Forensic chemistry

Name: Manal Fuad

Supervisor: Laila qadoