requirements requirements
ACCIDENTAL NOT APPLICABLE Dependent NOT APPLICABLE
on
operational
requirements
ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.4 - Analysis I

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the main analysis procedures for offshore structures.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 15A.1: Offshore Structures: General Introduction
Lecture 15A.2: Loads I: Introduction and Environmental Loads
Lecture 15A.3: Loads II: Other Loads
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15A.5: Analysis II
SUMMARY
Analytical models used in offshore engineering are briefly described. Acceptance

criteria for the verification of offshore structures are presented.
Simple rules for preliminary member sizing are given and procedures for static in-
place and dynamic analysis are described.
1. ANALYTICAL MODEL
The analysis of an offshore structure is an extensive task, embracing consideration
of the different stages, i.e. execution, installation, and in-service stages, during its
life. Many disciplines, e.g. structural, geotechnical, naval architecture, metallurgy
are involved.
This lecture and Lecture 15A.5 are purposely limited to presenting an overview of
available analysis procedures and providing benchmarks for the reader to
appreciate the validity of his assumptions and results. They primarily address
jackets, which are more unusual structures compared to decks and modules, and
which more closely resemble onshore petro-chemical plants.
2. ANALYTICAL MODEL
The analytical models used in offshore engineering are in some respects similar to
those adopted for other types of steel structures. Only the salient features of
offshore models are presented here.
The same model is used throughout the analysis process with only minor
adjustments being made to suit the specific conditions, e.g. at supports in
particular, relating to each analysis.
2.1 Stick Models
Stick models (beam elements assembled in frames) are used extensively for tubular
structures (jackets, bridges, flare booms) and lattice trusses (modules, decks).
2.1.1 Joints
Each member is normally rigidly fixed at its ends to other elements in the model.
If more accuracy is required, particularly for the assessment of natural vibration

modes, local flexibility of the connections may be represented by a joint stiffness
matrix.
2.1.2 Members
In addition to its geometrical and material properties, each member is characterised

by hydrodynamic coefficients, e.g. relating to drag, inertia, and marine growth, to
allow wave forces to be automatically generated.
2.2 Plate Models
Integrated decks and hulls of floating platforms involving large bulkheads are
described by plate elements. The characteristics assumed for the plate elements
depend on the principal state of stress which they are subjected to. Membrane
stresses are taken when the element is subjected merely to axial load and shear.
Plate stresses are adopted when bending and lateral pressure are to be taken into
account.
3. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
3.1 Code Checks
The verification of an element consists of comparing its characteristic resistance(s)

to a design force or stress. It includes:
 a strength check, where the characteristic resistance is related to the yield

strength of the element,
 a stability check for elements in compression where the characteristic
resistance relates to the buckling limit of the element.
An element (member or plate) is checked at typical sections (at least both ends and
midspan) against resistance and buckling. This verification also includes the effect
of water pressure for deepwater structures.
Tubular joints are checked against punching under various load patterns. These
checks may indicate the need for local reinforcement of the chord using
overthickness or internal ring-stiffeners.
Elements should also be verified against fatigue, corrosion, temperature or

durability wherever relevant.
3.2 Allowable Stress Method
This method is presently specified by American codes (API, AISC).
The loads remain unfactored and a unique coefficient is applied to the

characteristic resistance to obtain an allowable stress as follows:
Condition Axial Strong axis Weak axis

bending bending
Normal 0,60 0,66 0,75
Extreme 0,80 0,88 1,00
"Normal" and "Extreme" respectively represent the most severe conditions:
 under which the plant is to operate without shut-down.

 the platform is to endure over its lifetime.
3.3 Limit State Method
This method is enforced by European and Norwegian Authorities and has now
been adopted by API as it offers a more uniform reliability.
Partial factors are applied to the loads and to the characteristic resistance of the
element, reflecting the amount of confidence placed in the design value of each
parameter and the degree of risk accepted under a limit state, i.e:
 Ultimate Limit State (ULS):
corresponds to an ultimate event considering the structural resistance with

appropriate reserve.
 Fatigue Limit State (FLS):
relates to the possibility of failure under cyclic loading.
 Progressive Collapse Limit State (PLS):
reflects the ability of the structure to resist collapse under accidental or abnormal
conditions.
 Service Limit State (SLS):
corresponds to criteria for normal use or durability (often specified by the plant
operator).
3.3.1 Load factors
Norwegian Authorities (2, 4) specify the following sets of load factors:
Limit State Load Categories
P L D E A
ULS (normal) 1,3 1,3 1,0 0,7 0,0
ULS (extreme) 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,3 0,0
FLS 0,0 0,0 0,0 1,0 0,0
PLS (accidental) 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0
PLS (post-damage) 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 0,0
SLS 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 0,0
where the respective load categories are:
P are permanent loads (structural weight, dry equipments, ballast, hydrostatic

pressure).
L are live loads (storage, personnel, liquids).
D are deformations (out-of-level supports, subsidence).
E are environmental loads (wave, current, wind, earthquake).
A are accidental loads (dropped object, ship impact, blast, fire).

3.3.2 Material factors
The material partial factors for steel is normally taken equal to 1,15 for ULS and
1,00 for PLS and SLS design.
3.3.3 Classification of Design Conditions
Guidance for classifying typical conditions into typical limit states is given in the
following table:
Condition Loadings Design
P/L E D A Criterion
Construction P ULS,SLS
Load-Out P reduced wind support disp ULS
Transport P transport wind and wave ULS
Tow-out (accidental) P flooded compart PLS
Launch P ULS
Lifting P ULS
In-Place (normal) P+L wind, wave & snow actual ULS,SLS
In-Place (extreme) P+L wind & 100 year wave actual ULS
SLS
In-Place (exceptional) P+L wind & 10000 year actual PLS

wave
Earthquake P+L 10-2 quake ULS
Rare Earthquake P+L 10-4 quake PLS
Explosion P+L blast PLS
Fire P+L fire PLS
Dropped Object P+L drill collar PLS
Boat Collision P+L boat impact PLS
Damaged Structure P + reduced L reduced wave & wind PLS

4. PRELIMINARY MEMBER SIZING
The analysis of a structure is an iterative process which requires progressive
adjustment of the member sizes with respect to the forces they transmit, until a safe
and economical design is achieved.
It is therefore of the utmost importance to start the main analysis from a model
which is close to the final optimized one.
The simple rules given below provide an easy way of selecting realistic sizes for
the main elements of offshore structures in moderate water depth (up to 80m)
where dynamic effects are negligible.
4.1 Jacket Pile Sizes
 calculate the vertical resultant (dead weight, live loads, buoyancy), the
overall shear and the overturning moment (environmental forces) at the
mudline.
 assuming that the jacket behaves as a rigid body, derive the maximum axial
and shear force at the top of the pile.
 select a pile diameter in accordance with the expected leg diameter and the
capacity of pile driving equipment.
 derive the penetration from the shaft friction and tip bearing diagrams.
 assuming an equivalent soil subgrade modulus and full fixity at the base of
the jacket, calculate the maximum moment in the pile and derive its wall
thickness.
4.2 Deck Leg Sizes
 adapt the diameter of the leg to that of the pile.

 determine the effective length from the degree of fixity of the leg into the
deck (depending upon the height of the cellar deck).
 calculate the moment caused by wind loads on topsides and derive the
appropriate thickness.
4.3 Jacket Bracings
 select the diameter in order to obtain a span/diameter ratio between 30 and

40.
 calculate the axial force in the brace from the overall shear and the local
bending caused by the wave assuming partial or total end restraint.
 derive the thickness such that the diameter/thickness ratio lies between 20
and 70 and eliminate any hydrostatic buckle tendency by imposing
D/t<170/3H (H is the depth of member below the free surface).
4.4 Deck Framing
 select a spacing between stiffeners (typically 500 to 800mm).

 derive the plate thickness from formulae accounting for local plastification
under the wheel footprint of the design forklift truck.
 determine by straight beam formulae the sizes of the main girders under
"blanket" live loads and/or the respective weight of the heaviest equipments.
5. STATIC IN-PLACE ANALYSIS

The static in-place analysis is the basic and generally the simplest of all analyses.
The structure is modelled as it stands during its operational life, and subjected to
pseudo-static loads.
This analysis is always carried at the very early stage of the project, often from a
simplified model, to size the main elements of the structure.
5.1 Structural Model
5.1.1 Main Model
The main model should account for eccentricities and local reinforcements at the
joints.
Typical models for North Sea jackets may feature over 800 nodes and 4000
members.
5.1.2 Appurtenances
The contribution of appurtenances (risers, J-tubes, caissons, conductors, boat-

fenders, etc.) to the overall stiffness of the structure is normally neglected.
They are therefore analysed separately and their reactions applied as loads at the
interfaces with the main structure.
5.1.3 Foundation Model
Since their behaviour is non-linear, foundations are often analysed separately from
the structural model.
They are represented by an equivalent load-dependent secant stiffness matrix;

coefficients are determined by an iterative process where the forces and
displacements at the common boundaries of structural and foundation models are
equated.
This matrix may need to be adjusted to the mean reaction corresponding to each
loading condition.
5.2 Loadings
This Section is a reminder of the main types of loads, which are described in more
detail in Lectures 15A.2 and 15A.3.
5.2.1 Gravity Loads
Gravity loads consist of:
 dead weight of structure and equipments.

 live loads (equipments, fluids, personnel).
Depending on the area of structure under scrutiny, live loads must be positioned to
produce the most severe configuration (compression or tension); this may occur for
instance when positioning the drilling rig.
5.2.2 Environmental Loads
Environmental loads consist of wave, current and wind loads assumed to act
simultaneously in the same direction.
In general eight wave incidences are selected; for each the position of the crest
relative to the platform must be established such that the maximum overturning
moment and/or shear are produced at the mudline.
5.3 Loading Combinations
The static in-place analysis is performed under different conditions where the loads
are approximated by their pseudo-static equivalent.
The basic loads relevant to a given condition are multiplied by the appropriate load
factors and combined to produce the most severe effect in each individual element
of the structure.
6. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
A dynamic analysis is normally mandatory for every offshore structure, but can be
restricted to the main modes in the case of stiff structures.
6.1 Dynamic Model
The dynamic model of the structure is derived from the main static model.
Some simplifications may however take place:
 local joint reinforcements and eccentricities may be disregarded.

 masses are lumped at the member ends.
 the foundation model may be derived from cyclic soil behaviour.
6.2 Equations of Motion
The governing dynamic equations of multi-degrees-of-freedom systems can be

expressed in the matrix form:
MX'' + CX' + KX = P(t)
where
M is the mass matrix
C is the damping matrix
K is the stiffness matrix
X, X', X'' are the displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors (function
of time).
P(t) is the time dependent force vector; in the most general case it may depend on
the displacements of the structure also (i.e. relative motion of the structure with
respect to the wave velocity in Morison equation).
6.2.1 Mass
The mass matrix represents the distribution of masses over the structure.
Masses include that of the structure itself, the appurtenances, liquids trapped in
legs or tanks, the added mass of water (mass of water displaced by the member and
determined from potential flow theory) and the mass of marine growth.
Masses are generally lumped at discrete points of the model. The mass matrix
consequently becomes diagonal but local modes of vibration of single members are
ignored (these modes may be important for certain members subjected to an
earthquake). The selection of lumping points may significantly affect the ensuing
solution.
As a further simplification to larger models involving considerable degrees-of-

freedom, the system can be condensed to a few freedoms while still retaining its
basic energy distribution.
6.2.2 Damping
Damping is the most difficult to estimate among all parameters governing the
dynamic response of a structure.
It may consist of structural and hydrodynamic damping.
Structural Damping
Structural damping is associated with the loss of energy by internal friction in the
material.
It increases with the order of the mode, being roughly proportional to the strain
energy involved in each.
Hydrodynamic Damping
Damping provided by the water surrounding the structure is commonly added to

the former, but may alternatively be accounted as part of the forcing function when
vibrations are close to resonance (vortex-shedding in particular).
Representation of Damping
Viscous damping represents the most common and simple form of damping. It may
have one of the following representations:
 modal damping: a specific damping ratio  expressing the percentage to

critical associated with each mode (typically  = 0,5% structural;  = 1,5%
hydrodynamic)
 proportional damping: defined as a linear combination of stiffness and mass
matrices.
All other types of non-viscous damping should preferably be expressed as an

equivalent viscous damping matrix.
6.2.3 Stiffness
The stiffness matrix is in all aspects similar to the one used in static analyses.
6.3 Free Vibration Mode Shapes and Frequencies
The first step in a dynamic analysis consists of determining the principal natural
vibration mode shapes and frequencies of the undamped, multi-degree-of-freedom
structure up to a given order (30th to 50th).
This consists in solving the eigenvalue problem:

KX =  MX
For rigid structures having a fundamental vibration period well below the range of
wave periods (typically less than 3 s), the dynamic behaviour is simply accounted
for by multiplying the time-dependent loads by a dynamic amplification factor
(DAF):
DAF =
where  = TN/T is the ratio of the period of the structure to the wave period.
6.4 Modal Superposition Method
A convenient technique consists of uncoupling the equations through the normal

modes of the system.
This method is only applicable if:
 each mass, stiffness and damping matrix is time-independent.

 non-linear forces are linearized beforehand (drag).
The total response is obtained by summing the responses of the individual single-
degree-of-freedom oscillators associated to each normal mode of the structure.
This method offers the advantage that the eigen modes provide substantial insight
into the problem, and can be re-used for as many subsequent response calculations
as needed at later stages.
It may however prove time-consuming when a large number of modes is required

to represent the response accurately. Therefore:
 the simple superposition method (mode-displacement) is applied to a

truncated number of lowest modes for predicting earthquake response.
 it must be corrected by the static contribution of the higher modes (mode-
acceleration method) for wave loadings.
6.4.1 Frequency Domain Analysis
Such analysis is most appropriate for evaluating the steady-state response of a

system subjected to cyclic loadings, as the transient part of the response vanishes
rapidly under the effect of damping.
The loading function is developed in Fourier series up to an order :

p(t) =
The plot of the amplitudes pj versus the circular frequencies j is called the
amplitude power spectra of the loading. Usually, significant values of p j only occur
within a narrow range of frequencies and the analysis can be restricted to it.
The relationship between response and force vectors is expressed by the transfer
matrix H, such as:
H = [-M 2 + i x C  + K]
the elements of which represent:
Hj,k =
The spectral density of response in freedom j versus force is then:
The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is the most efficient algorithm associated with
this kind of analysis.
6.4.2 Time Domain Analysis
The response of the i-th mode may alternatively be determined by resorting to

Duhamel's integral:
Xj(t) =
The overall response is then obtained by summing at each time step the individual
responses over all significant modes.
6.5 Direct Integration Methods
Direct step-by-step integration of the equations of motion is the most general

method and is applicable to:
 non-linear problems involving special forms of damping and response-

dependent loadings.
 responses involving many vibration modes to be determined over a short
time interval.
The dynamic equilibrium at an instant  is governed by the same type of equations,
where all matrices (mass, damping, stiffness, load) are simultaneously dependent
on the time and structural response as well.
All available integration techniques are characterised by their stability (i.e. the
tendency for uncontrolled divergence of amplitude to occur with increasing time
steps). Unconditionally stable methods are always to be preferred (for instance
Newmark-beta with  = 1/4 or Wilson-theta with  = 1,4).
 The analysis of offshore structures is an extensive task.
 The analytical models used in offshore engineering are in some respects
similar to those used for other types of steel structures. The same model is
used throughout the analysis process.
 The verification of an element consists of comparing its characteristic
resistance(s) to a design force or stress. Several methods are available.
 Simple rules are available for preliminary member sizing.
 Static in-plane analysis is always carried out at the early stage of a project to
size the main elements of the structure. A dynamic analysis is normally
mandatory for every offshore structure.
ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.5 - Analysis II

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the analysis procedures for offshore structures relating to fatigue,

abnormal and accident conditions, load-out and transportation, installation and
local design.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 15A.2: Loads I: Introduction and Environmental Loads
Lecture 15A.3: Loads II: Other Loads
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15A.4: Analysis I
SUMMARY
Methods of fatigue analysis are described including the fatigue model (structural,
hydrodynamic loading, and joint stress models) and the methods of fatigue damage
assessment.
Abnormal and accidental conditions are considered relating to earthquake, impact

and progressive collapse.
Analyses required for load-out and transportation and for installation are outlined.
Local analysis for specific parts of the structure which are better treated by
dedicated models outside of the global analysis are identified.
1. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
A fatigue analysis is performed for those structures sensitive to the action of cyclic
loadings such as:
 wave (jackets, floating structures).

 wind (flare booms, stair towers).
 structures under rotating equipments.
1.1 Fatigue Model

1.1.1 Structural Model
The in-place model is used for the fatigue analysis.
Quasi-static analysis is often chosen; it permits all local stresses to be

comprehensively represented. The dynamic effects are accounted for by factoring
the loads by the relevant DAF.
Modal analysis may be used instead; it offers computational efficiency, but may
also overlook important local response modes, particularly near the waterline
where direct wave action causes high out-of-plane bending (see Section 5.2). The
mode - acceleration method may overcome this problem.
1.1.2 Hydrodynamic Loading Model
A very large number of computer runs may be necessary to evaluate the stress
range at the joints. The wave is repeatedly generated for:
 different blocks of wave heights (typically from 2 to 28m in steps of 2m),

each associated with a characteristic wave and zero-upcrossing period.
 different incidences (typically eight).
 different phases to determine the stress range for a given wave at each
joint.
1.1.3 Joint Stress Model
Nominal joint stresses are calculated for eight points around the circumference of
the brace. The maximum local (hot spot) stress is obtained by multiplying the
former by a stress concentration factor (SCF) given by parametric formulae which
are functions of the joint geometry and the load pattern (balanced/unbalanced).
1.1.4 Fatigue Damage Model
The fatigue failure of joints in offshore structures primarily depends on the stress
ranges and their number of occurrences, formulated by S-N curves:
log Ni = log  + mlog i
The number of cycles to failure Ni corresponds to a stress range. The effect of the
constant stresses, mainly welding residual stresses, is implicitly accounted for in
this formulation.
The cumulative damage caused by ni cycles of stress i, over the operational life
of the platform (30 to 50 years) is obtained by the Palmgren-Miner rule:
D=
The limit of this ratio depends on the position of the joint with respect to the splash
zone (typically +/-4m on either side of the mean sea level). The ratio should
normally not exceed:
 1,0 above,
 0,1 within,
 0,3 below the splash zone.
1.1.5 Closed Form Expression
The damage may alternatively be expressed in closed form:
D=
where
, m are coefficients of the selected S-N curve.
 is the stress range exceeded once in N cycles.
k is a long-term distribution parameter, depending on the position of the joint in the

structure.
N is the total number of cycles.
1.2 Deterministic Analysis
This analysis consists of time-domain analysis of the structure. The main

advantage of this representation is that non-linear effects (drag, high order wave
theories) are handled explicitly.
A minimum of four regular waves described in terms of height and associated

period are considered for each heading angle.
1.3 Spectral Analysis
Waves of a given height are not characterised by a unique frequency, but rather by
a range of frequencies. If this range corresponds to a peak in the structural
response, the fatigue life predicted by the deterministic method can be seriously
distorted.
This problem is overcome by using a scatter diagram, in which the joint occurrence
of wave height and period is quantified. Wave directionality may also be accounted
for. Eventually the most thorough representation of a sea state consists of:
 the frequency spectrum constructed from the significant wave heights and
mean zero-crossing periods.
 the directionality function derived from the mean direction and associated
spreading function.
This approach requires that the physical process be approximately linear (or
properly linearised) and stationary. Transfer functions TF are determined from
time-domain analyses involving various wave heights, each with different period
and incidence:
The response has normally a narrow-banded spectrum and can be described by a

Rayleigh distribution.
The zero-upcrossing frequency of stress cycles is then approximated by:
Tz =
where mn is the nth order moment of the response.
The significant stress range is readily obtained for each sea state as:
sig =
where S(,) is the directional wave energy spectrum.
1.4 Wind Fatigue
1.4.1 Wind Gusts
The fatigue damage caused by the fluctuating part of wind (gusts) on slender
structures like flare booms and bridges is usually predicted by spectral methods.
The main feature of such analysis is the introduction of coherence functions

accounting for the spanwise correlation of forces.
1.4.2 Vortex Shedding

Vortex induced failure occurs for tubes subjected to a uniform or oscillating flow
of fluid.
Within a specific range of fluid velocities, eddies are shed at a frequency close to
the resonant frequency of the member.
This phenomenon involves forced displacements, which can be determined by

models such as those suggested in [1].
2. ABNORMAL AND ACCIDENTAL CONDITIONS

This type of analysis addresses conditions which may considerably affect the
integrity of the structure, but only have a limited risk of occurrence.
Typically all events with a probability level less than the 10-4 threshold are
disregarded.
2.1 Earthquake Analysis
2.1.1 Model
Particular attention shall be paid to:
 foundations: the near field (i.e. the soil mass in the direct vicinity of the
structure) shall accurately represent load-deflection behaviour. As a
general rule the lateral foundation behaviour is essentially controlled by
horizontal ground motions of shallow soil layers.
 modal damping (in general taken as 5% and 7% of critical for ULS and PLS
analyses respectively).
2.1.2 Ductility Requirements
The seismic forces in a structure are highly dependent on its dynamic

characteristics. Design recommendations are given by API to determine an
efficient geometry. The recommendations call for:
 providing sufficient redundancy and symmetry in the structure.

 favouring X-bracings instead of K-bracings.
 avoiding abrupt changes in stiffness.
 improving the post-buckling behaviour of bracings.
2.1.3 Analysis Method
Earthquake analyses can be carried out according to the general methods presented
in Lecture 15A.4.
However their distinctive feature is that they represent essentially a base motion
problem and that the seismic loads are therefore dependent on the dynamic
characteristics of the structure.
Modal spectral response analysis is normally used. It consists of a superposition of

maximum mode response and forms a response spectrum curve characteristic of
the input motion. This spectrum is the result of time-histories of a SDOF system
for different natural periods of vibration and damping.
Direct time integration can be used instead for specific accelerograms adapted to
the site.
2.2 Impact
The analysis of impact loads on structures is carried out locally using simple
plastic models [2].
Should a more sophisticated analysis be required, it can be accomplished using

time-domain techniques presented in Section 6 of Lecture 15A.4.
The whole energy must be absorbed within acceptable deformations.
2.2.1 Dropped Object/Boat Impact
When a wellhead protection cover is hit by a drill collar, or a tube (jacket leg,
fender) is crushed by a supply boat, two load/deformation mechanisms occur
simultaneously:
 local punch-through (cover) or denting (tube).

 global deformation along plastic hinges with possible appearance of
membrane forces.
2.2.2 Blast and Fire
Owing to the current lack of definitive guidance regarding explosions and fire, the
behaviour of structures in such events has so far been only predicted by simple
models based on:
 equivalent static overpressure and plastic deformation of plates for blast

analysis.
 the reduction of material strength and elastic modulus under temperature
increase.
In the aftermath of recent mishaps however, more accurate analyses may become
mandatory, based on a better understanding of the pressure-time histories and the
effective resistance and response of structures to explosions and fire.
2.3 Progressive Collapse
Some elements of the structure (legs, bracings, bulkheads) may partially or

completely loose their strength as a result of accidental damage.
The purpose of such analysis is to ensure that the spare resistance of the remaining
structure is sufficient to allow the loads to redistribute.
Since such a configuration is only temporary (mobilisation period prior to repairs)

and that operations will also be restricted around the damaged area, reduced live
and environmental loads are generally accepted.
In this analysis, the damaged elements are removed from the model. Their residual
strength may be represented by forces applied at the boundary nodes with the intact
structure.
3. LOAD OUT & TRANSPORTATION

3.1 Load-Out
The load-out procedure consists in moving the jacket or module from its
construction site to the transportation barge by skidding, or by using trailers
underneath it.
The barge may be floating and is continuously deballasted as the package

progresses onto it, or grounded on the bottom of the harbour.
3.1.1 Skidding
The most severe configuration during skidding occurs when the part of the
structure is cantilevering out:
 from the quayside before it touches the barge.

 from the barge just after it has left the quay.
The analysis should also investigate the possibility of high local reactions being the
result of settlement of the skidway or errors in the ballasting procedure.
3.1.2 Load-Out by Trailers

As the reaction on each trailer can be kept constant, analysis of load-out by trailers
only requires a single step to determine the optimal distribution of trailers.
3.2 Transportation
3.2.1 Naval Architectural Model
The model consists of the rigid-body assembly of the barge and the structure.
Barges are in general characterised by a low length/beam ratio and a high

beam/draught ratio, as well as sharp corners which introduce heavy viscous
damping.
For jacket transport, particular care shall be taken in the representation of

overhanging parts (legs, buoyancy tanks) which contribute significantly to the
righting moment.
Dry-transported decks and modules may be simply represented by their mass and
moments of inertia.
This analysis shall provide the linear and angular accelerations and displacements
of the structure to be entered in the structural model as inertia forces, and also the
partition and intensity of buoyancy and slamming forces.
The jacket model is a simplified version of the in-place model, from which
eccentricities and local reinforcements may be omitted.
The barge is modelled as a plane grid, with members having the equivalent
properties of the longitudinal and transversal bulkheads.
As the barge passes over a wave trough or a crest, a portion only of the barge is
supported by buoyancy (long barges may be spanning over a whole trough or be
half-cantilevered).
The model therefore represents the jacket and the barge as two structures coupled
together by the seafastening members.
4. INSTALLATION
4.1 Launching
4.1.1 Naval Architectural Model

A three dimensional analysis is carried out to evaluate the global forces acting on
the jacket at various time steps during the launch sequence.
At each time step, the jacket/barge rigid body system is repositioned to equilibrate
the internal and external forces produced by:
 jacket weight, inertia, buoyancy and drag forces.

 barge weight, buoyancy and ballast forces.
 vertical reactions and friction forces between jacket and barge.
The maximum reaction on the rocker arm is normally obtained when the jacket just
starts rotating about the rocker hinge.
The structural model is in all aspects identical to the one used for the transportation
analysis, with possibly a finer representation of the launch legs.
The rocker arm is also represented as a vertical beam hinged approximately at

midspan. Interface loads obtained by the rigid body analysis are input at boundary
conditions on the launch legs. All interface members must remain in compression,
otherwise they are inactivated and the analysis restarted for that step.
Once the tilting phase has begun, the jacket is analysed at least for each main leg
node being at the vertical of the rocker arm pivot.
4.2 Upending
No dedicated structural analysis is required for this phase, which is essentially a

naval architecture problem.
A local analysis of the lugs is performed for crane-assisted upendings.
4.3 Docking
Docking of a jacket onto a pre-installed template requires guides to be analysed for

local impact. The same requirement applied for bumpers to aid the installation of
modules.
4.4 Unpiled Stability
The condition where the jacket may for a while stand unpiled on the seafloor is
analysed for the design installation wave.
The stability of the jacket as a whole (overturning tendency) is investigated,

together with the resistance of the mudmats against soil pressure.
4.5 Piling
The piles are checked during driving for the dynamic stresses caused by the impact
wave of the hammer blow. The maximum cantilevered (stick-up) length of pile
must be established for the self-weight of the pile and hammer combined,
accounting for first and second order moments arising from the pile batter.
Hydrodynamic actions are added for underwater driving.
Elements in the vicinity of the piles (guides, sleeves) shall also be checked, see
Section 5.1.
4.6 Lifting
4.6.1 Model
The model used for the lift analysis of a structure consists of the in-place model
plus the representation of the rigging arrangement (slings, spreader frames).
For single lifts the slings converge towards the hook joint, which is the sole
vertical support in the model and shall be located exactly on the vertical through
the centre of gracity (CoG) of the model.
For heavier dual-crane lifts, the CoG shall be contained in the vertical plane
defined by the two hook joints.
The mathematical instability of the model with respect to horizontal forces is

avoided by using soft horizontal springs at the padeyes. The force and elongation
in these springs should always remain small.
4.6.2 Design Factors
Different factors are applied to the basic sling forces to account for specific effects
during lifting operations.
4.6.2.1 Skew Load Factor (SKL)
This factor represents the effect of fabrication tolerances and lack-of-fit of the
slings on the load repartition in a statically undetermined rigging arrangement (4
slings or more). Skew factors may either be directly computed by applying to a
pair of opposite slings a temperature difference such that their
elongation/shortening corresponds to the mismatch, or determined arbitrarily
(typically 1/3 - 2/3 repartition).
4.6.2.2 Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF)
This factor accounts for global dynamic effects normally experienced during lifting
operations. DnV [24] recommends minimum values as follows:
Lifted Weight W up to 100 t 100 t to 1000t 1000 t to 2500t more than 2500
(tonnes) t
DAF offshore 1,30 1,20 1,15 1,10
DAF inshore 1,15 1,10 1,05 1,05
4.6.2.3 Tilt Effect Factor (TEF)
This factor accounts for additional sling loading caused by the rotation of the lifted
object about a horizontal axis and by the longitudinal deviation of the hooks from
their theoretical position in the case of a multi-hook lift. It shall normally be based
on 5 and 3 tilt respectively depending on whether cranes are on different vessels
or not.
4.6.2.4 Yaw Effect Factor (YEF)
This factor accounts for the rotation of the lifted object about a vertical axis (equal
to 1,05 typically).
4.6.3 Consequence Factors
Forces in elements checked under lift conditions are multiplied by a factor

reflecting the consequence a failure of that specific element would have on the
integrity of the overall structure:
 1,30 for spreader frames, lifting points (padeyes) and their attachment to
the structure.
 1,15 for all members transferring the load to the lifting points.
 1,00 for other elements.
5. LOCAL ANALYSES AND DESIGN

Local analyses address specific parts of the structure which are better treated by
dedicated models outside the global analysis.
The list of analyses below is not exhaustive and more information can be found in
[1-24] which provide a complete design procedure in each particular case.
5.1 Pile/Sleeve Connections

Underwater pile/sleeve connection is usually achieved by grouting the annulus
between the outside of the pile and the inner sleeve.
The main verifications address:
 the shear stresses in the concrete.

 the fatigue damage in the shear plates and the attachment welds to the
main jacket accumulated during pile driving and throughout the life of the
platform.
5.2 Members within the Splash Zone
Horizontal members (conductor guide frames in particular) located within the

splash zone (+/-5m on either side of the mean-sea-level approximately) shall be
analysed for fatigue caused by repeated wave slamming.
A slamming coefficient Cs=3,5 is often selected.
5.3 Straightened Nodes
Typical straightened nodes (ring-stiffened nodes, bottle legs nodes with

diaphragms) are analysed by finite-elements models, from which parametric
envelope formulae are drawn and applied to all nodes representative of the same
class.
5.4 Appurtenances
5.4.1 Risers, Caissons & J-Tubes
Static In-Place and Fatigue
Risers, caissons and J-tubes are verified either by structural or piping programs for
the action of environmental forces, internal pressure and temperature. Particular
attention is paid to the bends not always satisfactorily represented by structural
programs and the location of the touch-down point now known a-priori.
A fatigue analysis is also performed to assess the fatigue damage to the clamps and
the attachments to the jacket.
Pull-In
J-tubes are empty ducts continuously guiding a post-installed riser pulled inside.
They are verified by empirical plastic models against the forces generated during
pull-in by the friction of the cable and the deformation of the pull head, see [22].
5.4.2 Conductors
Conductors are analysed in-place as beam columns on discrete simple supports,
these being provided by the horizontal framing of the jacket (typically 20 to 25 m
span).
The installation sequence of the different casings must be considered to assess the
distribution of stresses in the different tubes forming the overall composite section.
Also the portion of compression force in the conductor caused by the hanging
casings is regarded as an internal force (similar to prestressing) which therefore
does not induce any buckling tendency, see [23].
5.5 Helidecks
The helideck is normally designed to resist an impact load equal to 2,5 times the
take-off weight of the heaviest helicopter factored by a DAF of 1,30.
Plastic theories are applicable for designing the plate and stiffeners, while the main
framing is analysed elastically.
5.6 Flare Booms
Analyses of flare booms particularly consider:
 variable positions during installation (horizontal pick-up from the barge, lift
upright).
 reduced material characteristics due to high temperature in the vicinity of
the tip during operation.
 dynamic response under gusty winds.
 local excitation of diagonals by wind vortex-shedding.
 With the trend to ever deeper and more slender offshore structures in yet
harsher environments, more elaborate theories are necessary to analyse
complex situations. There is a risk for the Engineer having increasingly to
rely on the sole results of computer analyses at the expense of sound
design practice.
 To retain enough control of the process of analysis, the following
recommendations are given:
 check the interfaces between the different analyses and ensure the consistency of
the input/output.
 verify the validity of the data resulting from a complex analysis against a
simplified model, which can also be used to assess the influence of a particular
parameter.
 make full use of "good engineering judgement" to criticise the unexpected results
of an analysis.
7. REFERENCES
[1] Skop R.A. & Griffin O.M., An Heuristic Model for Determining Flow-Induced
Vibrations of Offshore Structures/OTC paper 1843, May 1973.
[2] De Oliveira J.G., The Behaviour of Steel Offshore Structures under Accidental
Collisions/OTC paper 4136, May 1981.
[3] API-RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing

Fixed Offshore Platforms/18th edition, September1989.
[4] DnV, Rules for the Classification of Fixed Offshore Structures, September
1989.
[5] DnV, Standard for Insurance Warranty Surveys in Marine Operations, June
1985.
[6] NPD, Regulation for Structural Design of Loadbearing Structures Intended for
Exploitation of Petroleum Resources, October1984 and Veiledning om Utforming,
Beregning og Dimensjonering av Stalkonstruksjoner i Petroleumsvirksomheten,
December1989.
[7] DoE, Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction/London,

April 1984.
[8] McClelland B. & Reifel M.D., Planning and Design of Fixed Offshore
Platforms/Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1986.
[9] UEG, Node Flexibility and its Effect on Jacket Structures/CIRIA Report UR22,
1984.
[10] Hallam M.G., Heaf N.J. & Wootton L.R., Dynamics of Marine Structures/
CIRIA Report UR8 (2nd edition), October 1978.
[11] Wilson J.F., Dynamics of Offshore Structures/Wiley Interscience, 1984.
[12] Clough R.W. & Penzien J., Dynamics of Structures/McGraw-Hill, New York,
1975.
[13] Newland D.E., Random Vibrations and Spectral Analysis/Longman Scientific
(2nd edition), 1984.
[14] Zienkiewicz O.C., Lewis R.W. & Stagg K.G., Numerical Methods in Offshore
Engineering/Wiley Interscience, 1978.
[15] Davenport A.G., The Response of Slender Line-Like Structures to a Gusty

Wind/ICE Vol.23, 1962.
[16] Williams A.K. & Rhinne J.E., Fatigue Analysis of Steel Offshore
Structures/ICE Vol.60, November 1976.
[17] Anagnostopoulos S.A., Wave and Earthquake Response of Offshore

Structures: Evaluation of Modal Solutions/ASCE J. of the Structural Div., vol. 108,
No ST10, October 1982.
[18] Chianis J.W. & Mangiavacchi A., A Critical Review of Transportation

Analysis Procedures/OTC paper 4617, May1983.
[19] Kaplan P. Jiang C.W. & Bentson J, Hydrodynamic Analysis of Barge-

Platform Systems in Waves/Royal Inst. of Naval Architects, London, April 1982.
[20] Hambro L., Jacket Launching Simulation by Differentiation of Constraints/

Applied Ocean Research, Vol.4 No.3, 1982.
[21] Bunce J.W. & Wyatt T.A., Development of Unified Design Criteria for Heavy
Lift Operations Offshore/OTC paper 4192, May 1982.
[22] Walker A.C. & Davies P., A Design Basis for the J-Tube Method of Riser
Installation/J. of Energy Resources Technology, pp. 263-270, September 1983.
[23] Stahl B. & Baur M.P., Design Methodology for Offshore Platform
Conductors/J. of Petroleum Technology, November 1983.
[24] DnV - Rules for the Classification of Steel Ships, January 1989.
ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.6: Foundations

OBJECTIVE\SCOPE
 to classify different types of piles

 to understand main design methods
 to cover various methods of installation
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 1B.2.2: Limit State Design Philosophy and Partial Safety Factors
Lectures 10.6: Shear Connection
Lectures 12.4: Fatigue Behaviour of Hollow Section Joints
Lecture 15A.12: Connections in Offshore Deck Structures
Lecture 17.5: Requirements and Verifications of Seismic Resistant Structures
A general knowledge of design in offshore structures and an understanding of

offshore installation are also required.
SUMMARY
In this lecture piled foundations for offshore structures are presented. The lecture
starts with the classification of soil. The main steps in the design of piles are then
explained. The different kinds of piles and hammers are described. The three main
execution phases are briefly discussed: fabrication, transport and installation.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Classification of Soils
The stratigraphy of the sea bed results from a complex geological process during
which various materials were deposited, remoulded and pressed together.
Soil texture consists of small mineral or organic particles basically characterized
by their grain size and mutual interaction (friction, cohesion).
The properties of a specific soil depend mainly on the following factors:
 density.
 water content.
 over consolidation ratio.
For design purposes the influence of these factors on soil behaviour is expressed in
terms of two fundamental parameters:
 friction angle.
 undrained shear strength Cu.
Since the least significant of either of these parameters is often neglected, soils can
be classified within "ideal" categories:
 granular soils.
 cohesive soils.
1.2 Granular Soils
Granular soils are non-plastic soils with negligible cohesion between particles.
They include:
 sands : characterized by large to medium particle sizes (1mm to 0,05mm)

offering a high permeability,
 silts : characterized by particle sizes between 0,05 and 0,02mm; they are
generally over-consolidated; they may exhibit some cohesion.
1.3 Cohesive Soils
Clays are plastic soils with particle sizes less than 0,002mm which tend to stick
together; their permeability is low.
1.4 Multi-Layered Strata
The nature and characteristics of the soil surrounding a pile generally vary with the
depth. For analysis purposes, the soil is divided into several layers, each having
constant properties throughout. The number of layers depends on the precision
required of the analysis.
2. DESIGN
Steel offshore platforms are usually founded on piles, driven deep into the soil
(Figure 1). The piles have to transfer the loads acting on the jacket into the sea bed.
In this section theoretical aspects of the design of piles are presented. Checking of
the pile itself is described in detail in the Worked Example.
2.1 Design Loads
These loads are those transferred from the jacket to the foundation. They are
calculated at the mudline.
2.1.1 Gravity loads
Gravity loads (platform dead load and live loads) are distributed as axial
compression forces on the piles depending upon their respective eccentricity.
2.1.2 Environmental loads
Environmental loads due to waves, current, wind, earthquake, etc. are basically
horizontal. Their resultant at mudline consists of:
 shear distributed as horizontal forces on the piles.

 overturning moment on the jacket, equilibrated by axial tension/
compression in symmetrically disposed piles (upstream/downstream).
2.1.3 Load combinations
The basic gravity and environmental loads multiplied by relevant load factors are
combined in order to produce the most severe effect(s) at mudline, resulting in:
 vertical compression or pullout force, and

 lateral shear force plus bending.
2.2 Static Axial Pile Resistance
The overall resistance of the pile against axial force is the sum of shaft friction and
end bearing.
2.2.1 Lateral friction along the shaft (shaft friction)
Skin friction is mobilized along the shaft of the tubular pile (and possibly also
along the inner wall when the soil plug is not removed).
The unit shaft friction:
 for sands: is proportional to the overburden pressure,

 for clays: is calculated by the "alpha" or "lambda" method and is a constant
equal to the shear strength Cu at great depth.
Lateral friction is integrated along the whole penetration of the pile.
2.2.2 End bearing

End bearing is the resultant of bearing pressure over the gross end area of the pile,
i.e. with or without the area of plug if relevant.
The bearing pressure:
 for clays: is equal to 9  Cu.

 for sands: is proportional to the overburden pressure as explained in Section
6.4.2 of API-RP2A [1].
2.2.3 Pile penetration
The pile penetration shall be sufficient to generate enough friction and bearing
resistance against the maximum design compression multiplied by the appropriate
factor of safety. No bearing resistance can be mobilized against pull-out: the
friction available must be equated to the pull out force multiplied by the
appropriate factor of safety.
2.3 Lateral Pile Resistance
The shear at the mudline caused by environmental loads is resisted by lateral

bearing of the pile on the soil. This action may generate large deformations and
high bending moments in the part of the pile directly below the mudline,
particularly in soft soils.
2.3.1 P-y curves
P-y curves represent the lateral soil resistance versus deflection. The shape of these
curves varies with the depth and the type of soil at the considered elevation. The
general shape of the curves for increasing displacement features:
 elastic (linear) behaviour for small deflections,

 elastic/plastic behaviour for medium deflections,
 constant resistance for large deflections or loss of resistance when the soil
skeleton deteriorates (clay under cyclic load in particular).
2.3.2 Lateral pile analysis
For analysis purposes, the soil is modelled as lumped non-linear springs distributed
along the pile. The fourth order differential equation which expresses the pile
deformation is integrated by successive iterations, the secant stiffness of the soil
springs being updated at each step.
For large deformations, the second order contribution of the axial compression to
the bending moment (P-Delta effect) shall be taken into account.
2.4 Pile Driving

Piles installed by driving are forced into the soil by a ram hitting the top. The
impact is transmitted along the pile in the form of a wave, which reflects on the
pile tip. The energy is progressively lost by plastic friction on the sides and bearing
at the tip of the pile.
2.4.1 Empirical formulae
A considerable number of empirical formulae exist to predict pile driveability.

Each formula is generally limited to a particular type of soil and hammer.
2.4.2 Wave equation
This method of analysing the driving process consists of representing the ensemble
of pile/soil/hammer as a one-dimensional assembly of masses, springs and
dashpots:
 the pile is modelled as a discrete assembly of masses and elastic springs.

 the soil is idealized as a massless medium characterized by elastic-perfectly-
plastic springs and linear dashpots.
 the hammer is modelled as a mass falling with an initial velocity.
 the cushion is represented by a weightless spring (see Figure 3).
 the pile cap is represented by a mass of infinite rigidity.
The energy of the ram hitting the top of the pile generates a stress wave in the pile,
which dissipates progressively by friction between the pile and the soil and by
reflection at the extremities of the pile.
The plastic displacement of the tip relative to the soil is the set achieved by the
blow. Curves can be drawn to represent the number of blows per unit length
required to drive the pile at different penetrations.
The wave equation, though representing the most rigorous assessment to date of
the driving process, still suffers a lack of accuracy, mostly caused by the
inaccuracies in the soil model.
3. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PILES

Driven piles are the most popular and cost-efficient type of foundation for offshore
structures.
As shown in Figure 2, the following alternatives may be chosen when driving

proves impractical:
 insert piles.
 drilled and grouted piles.
 belled piles.
3.1 Driven Piles
Piles are usually made up in segments. After placing and driving the first long
segment, extension segments called add-ons are set on piece by piece as driving
proceeds until the overall design length is achieved.
In recent years one-piece piles have been widely used in the North Sea since the
offshore work is considerably reduced.
Wall thickness may vary. A thicker wall is sometimes required:
 in sections from mudline down to a specified depth within which bending

stresses are especially high,
 at the pile tip (driving shoe) to resist local bearing stresses while driving.
Uniform wall thickness is however preferable thus avoiding construction and

installation problems.
3.2 Insert Piles
Insert piles are smaller diameter piles driven through the main pile from which the
soil plug has been previously drilled out. They are therefore not subjected to skin
friction over the length of the main pile and can reach substantial additional
penetration.
The insert pile is welded to the main pile at the top of the jacket and the annular
space between the tubes is grouted.
This type of pile is used:
 in a preplanned situation: performance is good although material and

installation costs are higher than for normal driven piles.
 as an emergency procedure: when scheduled piles cannot be driven to the
required penetration, resulting therefore in one of the following drawbacks.
 a thicker wall section of the main pile will be within the jacket height instead of
below the mudline.
 reduced friction area and end bearing pressure,
 difficulties often noted for the setting-in of all the required volume of grouting,
i.e. the concern is the leakage of grout or the impossibility to fill with the
calculated volume of grout.
3.3 Drilled and Grouted Piles
This procedure is the only means of installing piles with tension resistance in hard
soils or soft rocks; it resembles that for drilling a conductor well.
An oversized hole is initially drilled to the proposed pile penetration depth. The
pile is then lowered down, sometimes centred in the hole by spacers and the
annular space between the pile shaft and the surrounding soil is grouted.
Design uncertainty results because:

 hard soil formation softens when exposed to the water or mud used during
drilling and exhibits lower skin friction resistance.
 in case of calcareous sand, external grouting just crushes the sand, slightly
extending the effective pile diameter but not increasing the friction
significantly.
3.4 Belled Piles
While belled piles, on land, are used to decrease the bearing stress under a pile,
offshore belled piles provide a large bearing area to increase tip uplift resistance.
The main pile, normally driven, serves here as a casing through which a rig drills a
slightly oversized hole ahead. A belling tool (underreamer) then enlarges the
socket to a conical bell with a base diameter a few times that of the main pile. A
heavy reinforcement cage is lowered inside the bell which is subsequently filled
with concrete made using fine aggregate (maximum size 10mm).
4. FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION

4.1 Fabrication
The piles are usually made up of "cans" - cylinders of rolled plate with a
longitudinal seam. Single cans are typically 1,5m long or more. Longitudinal
seams of two adjacent segments are rotated 90 apart at least.
Bevelling is mandatory should the wall thickness difference exceed 3mm between
adjacent cans. Maximum deviation from straightness is specified (0.1% in length).
Commonly used steel grade is X52 or X60.
The outside surface of grouted piles should be free of mill scale and varnished.
In certain instances, steel piles are protected underwater by sacrificial anodes or by

impressed current. In the splash zone additional thickness to allow for corrosion
(3mm for example) and epoxy or rubberized coating, monel or copper-nickel
sheeting are provided.
4.2 Transportation
4.2.1 Barge transportation
Pile segments are choked and fastened to the barge to prevent them from falling
overboard under severe seastates. Pile plate should be thick enough to prevent any
deformation caused by stacking.
4.2.2 Self floating mode
This method is attractive where long segments of pile are to be lifted and set in
guides far below the sea surface (skirt piles for example).
The ends of the piles are sealed by steel closure plates or rubber diaphragms which
should be able to resist wave slamming during the tow.
4.2.3 Transport within the jacket
The piles are pre-set inside the main legs or in the guides/sleeves, generating
additional weight and possibly buoyancy (if closed). They are held in place by
shims which prevent them from escaping from their guides during launch and
uprighting of the jacket.
Several piles are driven immediately after the jacket has touched down, providing
initial stability against the action of waves and current.
4.3 Hammers
Piles are positioned:
 either inside the jacket legs, extending the full height of the jacket,
 or encased in sleeves protruding at the bottom of the jacket, running vertical
or parallel to the legs (typical batter 1/12 to 1/6).
Piles can then be driven using any type of hammer (or a combination of types).
Hammers are illustrated in Figure 3.
4.3.1 Steam hammers
Steam hammers are widely used for offshore installation of jackets. They are
generally single acting with rates of up to 40 blows/minute. Energies of current
hammers range from 60 000 to 1 250 000 ft lb/blow. (82KNm to 1725KNm per
blow).
During driving, the hammer with attached driving head rides the pile rather than
being supported by leads. The hammer line from the crane boom is slackened so as
to prevent transmission of impact and vibration into the boom.
4.3.2 Diesel hammers
Diesel hammers are much used at offshore terminals. They are lighter to handle
and less energy consuming than steam hammers, but their effective energy is
limited.
4.3.3 Hydraulic hammers
Hydraulic hammers are dedicated to underwater driving (skirt piles terminating far
below the sea surface).
Menck hydraulic hammers are widely used. They utilize a solid steel ram and a
flexible steel pile cap to limit impact forces. They are double acting. Hydraulic
fluid under high pressure is used to force a piston or set of pistons, and in turn, the
ram up and down.
Properties of some hammers used offshore are shown in Table 1. A selection of

large offshore pile driving hammers driving on heavy piles is also shown in Table
2.
4.3.4 Selection of hammer size
Selection of hammer size is based on:
 experience of similar situations (see Quality Control: Section 4.6),

 numerical modelling of driving for each particular site (see Pile Driving:
Section 2.4)
Typical values of pile sizes, wall thicknesses, and hammer energies for steam
hammers are shown in Table 3.
4.4 Installation
4.4.1 Pile handling and positioning
Figure 4 shows the different ways of providing lifting points for positioning pile
sections. Padeyes are generally used (welded in the fabrication yard; their design
should take into account the changes in load direction during lifting). Padeyes are
then carefully cut before lowering the next pile section.
Sketch E shows the different steps for the positioning of pile sections:
 pile or add-on lifted from the barge deck.

 rotation of the crane to position add-on.
 installing and lowering of the pile add-on.
4.4.2 Pile connections
Different solutions for connecting pile segments back-to-back are used:
 either by welding, Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or flux-cored,

segments held temporarily by internal or external stabbing guides as shown
in Figure 4. Welding time depends upon:
- pile wall thickness: 3 hours for 1in. thick (25,4mm); 16 hours for 3in. thick,
(76,2mm) (typical).
- number and qualification of the welders.
- environmental conditions.
 or by mechanical connectors (as shown in Figure 4):
- breech block (twisting method).

- lug type (hydraulic method).
4.4.3 Hammer placement
Figure 5 shows the different steps of this routine operation:

 lifting from the barge deck.
 positioning over pile by booming out or in (the bell of the hammer acts as a
stabling guide... very helpful in rough weather).
 alignment of the pile cap.
 lowering leads after hammer positionment.
Each add-on should be designed to prevent bending or buckling failure during

installation and in-place conditions.
4.4.4 Driving
Some penetration under the self weight of the pile is normal. For soft soil
conditions, particular measures are taken to avoid an uncontrolled run.
Piles are then driven or drilled until pile refusal.
Pile refusal is defined as the minimum rate of penetration beyond which further
advancement of the pile is no longer achievable because of the time required and
the possible damage to the pile or to the hammer. A widely accepted rate for
defining refusal is 300 blows/foot (980 blows/metre).
4.5 Pile-to-Jacket Connections
4.5.1 Welded shims
The shims are inserted at the top of the pile within the annulus between the pile
and jacket leg (see Figure 6) and welded afterwards.
4.5.2 Mechanical locking system
This metal-to-metal connection is achieved by a hydraulic swaging tool lowered
inside the pile and expanding it into machined grooves provided in the sleeves at
two or three elevations as shown on Figure 7.
This type of connection is most popular for subsea templates. It offers immediate
strength and the possibility to re-enter the connection should swaging prove
incomplete.
4.5.3 Grouting
This hybrid connection is the most commonly used for connecting piles to the main
structure (in the mudline area). Forces are transmitted by shear through the grout.
Figure 8 shows the two types of packers commonly used. The expansive, non-
shrinking grout must fill completely the annulus between the pile and leg (or
sleeve).
Bonding should be excellent; it is improved by shear connectors (shear keys, strips
or weld beads disposed on the surface of the sleeve and pile in contact with the
grout).
The width of the annulus between pile and sleeve should be maintained constant by
use of centralizers and be limited to:
 1,5in. minimum, (38,1mm)

 about 4in. (101,6mm) maximum (to avoid destruction of the tensile strength
of the grout by internal microcracking).
Packers are used to confine the grout and prevent it from escaping at the base of
the sleeve. Packers are often damaged during piling and are therefore:
 installed in a double set.

 attached to the base of the sleeve to protect them during pile entry and
driving.
Thorough filling should be checked by suitable devices, e.g. electrical resistance

gauges, radioactive tracers, well-logging devices or overflow pipes checked by
divers.
4.6 Quality Control
Quality control shall:
 confirm the adequacy of the foundation with respect to the design.

 provide a record of pile installation for reference to subsequent driving of
nearby piles and future modifications to the platform.
The installation report shall mention:
 pile identification (diameter and thickness).

 measured lengths of add-ons and cut-offs.
 self penetration of pile (under its own weight and under static weight of the
hammer).
 blowcount throughout driving with identification of hammer used and
energy, as shown in Figure 9.
 record of incidents and abnormalities:
- unexpected behaviour of the pile and/or hammer.

- interruptions of driving (with set-up time and blowcount subsequently required to
break the pile loose).
- pile damage if any.
 elevations of soil plug and internal water surface after driving.

 information about the pile/structure connection:
- equipment and procedure employed.

- overall volume of grout and quality.
- record of interruptions and delays.
4.7 Contingency Plan
Contingency documents should provide back-up solutions in case "unforeseen"

events occur such as:
 impossibility to get the required pile penetration.

 mechanical breakdown of the hammer.
 grout pipe blockage.
This lecture has described:
 the difficult aspects of foundations in a variety of soils.

 the multiplicity of solutions and the different kind of piles and hammers.
 the complexity of the process from design to installation.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A, "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing
Fixed Offshore Platforms", American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., 18th
ed., 1989.
1. McClelland, B. and Reifel, M. D., Planning and design of fixed offshore
platforms, Von Mostrand Reinhold Company (1982).
2. Bowles, J. E., Foundation analysis and design, MacGraw Hill Book
Company (4th edition 1988).
3. Bowles, J. E., Analytical and computer methods in Foundation Engineering,
MacGraw Hill Book Company (1983).
4. Poulos, H. G. and Davis, E. H., Pile foundation analysis and design, John
Wiley and Sons (1980).
5. Graff, W. J., Introduction to offshore structures, Gulf Publishing Company
(1981).
6. Le Tirant, P., Reconnaissance des sols en mer pour l'implantation des
ouvrages Pétroliens, Technip (1976)
7. Pieux dans les formatines carbonates - Technip ARGEMA (1988).
8. Capacité patante des pieux - Technip ARGEMA (1988).
9. Dawson, T. H., Offshore Structural Engineering, Prentice Hall Inc (1983).
10. Gerwick, Ben C., Construction of Offshore Structures, John Wiley and Sons
(1986).
A. Air/Steam Hammers
Make Model Rated Ram Max. Std. Pilecap Typical Rated Operating Steam
Energy Weight Stroke Weight Hammer Pressure Consumption

Weight
(ft-lbs) (kips) (m) (kips) (psi) (lbs ht)
(w/leads) (kips)
Conmaco 6850 510.000 85 72 57,5 312 180 31.500
5650 325.000 65 60 59,0 262 160
5300 150.000 30 60 12,7 92 160 8.064
300 90.000 30 36 12,7 86 150 6.944
200 60.000 20 36 12,7 74 120 5.563
Menck 12500 1.582.220 275,58 69 154,32 853 171 53.910
(MRBS) 8800 954.750 194,01 59 103,62 600 150 32.400
8000 867.960 176,37 59 85,98 564 142 30.860
7000 632.885 154 49 92,4 583 156 30.800
5000 542.470 110,23 59 66,14 335 150 20.940
4600 499.070 101,41 59 52,91 313 142 19.840
3000 325.480 66,14 59 33,07 205 142 12.130
1800 189.850 38,58 59 22,05 125 142 7.060
850 93.340 18,96 50 11,5 64 142 3.530
MKT OS-60 18.000 60 36
OS-40 120.000 40 36
OS-20 60.000 20 36 38,65 150
C. Hydraulic Hammers
Make Model Rated Energy Ram Weight Standard Hammer Weight Typical Operating
Pilecap Weight Pressure
(ft-lb) (kips) (kips) (kips) (psi)
HMB 4000 1.200.000 205 490
3000A 800.000 152 414
3000 725.000 139 33
1500 290.000 55 17,6 172
900 170.000 30,8 88
500 72.000 9,5 1,1 27,5
Menck MRBU 760.000 132 84 415 3400
MHU 1700 1.230.000 207 77 617 3400

MHU 900 650.000 110 386 3100
MH 195 141.000 22,0 6,0 59 3550
MH 165 119.000 19,0 6,0 51 3190
MH 145 105.000 16,5 6,0 46 2755
MH 120 87.000 13,9 6,0 40 2320
MH 96 69.000 11,0 1,9 27 2830
MH 80 58.000 9,3 1,9 24 2465
TABLE 1 Properties of some hammers used offshore
Hammer Rated Strik
Type Blows per Weight including

Minute Offshore Cage, if (ft-lb x
any (metric tons) 1000)
Vulcan 3250 Single-acting steam 60 300 750
HBM 3000 Hydraulic underwater 50-60 175 1034
HBM 3000 A Hydraulic underwater 40-70 190 1100
HBM 3000 P Slender hydraulic underwater 40-70 170 1120
Menck MHU 900 Slender hydraulic underwater 48-65 135 -
Menck MRBS 8000 Single-acting steam 38 280 868
HBM 4000 Hydraulic underwater 40-70 222 1700
Menck MRBS 12500 Single-acting steam 38 385 1582
Menck MHU 1700 Slender hydraulic underwater 32-65 235 -
IHC S-300 Slender hydraulic underwater 40 30 220
IHC S-2000 Slender hydraulic underwater - 260 1449
IHC S-2300 Slender hydraulic underwater - - 1566
TABLE 2 Large pile driving hammers

Pile Outer Wall Thickness Hammer Energy
Diameter
(in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (ft-lb) (kN-m)
24 600 5/8 - 15-21 50.000 - 120.000 70 - 168

7/8
30 750 19 50.000 - 120.000 70 - 168
¾
36 900 21-25 50.000 - 180.000 70 - 252
7/8 - 1
42 1.050 25-32 60.000 - 300.000 84 - 120
1 - 1¼
48 1.200 28-44 90.000 - 500.000 126 - 700
17- 1¾
60 1.500 28-44 90.000 - 500.000 126 - 700
17 - 1¾
72 1.800 32-50 120.000 - 700.000 168 - 980
1¼ - 2
84 2.100 32-50 180.000 - 1.000.000 252 - 1.400
1¼ - 2
96 2.400 32-50 180.000 - 1.000.000 252 - 1.400
1¼ - 2
108 2.700 37-62 300.000 - 1.000.000 420 - 1.400
1½ - 2½
120 3.000 37-62 300.000 - 1.000.000 420 - 1.400
1½ - 2½
Note 1: With the heavier hammers in the range given, the wall thicknesses must be
near the upper range of those listed in order to prevent overstress (yielding) in the
pile under hard driving.
Note 2: With diesel hammers, the effective hammer energy is from one-half to
two-thirds the values generally listed by the manufacturers and the above table
must be adjusted accordingly. Diesel hammers would normally only be used on 36-
in. or less diameter piles.
Note 3: Hydraulic hammers have a more sustained blow, and hence the above table
can be modified to fit the stress wave pattern.
TABLE 3 Typical values of pile sizes, wall thickness and hammer energies
Lecture 15A.7: Tubular Joints in Offshore
Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present methods for the design of large tubular joints typically found on
offshore structures.
PREREQUISITES
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 15A.8 : Fabrication
Lecture 15A.12: Connections in Offshore Deck Structures
SUMMARY
The lecture defines the principle terms and ratios used in tubular joint design. It
presents the classifications for T, Y, X, N, K and KT joints and discusses the
significance of gaps, overlaps, multiplanar joints and the details of joint
arrangements. It describes design methods for static and fatigue strength,
presenting some detailed information on stress concentration factors.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main structure of a topside consists of either an integrated deck or a module
support frame and modules. Commonly tubular lattice frames are present, however
a significant amount of rolled and built up sections are also used.
This lecture refers to the design of tubular joints. These are used extensively
offshore, particularly for jacket structures. Connection of I-shape sections or boxed
beams whether rolled or built up, are basically similar to those used for onshore
structures. Refer to the corresponding lectures for appropriate design guidance.
Two main calculations need to be performed in order to adequately design a

tubular joint. These are:
1. Static strength considerations

2. Fatigue behaviour considerations
The question of fatigue behaviour always has to be addressed, even where simple
assessment of fatigue behaviour shows this will not be a problem. The joint
designer must therefore always be "fatigue minded".
2. DEFINITIONS
The following definitions are universally acknowledged [1]: (refer to Figure 1 for
clarification):
The CHORD is the main member, receiving the other components. It is necessarily
a through member. The other tubulars are welded to it, without piercing through
the chord at the intersection.
Other tubulars belonging to the joint assembly may be as large as the chord, but
they can never be larger.
The CAN is the section of the chord reinforced with an increased wall thickness, or
stiffeners.
The BRACES are the structural members which are welded to the chord. They
physically terminate on the chord skin.
The STUB is the extremity of the brace, locally reinforced with an increased wall
thickness.
Different positions have to be identified along the brace - chord intersection line:
 CROWN position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses

the plane containing the brace and chord.
 SADDLE position is located where the brace to chord intersection crosses
the plane perpendicular to the plane containing the brace and chord, which
also contains the brace axis.
2.1 Geometrical definitions
Refer to Figure 1
L is the length of the chord can
D is the chord outside diameter
T is the chord wall thickness
d is the brace outside diameter
t is the brace wall thickness (where there are several braces, a subscript identifies
the brace)
g is the theoretical gap between weld toes
e is the eccentricity  Positive when opposite to the brace side, Negative when on
the brace side
 is the angle between brace and chord axis.

2.2 Geometrical ratios
= Can slenderness ratio
= Brace to chord diameter ratio (always  1)
= Chord slenderness ratio
= Brace to chord thickness ratio
= Relative gap
These are non-dimensional variables for use in parametrical equations.
3. CLASSIFICATION
Load paths within a joint are very different, according to the joint geometry. The
following classification is used, see Figure 2.
3.1 T and Y Joints
These are joints made up of a single brace, perpendicular to the chord (T joint) or
inclined to it (Y joints).
In a T joint, the axial force acting in the brace is reacted by bending in the chord.
In a Y joint, the axial force is reacted by bending and axial force in the chord.
3.2 X Joints
X joints include two coaxial braces on either side of the chord.
Axial forces are balanced in the braces, which in an ideal X joint have the same
diameter and thickness. In fact, other considerations such as brace length, which
can be very different on each side of the chord, may lead to two slightly different
braces. Angles may be slightly different as well.
The important point to note is the balance of forces in the braces. If the axial force
in one brace is far higher than the one in the other brace, the joint may be classified
as a Y (or a T) joint rather than an X joint.
3.3 N and K Joints
These joints include two braces. One of them may be perpendicular to the chord (N
joint) or both inclined (K joint).
The ideal load pattern of these joints is reached when axial forces are balanced in
the braces, i.e. net force into chord member is low.
3.4 KT Joints
These joints include three braces.
The load pattern for these joints is more complex. Ideally axial forces should be
balanced within the braces, i.e. net force into chord member is low.
3.5 Limitations
For a joint to be able to be fabricated and to be effective, the geometrical ratios

given in Section 2.2 have limitations. Table 3.1 shows these limits and their typical
ranges.
Parameter Typical range Limitations
min max
0,4 - 0,8 0,2 1
12 - 20 10 30
0,3 - 0,7 0,2 1 (2)
 40 - 90 30 (3) 90 (1)
(1) Physical limitation
(2) Brace shall be less or equal to chord thickness (see punching shear)
(3) Angle limitation to get a correct workmanship of welds.
Table 3.1 Geometrical Limits and Typical Ranges
3.6 How to classify a joint
This classification deals only with braces located in one plane.
It must always be remembered that this classification is based on load pattern as

well as the geometry. Engineering judgement must therefore be used to classify a
joint. For example a geometrical K joint may be classified as.
 a K joint when forces are balanced within braces.

 a Y joint when the force in one brace is reacted predominantly by the chord,
rather than by the second brace.
4. GAP AND OVERLAP

4.1 Definitions
The GAP is the distance along the chord between the weld toes of the braces
(Figure 3).
The theoretical gap is the shortest distance between the outer surfaces of two
braces, measured on the line where they cross the chord outer surface. The real gap
is the one measured at the corresponding location, between actual weld toes.
A brace OVERLAPS another brace when one brace is welded to the other brace.
The overlapping brace is always the thinner brace.
The overlapped brace is always completely welded to the chord.
4.2 Limitations
The minimum gap allowed is 50mm. This limitation is set to avoid two welds
clashing. This is important because the gap is a highly stressed zone.
4.3 Multiplanar Joints
The same definitions and limitations apply to multiplanar joints.
5. JOINT ARRANGEMENT
As a rule, welds in a joint have to be kept away from zones of high stress
concentration.
The following practice, see Figure 4, should be followed:
1. The chord circumferential welds are to be located at either 300mm or a

quarter of the chord diameter, whichever is the greater, from the nearest
point of a brace-chord connection.
2. The brace circumferential welds are to be located at either 600mm or a brace
diameter, whichever is the greatest, from the nearest point of the brace-
chord connection.
3. The actual gap shall not be less than 50mm. To achieve this, most designers
use a 70 or 75mm theoretical gap.
4. Eccentricity and offset are to be kept within a quarter of the chord diameter.
When higher values can not be avoided, secondary moments have to be
introduced in the structural analysis by introducing extra nodes.
5. Thickness transitions are smoothed to a 1 in 4 slope, by tapering the thicker
wall.
6. STATIC STRENGTH
6.1 Loads taken into account
The loads considered in a joint static strength design are the axial force, the in-
plane bending moment and the out-of-plane bending moment for each brace.
The other components (transverse shear and brace torsion moment) are usually
neglected since unlike the preceding loads, these loads do not induce bending in
the chord wall. Nevertheless, their presence must never be forgotten and in some
specific cases, their effects must be assessed. The axial load, in-plane and out-of-
plane bending moments are normally the dimensioning criterion for tubular joints.
6.2 Punching shear
6.2.1 Acting punching shear
The acting punching shear is the shear stress developed in the chord by the brace
load.
The acting punching stress vp is written as:
vp =  f sin 
where f is the nominal axial, in-plane bending or out-of-plane bending stress in the
brace (punching shear for each kept separate), see Figure 5.
6.2.2 Allowable punching shear
Allowable punching shear values in the chord wall are determined from test results
carried out on full scale or on reduced scale models.
Tests are performed on experimental rigs such as the one shown in Figure 6. They
are performed for a single load-case (axial force, in-plane bending, or out-of-plane
bending).
The ultimate static strength obtained through these tests can then be expressed in
terms of punching shear, as defined above.
Statistical treatment of results allow formulae to be defined for the allowable

punching shear stress.
6.2.3 The API method
Several offshore design regulations are based on the punching shear concept [1,2].
The following method is presented in API RP2A [2]:
A. Principle
 This method applies to a single brace without overlap, for a non-stiffened

joint. When the joint includes several braces, each brace connection is
checked independently.
 Punching shear for each load component (axial force, in-plane bending, and
out of plane bending) is calculated and compared to the allowable punching
shear stress for the appropriate load and geometry.
 Interaction formulae are given for combined loading, combining the three
punching shear ratio calculated for each component.
B. Allowable punching shear stress
The allowable punching shear stress for each load component is:
Vpa = Qq Qf
where: Fyc is the yield strength of the chord member
Qq is to account for the effects of type of loading and geometry, see Table 6.1.
Qf is a factor to account for the nominal longitudinal stress in the chord
Qf = 1 -  
fAX, fIPB, fOPB are the nominal axial, in-plane bending and out of plane bending
stresses in the chord
Value for  and Qq are given in Table 6.1
Load component Axial load In-plane bending Out of plane bending
Stress in brace fax fby fbz
Acting punching shear Vpx =  fax sin  Vp =  fby sin  Vp =  fbz sin 
Qq K joints
T & Y Joints
w/o diaphragm Tension Compression
w diaphragm
 0,030 0,045 0,021
Table 6.1 Values of Qq for allowable punching shear stress from APIRP2A
Qg = 1,8 - 0,1 for   20

Qg = 1,4 - 4 g/D for  > 20
but Qg must be  1,0
Q = for  > 0,6
QB = 1,0 for   0,6
C. Loading Combination
For combined loadings involving more than one load component, the following
equations shall be satisfied:
where: IPB refers to in-plane bending component
OPB refers to out-of-plane bending component
AX refers to axial force component
and
ax
where: arc sin term is in radians.
6.3 Overlapping joints
The parametric formulae discussed in Section 6.2 were specifically established for
non-overlapping joints with no internal reinforcement. These formulae cannot be
used for overlapping joints.
In an overlapping joint, part of the load is transferred directly from one brace to the
other through the overlapping section, without that part of the load transferring
through the chord. The static strength of an overlapping joint is higher than a
similar joint without an overlap.
API RP2A, [2] allows the static shear strength of the overlapping weld section to
be added to the punching shear capacity of the brace-chord connection, see Figure
7.
The allowable axial load component perpendicular to the chord, P (in Newtons)
should be taken to be:
P = (vpa T l1) + (2vwa tw l2)
where:
vpa is the allowable punching shear stress (MPa) for axial stress.
l1 is the circumference for that portion of the brace which contacts the chord (mm),
see Figure 7.
vwa is the allowable shear stress for weld between braces (MPa).
tw is the lesser of the weld throat thickness or the thickness t of the inner brace
(mm).
l2 is the projected chord length (one side) of the overlapping weld, measured
perpendicular to the chord (mm), see Figure 7.
6.4 Reinforced joints
6.4.1 Definition
Large chord wall thickness may be reduced by stiffening the chord. The most usual
reinforcement consists of ring stiffening inside the chord.
Some joints may require more complex stiffening. This is the case for large
diameter chords which would otherwise require an un-economic chord wall
thickness.
There are very many different stiffening solutions for a large diameter chord.
Therefore there are no parametric formulae available for these designs. Specific
analyses must therefore be carried out for an accurate solution. This may involve
finite element analysis.
6.4.2 Ring Stiffening
Ring stiffening consists of ring plates welded in the chord can prior to welding the
braces to it.
The punching shear capacity of the chord still may be taken into account when
calculating the forces acting on the stiffeners.
Ring stiffeners can be justified through parametric formulae available in various

publications, the best known being published by Roark [3].
7. STRESS CONCENTRATION
As in any mechanical body presenting discontinuities, stresses are not uniform
along the connecting surface of a brace and chord. Figure 8 shows an example of
the stress distribution in a joint with local discontinuities at and in the vicinity of
the brace chord intersection.
7.1 Stress concentration factor
The stress concentration factor (SCF) is defined as the ratio of the highest stress in
the connection (or hot spot stress fHS) to the nominal brace stress fNOM:
SCF = fHS/fNOM
7.2 Kellog equation
This approximate formula can be used for rapidly assessing SCF, for preliminary
analyses.
fHS/vp = 1,8 √
vp being the punching shear.
7.3 Parametric formulae
SCF parametric formulae have been determined based on a large number of finite
element analyses and cross-checked with either full scale or model tests. They are
based on many man years of work by numerous research teams.
A large number of parametric formulae have been published [4]. Sections 7.3.1 to
7.3.3 give, as an example, the most commonly used and acknowledged formulae.
In using any set of formulae, care should be taken in classifying the situation and
ascertaining any limitations that apply.
The only alternatives to these formulae are to perform model tests (full size or at
reduced scale) or finite element analyses.
No parametric formulae are presently available for stiffened joints. The only ones
published to date concern non-stiffened, non overlapping joints.
7.3.1 Kuang equations for T/Y joints [4]
Axial load
SCFCHORD = 1,981 0,808 1,333 exp(-1,23 0,057 sin1,694 
SCFBRACE = 3,751 0,55 exp(-1,35 3) 0,12 sin1,94 
Out-of-plane bending
SCFCHORD = 1,024 1,014 0,889 0,787 sin1,557  0,3    0,55
SCFCHORD = 0,462 1,014 0,889 (-0,619) sin1,557  0,55    0,75
SCFBRACE = 1,522 0,852 0,543 0,801 sin2,033  0,3    0,55
SCFBRACE = 0,796 0,852 0,543 (-0,281) sin2,033  0,55    0,75
In-plane bending
SCFCHORD = 0,702 0,60 0,86 (-0,04) sin0,57 
SCFBRACE = 1,301 0,23 0,38 (-0,38) sin0,21 
7.3.2 Kuang equations for K joints [4]
Balanced axial load
SCFCHORD = 1,506 0,666 1,104 (-0,059) (g/D)0,067 sin1,521 
SCFBRACE = 0,92 0,157 0,56 (-0,441) (g/D)0,058 Exp(1,448 sin  )
In-plane bending (bending moment applied to one brace only)

SCFCHORD = 1,822 0,38 0,94 0,06 sin0,9 
SCFBRACE = 2,827 0,35 -0,35 sin0,5 
7.3.3 Kuang equations for KT joints [4]
Balanced axial load Outer braces only loaded
SCFCHORD = 1,83 0,54 1,068 0,12 sin  0 <   90
SCFBRACE = 6,06 0,1 0,68 -0,36 {(g1+g2)/D}0,126 sin0,5  0 <   45
SCFBRACE = 13,8 0,1 0,68 -0,36 {(g1+g2)/D}0,126 sin2,88 45    90
SCFBRACE = 4,89 0,123 0,672 -0,396 {(g1+g2)/D}0,159 sin2,267 
In-plane bending - as for K joint
Validity range
The above equation for T/Y, K and KT joints are generally valid for joint
parameters within the following limits:
8,333    33,3
0,20    0,8
0,3    0,8 unless stated otherwise
6,667    40 unless stated otherwise
0    90 unless stated otherwise.
8. FATIGUE ANALYSIS
A fatigue analysis of a joint consists of the following steps:
1. Calculation of nominal stress ranges in the brace and the chords

2. Calculation of hot-spot stress range
3. Calculation of joint fatigue lives using S-N curves for tubular members at
joints.
8.1 Nominal stress range

Nominal stress ranges in braces and chords are calculated by a global stress
analyses.
8.1.1 Wave histogram
A wave histogram has to be obtained for each direction around the platform. A
simple form of a wave histogram is as follows:
Wave height (metres) Average number

per year
0-1,5 3 100 000
1,5-3 410 000
3-4,5 730 000
4,5-6 5 000
6-8 800
8-10 20
8.2.2 Nominal stress ranges
Nominal stress ranges can be calculated by following the steps below:
1. Wave heights are grouped in "blocks", for which just one stress range will
be calculated. Different wave directions need to be considered with a
minimum of three "blocks" per wave direction.
2. For each block one representative wave is chosen, whose action is supposed
to represent the action of the whole block. The highest wave of the block is
normally chosen.
3. Nominal stresses for each joint component are then calculated for different
phase angles of the chosen wave, for one complete cycle (360). The
nominal stress range for the joint component is defined as the difference
between the highest and the lowest stress obtained for a full wave cycle.
Four to twelve phase angles per wave are usually considered.
8.2 Hot spot stress ranges
Hot spot stress ranges are then evaluated for each chosen joint location by applying
parametric formulae [4] (or by applying the SCF calculated from a detailed
analysis).
When using parametric formulae, stress components (axial, in plane bending and
out of plane bending) have to be distinct throughout the calculations, as the SCF
formulae apply individually for each load component.
Where a chord and brace intersect, four to eight locations are usually chosen
around the intersection line. For each of these locations the stress response for each
sea state should be computed, giving adequate consideration to both global and
local stress effects.
8.3 S-N Curves
S-N curves to be used for offshore structures are given by statutory regulations
[1,2]. APIRP2A uses the curves shown in Figure 9.
The X and X1 curves should be used with hot spot stress ranges based on suitable
stress concentration factors. The permissible number of cycles is obtained from the
S-N curve by taking the hot spot stress range, and entering the graph.
It should be noted that Curve X presumes welds which merge smoothly with the
adjoining base metal. For weld without such profile control, the X curve is
applicable.
8.4 Cumulative Fatigue Damage Ratio
The stress responses should be combined into the long term stress distribution,
which should then be used to calculate the cumulative fatigue damage ratio, D,
given by:
D=
where
n is the number of cycles applied at a given stress range
N is the number of cycles to cause failure for the given stress range (obtained from
appropriate S-N curve).
In general the design fatigue life of each joint and member should be at least twice
the intended service life of the structure, i.e. a safety factor of 2,0.
For critical elements whose sole failure would be catastrophic, use of a larger
safety factor should be considered.
 Terminology, geometric ratios and joint classifications are now standardised
for tubular joints.
 The presence of gaps and overlaps significantly influence joint behaviour.
 Determination of static strength is generally based on the concept of
punching shear, with the allowance of overlapping joints.
 Special analysis are required for reinforced joints.
 Stress concentration factors (SCF) are defined for most commonly occurring
joints.
 Determination of fatigue strength is based on nominal stress range
multiplied by appropriate SCF.
10. REFERENCES
[1] Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design, Construction and Certification.
Fourth Edition, HMSO, 1990.
[2] Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed

Offshore Platforms, API RP2A Nineteenth Edition.
[3] Young, Warren C, Roark's Formulae for Stress and Strain. Sixth Edition,
McGraw-Hill.
[4] Stress Concentration Factors for Simple Tubular Joints, 1989, Volumes 1 to 5,
Lloyds Register of Shipping-Offshore Division.

ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.8: Fabrication

OBJECTIVE
To describe the general methods of jacket fabrication. To discuss the various stages
of operation from material selection, through erection, including construction
practices and equipment. To indicate the calculations normally involved.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 3.1: General Fabrication of Steel Structures
Lectures 3.2: Erection
Lectures 3.3: Principles of Welding
Lectures 3.4: Welding Processes
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 15: Structural Systems: Offshore
SUMMARY
The construction philosophy and definition of the construction phases of the

fabrication of offshore structures are described. The overall execution plan and the
contractor's organisation for its implementation are introduced and constructability
i.e. the more general aspects of design - the size and transportability of
components, welding access considerations, construction tolerance, is discussed.
The fabrication of nodes and reinforced tubulars, including the fabrication

procedure for a typical node is described together with jacket assembly and
erection and the procedures for "big lift".
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Construction Phases
Jacket construction involves the following work phases:

Procurement
The technical and commercial activities required to supply material and specialised
products to enable the execution of construction activities.
Fabrication
The processes normally carried out in a fabrication shop to produce relatively

small units. Thus fabrication includes processes such as cutting, rolling, pressing,
fitting, welding, stress relieving on such items as welded tubulars, beams, nodes,
girders, cones, supports, clamps, etc.
Assembly
The processes normally performed outside the fabrication shop but at ground level
in order to assemble groups of shop fabricated items into an (assembled) unit for
subsequent erection in accordance with a construction sequence.
Erection
The processes required to install assembled and shop fabricated items together in
their final configuration. These processes include fitting and welding. However the
emphasis is on the transportation and lifting of heavy assemblies.
1.2 Construction Philosophy
The design of a jacket, i.e. a lifted, launched or self-floating jacket, is determined

primarily by the offshore installation equipment available and the intended water
depth. In general the preference is to lift the jacket in place. The size of such
jackets has being increasing as offshore lifting capacity has grown. With modern
lifting capacity now up to 14,000 tonnes, jackets approaching this order of
magnitude are now candidates for lifting into position.
For jackets destined for shallow water, where the height is of the same order as the
plan dimensions, erection is usually carried out vertically, i.e. in the same attitude
as the final installation. Such jackets may be lifted or skidded onto the barge.
Jackets destined for deeper water are usually erected on their side. Such jackets are
loaded by skidding out onto a barge. Historically most large jackets have been
barge launched. This method of construction usually involves additional flotation
tanks and extensive pipework and valving to enable the legs to be flooded for
ballasting the jacket into the vertical position on site. This method of construction
is currently applicable for jackets up to 25,000 tonnes. Very large jackets, in excess
of this, have been constructed as self-floaters in a graving dock and towed offshore
subsequent to flooding the dock.
In considering the construction philosophy and contract strategy, the objectives of
achieving quality requirements and efficiency are of fundamental importance. An
offshore jacket goes through a series of very distinct stages as it moves from
fabrication to load-out. These stages range from operations which are almost
totally automatic under very controlled conditions, e.g. steel production, automatic
welding, to operations which are almost totally manual in very variable conditions,
e.g. yard erection, offshore activities. Thus decreasing efficiency occurs as
progress through these operations advances. In addition, the stable conditions in
repetitive processes of the early operations are more conducive to the maintenance
of high quality. A third basic consideration is that risk increases with each
progressive stage. These general trends during construction are shown in Table 1.
It is clear therefore that, as a general principle, as much work as possible should be

undertaken in the earlier more productive, higher quality, less risky phases of the
project.
Some of the principles which reduce the time and cost of construction are:
 Subdivision into as large components and modules as it is possible to

fabricate and assemble.
 Concurrent fabrication of major components in the most favourable location
and under the most favourable conditions applicable to each component.
 Planning the flow of components to their assembly site. Providing adequate
facilities and equipment for assembly, including such items as synchrolifts,
and heavy-lift cranes.
 Simplification of configurations and standardisation of details, grades and
sizes. Avoidance of excessively tight tolerances.
 Selection of structural systems that utilise skills and trades on a relatively
continuous and uniform basis. Avoidance of procedures that are overly
sensitive to weather conditions; ensuring that processes which are weather
sensitive are completed during shop fabrication, e.g. protective coating.
Quality management is a vital and integral component of all aspects of offshore

fabrication. Essentially it involves ensuring that what is produced is what is
needed. The requirements for documentation, hold point, audits, reviews and
corrective actions are part of the quality assurance process. They are crucial tools
for controlling the project execution and providing verifiable evidence of the
fabricator's competence.
Quality control, inspection and testing should be performed during all phases of
construction to ensure that specified requirements are being met. The most
effective quality scheme is one which prevents the introduction of defective
materials and workmanship into a structure, rather than finding problems after they
occur.
A general note on Quality Assurance for Offshore Construction is included in
Appendix 1. It is applicable to this lecture and also to Lecture 15A.9: Installation.
2. ENGINEERING OF EXECUTION
Engineering of execution, 'construction engineering', entails the work required
during each phase of execution to ensure that the design requirements are fulfilled.
A general method of execution is envisaged at the jacket design stage. Since the
shape of the jacket, its form and properties require quite specific methods of load-
out, offshore transportation and installation (which are construction activities
executed under contractor responsibility), there is considerable interfacing of
engineering requirements in these phases. In the earlier phases, i.e. procurement
through assembly and erection, the contractor, while being limited by design
specification requirements, has freedom of choice with regard to the exact method
of execution adopted. However, in all phases the contractor is required to
demonstrate that the methods which he adopts are compatible with the
specification requirements and do not affect the integrity of the structure.
Each phase of execution has its own specific engineering requirements which are
determined by the processes executed during that phase. These processes range
from those which are largely repetitive early in execution to one-off activities in
the latter phases. Accordingly the engineering which supports procurement and
shop fabrication is voluminous but repetitive, e.g. material take-offs, shop
drawings, cutting plans, etc. The assembly and erection phases are supported by a
mix of repetitive engineering, e.g. scaffolding, and specific studies for limited
series of activities.
The volume of contractor construction engineering on a large jacket is typically

130,000/150,000 hours. The typical organisation of a contractor's technical
documents is shown in Table 2.
When designing larger components consideration must be given to their

subdivision into elements which will not distort when fabricated and which can be
relatively easily assembled without welding/dimensional problems. For instance,
nodes are categorised as either complex or simple from the execution viewpoint
based on the number of separate fitting-welding-NDT (non-destructive testing)
cycles required during fabrication and the possibility of automatic welding
between the node can and the tubular during sub-assembly. The number of fitting-
welding-NDT cycles depends on the existence of ring stiffeners and the number
and disposition of stubs. For reasons relating to weld distortion and to allow
automatic welding, it is almost essential that ring stiffeners be installed prior to
fitting/welding of stubs. This adds an extra cycle to the fabrication of the node.
Thus ring stiffeners are best avoided. Where this is not possible, care should be
taken to define them at an early stage on critical nodes.
Node stubs can be classified as simple or overlapping. Overlapping stubs add at
least one complete cycle to node fabrication and should therefore be avoided where
possible. The minimum separation between the weld toes of adjacent simple stubs
is typically specified as 50mm, see API RP2A, Fig. 4.3.1-2 [1]. However this
distance is too small to allow simultaneous welding of adjacent stubs - 150mm is a
more practical distance.
3. FABRICATION
3.1 Fabrication Processes
The specifications for fabrication of offshore jackets are determined by the

designer. They are usually based on one or more of the well known codes, with
additional requirements dictated by the specific design, client standards, statutory
rules, etc. Two recognised codes which are used extensively for establishing
general requirements are the API RP2A Recommended Practice for Planning,
Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, [1] and AISC Specification
for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings [2].
For larger jackets, the nodes tend to be fabricated separately under highly
controlled shop conditions. Alternatively cast steel nodes may be used in order to
eliminate critical welding details.
Recent experience, both in the laboratory and as a result of in-service inspection,

has prompted increasingly greater attention to the welding aspects of fabrication.
In particular greater attention has been focused on the importance of complete joint
penetration groove welds, elimination of "notch effects" at the root and especially
the cap of node welds, and achieving the required weld profile. Welds which are
critical for fatigue endurance may be required to be ground to a smooth curve. This
process reduces the probability of brittle failure. However it also implies
increasingly sophisticated and stringent fabrication and quality assurance/quality
control (QA/QC) requirements. Typical welding details from API RP2A [1],
showing tubular members framing into or overlapping another member with access
from one side only, are shown in Figure 1. However, a lot of emphasis is placed on
designing stubs which can be welded from both sides. For instance, in the weld
details for the Bouri jacket, Figure 2, most stubs are accessible from both sides.
Welding procedures are required, detailing steel grades, joint design, welding
consumables, etc. Welds are typically subject to 100% visual, magnetic particle
inspection (MPI) and ultrasonic test (UT) inspection. The weld acceptance criteria,
e.g. maximum weld undercut length (t/2 or 10mm), and maximum depth (t/20 or
0,25mm), imply an exceptionally high quality of welding. In addition all welders
should be qualified for the type of work assigned to them and certified accordingly.
The location and orientation of circumferential and longitudinal welds during

construction is based on minimising interferences and ensuring the minimum
distance between circumferential welds. Special attention is required on items such
as pile sleeve shear plates, launch runners, mudmats, etc. where planned avoidance
of weld interference is critical.
All temporary plates and fittings should be subjected to the same requirements for
weld testing as the member to which they are being affixed. There is also an
overriding necessity to ensure that such attachments are located at a safe distance
from main structural welds in order to minimise the risk of defect propagation.
This is not unduly conservative - the "Alexander Kielland" capsized due to a
fatigue crack initiated at the attachment of a sonar device to a principal structural
member. Temporary cut-outs should be of sufficient size to allow sound
replacement. Corners should be rounded to minimise stress concentrations.
Where welds are found to be defective, they should be rectified by grinding,

machining or welding as required. Welds of insufficient strength, ductility or notch
toughness should be completely removed prior to repair.
In general, sub-assemblies are executed so that at least one of the two edges which
will mate during subsequent assembly/erection has a cut-off allowance. This
procedure provides flexibility in that the sub-assemblies can be sent to the field
with the cut-off allowance in place and cut to fit on location. Alternatively they can
be cut to exact dimensions during sub-assembly where the as-built dimension has
already been determined.
3.2 Node Fabrication
The primary structure nodes are frequently geometrically complex. Accordingly

their fabrication presents particular problems, especially from the points of view of
welding and dimensional control.
On a complex jacket the designer may specify the node cans, or the whole node
including stubs and ring stiffeners, in material with specified through-thickness
properties. This requirement is introduced because of tearing or punching effects
likely to be sustained by these elements during their design life and indeed during
fabrication. The designer may also "thicken" or reinforce the cans to withstand
local stresses. Finally, in an effort to ensure that node welds contain minimal levels
of residual stress due to fabrication, thermal stress relieving or post-weld heat
treatment (PWHT) of the heavier more restrained welds may be prescribed. This is
frequently a requirement for thicker walled North Sea jackets.
API RP2A [1] provides specific tolerances for final fabrication. The contractor
must work within tolerances which preserve dimensional compatibility and
observe weight control requirements at each phase of construction. Bearing these
requirements in mind, node fabrication tolerances are tight, e.g. typical working
points within 6mm of theoretical, stub angle within 1 minute, all braces within
12mm of the design dimension.
The typical fabrication process for a conventional node, assuming that the can
(with or without ring stiffeners) has already been fabricated, commences with
profiling of stubs and terminates with UT inspection of the finished node after
PWHT.
The intermediate stages can be performed in several different ways, some of which
depend on the specific geometry of the node and many of which depend on
fabricator preference. Some fabricators prefer to orient the can upright,
maintaining that it enables more stubs to be fitted simultaneously. However the
majority of fabricators tend to fit the stubs to a can placed on horizontal rollers.
The sequential steps in the fabrication of a typical node are as follows:
 Trace generators, working points, etc. onto the can. Cut and profile the
stubs. Touch up bevels and trace generators onto the stubs. Trace node
locations onto the can surface and grind or blast areas. UT the cleaned areas
to ensure that the steel is free from laminations. Particular care is required
where shrinkage strains in the through-thickness direction may lead to
lamellar tearing in highly restrained joints.
 Assemble one or two adjacent stubs in the same plane on the can. Tack-weld
in position. Verify dimensional control and weld preparations around stub.
 Weld according to predetermined sequence to limit deformation. The
welding processes used are usually shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or
flux cored arc welding (FCAW), see Lecture 3.4Welding Processes. If the
weld is double-sided, after 3 or 4 passes, back-grind and clean weld roots
from opposite side. Perform MPI test on ground roots. Complete weld body.
Deposit weld bead for cap profiling. Toe-grind profiles if required. Grind
weld beads at base metal to remove undercut. Allow welds to cool. Visually
inspect finished welds. MPI and UT finished welds.
 Repeat previous steps for successive stubs.
 When all stubs have been fitted and welded out perform post weld heat
treatment (PWHT) as required, blast or grind welds and perform NDT re-
test on all welds.
 Cut any required off-cuts on cans or stubs. Perform final dimensional
control of node.
3.3 Jacket Sub-assemblies

Sub-assembly can be considered as an intermediate stage between standard shop
fabrication, i.e. nodes, tubulars, beams etc. and assembly or erection. The emphasis
is on performing the maximum number of welds in the shop. This ensures the
highest weld quality since many node and tubular welds can be double-sided
and/or automatic when performed in the fabrication shop.
When defining sub-assemblies, the principal factors to be borne in mind are the
following:
 Size/Weight/Dimensions: these are largely governed by considerations of

transportability.
 Welding Sequence: sub-assemblies should not imply a difficult welding
sequence causing distortion or induced stresses during sub-assembly
welding or the subsequent assembly or erection.
 Constructability: certain sub-assemblies may have specific construction
difficulties associated with them, e.g. short, large diameter infillings are
difficult to erect vertically and are best included in sub-assemblies, if
possible.
3.4 Dimensional Control
Of all the areas of quality control (QC) which require attention, that of dimensional
control, as emphasised in the code and specifications, tends to be exaggerated.
However, it is clear that attention must be paid to the dimensions which have
structural significance, e.g. the straightness of elements, ovality of tubulars,
eccentricities at node joints, etc. It is also clear that on a jacket the global
alignment/verticality of items such as pile sleeves, conductor guides, launch
runners, etc. are also important. Finally dimensional control of items which are
intended for "mating" or "removal" offshore, for example piles/pile sleeves, jacket
top/MSF base, buoyancy tank/supports, etc. is vital to the efficiency of offshore
installation. There are therefore, many aspects where the attention to dimensional
control is justified even if the overall design might occasionally benefit if the
designer did not always require that everything fitted so tightly.
The principal reason for requiring such accurate dimensional control of nodes and
tubulars during fabrication is not because of the structural consequences of out-of-
tolerance but rather because the parts may not fit together in the yard. It is one of
the most vexing incongruities of the tubular steel jacket concept that the theoretical
tolerances on node stub eccentricity are generous from the structural viewpoint
while the actual tolerances are very tight because of considerations regarding the
fitting together of components during subsequent phases of construction.
The dimensional control of node fabrication, in particular, involves potentially

intricate calculations in the shop. However, the most successful systems simply
involve the inclusion on the shop drawings of several additional "checking"
measurements and the correct marking of the node can and stub generators and
offsets.
4. JACKET ASSEMBLY AND ERECTION

4.1 Jacket Assembly
Shop fabricated sub-assemblies and loose items are incorporated into assemblies
which constitute the major lifts of the erection sequence. Thus for a large jacket,
the assemblies are typically of four types:
 Jacket levels incorporating conductor guide frames

 Top frames
 Jacket rows i.e. bents or partial bents
 Pile sleeve clusters.
The assembly and erection phases are based on the following objectives:
 Maximise on-the-ground assembly (as opposed to erection) and maximise

access around the jacket during execution.
 Minimise erection joints in principal structural elements, such as jacket legs,
launch runners, rows, levels. Align critical areas such as conductor guides,
pile sleeves, launch runners.
 Sub-assemble principal structural elements of jacket such as jacket legs,
rows, levels. Sub-assemble, and where possible pre-test, systems such as
grouting, ballasting. Include maximum quantity of secondary items such as
anodes, risers, J-tubes, caissons. Coat or paint required areas (top of jacket,
risers) prior to erection.
 Minimise the use of temporary items which require subsequent removal,
such as scaffolding, walkways, lifting aids, etc. and pre-install such aids
where they are necessary.
The assembly of a jacket frame, often having a spread at the base of 50m or more,
places severe demands on field layout and survey and on temporary support and
adjustment bracing. Such large dimensions mean that the thermal changes can be
significant. Temperature differences may be as great as 30C between dawn and
afternoon and as much as 15C between various parts of the structure, resulting in
several centimetres distortion. However, the practice of 'using the sun' to fit
elements which are not dimensionally in-tolerance is common in the field. This
procedure in itself tends to induce residual stresses in the structure. Because of the
difficulty associated with thermal distortion, it is normal to "correct" all
measurements to a standard temperature, e.g. 20 C.
Elastic deflections are also a source of difficulty in maintaining tolerances in the
location of nodes. Foundation displacements under the skid beams and temporary
erection skids must be carefully calculated and monitored.
The overall assembly sequence and programme requires that each assembly be
completed prior to lifting. It is normal to determine the exact location, orientation
and attitude, i.e. face-up or face-down, of each assembly in the field in anticipation
of its lifting procedure.
Assembly layout drawings are usually prepared showing central co-ordinates for
each assembly. The central co-ordinates are then used as local bench marks with
the object of defining the assembly, the sub-assemblies, loose items, appurtenances
and temporary attachments which comprise, field welds, overall dimensions,
weight, reference drawings, etc.
Dimensional control of the assembly both prior to and after welding, can be by
means of a series of self-checking measurements on the structure itself. Provided
cross checks are adequate, the time consuming exercise of referring measurements
to an external bench mark can be avoided.
Normally the assembly is tacked in position to theoretical dimensions using

allowable positive tolerances to compensate for weld shrinkage. Perhaps the most
fundamental rule in fitting is the avoidance of "force-fitting" of members prior to
welding or to force stresses into unwelded members through the welding sequence
since such conditions cannot have been foreseen by the designer.
An outline sequence of events which apply to all types of assembly is as follows:
 Preparation of assembly support and staging

 Rough setting of assembly main structure and position tacking. Dimensional
control of assembly main structure.
 Infilling of secondary structure and position tacking. Dimensional control of
assembly and secondary structure.
 Preweld inspection. Weldout of structure subject to continuous inspection
and according to approved sequence.
 Installation of appurtenances (e.g. anodes, supports, walkways, risers, J-
tubes, caissons, grouting and ballasting) and scaffolding, lifting, aids,
erection guides, temporary attachments.
 Test (e.g. hydrotest) if required. Overall NDT, dimensional control.
 Blasting and painting or touch up. Removal of temporary assembly supports
and staging.
 Preparation for transport/lift/erection.
4.4 Jacket Erection

In this phase assembled, sub-assembled and fabricated structures, together with
loose items, are incorporated into the final structure according to the sequence
outlined in Figure 3a - 3e.
Jacket frames are typically laid out flat and then rolled using multiple crawler
cranes. Co-ordinating such a rigging and lifting operation requires thoroughly
developed three-dimensional layouts, firm and level foundations for the cranes and
experienced, well rehearsed operators.
Twenty four cranes were involved in the two major side frame lifts during the
erection of platform Cerveza, which was 300m long.
For the Magnus platform and Bouri DP3, a different procedure known as "toast
rack" was used. Here the jacket horizontal levels were fabricated, erected in place
and tied in to complete the jacket.
For the Bullwinkle jacket, one of the world's largest, sections of the jacket were
fabricated in Japan, transported by barge to Texas and assembled using jacking
towers which rolled up the sections to heights as great as 140m.
For jackets destined for shallow water erection is usually carried out vertically, i.e.
in the same attitude as the final installation. Such jackets may be lifted onto the
barge or skidded out. In this latter case, adequate temporary pads and braces must
be provided under the columns to distribute the loads for skidding.
The structural analysis associated with the erection procedure for a given assembly
usually involves a computer model with all relevant structural characteristics. The
assembly is analysed for a number of load cases which correspond (approximately)
to the support conditions of the assembly at its presumed critical attitudes, i.e. the
locations of the cranes, bogies, saddles, etc. when the panel is being transported
and when it is in horizontal and vertical attitudes. The structural analysis for
lift/transport identifies the worst cases from the point of view of structural
response. These cases are then analysed to determine the maximum stresses and
displacements. The calculations should show that global and local stresses are
within allowable limits according to API/AISC codes.
Frequently, a structural analysis computer programme is used for this purpose. The
analysis will indicate where bending stresses are high and/or crane, bogie or
support loads inadmissible. Thus modifications can be made to redistribute
structural stresses and loads at "supports" to optimise both and ensure that neither
the cranes nor the structure can be overloaded during erection.
An outline sequence for the erection of all major components would be:
 Technical appraisal of lift methods. Calculations for crane configuration,

rigging accessories, etc.
 Preparation of cranes for lift. Preparation for rigging. Transport assembly to
lift location. Roll-up into position with scaffolding and staging in position, if
possible.
 Preparation of fixing system and wind bracing (usually done by means of
guy wires and turnbuckles). Weldout at least sufficient to allow crane
release.
 Crane release. Removal of rigging and temporary attachments.
Jacket structural completion is followed by a short phase during which all the
jacket systems, both permanent and those required during installation, are
completed and rendered functional. The load-out operations are covered in Lecture
15A.9: Installation.
 The design of a jacket is determined primarily by the offshore installation
equipment available and the intended water depth.
 In general, the preference is to lift the jacket in place. Jackets destined for
deeper water are usually erected on their side.
 As a general principle, as much of the execution as possible should be
undertaken in the early phases of fabrication.
 Each phase of execution has its own engineering requirements which are
determined by the processes executed during that phase.
 The specifications for fabrication of offshore jackets are determined by the
designer and are usually based on one or more of the well known codes.
 Shop fabricated sub-assemblies and hose items are incorporated into
assemblies which constitute the major lifts of the erection sequence.
 Assembled, sub-assembled and fabricated structures, together with loose
items, are incorporated into the final structure in a sequence which takes
account of structural analyses of bending stresses, and crane, bogie and
support loads.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Construction
of Fixed Offshore Installations, latest edition.
Engineering design principles and practices that have evolved during the
development of offshore oil resources.
[2] AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel
for Buildings, latest edition.
API code refers to this specification for calculations of basic allowable stresses of
all jacket members.
[1] Det Norkse Veritas Marine Operations Recommended Practice RP5 - Lifting
(June 1985).
Principles and good practice for offshore heavy lifts.
[2] AWS Structural Welding Code AWS D1.1-88.
All jacket welding and weld procedure qualifications are required by the API code
to be undertaken in accordance with this code.
[3] Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of
Offshore Structures, 1977.
Rules for construction and installation of steel jackets as required by DNV.

[4] Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Rules and Regulations for the Classification of
Fixed Offshore Installations, 1989.
Based on Lloyd's experience from certification of over 500 platforms world-wide.
APPENDIX 1
Quality Assurance and Quality Control
It is becoming increasingly common for operators to specify that the quality of

construction for offshore structures be controlled by a recognised quality system
management standard.
ISO 9000/EN 29000, Standard for Quality Systems Management, is recognised as

the accepted standard in such situations. These standards set down the
requirements that a soundly based quality management system must fulfil if it is to
assist in properly defining and controlling product quality. Because the standards
deal with the quality system, and are not product standards, they are applicable to
many sectors of industry including offshore construction. They apply in any
situation where management wish to adopt a clearly defined policy and an orderly
approach to providing a quality product.
All aspects of a company's activities are covered in the standards including:-
Design Product Traceability

Contract Review Process Control
Documentation Control Inspection/Testing
Management Responsibility Calibration of Equipment
Purchasing Control of Non-Conformances
Corrective Action Handling/Storage/Delivery
Quality Records Training
Management Review/Audits Etc.
QA Management Complexity
The overall programme for a jacket construction, shows that there are a very
considerable number of offshore activities in many different locations within a
very short period of time. The evaluation of the performance of such a range of
activities and at a number of centres is a major QA/QC undertaking.
It is difficult to fully appreciate the scope of documentation on a jacket

construction project. Consider the documentation which is expected to flow from
one location to another in respect to a single node. From the time the plate is
manufactured until it is located in the final structure, a dossier must be compiled.
This documentation could commence with copies of certificates from the steel
plate manufacturer and progress through several welding, NDT, dimensional
control phases at a number of successive locations, culminating in the issue of a
Release Note at the node fabrication shop.
Clearly this is necessary on some items, e.g. steel, welds, NDT Certificates for the
jacket primary structure, risers, etc. These documents may be useful during
maintenance of the platform enabling many in-service problems to be traced to
abnormalities which occurred during construction. Construction of a large jacket
typically involves thousands of steel plates. Each plate inevitably becomes an
individual as it is allocated a unique number corresponding to a Material
Utilisation Schedule or Cutting Plan. The individual number of pieces of plate
could be in excess of 20,000 items. The primary object of material control is to
ensure that, at any stage of construction, the origin of each and every item can be
traced back to a material certificate which in turn corresponds to a set of
test/chemical composition etc. as contained in the Data Dossier. However,
voluminous as this documentation may be, it constitutes less than half of the total
documentation produced for a complete jacket. Consider for instance the number
of welds in a complex buoyancy tank, the walkways on top of the jacket, the
anodes, launch runners, grout lines, etc. Each of these must be welded, several
must be individually inspected. However the requirement to produce sophisticated
documentation in respect of each is questionable. For this reason it is important
that agreement is reached at an early stage as to the individual items which require
identification, that these be kept to a minimum and that the identification system be
simple. In actual practice it has proven to be very difficult to make all materials
really traceable. Much more could be done to structure such documentation in such
a way that it would really be of help throughout the platform life.
Procedures and Specifications
Within the Contractor's organisation QA/QC procedures must be developed for the
project, many of which will be specifically for jacket construction. These are
divided into Management Procedures (e.g. Management of Non Conformities,
Management of Jacket Completion Onshore, etc.) and Control Procedures (e.g.
Procedure for Ultrasonic Testing of welds at Jacket Yard, Dimensional Control
Procedure for Node Fabrication at factory etc.). Construction
Procedures/Specifications are also required (e.g. Jacket Assembly and Erection
Procedure, Pile Installation Procedure, etc.) in addition to a vast number of weld
procedure specifications and qualifications, welder qualifications and inspection
plans.
Even if the number of specific procedures required from each subcontractor is

minimised, a fabrication subcontractor will still be required to develop procedure
and specifications for the following typical functions/activities: subcontract
organisation, material control, fabrication method/sequence, procedures for cutting,
forming, pre-heating, post-weld heat treatment along with the more obvious
welding and NDT procedures and Inspection Plans. Typically hundreds of
procedures/specifications must be developed by jacket subcontractors.
Certification
On most offshore projects, the underwriters normally agree to insure the plant
during its operating life provided it is designed, constructed and maintained to
predetermined standards and certified as such. This certification is also almost
invariably required by the state authorities in whose waters the plant is installed. It
is normally performed by one of the traditional ship classification societies known
as the Certifying Authority (CA). In the widest sense, certification requires that the
CA carry out independent surveillance to ensure that the standards chosen for the
project are satisfactory and that the project is performed in accordance with them.
Formerly this meant that the CA inspected every activity likely to influence the
adequacy of the final product - an enormous task. More recently with the advent of
QA, the certification function can mean audits of the construction so that, rather
than inspect everything, the CA satisfies himself that the manner in which the
construction is being managed and performed (based on incomplete but
comprehensive inspection) is likely to lead to a satisfactory product.
Phase Work Centre Efficiency Quality Risk

Variability
Engineering Office Decreasing Increasing Increasing
Procurement Factory Decreasing Increasing Increasing
Fabrication Fabrication Shop Decreasing Increasing Increasing
Assembly and Yard Site Decreasing Increasing Increasing

Erection
Loadout and Transition Decreasing Increasing Increasing

Seafastening
Transport and Offshore Site Decreasing Increasing Increasing

Installation
Table 1 Jacket Construction Phases and Characteristics
No. Document Series Group or Individual Subject Title
1 Shop Drawings, Cutting Plan Welding standards, nodes, tubulars, piles, pile sleeves, clusters, conductor guide
frames, launch runners, buoyancy tanks, cathodic protection system, protective
coating systems, risers, j-tubes, caissons, boat landings, boat bumpers, walkways,
grouting systems, ballasting system, installation aids, as-built drawings.
2 Method and Temporary Works Drawings Subassemblies, assemblies, supports, access, scaffolding, lifting and transportation
onshore, test and commission, identification.
Onshore construction accessories.
Offshore installation (preparation, transportation, lifting, launching, anchor

patterns etc.).
Offshore installation accessories (tools, guides, access, handling etc.).
3 Quality Assurance Procedures Documentation identification, distribution and approval, witness and hold points,
technical modifications and non-conformance management, material control,
material identification and traceability, procurement and subcontracting, weld
parameter control, management of specific problem areas.
4 Quality Control Procedures NDT methods (visual, UT, x-ray, dye penetrant, MPI), dimensional control,
destructive testing methods, NDT operator training and qualification, calibration
of inspection equipment, pressure testing, miscellaneous testing.
5 Manuals Testing, commissioning and preparation of jacket for tow. Load-out manuals -
jacket piles, topsides.
Installation manuals - jacket, piles, topsides.
6 Weld Procedures For each location - weld procedures
- repair procedures.
7 Design Reports, Reviews and Specifications Quay design, skidway design, mooring system design, soil improvement spec.,
skidding system spec., dredging spec., transportation of jacket and piles, buoyancy
tanks, jacket launching and emplacement, on-bottom stability, pile driveability,
jacket levelling study.
8 Engineering Meetings Normally held at critical phases of construction at the various construction
locations.
9 Fabrication, Assembly and Erection Fabrication/welding sequence (for principal items), forming, bending, stress
relieving, coating, assembly and erection, temporary and secondary attachments,
lifting and transporting, jackdown, weight control, settlement control, jacket
weighing.
10 Inspection plan Steel supply (at each supplier).
Fabrication of typical jacket and pile components (at relevant centres).
Assembly and erection.
11 Technical Proposals and Non-Conformance Technical Clarification Requests )

Resolutions
Technical Relaxation Requests ) Possible at every
Major Non-Conformance Reports ) Phase of location
Minor Non-Conformance Reports ) of the Project.
Table 2 Jacket Construction Engineering:
Typical Organisation of Contractor's Technical Documents

ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.9: Installation

OBJECTIVE
To describe the general methods of jacket installation. To discuss the various

stages of operation from loadout through offshore positioning and installation,
including construction practices and equipment. To indicate the calculations
normally involved.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 15A.1: Offshore Structures : General Introduction
RELATED LECTURES
Lectures 3.2: Erection
Lecture 3.3: Principles of Welding
Lecture 3.4: Welding Processes
Lectures 15A: Structural Systems: Offshore
SUMMARY
The phases of installation of a steel jacket - loadout, seafastening, offshore

transportation and installation - are described and the associated analyses are
indicated.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project Phases
A steel jacket installation usually consists of the following project phases:
Loadout - Comprises the movement of the completed structure onto the barge
which will transport it offshore.
Seafastening - Comprises fitting and welding sufficient structure between the
structure and the barge to prevent the jacket shifting during transit to the offshore
site.
Offshore Transportation - Comprises the tow to the location offshore and arrival
of the barge at the offshore site with the seafastened structure.
Installation - Comprises the series of activities required to place the structure in

the final offshore location. These activities include jacket lift and upending,
positioning, pile installation, jacket levelling and grouting, together with support
services for these activities.
1.2 Construction Philosophy
In deciding how best to fabricate (i.e. vertical or on its side) and install (i.e. lifted,
launched or self-floating) a given jacket, the options are principally determined by
the installation equipment available and the jacket's intended water depth. In
general, the preference is to lift the jacket into location. The motivation for this
installation method, rather than the more traditional barge-launching, is a
reluctance to spend money on jacket steelwork which will only be used during the
temporary installation phase. The size of such lifted jackets has been increasing as
offshore lifting capacity has grown. With modern lifting capacity now up to 14000
tonnes (see Table 1), jackets approaching this order of magnitude are now
candidates for lifting into position.
Figure 1 shows how the 6000 tonne jacket for the Kittiwake field in the North Sea
was lifted from the barge into the water and up-ended in a continuous operation,
ending with the jacket on the seabed ready for piling. The advantage of this
approach is that the jacket, being lowered into the water, does not require the
launch frames necessary for launching from a barge. Also, since the weight of the
jacket is taken by the cranes throughout, there is no need for special buoyancy
tanks and deballasting systems.
Jackets destined for deeper water are heavier and are usually erected on their side
and launched from a barge (Figure 2). This method of construction is currently
applicable for jackets up to 25000 tonnes. A launched jacket usually requires
additional buoyancy tanks with extensive pipework and valving to enable the legs
and tanks to be flooded in order to ballast the jacket into the vertical position on
site. For instance, in the case of the Brae 'B' jacket (a large 19000 tonne jacket
installed in 100m water depth in the North Sea) it was necessary to provide 11000
tonnes of additional buoyancy. This buoyancy was primarily to limit the jacket
trajectory through launch (i.e. to stop it hitting the sea bed) but was also essential
for maintaining bottom clearance during up-ending. The additional buoyancy took
the form of two 'saddle' tanks, two pairs of twin 'piggy-bank tanks' and twelve
'cigar' tubes installed down the pile guides (Figure 3). Altogether the auxiliary
buoyancy added about 3,300 tonnes additional weight to the jacket.
Very large jackets, in excess of launch capacity, have been constructed as self-
floaters in a graving dock, towed offshore subsequent to flooding the dock, and
installed on location by means of controlled flooding of the legs (see Figure 4).
1.3 Installation Planning
The installation of a jacket consists of loading out, seafastening and transporting

the structure to the installation site, positioning the jacket on the site and achieving
a stable structure in accordance with the design drawings and specifications, in
anticipation of installation of the platform topsides.
An important aspect is the avoidance of unacceptable risk during offshore activities

from loadout through to platform completion. It is recognised that the potential
cost to the project associated with failure to successfully execute marine activities
is particularly high. Normally therefore the contractor is obliged to produce
procedures for these activities which demonstrate that the risk of failure has been
reduced to acceptable levels. He is also required to demonstrate that, prior to the
commencement of an activity, all the necessary preparations have been completed.
An installation plan must be prepared for each installation. The plan will include
the method and procedures developed for the loadout, seafastening and
transportation and for the complete installation of the jacket, piles, superstructure
and equipment. Depending on the complexity of the installation, detailed
procedures and instructions may be needed for special items such as grouting,
diving, welding inspections, etc. Limitations on the various operations due to
factors such as environmental conditions, barge stability, lifting capacity, etc. must
be defined. The installation plan is normally subdivided into phases, e.g., loadout,
seafastening, transportation and installation.
Installation drawings, specifications and procedures must be prepared showing all

the pertinent information necessary for construction of the total facility on location
at sea. These drawings typically include details of all inspection aids such as lifting
eyes, launch runners or trusses, jacking brackets, stabbing points, etc. For jackets
installed by flotation or launching, drawings showing launching, up-ending and
flotation procedures must be prepared. In addition, details are also provided for
piping, valving and controls of the flotation system, etc. as well as barge
arrangements and tie-down details.
The engineering input into an offshore installation project also involves the design
of all temporary bracing, seafastenings, rigging, slings, shackles and installation
aids, etc. These must be designed in accordance with an approved offshore design
code, e.g. API RP2A [1].
Quality management is a vital and integral component of all offshore installation

projects. A general note on Quality Assurance for Offshore Construction is
appended to Lecture 15A.8 : Fabrication. It is equally applicable to an offshore
installation project.
2. LOADOUT AND SEAFASTENING

Loadout entails the movement of the completed structure onto the barge which will
transport it offshore. Seafastening entails fitting and welding sufficient ties
between the jacket and the barge to prevent the jacket shifting while in transit to
the offshore site.
Jackets which have been fabricated on their side are usually loaded by skidding the
entire structure onto a cargo or launch barge. During loadout, the jacket is
supported on the skid ways, usually on two inner legs of the jacket, see Fig. 9
of Lecture 15A.1. The legs function as the bottom chord of a large truss, which can
span between points of support, especially when part of the jacket is on the barge
and part still on the skid ways.
Where jackets are fabricated in the vertical, i.e. in the same attitude as the final
installation, they may be lifted onto the barge or skidded out. In this latter case,
adequate temporary pads and braces must be provided under the columns to
distribute the loads during skidding.
Initial friction of the jacket on the skid ways may be as high as 15 per cent,
especially if the jacket has been erected with its weight bearing continuously on the
skid way. In some cases the jacket is initially fabricated slightly above the skid
ways using hydraulic or sand jacks. Then, at the time of loadout, the jacket is
lowered onto the skid ways. To reduce the sliding friction, grease on hardwood, or
heavy lubricating oil on steel, or even fibre-filled Teflon faced pads, are used.
Values of sliding friction as low as 3 per cent are usually attained.
The barge should be of adequate size and structural strength to ensure that the
stability and static and dynamic stresses in the barge and seafastenings due to the
loading operation and during transportation remain within acceptable limits. The
barge must also have the capability to launch the jacket, if this is required, without
the use of a derrick barge. For a barge which floats during the loadout, the ballast
system must be capable of compensating the changes in tide and loading. It is usual
in this case to load out on a rising tide so that the tide assists the ballast system. In
the case of a barge which will be grounded during loadout, the barge must have
sufficient structural strength to distribute the concentrated deck loads to the
supporting foundation material.
The jacket must be loaded in such a manner that the barge is in a balanced and
stable condition. Barge stability can be determined in accordance with regulations
such as those published by Noble Denton, The American Bureau of Shipping, or
the US Coast Guard. Allowable static and dynamic stresses in the barge hull and
framing due to loadout, transportation and launching must not be exceeded.
A simplified check list for the operations relating to jacket loadout might be:
1. Is the jacket complete? Has the structure been analysed for loadout stresses
on the basis of the actual structure as fabricated at the time of loadout?
2. Is the launch barge securely moored to the loadout dock, so that it won't
move out during the loading? Is the barge properly moored against sideways
movement?
3. If compression struts are used between the barge skid ways and those on
shore, are they accurately aligned and supported so they won't kick out
during loadout? Have the pull lines, shackles, and pad eyes been inspected
to ensure they are properly installed and can't foul during loadout?
4. Can the barge be properly ballasted? If the tide will vary during loadout, are
ballasting arrangements adequate? Will ballast be adjusted as the weight of
the jacket goes onto the barge? Are there proper controls? Is there an
adequate standby ballast system? Are there back-up systems to pull the
jacket back to shore if anything goes wrong during loadout? If the ballast
correction is to be made iteratively, step-by-step as the jacket is loaded, are
there clear paint marks so that each step can be clearly identified?
5. Have clear lines of supervision and control been established? Are the voice
radio channels checked? Have the marine surveyors been notified so that
they can be present? Owner's representatives? Certifying Authority? Have
their approvals been received?
Once the jacket is on the barge, the barge must be ballasted for transportation.
During loadout, many tanks will be partially full, in order to control deck elevation
and trim. However, with the jacket fully supported on the barge, these
considerations are no longer relevant and the tanks can be ballasted to suit the
demands of the sea voyage. Ballast tanks should normally either be full or
completely empty, to eliminate free surface and sloshing effects. The draft and
freeboard will have been carefully selected to maximise stability, and especially to
minimise submersion of projecting members of the jacket during the tow and the
consequent slamming, buoyancy and collapse forces.
Large jacket launch and cargo barges are relatively flexible structures in that the
jacket structure is normally (much) stiffer. Therefore, ballasting the barge to obtain
the required draft and trim should preferably be done at the dock side before
seafastenings are attached. If one scheme of ballasting is to be used for a sheltered
channel tow and another for the open sea, the seafastenings should be freed during
the reballasting to avoid imposing undue stresses on the jacket legs or,
alternatively, calculations should be performed to demonstrate that freeing is not
required by the reballasting procedure.
Seafastenings are installed after loadout and must be completed prior to sailaway.
They are major structural systems, subjected to both static and dynamic loads.
When the barge is on the high seas it must be assumed that it can encounter
conditions which are "as bad as could have been statistically foreseen".
Accordingly, the gravity and inertial forces involved must be calculated for all
anticipated barge accelerations and angles of roll and pitch during the design sea
conditions adopted for the tow (usually the 10-year return storm for that season and
location). In determining this criteria, the reliability of the short term weather
forecast should be considered. Since the loads are dynamic, impact must be
minimised. Seafastenings should be attached to the jacket only at locations
approved by the designer. They should be attached to the barge at locations which
are capable of distributing the load to the barge internal framing. They should also
be designed to facilitate easy removal on location. Seafastenings are normally
subject to the same code requirements for fabrication as the jacket.
3. OFFSHORE TRANSPORTATION
The transportation of heavy components from a fabrication yard to the offshore site
is a critical activity. It is especially so in the case of the jacket since the behaviour
of the unit usually influences the verification of barge strength, the design of
seafastenings, and indeed the design of the jacket itself. Also there are the practical
aspects of tug selection, tow route, etc. to be considered.
The size and power requirements of the towing vessels and the design of the
towing arrangement must be calculated or determined from past experience. Tug
selection involves such considerations as length of tow route, proximity of safe
harbours and the anticipated weather conditions and sea states. As a minimum the
tugs should be capable of maintaining station in a 15 metre/second wind with
accompanying waves. However, this criterion depends on the location. For
instance, the requirement in the Mediterranean is typically that the main tug should
maintain station against a 20 metre/second wind, 5,0m significant sea-state and 0,5
metre/second current, acting simultaneously. Weather forecasting is provided
throughout the tow so that, if exceptional weather threatens, a pre-arranged port of
refuge may be sought.
Experience has shown that the first phase of transportation is the most treacherous.
There are several reasons for this. In the harbour area a big tug can normally
exercise very little control even with a shortened towline. With a short towline
between two considerable masses, the large tug and the much larger barge/jacket,
the risk of snapping is high. Thus it is standard practice to lengthen the towline
once out of the port. Also, because of the nature of many ports, close control is
essential in order to avoid the possibility of running aground. Normally, therefore,
the harbour tugs take the barge out under the guidance of a pilot who knows the
port. When the barge is out of the port the problems are not totally solved since it
must be assumed that the worst can happen, i.e. the towline may break.
The tug must have sufficient time to pick up the emergency towline and control the
barge before it drifts into shallow water. Thus the departure is normally subject to
strict weather forecast conditions for a period which assumes that the speed of the
tow is between 1 and 2 knots for the first 100 nautical miles from the coast.
Consequently, as a minimum, a favourable 48-hour weather forecast is required,
e.g. Force 5 and decreasing.
Once the tow is under way, trim will be adjusted to optimise tow speed and give
directional stability during tow. Usually the barge will be trimmed down by the
stern.
The behaviour of the jacket seafastened to the barge must be satisfactory both from
the point of view of static and dynamic stability. Both are verified by means of
numerical analyses. However, particularly for larger structures, the sensitivity of
the dynamic analysis will usually warrant verification by model testing.
The intact static stability criteria usually adopted is that the righting arm be
positive throughout a range of 36 about any axis. The so-called dynamic stability
of wind overturning criteria simply ensure that for a given wind, the energy which
tends to overturn the barge is at least 40% less than that which is available due to
the inherent righting stability of the barge.
In considering the motions of the jacket and barge it is intuitively plausible that roll
will be the most problematical motion (from the point of view of body
accelerations) and that the largest roll will be caused by a beam sea. It may be less
obvious, but nevertheless true, that if the barge width and, to a lesser extent the
length, are reduced, the roll will diminish and if the barge is set at a (much) deeper
draft, the roll will also diminish. All of these considerations reflect static properties
of the jacket and barge. Improvements can occasionally be made by choosing a
narrower barge (although obviously stability will suffer) or increasing the draft
(although in this case stability may again suffer and parts of the structure which
were previously 'dry' may now be subjected to 'slamming'). Incorrect "balancing"
of these aspects can have very serious cost/risk implications in overall project
terms. Thus, for a large jacket, the barge selection process is normally performed at
a very early stage of the design process.
4. OFFSHORE INSTALLATION
This section is concerned with the stages of jacket installation commencing with
removal of the jacket from the barge to its placing on the sea bed and temporary
on-bottom stability. Lecture 15A.6: Foundations covers the subject of pile
installation.
4.1 Removal of Jacket from Barge
Unless a jacket is a self floater, it must first be removed from the transportation
barge. There are two basic methods used:
 launch
 lift
4.1.1 Launch
The launch site is normally at or near the installation location. With heavy jackets
in shallow water it may be necessary to launch the jacket in deep water at some
distance from the installation location and tow the jacket to site.
Immediately prior to launch, the seafastening securing the jacket to the barge is
cut. The jacket is then pulled along the barge skid ways (which were used for
loadout) by winches. As the jacket moves towards the stern of the barge, the barge
start to tilt and a point is reached when the jacket is self sliding. An initial tilt to the
barge may have been provided by ballasting immediately prior to launch. A stern
trim of approximately 5 is usually aimed for.
The skid ways terminate in rocker arms at the stern of the barge. As the jacket
moves along the skid ways its centre of gravity reaches a point where it is
vertically above the rocker arm pivot. Further movement causes the rocker arm and
jacket to rotate. The jacket will then slide under its own self weight into the water.
Various stages in the launch of a jacket are shown in Figure 1a to 1d.
Once in the water the self floating jacket is brought under control with lines from
tugs and/or the installation vessel.
The jacket must be designed and fabricated to withstand the stresses caused by the
launch. This can be achieved either by strengthening those members which might
be over-stressed by the launching operation, or designing into the jacket a special
truss, commonly referred to as a launch truss. Spacing between jacket members or
launch trusses will be dictated by the spacing between launch skid ways. Thus a
jacket will generally be designed from the outset for installation by a specific
barge.
Once launched the jacket must float with a reserve of buoyancy in order to stop the
downward momentum of the jacket. This requires the jacket to be water tight. It is
common practice to gain additional buoyancy by sealing jacket legs and pile
sleeves with removable rubber diaphragms. However, there is frequently a need for
even more buoyancy. This is achieved by adding buoyancy tanks. These need to be
removable and are located where they give most benefit. Buoyancy tanks from
previous launches are often used.
The launch of a jacket is clearly a critical phase in the life of the jacket.
Considerable design effort is required in order to ensure that the launch sequence is
feasible. A jacket launch naval analysis is required in order to:
 ensure that an adequate sliding velocity is maintained during the rocker arm
rotation;
 verify that the trajectory followed has a safe seabed clearance;
 determine the jacket behaviour during launch;
 define operational requirements during launch, including ballast
configuration;
 check the stability of the jacket during launch and when free floating.
The plots shown in Figures 1a to 1d are extracted from such an analysis. The jacket
weight was 14,000 tonnes and was being installed in 105 metres of water. The
analysis showed that it should take approximately 2 minutes between start of self
sliding (Figure 1a) and the jacket reaching its final floating position (Figure 1d).
4.1.2 Lift
An increasing number of jackets are being installed by direct lift. This trend has
been encouraged by the availability of large crane vessels such as the Micoperi
7000. Curves showing load capacity against lifting radius are shown in Figure 2.
Another factor tending to increase direct lift jackets are savings in weight that are
being achieved in jacket design.
In a direct lift the jacket is lifted off the barge completely in air. A second form of
lift is the buoyancy assisted lift. In this case the barge is flooded and hence
submerged. This results in part of the jacket being buoyant, reducing hook loads.
Buoyancy tanks may be added to the jacket if required.
Shallow water jackets may be lifted in the vertical position. In this case no up-
ending is required and installation is straight forward. Deep water jackets will in
general be lifted on their side. Two cranes will normally be used, noting that large
derrick barges such as the Micoperi 7000 are fitted with two cranes as standard.
When considering a tandem lift it should be noted that it is unlikely that both hooks
will carry the same load, and that the maximum permissible jacket weight will be
less than the sum of the two crane capacities. It should also be noted that cranes are
frequently guyed back to give maximum lift capacity and carry less load if they are
revolving. This can further reduce the apparent lift capacity. Finally, the weight of
lifting slings need to be considered, these contributing as much as 7% of the lift
weight.
When the jacket is to be removed from the transportation barge by lifting, it is

normal for the installation vessel to be correctly moored and positioned so that up-
ending and set-down may proceed as one integral lift operation.
The selection of a suitable installation vessel is clearly essential. In addition to lift

capacity, it is also necessary to consider stability and motion response
characteristics. In the harsh North Sea environments installation vessels are usually
semi-submersibles such as the Micoperi 7000. In more moderate waters they are
often flat bottomed barges. In intermediate environments, e.g., the Gulf of Mexico,
ship-shaped vessels may be used.
The large semi-submersible crane vessels used in the North Sea have full dynamic
positioning systems for locating themselves on site. They also have sophisticated
computer controlled ballast systems to keep the vessel level during lifting
operations. During a lift the ballast system is also used to counteract heel and
increase hoisting and lowering speeds during the crucial lift-off and set-down
operations.
The natural period of large installation vessels in roll, pitch and heave tend to be
close to the typical peak periods of the sea spectra encountered offshore. These
motions therefore predominate. Normally this means that beam seas should be
avoided since this excites roll which is the most disruptive motion. However, the
"best attitude" is not always possible since it depends on the work that the vessel is
required to perform. Accordingly vessel operators perform extensive studies to
determine permissible sea states for specific operations and vessel captains
invariably "experiment" with different headings in a particular sea in order to
minimise motions and maximise workability.
The first stages in lifting a jacket from the transportation barge involve positioning
the barge and connecting the slings to the hook. The barge will normally be
controlled by tugs. Once everything is ready for lift to proceed the seafastenings
will be cut. The next stage is to transfer the weight of the jacket from the barge to
the crane. The general requirement here is to lift as rapidly as possible. However,
careful control and phasing with barge and crane vessel motions is required in
order to ensure that once the jacket is lifted clear of the barge it does not hit the
barge as a subsequent wave passes through. The same lift procedure is adopted in
both a direct and buoyancy assisted lift.
Once the jacket is lifted clear of the barge, the barge is removed by tugs. Up-
ending of the jacket will then normally proceed directly.
4.2 Jacket Up-ending and Set-down
Unless a jacket is transported and lifted in its upright position, it will be necessary
to up-end the jacket at the installation location. Up-ending may be achieved by
controlled flooding of buoyancy tanks, by using a crane vessel or by a combination
of both.
4.2.1 Up-ending by Ballast control and Flooding
A large crane vessel will not normally be required for either a launched or self-
floating jacket. Upending is therefore achieved by controlled flooding. A small
installation vessel will usually be required for the installation of piles once the
jacket has been set-down, so this is used as the platform from which to control the
various flooding operations. This installation vessel will also be used to help
position the jacket.
Figure 3 shows a sketch of the Brae 'B' jacket showing the auxiliary buoyancy
tanks. In this case the flooding system involved 42 primary and 22 contingency
subsea valves under direct hydraulic control. The nitrogen power source and
associated control panels were contained in watertight capsules.
Figure 4 shows a sequence of sketches indicating how a self floating jacket is

upended. In step 1 the waterline compartments at one end of the jacket are flooded.
More water line tanks are flooded in step 2 until by step 3 the upper frame of the
jacket reaches waterline and may also be flooded. The jacket is then allowed to
rotate until all legs are equally flooded as in step 4. The jackets natural position
will then be floating upright as in step 5. Further flooding of the jacket as in step 6
will enable the jacket to be lowered onto the sea bed in a controlled manner.
The up-ending of a launched jacket will be similar to that shown in Figure 4. The
main difference is that there may be less excess buoyancy with which to control
the operation. In this case a combination of flooding and lift, as shown in Figure 5,
may be used to up-end and set-down the jacket.
The crane and ballasting operations need to be clearly defined before the operation
begins. This involves careful naval analysis of the free floating position of the
jacket at various stages during the up-ending procedure. A feature of these analyses
is the need to consider what happens in the event of buoyancy tanks being
accidentally flooded, or of flooding valves failing to operate. Contingency
procedures and equipment must be provided.
4.2.2 Up-ending using the crane vessel

Figure 5 shows the most simple use of a crane to up-end and set-down a jacket.
This is acceptable for jackets that are launched. For horizontally oriented jackets
that are lifted directly the procedure is more involved.
A horizontally lifted jacket may be upended in one of two ways. Perhaps the most
straight forward is to lower the jacket into the water so that it floats. Slings can
then be removed and new slings attached at the top of the jacket. The jacket may
then be up-ended as shown in Figure 5. This may require closures to legs and some
additional buoyancy.
A second method is to up-end directly, as shown in Figure 6. This requires special

padears so that the necessary rotation between slings and jacket can occur. Careful
naval analysis is also required in order to carefully determine hook loads and to
ensure that the jacket remains stable.
Once up-ended the jacket can be set-down on the sea-bed. Since the lifting points
are submerged divers may be required to disconnect the slings from the jacket.
Although two crane hooks are shown in Figure 6, it should be noted that for light
weight jackets it is possible to up-end using a single crane. In this case the main
and auxiliary hooks are used together, for example the main hook taking the
weight of the jacket with the auxiliary hook providing the upending force.
An increasing trend is to install a jacket over an existing well or wells. A pre-

drilling template will have been used to position the wells, the same template being
used to position the jacket. It is necessary to ensure that the well heads are
protected from damage due to accidental contact with the jacket.
Once set-down the jacket should be positioned at or near grade and levelled within
the tolerances specified in the installation plan. Once level, care should be
exercised to maintain grade and levelness of the jacket during subsequent
operations. Levelling the jacket after all piles have been installed should be
avoided if at all possible as it is costly and frequently ineffective. If necessary,
levelling should take place after a minimum number of piles have been driven by
jacking or lifting. In this instance procedures should be used to minimise bending
stresses in the piles.
4.3 On-bottom Stability
Once set-down on the sea bed, it is normal for piling to proceed as rapidly as
possible. However, this far into the installation procedure the weather and hence
sea conditions may be detioriating. This is a result of long term weather forecasting
being less reliable than short term forecasting. It should also be noted that any
problems encountered during the installation procedure will result in delay and that
it may be some time before the jacket is adequately fixed to the sea bed by piling.
It is necessary for the jacket to be stable and level during piling. A separate on-
bottom stability analysis is therefore carried out. Three conditions need to be met:
(1) vertical resistance to jacket weight and piling loads;
(2) stability against sliding under wave/current loading;
(3) stability against overturning under wave/current loading.
In carrying out the above analyses it is necessary to use an appropriate sea-state to

generate hydro-dynamic loading. This should be the maximum statistical wave
which may occur prior to piling being completed. Assuming installation to occur in
the summer months, a typical criteria may be a 1 year summer storm wave.
The provisions that need to be made to ensure on-bottom stability vary greatly
depending on jacket location, height and on sea-bed soil conditions. For example,
with good soil conditions the jacket may be able to be supported directly on
existing jacket steel with no extra provision made. However, with poor soil
conditions large 'mudmats' may be required in order to spread the load. These can
influence launch and installation dynamics.
For many jackets it is not possible to achieve stability against sliding and
overturning using flat mudmats. In these circumstances mudmats with skirts may
be used. Skirts considerably improve the resistance to sliding, and in silty or clay
soils can allow nominal tension loading to resist overturning. Another option
frequently used is to stab a number of piles as soon as the jacket is set-down. These
will penetrate some distance under self weight providing additional sliding
resistance. Since most piles are inclined, the piles also provide a degree of
resistance to over turning.
 There are broadly four phases to the installation of a steel jacket - loadout,
seafastening, offshore transportation and installation offshore.
 In deciding how best to fabricate and install a given jacket, the options are
principally determined by the installation equipment available and the
jacket's intended water depth.
 An installation plan must be prepared for each installation. Loadout entails
the movement of the completed structure onto the barge which will transport
it offshore.
 Seafastening entails fitting and welding sufficient ties between the jacket
and the barge to prevent shifting while in transit to the offshore site.
 The transportation of heavy components from a fabrication yard to the
offshore site is a critical activity requiring careful calculation and planning.
 Removal of the jacket from the barge is accomplished either by direct lifting
with a derrick barge and lowering into position, or by launching. A number
of engineering studies are required for jacket launch and set-down.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API RP2A, Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Construction
of Fixed Offshore Installations, latest edition. Engineering design principles and
practices that have evolved during the development of offshore oil resources.
1. Det Norske Veritas Marine Operations Recommended Practice RP5 -
Lifting (June 1985). Principles and good practice for offshore heavy lifts.
2. AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural
Steel for Buildings, latest edition. API code refers to this specification for
calculation of basic allowable stresses of all jacket members.
3. AWS Structural Welding Code AWS D1.1-88. All jacket welding and weld
procedure qualifications are required by the API code to be undertaken in
accordance with this code.
4. Det Norske Veritas, Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of
Offshore Structures, 1977. Rules for construction and installation of steel
jackets as required by DNV.
5. Lloyds Register of Shipping, Rules and Regulations for the Classification of
Fixed Offshore Installations, 1989. Based on Lloyd's experience from
certification of over 500 platforms world-wide.
Operator Name Type Mode Lifting Capacity
Heerema Thor Monohull Fix 2720
Rev 1820
Odin Monohull Fix 2720
Rev 2450
Hermod Semisub Fix 4536 + 3628 = 8164
Rev 3630 + 2720 = 6350
Balder Semisub Fix 3630 + 2720 = 6350
Rev 3000 + 2000 = 5000
McDermott DB50 Monohull Fix 4000
Rev 3800
Rev 1450
Rev 2450
DB102 Semisub Rev 6000 + 6000 = 12000
Micoperi M7000 Semisub Rev 7000 + 7000 = 14000
Notes:
1. Rated lifting capacity in metric tonnes
2. When the crane vessels are provided with two cranes, these are situated at
the vessels stern at approximately 60m distance ctc.
Table 1 Major Offshore Crane Vessels

ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.10: Superstructures I

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce the functional requirements; to identify major interfaces with the

process, equipment, logistics, and safety; to introduce the structural concepts for
jacket and gravity based structure (GBS) topsides; to elaborate on structural design
for deck floors.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 1A & 1B: Steel Construction
Lecture 2.4: Steel Grades and Qualities
Lecture 2.5: Selection of Steel Quality
Lecture 6.3: Elastic Instability Modes
Lecture 7.6: Built-up Columns
Lectures 8.4: Plate Girder Behaviour & Design
Lectures 11.2: Welded Connections
Lecture 12.2: Advanced Introduction to Fatigue
Lectures 15A: Structural Systems - Offshore
SUMMARY
The topside lay-out is discussed, referring to API-RP2G [1], and to general aspects
of interface control and weight control.
The different types of topside structures (relevant to the type of substructure, jacket
or GBS) are introduced and described. These types are:
1. integrated deck.
2. module support frame.
3. modules.
Floor concepts are presented and several aspects of the plate floor design are
addressed.
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture deals with the overall aspects of the design of offshore topsides.
The topside of an offshore structure accommodates the equipment and supports

modules and accessories such as living quarters, helideck, flare stack or flare
boom, microwave tower, and crane pedestals.
The structural concept for the deck is influenced greatly by the type of substructure
(jacket or GBS) and the method of construction, see Figures 1 and 2.
Heavy decks, over 10,000 tons, are provided with a module support frame onto
which a number of modules are placed. Smaller decks, such as those located in the
southern North Sea, are nowadays installed complete with all equipment in one lift
to minimize offshore hook-up. Most of this lecture refers to this type of integrated
deck such as is shown in Figures 3 and 4.
The selection of the concept for the structural deck is made in close cooperation
with the other disciplines.
2. BASIC ASPECTS OF DESIGN

2.1 Space and Elevations
The first step in developing a new design concept is to consider all the
requirements for the deck structure. The design requirements and their impact on
the structural system are discussed below.
The lay-out of the deck is influenced by the type of hydrocarbon processing to be
undertaken.
The area required for the equipment, piping and cable routings, the vertical
clearance as well as the access/egress requirements determine the deck area and
deck elevations.
The elevation on the lowest decks depends on the environmental conditions. The
elevation of the cellar deck, i.e. the lowest deck, is based on the maximum
elevation of the design wave crest, including tide and storm sway, plus an air gap
of 1,5m minimum.
The vertical distance between the decks of the topside is generally in the range 6 -
9m in the North Sea.
Consideration of the prevailing wind direction is very important in determining the

position of various components on the platform, such as the vent of the flare,
cranes, helideck; and the logistic and safety provisions.
2.2 Lay-out Requirements
The requirements for the various topside components are briefly described below,
based on API-RP2G [1].
Wells: the position of the wells depends heavily on whether the wells will be
drilled and worked with a separate cantilevered jack-up rig or with a platform-
based rig. In the first case the wells must be close to the platform edge and require
significant deck area above free of obstacles. In the second case a pair of heavy
beams to support the drill rig must be provided.
Equipment, piping and cable-supports: all devices to treat the oil or gas shall
comply with the requirements of API-RP2G [1].
Living quarters and helideck: the helideck should be in the vicinity of the living
quarters to enable fast evacuation. Usually the helideck is located in the obstacle
free area on top of the living quarters.
Gas compressor module: the pressure in gas reservoirs declines due to

production. Future compression may be needed in order to achieve acceptable gas
flow through the export pipeline.
Water or gas injection module: oil production declines after some years of
operation. The reservoir then requires stimulation by, for example, injection of
water.
Deck crane: the location of the crane should be selected so as to obtain maximum
deck coverage and to enable the crane operator to keep eye contact with the lifted
object and the supply vessel. The location of the deck crane should be outside the
obstacle free area of the helideck and should not interfere with future facilities.
Vent/flare boom or stack: a vent discharges gaseous products in the air without
burning them; a flare discharges and burns these products. Both vents and flares
should be located outside hazardous areas and away from the helideck. The tip
shall exceed the elevation of the helideck by at least 100 feet. Heat radiation shall
be checked.
Microwave tower: A high mounting is required to provide obstacle free support

for microwave antennae. A stiff support is required in order to comply with the
stringent deflection criteria.
Survival capsules and man-overboard crane: the supporting structures for these
items usually cantilever from the main structure. Shock loading and dynamic
amplification increases the support reactions during operation.
Walkways, ladders and stairs: these items should be kept obstacle free, be non-
slippery and have sufficient width to allow evacuation of personnel on stretchers.
Cladding, walls, doors and louvres: the type of cladding depends on the
operational requirements and the preference of the oil company. For safety reasons,
walls and doors may have to satisfy specified explosion and fire resistance
requirements. Louvres may be used to allow natural ventilation, whilst preventing
entry of rain, snow and birds.
Lay down areas for equipment, spares and consumables: these areas are
provided by cantilevering from the main structure in order to allow access to the
lower deck levels by the deck crane, without providing hatches through the decks.
Hatches: access to the lower decks within reach of the crane is required to enable
maintenance, repair and platform modification. The hatches should be identified
early in the design.
Risers, caissons, sumps: the riser section of the pipeline rises from the seabed to
the deck. It introduces vertical and horizontal loads (environmental and
operational) in the deck structure. Caissons for pumps and sumps for discharge are
hung from the cellar deck and introduce significant vertical and horizontal loads in
the deck.
Drainage provisions: provision is required for spillage in drip pans under the
equipment and for collecting oil-polluted rainwater to prevent spilling into the sea.
Deck penetrations: pipes connecting process-items on different decks and,
vessels, cable routings, etc. can require significant areas to be clear of structural
members. The major penetrations should be identified early in the design and
coordinated with major structural members.
Other provisions: items such as monorails and inspection gangways may also be
required.
2.3 Loads
In Lecture 15A.3 the different types of loads have been identified and partly
quantified.
Dead weight, tankful live load and wind load are discussed here. Dead weight
includes the weight of structure, equipment, piping, cables, machinery, and
architectural outfitting. Tankful live load covers weight of potable water, diesel
fuel, helifuel, glycol, methanol, well-kill mud, lubrication oil, waste, etc.
Live load also covers all sorts of miscellaneous loads such as bagged or palletized
consumables, spare parts, maintenance equipment, etc.
The application of live load is typical for topsides. For design considerable
engineering judgement is required concerning:
 the magnitude of the load to be applied to the various structural items:
- direct loaded deck stringer

- deck beam
- deck truss
- deck leg
- jacket
- pile
- pile bearing resistance
 the area to which live load is to be applied. This area is described in the code
as the non-occupied area.
For local strength, the walkways, escape routes, etc. are considered as non-
occupied by equipment and are thus loaded by live load.
For overall strength, the walkways, escape routes, etc. are considered as occupied
(kept clear for evacuation) and consequently no live load is applied.
 the arrangement of loads that generates maximum stress. A policy on this

item should be prepared for each project, stating both variation of loads over
one deck, and variation over various decks.
Wind loads should be properly assessed. For overall structural integrity, the
complex shape of the platform creates problems in assessing the effective area for
wind load. Special elements such as communication towers and flare booms
require consideration as wind sensitive structures.
To control the design process, weight engineering as explained in Section 2.5

below, shall be performed by the project management staff. Any structural analysis
must be linked to the latest available information in the weight report. This
requires that the load file for the structural analysis and the weight report are
compatible with respect to total weight, weight distribution and centres of gravity.
2.4 Interface Control
The many functions of the topside result in the involvement of many disciplines in
the design.
Due to the high cost of providing platform space, the facility must be designed to
be very compact. This requirement leads to several major areas of interdisciplinary
control.
 Space allocation: the structure should not use space allocated for equipment
or access routes. Overhead clearance between piping, cable routes,
equipment and the floor overhead should be respected.
 Direct interface control; pumps, vessels and piping require support by the
steel structure.
 Interface between drilling and workover operations.
 Interface between platform crane and helideck, deckhouse, drilling rig, and
flare stack.
 Interface with the export riser.
 Interface between the deck and modules.
 Interface between the topside and bridge from adjacent platform.
 Interface with the substructure.
2.5 Weight Engineering
The weight of the overall facility as well as its major components is critical. Lack
of weight control can lead to costly design changes as well as to major provisions
in order to keep within the limits of the construction strategy.
Weight engineering consists of:
 weight prognosis
 weight reporting
 weight control
 weighing
Weight prognosis is the methodology which applies an uncertainty surcharge as
high as +30% in the conceptual design phase, to +5% in the final fabrication phase,
see Figure 5.
3. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
3.1 Selection of Topside for a Main Jacket-Based Structure
The selection of the concept for the topside structure is the second step in the
development of a structural system. The two possible basic alternatives: a truss
type (Figure 4) or a portal-frame type without braces (Figure 3), are compared in
Table 1.
Table 1 Comparison of concepts for main jacket-based structures
No. Item Truss type Frame type

1. Discipline non-interference - ++
2. Flexibility during construction - ++
3. Flexibility during operation - ++
4. Automated fabrication - ++
5. Construction depth ++ 0
6. Inspection - ++
7. Maintenance - +
8. Weight of structure + 0
9. Strength reserve + ++
10. Potential for high strength steel + ++
11. Structural CAPEX + +
12. Platform CAPEX + ++
Note: ++ denotes greater benefit
-- denotes greater disadvantage
The selection of the topside main structure concept, truss or portal frame, is linked
with the decision of the position of the longitudinal structure in the cross-section.
In a 20-25m wide deck, trusses will generally be arranged in longitudinal rows:
centre line and both outer walls (Figure 6).
In such decks, however, portal frames will be arranged in 2 longitudinal rows,
approximately 14-16m apart, allowing floor cantilevers of approximately 5m
(Figure 3).
3.2 Selection of Topsides for Gravity Based Structures
Topsides of gravity based concrete structures (GBS) are quite different from the
jacket based topsides, see Lecture 15A.1. The topside structure is an important
element in the overall portal-type system. Gravity based substructures have been
built with one to four shafts. A rectangular or a T-arrangement of four shafts has
been adopted. The basic form is a modularized topside with a grid of heavy box
girders.
A few elements only of the GBS-topside structural design are indicated below:
 due to portal frame action, the deck is subject to fatigue; a design case
difficult to control in topside design.
 equipment lay out optimization, piping and cable routes, logistic and
emergency routes require many big openings and perforations of plate walls,
thus creating stress concentrations.
 attachment of secondary structures and of equipment/pipe/cable supports to
the main structure must be strictly controlled, to avoid fatigue problems.
 the connection area with the concrete shaft must provide the transition from
circular (shaft) to square (deck). It accommodates high strength anchor bars,
temporary crushing devices for deckmating, and requires tolerances on deck
and substructure dimensions.
 inspection and repair options must be planned carefully, especially as
fatigue may occur.
The material used at present is high strength steel typically of 355 MPa yield
stress. There is a trend to use higher strength steel (420-460 MPa).
3.3 Floor Systems
The concept for the floor-system in offshore structures is conventional: hot rolled
beams, typically at 1000-1200mm centres, are covered by a chequered or flat steel
plate 6-10mm thick.
The options are:
 conventional steel floor

 steel grating (bar-type or plate type)
 aluminium floor system
 orthotropic deck in steel
 corrugated steel plate
The conventional steel floor contributes approximately half of the weight of the
steel structure of an offshore deck.
Steel gratings, especially with the plate type, could gain increased application as
their weight per sq.m. is attractive.
Aluminium has attracted much interest recently; current development in Norway

will show its real potential.
Orthotropic decks in steel have found application in helidecks. Further study is

required to assess their actual feasibility for floors of offshore modules.
Corrugated steel plate (approximately 1-3mm thick) as sub-flooring has been used
in living quarters.
In summary, the floor concept used for a typical floor of an offshore deck of a
module is a conventional steel floor or steel grating.
3.4 Floor Panel Concept for Conventional Steel Floor
The floor panel, defined as the assembly of the floor plate and the stringer, can be
connected to the overall structure in two ways:
 stacked: stringer over the top of deckbeams.

 flush: stringer welded in between deck beam, with top flange in one plane. It
is practically impossible to change from the flush to stacked arrangement in
a later phase of the design.
All elevations and overhead clearances are involved in the choice of arrangement.
Clearances are very important for equipment height, pipe routing, pipe stress, cable
routing, etc. The single most important structural aspect is the amount of
prefabrication that can be carried out away from the main fabrication yard. The
cost is also a very important factor.
3.5 Floor Stabilization Concept
The deck structure requires lateral stabilization of each floor with respect to:
 lateral instability of beams

 horizontal forces, e.g. wind, pipe reactions, sea transport
 horizontal components of permanent braces
 horizontal components of temporary braces, e.g. seafastening
 horizontal components of sling forces
 module skewing during installation.
There are essentially two options for floor stabilization:
 provision of separate underfloor horizontal bracings

 allocate the stabilization function to the floor plate.
There is a clear preference for the stabilization by the floor plate. Where underfloor
bracing is adopted, there are two configuration options (see Figure 11). The
rhomboid solution should be chosen for the upper deck, due to congestion at the
column by the padeyes for lifting. The underfloor bracing under a plate floor does
create a very unclear structural situation. The bracing is assumed completely to
perform the stabilizing function, but in practice the floor plate is much too stiff to
allow that. It is common practice in the structural analysis for underfloor bracing to
neglect completely the floor plate.
4. DECK FLOORING DESIGN
4.1 Introduction
The selection of the main deck dimensions have been considered above in relation
to lay-out requirements.
The interactive process of conceptual design of the jacket and deck yields the
spacing of the columns. In the Dutch sector of the North Sea, transverse column
spacings are typically 9m for a wellhead platform to 15m for a production
platform. Longitudinally spacings are typically 15m.
Next decisions are made on:
 floor system: plate versus grating

 main structure: truss versus portal frame
 floor panel concept: stacked versus flush
 floor stabilization underfloor bracing versus plate.
The structural concept is then complete.
A principle for economic design of steel structures is that the load-paths should be
short.
For a floor design of a production deck typical dimensions are:
Structural item Typical span
1. floor plate 1m
2. stringer (longitudinal) 5m
3. deck beam (transversal) 15m
4. main structure (longitudinal) 15m
5. column
These components are identified in Figure 6.
4.2 Floor Plate
Design
Options are to choose between flat plate, chequered plate or tear plate. Another
option for providing slip resistance is to coat with a sand finish. The floor plate
thickness is usually 8-10mm and 6mm for lighter loaded floors, although welding
distortion may rule out the 6 mm thickness.
In practice the floor plate acts as horizontal bracing between the columns.
Special attention is required to ensure that all welds between the floor plate and the
underlying structure do not form brittle points. Failure of such welds could lead to
crack initiation in the rest of the structure.
The same attention applies to the buckling of the floor plate by stresses which are
picked up unintentionally.
Strength of Floor Plate
The strength of the floor plate is very high both for uniform as well as concentrated
loads.
Elastic, small-deflection theory provides uneconomical conservative results.
API-RP2A (2) does not specify live loads. They are specified by the operator.
For main decks generally accepted figures are:
p = 20kN/sqm, or
F = 10-25 kN on a 0,3 x 0,3m load area
Det Norske Veritas [3] presents an expression for the required plate thickness t,
which incorporates membrane effects and is of special interest for design for local
loads.
Equipment and containers are regularly offloaded by the crane in some deck areas,
such as lay-down areas and food container platforms. An increased plate thickness
may be required in these areas due to larger concentrated loads (1).
4.3 Stringers
The typical stringer for a production platform is an IPE 240-270 or HE 240-280A

profile positioned at approximately 1m centres and spanning 5m.
It is important to choose, especially for stacked floor panels, a profile which allows
selection of heavier sections with practically identical depth to accommodate local
heavy equipment.
Designers should avoid choosing deeper sections or reinforcing them to

accommodate late extra load requirements by welding another section underneath.
Interference with small diameter, hard piping or with cable trays then is quite
likely.
Joining floor plate and stringers requires welding. Intermittent welding is generally
not accepted. A continuous thin weld (a = 4 mm) is usually specified. The shear in
this weld is generally quite low.
The joint between the stringer and the deck beam differs with the floor panel
concept chosen.
 stacked floors have a continuous fillet weld around the flange contact area
and generally do not have web stiffening of the stringers.
If the top of the deck beam becomes inaccessible for maintenance, some operators
will require seal plates to be welded between the deck beam and the floor plate.
This is quite expensive. A typical joint is depicted in Figure 7.
The decision on the type of stringer joint should preferably be made prior to
material ordering.
 flush floors. Welding the floor between deck beams requires removal of the
top-flange of the stringer near its end and perfect fit between the deck beams
and floor. Deck beam prefabrication is also required.
4.4 Deck Beams

Deck beams supporting the floor panels or providing direct support to major
equipment are generally provided as HE 800-1000 beams, though HL 1000
(400mm wide) or HX 1000 (450mm wide) are also used for heavier loads or
greater spans.
The major joint in the deck beam is that with the main structure.
The joint configuration is strongly determined by the prefabrication concept and

elevation of the flanges. It is different for the stacked and for the flush concept.
Stacked Floor Concept
Figures 8 and 9 illustrate the problems.

For the full stacked concept (Figure 9), where both transverse and longitudinal
main beam are positioned lower, welding of the top flanges is straightforward.
The lower flange, typically 40mm thick, can only be welded to the web, typically
20-25mm thick, if alignment of both flanges is ensured.
The lower flange of the main structure should be at least 250mm underneath, to
enable back welding of the root.
For the less suitable partially stacked concept (Figure 8), where only the transverse
main beam is positioned lower, connection for the top flange of the transverse deck
beam is more difficult. Direct welding of the top flange of the deck beam to the
web should be rejected. Options are shown in Figure 9 with detail (a) haunching
and detail (b) slotting the top flange through the web.
Again it is apparent that a decision on joint configuration is required prior to

material ordering.
Flush Floor Concept
Detailing is dependent of the prefabrication policy.

If the deck panel is prefabricated as an assembly of plate, stringer and deck beam,
the detail shown in Figure 10a is the more appropriate.
To allow top flange welding a strip of the floor plate is fitted and welded last.
If the deck panel is fabricated as an assembly of plate and stringer only, the detail
Figure 10b will be the most feasible.
4.5 Horizontal Bracing
In Section 3.5 the preference for the floor plate to act as horizontal bracing was
indicated.
If however separate bracing members are required, the elevation must be chosen
carefully. The bracing members have to pass with sufficient clearance under the
stringers, penetrate the web of the deck beams at sufficient distance from the lower
flange. They also require good access for welding of the joint.
These requirements generate the elevation and the maximum feasible diameter of
the brace (Figure 11).
Horizontal bracing can easily clash with vertical piping and major hatches.
Assembly of the braces is generally quite cumbersome.
 The topside lay-out was discussed, referring to API-RP2G, together with
general aspects of interface control and weight control.
 Based on the type of substructure, jacket and GBS, the different types of
topside structure were introduced and described. These types are:
integrated deck.
module support frame.
modules.
 Floor concepts were described.

 Several aspects of the plate floor design were addressed.
6. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2G: Production facilities on offshore structures.
American Petroleum Institute 1 ed. 1974.
Presents the basic requirements.

fixed platforms.
American Petroleum Institute, 18th ed., 1989.
The structural offshore code governs the majority of platforms.
[3] DNV: Rules for the classification of steel ships.
Part 5, Chapter 2.4.C, Permanent decks for wheel loading.

Det Norske Veritas.
Practical approach for economic floor plate design under static load.
1. M. Langseth & c.s.: Dropped objects, plugging capacity of steel plates.
BOSS Conference 1988 Trondheim, pp 1001-1014.
Floor and roof plate behaviour under accidental loading.
2. D. v.d. Zee & A.G.J. Berkelder: Placid K12BP biggest Dutch production
platform.
IRO Journal, nr. 38, 1987, pp 3-9.
Presents a recent example for a portal-framed topside.
3. P. Gjerde et al: Design of steel deckstructures for deepwater multishaft

gravity concrete platform.
9th. OMAE conference Houston 1990, paper 90-335.
Most recent presentation on GBS topside structure.
4. P. Dubas & c.s.: Behaviour and design of steel plated structures, IABSE
Surveys S 31/1985, August 1985, pp 17-44.
Good background to theory of plated structures.

ESDEP WG 15A
Lecture 15A.11 - Superstructures II

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To elaborate on structural steel concepts for integrated decks, module support

frames, and modules. To show principles and methods of construction (from yard
to offshore site).
PRE-REQUISITES
Lectures 1A & 1B: Steel Construction
Lecture 6.3: Elastic Instability Modes
Lecture 7.6: Built-up Columns
Lectures 8.4: Plate Girder Behaviour and Design
Lecture 11.2: Welded Connections
Lecture 15A: Offshore Structures
SUMMARY
Structural systems for each type of topside structure are introduced, i.e. truss,
portal frame, box girder, and stressed skin.
Some special topics of design are addressed and the different construction phases
are presented in more detail, i.e.:
1. fabrication
2. weighing
3. load out
4. sea transport
5. offshore installation especially deckmating
6. module installation
7. hook-up
8. commissioning.
A brief discussion on inspection and repair and on platform removal concludes this
lecture.
1. INTRODUCTION
This lecture deals with the structural design of jacket-based offshore deck
structures, following the introduction in Lecture 15A.10.
Heavy decks, over 10.000 tons, are provided with a module support frame onto
which a number of modules are placed, see Lecture 15A.1, Figs. 4 and 5. Smaller
decks, such as those located in the southern North Sea, are nowadays installed
complete with all equipment in one lift to minimize offshore hook-up. Most of this
lecture refers to this type of integrated deck as described in Lecture 15A.10.
The selection of the concept for the structural deck is made in close cooperation
with the other disciplines.
For the design of the deck structure, the in-place condition has to be considered,
together with the various previous stages such as fabrication, load-out, transport
and installation.
A structural system for a deck structure comprises several of the following

elements:
Floors (steel plate or grating) }

Deck stringer (H beams, bulbs or troughs) } Discussed in
Horizontal bracing } Lecture 15A.10
Deck beams }
Primary girders }
Vertical trusses or bracing } Discussed in
Deck legs } this lecture
2. MAIN STRUCTURE DESIGN

2.1 Introduction
Some major topics in topside structural design are reviewed below.

2.2 Main Structure-Portal Frame Design
A portal frame design has been used in recent major projects in the Dutch sector
such as Amoco P15, Placid K12 [5] and Penzoil L8.
The main girder/column joint, as shown in Figure 1, is very important in

determining the height. It is most practical to position the longitudinal and
transverse main girder flanges at the same elevation.
Haunching of the transverse main girder , which is more lightly loaded-in-plane,
however is not an option as these girders become highly loaded during transport.
The severe restraint of welding a tubular in a diaphragm requires the selection of

TTP steel for the column section.
Due to the high importance of the diaphragm plates in the overall integrity of the
structure and the welding constraints on the web plates in between, TTP-steel is
chosen also for the diaphragm.
Another option is to weld the girders directly onto the unstiffened can section of
the column. The assessment of ultimate resistance as well as fatigue strength has
been the subject of recent research (see Lecture 15A.12).
Further improvement of the theoretical and experimental background is required.

For lighter loaded truss structures, this non-stiffened type of joint has been used
successfully.
A third solution is to weld the girders directly to the can section of the column,
which is internally stiffened by rings. Its most severe disadvantage is the difficulty
of inspecting the column interior.
The disadvantage of both direct girder-column joints is that the girder sizing is
governed by the very high moments at the column/beam transition point.
Cast steel nodes form an alternative to the welded designs.
Member selection for portal frame structures with increasing section moduli
usually includes:
 300 mm wide rolled beam.

 400 mm wide rolled beam.
 450 mm /460 mm wide rolled beam.
 castellated beams fabricated from rolled beams, giving a height 1,5 times the
original beam height.
 built-up girders fabricated from rolled beam T-sections with a web plate
welded-in-between.
 plate girder.
The plate girder of course provides the greatest flexibility for design, material
selection and procurement, though its cost per tonne is approximately twice that of
a rolled beam.
2.3 Main Structure-Truss Design

Most offshore structures of moderate size have been provided with a truss-type
structure. Typically such trusses consist of rolled beams as chords and tubulars as
diagonals.
Truss design requires several choices which affect the structural efficiency and
have impact on other disciplines:
 number and configuration of braces

 falling or rising braces
 intermediate load carrying of chords
 presence of external moments on joints
 braces: tubulars or H-rolled sections
 chords: rolled section or plate girders
 truss joints: locally reinforced chord or prefabricated node section.
Figure 2 shows different arrangements of braces (basically N or W-type) obtained

by variation of the number of nodes. It should be kept in mind that all diagonals
and verticals form obstructions for piping and cable routings of all kinds.
For the transverse trusses, transparency is even more important, especially near the
well area. The number of members required should therefore be reduced to a
minimum.
Providing a W-truss with light verticals should be evaluated against choosing a

heavier chord section.
If a joint, e.g. at the top deck, is subject to severe moments due to lifting,
ventstack, or crane pedestal for example, much of the bracing stress would result
from unintended bending. Generally the deck leg restraint creates a similar
problem in the lower deck. An evaluation should yield a preferred location
therefore for the node of the end brace.
The truss deflects under its vertical load which leads to restraint of the chord in the
column and to bending of the chord. Both effects can quite severely effect the
efficiency. The chord section should be kept compact therefore and not given too
much height.
Tubulars (circular, square or rectangular) or rolled sections can be chosen for the
braces.
The choice depends primarily on the loads and the chord width. A chord width of
300mm can accommodate a 10 in. brace only. Thus a wider chord flange is
preferred.
2.4 Main Structure-Stressed Skin Design
A third major structural option is the stressed skin concept, where full height plate
walls take the function of the truss or the frame.
Modules for living quarters are frequently built to this concept. Other types of
modules have not been built with stressed skin since the obstruction they cause
during construction is severe.
For smaller stressed skin modules, trapezoid corrugated plate can be used to
provide a wall in a frame of square hollow sections.
For bigger modules, flat plate stiffened with through-stiffeners is used for the
walls.
The detailed design can only be made with a clear plan for assembling the module
which shows the panels that must be prefabricated.
2.5 Non-Load Bearing Walls
Blast or fire walls are provided in offshore platforms. Due to their function full
welding to the main structure is often unavoidable, see Figure 3a.
Special attention is required concerning:
 the capability of the walls to comply with the deformation of the main
structure during load-out, sea transport, lifting and in-service.
 the strength of welds to the main structure being stronger than the plate to
avoid rupture and potential crack initiation of the main structure.
One solution is to provide a flexible detail, see Figure 3b and 3c, with stiffeners
falling short.
2.6 Crane Pedestals
Crane pedestal, are discussed briefly below.
It is structurally economical to put the crane pedestal on top of a main column. For
a truss type the main structure will be close to the platform periphery so a moderate
length of crane boom is sufficient.
For a portal frame type with columns closer to the outer periphery, the pedestal
requires a special column in order to avoid using a crane with large boom length.
Figure 4 depicts such a solution.
The functions of the main structure with respect to the crane pedestal are:
 to provide torsional support preferable at top deck level

 to provide lateral restraint at top deck level
 to provide lateral restraint at the lower end of the pedestal
 to provide vertical support, preferably at the lower end of the pedestal.
Bending restraint by deck beams and/or main structure girders is not required and
should be reduced where possible. Torsion caused by slewing of the crane should
preferably be resisted by the floor plate, the stiffest element.
It has become practice to include the tapered top section of the pedestal in the
supply package of the crane. The top section contains the large flange for the
slewing bearing.
Fatigue due to crane operations is a design criterion and requires careful detailing
of the pedestal and the adjoining structure.
3. ANALYSIS OF DECK STRUCTURES

3.1 Introduction
Although the analysis of deck structures is a standard task, several aspects require
special attention:
 Plate girder design

 Strength of joints
 Strength of the floor plate
 Lifting points
 Modelling of floor plates
 Support of modules.
3.2 Plate Girder Design
Design of plate girders requires selection of many dimensional variables and of

approaches for assessing load-carrying resistance. Lectures 8.4 deal in more detail
with plate girder design.
Web buckling due to bending, normal force and shear restricts the slenderness of
the web which is expressed as the height of the web (h) divided by the web
thickness (t).
API-RP2A [2] refers to the AISC manual [3] which gives the figures below for
material with yield-stress of 355 MPa:
Allowable bending stress 0,66 Fy 0,60 Fy
Ratio web height h to thickness t 90 138
Ratio flange width b to thickness t 18 27
Instead of the above approach, more recent research, [3] and [6], allows use of the
post-buckling strength. The depth/thickness limits given above do not then apply.
3.3 Strength of Joints
The most important joints in a topside steel structure are:
 the ring stiffened joint between rolled beams or plate girders with a circular
column.
 the non-stiffened joint between rolled beams or plate girders with a circular
column.
 the tubular brace joint to single web beams.
 the non-overlapped tubular joint.
These joints are discussed in Lecture 15A.12.
3.4 Lifting Points
The effect of lifting points on deck design is considerable. For example the local
forces that act on the lifting points (Figure 5) have to be transmitted safely through
to the deck structure.
There are two types of lifting points, trunnions and padeye, Figure 6.
Trunnions, though favourable from other points of view, see Section 4, can
generate considerable offset of the sling force with respect to the topdeck system
points. Significant bending is generated which is transferred to the topdeck girders
to the extent that they contribute to joint stiffness. It is most efficient to leave these
bending moments in the column, by providing stiff columns.
Padeyes generally provide a good opportunity to minimize or eliminate offset, as

far as they can be situated on top of the column. The requirement of recessed
padeyes (recessed padeyes are those which are positioned between the top and
bottom flange elevation) or the presence of other structures on the top deck can
lead to very eccentric positioning and resulting heavy moments. For this reason the
lifting concept must be developed in the concept phase of the structural
development.
API-RP2A [1] requires larger load factors to be used for members direct-loaded by
padeyes or trunnions.
3.5 Modelling of Floor Plates
There are two points of major interest:
 representation of the floorplate in the structural model

 true elevation
There are several ways to model the plate. The most direct is to choose a
computer-program which allows selection of plate elements. A second option is to
define representative members which model the plate stiffness by diagonals.
The deck plate is often positioned in the model at the elevation of the centre line,
i.e. the mid height of the main structure girders, in order to save nodes in the
model. It should however be recognised that this "error" of elevation, amounting to
0,5 - 1m, can affect the results. A separate evaluation should then be performed on
the effect to this deliberate "error" at least at some critical points.
3.6 Support of Modules
Modules and deck structures interact structurally. API-RP2A [1] requires that
modules are modelled as elastic structures for the analysis of the supporting deck.
In the 1970's major difficulties arose in the decks for concrete gravity structures,
because modules were represented as a set of loads for the different load cases,
acting at the support points, and neglecting structural interaction. The basic
phenomenon of this interaction is that the distribution of the support reactions of
the module is quite unequal and varies with the load case. Dimensional control of
the module as well as the support, with corrective measures, further provide
control over the module - deck interaction. Some modules, such as living quarter
modules, gas compressor and injection modules, are often placed on anti-vibration
pads in order to isolate them from vibrations.
4. CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Introduction
In Lecture 15A.1 the principal aspects of construction of offshore structures and

their major equipment was introduced.
For topsides more specific aspects are discussed below.
4.2 Fabrication
4.2.1 Operations
The design should allow efficient prefabrication of major sections. Prefabrication

will avoid congestion in one working area and it speeds up the whole construction
process.
Prefabrication and assembly shall properly incorporate the aspects of installation of

major and smaller mechanical equipment, as well as outfitting with piping,
electrical and instrument cables and lines. It should be recognized that major
mechanical and electrical equipment is often not available at the start of assembly
and must be brought in during fabrication.
4.2.2 Design aspects
Since the overhead space is well covered by extensive piping routes as well as
cable trays during construction, "late" structural work should preferably not be
positioned overhead in that underfloor area.
Fabrication of offshore steel structures is principally assembly by welding.
The prefabrication concept and joint detailing should maximize welding

productivity with many horizontal welds preferably made using SMAW
technology.
Support to the topside during construction should be well controlled to avoid

settlement and to keep within construction tolerances.
Special consideration should be given to the selection of materials suitable for the
fabrication. Where thick-walled elements are involved requiring Post Weld Heat
Treatment (PWHT), the design should position such welding and the PWHT in the
prefabrication phase.
4.3 Weight Engineering

The topside must be kept under strict weight control, as explained in Lecture
15A.10. To that end the topside is usually weighed prior to load out. The basic
design of a weighing system usually consists of a set of hydraulic jacks with
electrical load cells on top, installed between the topside and the shop floor. The
accuracy of such systems is typically 0,5-1%.
Accuracy is necessary in order to check the actual position of the centre of gravity.
Knowledge of the position is vital for the installation.
The system for support of the topside should be similar to the anticipated method
of load out.
4.4 Load Out
4.4.1 Operations
The load out usually combines two operations:
 moving the topside from the fabrication hall to the nearby quay.
 moving the topside from the quay onto the barge.
The short journey on land can be complicated when the track is not flat or curves
have to be taken.
The most preferred option for load out is therefore to use a platform trailer with
individual suspended wheels, see Figure 7 and Slide 1.
Slide 1 : General arrangement of a load out through skidding
The trailer drives from the quay over a rocker flap resting on the quay and the
barge and then slowly onto the barge. The barge is kept in right trim by ballast
pumping.
When it reached the right position, the topside is set down on the beam grid of the
sea fastening.
4.4.2 Design aspects load out
When using platform trailers the lower deck should be designed to meet three basic
load-out requirements:
 the bottom flange plates of the transverse beams should all be in one plane.
 the distance of transverse beams should not exceed approximately 7 m.
 the lower deck should be able to take an upward reaction typically in the
range of 50-60 kN/m2 of ground area.
A uniform distribution of loads is assumed for platform trailers. Skid systems

which are not provided with a proper load sharing system will lead to a non-
uniform load distribution.
Design for load-out requires coordination with sea fastening design.
4.5 Sea Transport and Sea Fastening
4.5.1 Operations
Sea transport is a very critical operation, especially for topsides (see Slide 2).
Slide 2 : Seafastening of 105MN Brent C topside
After completion of the load out and full fastening to the barge, the barge is
ballasted to its target draft and cleared for the transport.
The barge is towed by one or two tugs to the offshore location. There the barge is
positioned close alongside the crane vessel.
Prior to lifting, the sea fastening is cut free.
Planning the sea transport contains several steps:
 identification of critical clearances, e.g. (harbour depth, width of bridges or

locks, etc inshore)
 barge selection (a.o. stability, dynamic behaviour, location of bulkends).
 evaluation of sea route (weather, length of tow).
 assessment of barge motions in sea state.
 development of a sea fastening concept.
 assessment of deck/module integrity.
 assessment of barge integrity.
There is also the option with some crane vessels to transport the top side on board.
Usually an extra take over is required as the draft of the crane vessel exceeds the
depth at the fabricator's quay. The advantage however is that sea fastening requires
less effort. Furthermore, the offshore operation is simpler and quicker, as the most
critical and weather sensitive operation - lift off the barge- is avoided.
4.5.2 Design aspects of sea transport and sea fastening
Several elements of the structure are dominated by the load condition during
transport, see Lecture 15A.1.
All equipment in or on the topside is also subject to heavy loads, e.g. control
panels, generator skids, platform crane, during transport.
Internal bracing of a topside for transport is not favoured since it creates obstacles
and risk of damage or fire to cables, instruments, piping and equipment during
subsequent removal. External bracing is also not without problems. The width of
the topside requires an extra wide barge. It is difficult to find "strong" points on the
topside exterior. The basic concept is therefore to fix the topside to the barge by its
columns only.
The designer should be aware that the bending stiffness of the topside often
exceeds that of the barge. Considerable "composite" action can result when the
barge deflects in heavy head-on seas.
It is very important for any sea fastening concept to consider aspects of de-
seafastening, i.e. cutting free, prior to lift off, and the need to remain safe in a
moderate sea state.
De-seafastening should not require any handling by cranes. Braces cut loose at one
end should therefore remain stable and safe while fixed at one end only.
Design of the sea fastening should not require any welding in the column joint,
since the topside would not then be ready for immediate set down onto the jacket.
When the tow is more than one or two days long, fatigue may have to be
considered on critical nodes.
4.6 Installation
4.6.1 Operations
Installation on the substructure can be:
 deck mating with a deep submerged floating GBS (Slide 3)

 lifting onto an already installed jacket (Slide 4).
Slide 3 : Deckmating of the 500MN Gullfaks-C topside
Slide 4 : Installation of 60MN K12-BP topside by floating crane
Deck mating is a floating operation in a sheltered location, e.g. a Norwegian fjord

or Scottish loch. Deck mating requires that the deck is temporarily supported with
the final supports free. This requirement creates a very awkward load situation for
the deck structure.
Lifting is the usual installation method for jacket-based topsides. During

development of a platform concept, the lift strategy should be defined as part of the
overall construction strategy. The lifting capacity of crane vessels is defined by
hook-load and reach.
The required reach is determined mainly by the width of the topside and/or the
transport barge.
The major steps are:
 review of the weight report.

 assessment of "critical" elevations.
 assessment of feasible crane vessels.
 development of a lift concept.
 preliminary sizing of slings, shackles, trunnions, etc.
 concept design of guides and bumpers.
 analysis of deck or module structure for lift condition.
4.6.2 Design aspects of installation by lifting
The lift concept consists of several elements:
 the single or dual crane lift

 the sling configuration
 choice of topside pick-up points
 the necessity (or not) for spreader bars or even spreader frames
 the single, double or paired slings
 the choice of padeyes, or trunnions.
Crane vessels were listed in Lecture 15A.1. Slings are available up to over 400mm
nominal diameter with safe working loads of 20-25 MN.
A basic element in all elevations is the inevitable tolerance in sling length which
leads to an unequal distribution of sling forces (typically 25%-75%) in a four sling
lift. The unequal sling forces lead to significant stresses in the module (see Figure
8).
The use of spreader bars leads to a fully balanced lift without distorting the
module. However the spreader bar is quite expensive and usually leads to a
requirement for a higher hook elevation.
The use of a spreader frame should only be considered in exceptional cases and
does not prevent module distortion. The padeye/shackle option is limited by the
safe working load (maximum 10MN) of the biggest shackle. The trunnion can
accommodate higher loads.
4.7 Hook up
Hook up is the completion of all joints and connections after installation.

For economic reasons, the overall construction strategy should keep hook up work
to a minimum. Critical hook up work is the work required immediately to secure
the object in order to survive the next storm.
4.8 Commissioning
Commissioning is not relevant to the structural design.
4.9 Inspection Maintenance and Repair (IMR)
These activities are a major source of operational expenditure, OPEX, as

introduced in Lecture 15A.1.
Some requirements are:
 inspection of the primary structure is a statutory, fully planned activity.

 inspection is only possible when proper access to the area or joint is
provided.
 gaining access is costly and requires space to be left behind equipment.
 minimum provisions, e.g. small clamps under the deck, greatly speeds up
scaffolding.
 crack growth through fatigue is slow. A crack is usually detectable before
one quarter of its life is passed.
 dirt accumulation promotes corrosion damage.
 maximum use should be made of the results of inspection. Evaluation
should lead to modification of the inspection programme where appropriate.
4.10 Removal
Removal requirements are different from country to country. In some depths of

water full removal is required in some countries from the mudline upward.
Elsewhere only the structure 75 m or more above the mudline must be removed.
Extensive engineering of removal is required to achieve a safe and effective

operation. In the Gulf of Mexico removed structures are dumped in the form of
reefs. It is very difficult and inefficient at present to include conceptual removal
engineering in the design phase. When re-use of the facility is planned, then
removal engineering should be developed early in the design.
 Structural systems for each type of topside structure were introduced, i.e.
truss, portal, box girder, and stressed skin systems.
 In the section on design some topics were addressed in more detail.
 In the section on construction the different phases were presented in more
detail, i.e.
i. fabrication
ii. weighing
iii. load out
iv. sea transport
v. offshore installation especially deckmating
vi. module installation
vii. hook-up
viii. commissioning
 A brief discussion on inspection and repair and on platform removal

concluded the lecture.
6. REFERENCES
fixed platforms.
American Petroleum Institute, 18th ed., 1989.
The structural offshore code, governs the majority of platforms.
[2] AISC: Allowable stress design manual (ASD).
9th ed., American Institute of Steel Construction, 1989.
Widely used structural code for topsides.
[3] API-Bulletin 2V: Bulletin on design of flat plate structures.
American Petroleum Institute, 1st ed., 1987.
Valuable specialist addendum to API-RP2A.
[4] API-Bulletin 2U: Bulletin on stability design of cylindrical shells.
American Petroleum Institute, 1st ed., 1987.
Valuable specialist addendum to API-RP2A.
[5] D.v.d. Zee & A.G.J. Berkelder: Placid K12BP biggest Dutch production
platform.
IRO Journal, nr. 38, 1987, pp 3-9.

Presents a recent example for a portal framed topside.
[6] R. Narayanan: Plated structures/Stability and Strength.
Applied Science Publishers, London, 1983.
Good designers guide to plated structures design.
[7] ANON: Gullfaks C platform deckmating.
Ocean Industry, April 1989, pp 24.
Good description of the actual mating of deck to GBS.
[8] A.G.J. Berkelder: Seafastening 105 MN Brent C deck.
Bouwen met Staal, nr.24 1979.
Presentation of seafastening design for GBS topside.

ESDEP WG 15A:
OFFSHORE STRUCTURES
Lecture 15A.12: Connections in Offshore

Deck Structures
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To outline and explain the best methods for forming structural connections in
offshore deck structures; to discuss the importance of a proper choice of
connection type to achieve both the required strength and stiffness, and ease of
fabrication.
PREREQUISITES
Lectures 11.2: Welded Connections
Lectures 11.4: Analysis of Connections
Lectures 13: Tubular Structures
Lectures 15A: Structural Systems: Offshore
RELATED LECTURES (covering specific items in greater detail)
Lectures 3.6: Inspection/Quality Assurance
Lecture 4A.5: Corrosion Protection in Offshore Structures and Sheet Piling
Lecture 11.5: Simple Connections for Buildings
Lectures 12.4: Fatigue Behaviour of Hollow Section Joints
SUMMARY
Various forms of structural connections in steel offshore deck structures are

discussed; these cover the connections between deck stringers and main beams,
between main beams themselves, between main beams and deck legs, truss
connections and connections between columns and beams. The importance of
designing and dimensioning to minimise fabrication and maintenance is
emphasised.
1. INTRODUCTION
Large offshore deck structures have traditionally been built up using modular
components, see Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11; a module support frame is built on
top of the deck legs of the jacket structure on which the various modules are
installed. With the high lifting capacities currently available, the topsides of light
to medium offshore structures can now be installed in one lift. This development
has had a considerable influence on the fabrication and design of deck structures,
and has resulted in heavier modules, constructed of larger and heavier members,
with consequences for the connections.
Another aspect influencing fabrication, and thus the design, was the development
of cleaner steels, with modified chemical compositions and good through-thickness
properties. This so-called TTP steel (i.e. steel with through-thickness properties,
see Lecture 2.4) has a low sulphur content to avoid lamellar tearing. Furthermore,
if the carbon and carbon equivalent (CEV) is low, the preheat temperature of the
steel can be lowered, resulting in easier welding (without preheating) which again
influences the connection design.
The increase in lifting capacity, and the exploration for gas and oil in deeper water,
have both resulted in larger structures, and have stimulated the use of higher
strength steels, with yield strengths above 355 N/mm2.
The joints have to be designed to withstand the various loading conditions

(see Lectures 15A.2 and 15A.3) experienced during fabrication, load-out,
transport, installation and the in-place condition (operation and storm). In order to
allow redistribution of stresses it is important that the joints are stronger than the
connected members; if this is not the case the joints themselves must have
sufficient deformation/rotation capacity.
The connection design should take account of all the aforementioned aspects and
should be considered as an interactive procedure involving the choice of the
structural layout, the fabrication sequence and the steel grades and qualities to be
used. Other aspects such as inspection and corrosion protection requirements must
also be considered.
Since the fabrication costs are mainly governed by the costs of welding, the
connections should be simple, and where possible, avoid the use of stiffeners.
2. CONNECTIONS IN OFFSHORE DECK MODULES

The type of connections used in offshore deck modules depends directly on the
type of structure involved:
 truss types
 frame types
 stressed skin
As discussed in more detail in Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11, the structural system
for a deck includes several of the following elements:
 floor (steel plate or grating)

 deck stringers (I-beams, bulb flats or troughs)
 deck beams
 main beams or girders (beams on main grid lines)
 vertical trusses or braces
 deck legs and columns
Depending on their function, loading, and availability of sections, these elements

can be made of rolled I or H-sections, rolled circular or rectangular hollow
sections, or welded sections; for the larger sizes, welded I or box plate girders, or
welded tubular members are used.
These elements have to be connected together; since the modules are generally
fabricated under controlled conditions at the fabrication yard, welded connections
are common practice. The main connection types are discussed more in detail
below. Although it is common practice in offshore design to use the API-RP2A [1]
or the AISC rules [2], the basic joint behaviour is discussed in this lecture without
reference to the safety factors to be used.
3. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN DECK STRINGERS

AND BEAMS
The deck floor structure can be designed as a floor plate with stringers, or as an
orthotropic plate. The floor plate with stringers is the most common type as it gives
design flexibility for later changes (local loads, deck penetrations, etc). Orthotropic
plate structures, are generally used in helidecks, see Lectures 15A.10 and 15A.11.
The use of stacked stringers, as shown in Figure 1, facilitates fabrication and is,
therefore to be preferred to the use of continuous connections, as shown in Figure
2.
For ease of fabrication, stiffeners should be avoided if possible. This means that
the vertical loads have to be transmitted by the webs, as shown in Figure 1, over a
length ls for the stringer, and lb for the deck beam; web crippling failure is also
possible and should be checked. These are a common details which are dealt with
in Eurocode 3 [3] and other codes.
For the continuous connections, shown in Figure 2, the moment is assumed to be
transferred by the flange connection and the shear by the web connection.
The type of full penetration weld at the top flange for continuous connections
depends on the fabrication sequence and should be decided by the fabricator. The
bottom flange and web can generally be connected by fillet welds. A full
penetration weld of the flange, without a 'mouse hole', is preferred because of
corrosion protection although this results in a small weld defect at the neck
between flange and web. However, even under fatigue loading such a defect can be
accepted [4] the same is also valid for static loading. Only in cases where very high
strength steel (fy > 500N/mm2) is used and a high yield to ultimate stress ratio, e.g.
fy/fu > 0,9 occurs should this detail be evaluated rigorously. Since all loading cases
are not always checked, the welds have to be designed to have at least the same
strength as the connected parts, i.e. as the flange or web.
It should be recognized that the shear stress distribution (Figure 2) for a detail with
a 'mouse hole' is more severe than that without a 'mouse hole'. Special attention
should be given to the unsupported upper side of the web in Figure 2b, as local
buckling may be a problem, see Lecture 6.2 and [5].
4. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN INTERMEDIATE AND

MAIN DECK BEAMS
The connection between the deck beams is most convenient if these beams have
the same height, as shown in Figure 3b. Here the flanges are connected with full
penetration welds, and the web by fillet welds or a full penetration weld depending
on the thickness. Tolerance control is necessary to avoid differences at the deck
floor level, between stringers. The shear loads are generally too high to allow a
single or double sided notch as shown in Figure 3b since this results in a higher
shear stress, see Figure 2. In case of equal heights, no TTP requirements are
necessary for the beams. For the connection of beams with unequal heights,
however, as shown in Figure 3a, the web of the main beam should have a TTP
quality due to the loads being transferred through the web thickness. Furthermore,
to satisfy the requirements for avoidance of cold cracking, etc., either the flange
thickness of the intermediate beam should be less than 1,5 times the web thickness
of the main beam, or the material should have a low carbon content (see Lecture
2.5).
As an expensive alternative solution, a plate connecting the flanges can be slotted
through the web, as shown in Figure 4. Haunched alternatives are given in Lectures
15A.10 and 15A.11.
All welds should be designed to have the strength of the connected parts.
As a consequence the connection is as strong as the member; only in case of large

'mouse holes' the shear stress and possible local buckling of the unsupported web
part [5] have to be checked.
5. BEAM TO DECK LEG CONNECTIONS

The main beams, either rolled H sections or plate girders, must be connected to the
deck legs, which are normally fabricated tubular members. For a frame type
structure, this connection should be rigid and capable of transmitting the yield
moment resistance of the connected beams. These connections, or nodes, are
generally prefabricated, consisting of a tubular "can" with surrounding "diamond"
(diaphragm) plates for the connection with the beams, as shown in Figure 5. This
type of connection requires special material specifications and special welding
procedures.
Stiffened Connections
The shear loads are transferred by the connection of the web plates to the tube
walls. The moment is transmitted by the diamond plate in combination with an
effective ring width of the tubular "can". The design resistance, for factored
loading, is normally checked with the experimental Kamba formula, which is
simplified by Kurobane [6] as follows:
NRd =
where:
NRd is the design resistance for the flange for factored loading
fy is the yield stress of deck leg "can"
b1 is the flange width of deck beam
do is the outer diameter of tube
to is the wall thickness of the deck leg "can"
ts is the thickness of ring plate
hs is the smallest width of the ring plate
bf =
Validity ranges:
The axial force in the flange N, is derived from N = Mcw/(h1 - t1) (see Figure 5).
This formula is based on the test results for a ring-stiffened joint with two opposite
loads; more detailed research is currently being carried out [7]. In the case of
multi-planar loading, for four loads acting in the same sense, the joint strength will
be greater. However, if the two loads in one direction are tensile and the two in the
direction perpendicular to that are compressive, the joint strength may be
decreased. Reference [7] reports that this decrease was found to be a maximum of
30%. Furthermore, if the deck leg is loaded by axial compressive stress amounting
to 60% of the yield value, the strength of the connection has to be reduced by 20%.
Non-Stiffened Connections
For truss type frames, the beam to deck leg connection has to transfer mainly axial
loading and an unstiffened connection, as shown in Figure 6, could be used; this is,
however, not yet common practice. If sufficient deformation capacity exists, the
secondary bending moments can be neglected for static loading. If fatigue loading
has to be checked, however, care should be taken with these secondary bending
moments, because the stress concentration factors at the flange to tubular
connection are rather high. For practical cases these stress concentration factors
can be in the order of 10 for , see [8].

The static design resistance for factored load of the unstiffened connection is
determined by the strength of the flange to tube connection, which can be based on
Togo's ring model, see Lecture 13.2. The design resistance for flange loads in one
direction (X-joint loading) is given by Eurocode 3 [3] and [9].
NRd =
where:
NRd is the design strength for the flange for factored loading
fyo is the yield stress of joint "can"
to is the wall thickness of joint "can"
 is the flange width b1 to "can" diameter do ratio
kp is the influence function for additional stress in the chord.
Validity ranges:
0,4    1,0
For bending moments in-plane, the axial force N is derived from N = Mcw/(h1 -t1)
as shown in Figure 5.
For an axial loading the flange connections can interact such that the connection
strength (I to tubular) is not twice the strength of one flange connection but:
NRd .
Consequently the beam to deck leg connection has to be checked for:
NSd  NRd
Mipsd  NR.d (h1 - t1)
Currently, for multi-planar loading with loads and moments acting in the opposite
sense, the same 30% reduction in joint strength as before is recommended,
although initial investigations indicate that this may be conservative [10]. No
reduction has to be applied if the loads are acting in the same sense.
6. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN BEAMS AND

COLUMNS
Columns between decks are necessary where external surfaces of the modules are
clad, or where cantilevers or laydown areas are provided. The connection with the
deck beams can be flexible in the longitudinal direction if these columns have only
to withstand lateral loading. If, however, they are used to transfer loadings from
cantilevers to both decks, the connections should have the same strength as the
column or they should have sufficient deformation capacity.
Figure 7 shows a possible full strength detail for columns connected to a plate
girder, with possible connecting side beams and an extended cantilever. Here the
web of the plate girder is ended before the flange to allow a tubular section to be
welded between the flanges. I-beam sections, even with different depths, can be
easily welded to this tubular section, and the columns can be welded to the flanges.
The "joint can" should have about the same diameter and thickness as the column.
In Figure 7 longitudinal beams and a cantilever beam are also connected to this
can. The bending moment resistance is here determined by the connection of the
bottom flange to the tubular can, similarly as discussed in Section 5.
7. TRUSS CONNECTIONS
Since the chords of the trusses are part of the deck floors, they are almost always
made from an I or H-section; in exceptional cases, welded box sections are used.
The diagonals are tubular, rectangular hollow sections, or H sections; all have their
advantages and disadvantages with regard to material costs, maintenance and
fabrication. Where these diagonals are connected to an I section chord, the chord
should be stiffened to obtain a full strength connection; it should be kept in mind
that intermediate beams may have to be connected to the chord at this location. The
connection should be designed in such a way that fabrication and inspection will be
easily possible.
Figure 8 shows some connection details for lightly loaded trusses.

These connections generally do not develop a strength equal to or larger than the
yield strength of the diagonals. Consequently the connection should have sufficient
deformation capacity. However experimental evidence is only available for the
connection according to Figure 8a.
From a fabrication point of view, the connections with a gap between the braces
are preferred. However the connections with overlapped braces as shown in
Figures 8c and 8d are stronger.
The connection strength may be governed by various criteria, depending on the

geometry, i.e:
a. chord web strength
b. chord web crippling under a compression brace
c. chord web shear between the diagonals of a gap joint
d. chord web buckling
e. brace (diagonal) effective width
f. brace shear failure at the flange connection
g. weld failure (to be avoided by full strength welds)
h. lamellar tearing (to be avoided by TTP material for the flange).
For connections according to Figure 8a, Eurocode 3 [3] provides design strength
formulae which can be used in a modified way for the connections of Figure 8b to
8d.
Within the scope of this lecture it is not possible to deal with all connections in
detail, however one example is given for a connection between tubular braces and
an I-section chord as shown in Figure 9.
The strength of the connection for axial loads at the chord intersection (cross-
section A) is governed by the effective width area:
Aeff.c = 2 (bm1 tp + bm2 tw)
For the brace intersection the effective width is given by:
Aeff.b = 2 (be1 + be2) tp
The strength of the connection is thus given by:
N2sin 2 = Aeff.c fyo
and
N2sin 2 = Aeff.b fyo
The effective widths bm1, bm2, be1 and be2 are given in Eurocode 3 (6.6.8 and
Appendix K, Table K.8.2).
As an additional check the chord cross-section between the braces has to be

checked for shear and shear in combination with axial loading and bending
moments, see Table K.8.2 of Eurocode 3.
The chord and braces have furthermore to satisfy the limits for d/t and h/t to avoid
local buckling.
Weld failure and lamellar tearing should always be avoided by choosing full
strength welds and proper selection of the steel grade and quality.
In these cases where the joint strength is lower than the brace member strength,
sufficient rotation capacity should be available if the bending moments are
neglected. Since it is difficult to show that sufficient deformation capacity exists
due to a lack of research evidence, either the bending moments have to be
incorporated in the strength assessment or the joint is stiffened to such an extent
that the joint strength is larger than the brace member strength, e.g. as shown in
Figure 10.
8. SPECIAL CONNECTIONS
The previous sections dealt with the most common types of connection; however,
depending on the platform layout, other types of connections may be necessary.
Figure 11, for example, shows the connection between two panels of stiffened
plates. Here both panels are made by (semi) automatic welding processes.
Allowance is made for welding tolerances by welding the ends of the stringers
after the fitting together of the panels. This procedure can be used for modules
which are designed using the stressed skin method.
Special provisions are necessary for lifting the modules; padeyes or trunnions, for
example, can be provided for this purpose, as shown in Figure 12; nowadays these
devices are sometimes made of cast steel. It is important that these lifting devices
are designed in such a way that they can be connected to the deck structure at a
later stage when the precise location of the centre of gravity of the module, and the
lifting method, are known.
Strength of padeyes is often assessed by means of "Lloyds" formulae, which are
presented in the SWL (safe working load) format.
The SWL is the least of the following values of Ni:
N1 = 0,60 (a tL + 2 b tE) fy
N2 = 1,08 (c tL + (D - d) tE) fy
N3 = 0,87 d (tL + 2 tE) fy
where the following limitations apply:
 1,0   8,0
 and if  1,0
then put tL + 2 tE = d in the above formulae.
 tE not to exceed tL/2

 dHOLE/dPIN  1,05
Tubular connections are not dealt with in this lecture since these are discussed in
more detail in Lectures 13.2 and 13.3.
For offshore deck structures, built up from stiffened plate panels, reference should
be made to Lectures 8.3 and 8.4.
For living quarters and helicopter decks, use can be made of the information in the
previous sections.
 The optimal design of offshore deck structures depends, to a large extent, on
the coordination between the specialists for the various disciplines; for the
layout, coordination between structural, mechanical, electrical, fabrication,
load out and installation engineers is important.
 The structural designer has to consider the fabrication sequence; the
conditions for welding and inspection (e.g. can it be welded properly?); the
consequences of the choice of material grade and quality on the fabrication;
and the various load conditions.
 In general, most connections can be designed with the basic formulae used
for tubular connections and beam-to-column connections. Background
information is given in [1, 2, 9, 11 - 15].
 Recently a study has been carried out to investigate the use of RHS in deck
structures [16]. This shows that the use of RHS, instead of beams, for deck
trusses can be economical. However, due to restrictions in available sizes,
economical solutions are mainly found for smaller platform sizes and for
secondary steelwork such as staircase towers, access platforms and
equipment supports.
10. REFERENCES
[1] API-RP2A "Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing
Fixed Offshore Platforms". American Petroleum Institute, 18th Edition, 1989
[2] AISC "Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural
Steel for Buildings". American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, 1980
[3] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1, General
Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.
[4] Dijkstra, O.D., Wardenier, J. "The Fatigue Behaviour of Welded Splices with
and without Mouseholes in IPE 400 and HEM 320 beams". Paper 14 Int.
Conference Weld Failures, November 1988, London
[5] Lindner, F. and Gietzeit, R. "Zur Tragfähigkeit ausgeklinkter Träger"

Stahlbauwz. 1985.
[6] Kurobane, Y. "New Developments and Practices in Tubular Joint Design". IIW
doc. XV-488-81/XIII-1004-81, International Institute of Welding, 1981
[7] Rink, H.D., Wardenier, J. and Winkel, G.D. de "Numerical Investigation into
the Static Strength of Stiffened I-Beam to Column Connections". Proceedings
International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Delft, June 1991. Delft University
Press.
[8] Hertogs, A.A., Puthli, R.S. and Wardenier, J. "Stress Concentration Factors in
Plate to Tube Connections". Proceedings ASME/OMAE Conference, March 1989,
Vol. II, pp. 719-727
[9] Wardenier, J. "Hollow Section Joints". Delft University Press, Delft, 1982
[10] Broek, T.J. van der, Puthli, R.S. and Wardenier, J. "The Influence of
Multiplanar Loading on the Strength and Stiffness of Plate to Tubular Column
Connections". Proceedings International Conference "Welded Structures 90",
London, UK, November 1990
[11] DNV "Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Fixed offshore
Structures" 1977 (with corrections 1982)
[12] Lloyd's Register "Rules and Regulations for the Classification of Fixed
Offshore Installation". London, July 1988
[13] IIW-XV-E "Design Recommendations for Hollow Section Joints -

Predominantly Statically Loaded - 2nd edition". 1989, IIW doc XV-701-89
[14] UEG "Design of Tubular Joints for Offshore Structures". UEG, London, 1985
(3 volumes)
[15] Voss, R.P. "Lasteinleitung in geschweisste Vollwandträger aus Stahl im

Hinblick auf die Bemessung von Lagersteifen". Ph.D-Thesis, TU Berlin D83, 1983
[16] Guy, H.D. "Structural Hollow Sections for Topside Constructions". Steel
Construction Today, 1990, 4

1. Marshall, P.W. "Design of Welded Tubular Connections: Basis and Use of
AWS Provisions". Elsvier, 1991
2. Schaap, D., Pal, A.H.M. v.d., Vries, A. de., Dague. D. and Wardenier,J.
"The Design of Amoco's 'Rijn' Production Platform". Proceedings of the
International Conference on Steel and Aluminium Structures, Cardiff, UK,
8-10 July 1987, Vol. Steel Structures
3. Paul, J.C., Valk, C.A.C. v.d., and Wardenier, J. "The Static Strength of
Circular Multiplanar X-joints". Proceedings of the third IIW International
Symposium on Tubular Structures, Lappeenranta, September 1989

WG 15a Structural Systems - Offshore

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STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: OFFSHORE

Lecture 15A.1: Offshore Structures:

The lecture starts with a presentation of the importance of offshore hydro-carbon

A basic introduction to cost aspects is presented.

Finally terms are introduced through a glossary.

Average 4000 - 8000 5

Middle East 500 - 3000 1

Non-Opec 3000 - 12000 8

North Sea 10000 - 25000 5 - 10

Deepwater 15000 - 35000 10 - 15

Slide 1 : Jacket based platform - Southern sector North Sea

Slide 2 : Jacket based platform - Northern sector North Sea

The offshore environment can be characterized by:

 water depth at location

The environment as well as financial aspects require that a high degree of

Specific government requirements have to be complied with, e.g. in the rules of

2.5 Certification and Warranty Survey

Government authorities require that recognized bodies appraise the aspects of

The major certification bodies are:

 Det norske Veritas (DnV)

Insurance companies covering transport and installation require the structures to be

3. OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT OF AN OIL/GAS

The different requirements of an offshore platform and the typical phases of an

 engineering and design

3.2 Jacket Based Platform for Shallow Water

As an alternative to this concept the wells are often accommodated in a separate

3.3 Jacket and Gravity Based Platform for Deep Water

4. JACKETS AND PILE FOUNDATION

4.2 Pile Foundation

4.3 Pile Bearing Resistance

Number, arrangement, diameter and penetration of the piles depend on the

4.4 Corrosion Protection

The major functions on the deck of an offshore platform are:

 the single integrated deck (up to approx 100 MN)

Slide 4 : Integrated topside during load out

5.2.2 Structural Design for Integrated Topsides

5.2.3 Structural Design for Modularized Jacket-based Topsides

The topsides to be supported by a gravity-based substructure (see Figure 2) are in a

The backbone of the structure is a system of heavy box-girders with a height of

6. EQUIPMENT AND LIVING QUARTER MODULES

Three types of structural concepts, all avoiding interior columns, can be

 conventional trusses in the walls.

The design of offshore structures has to consider various requirements of

A documented construction strategy should be available during all phases of the

Construction is illustrated below by four examples.

7.2 Construction of Jackets and Topsides

7.2.1 Lift Installed Jackets

7.2.2 Launch Installed Jackets

The jacket is built in horizontal position.

Slide 5 : Jacket being loaded onto barge by skidding

7.2.3 Topsides for a Gravity-Based Structure (GBS)

7.2.4 Jacket Topsides

Slide 6 : Installation of 60MN K12-BP topside by floating crane

7.3 Offshore Lifting

7.3.1 Crane Vessel

7.3.2 Sling-arrangement, Slings and Shackles

Table 1 Major Offshore Crane Vessels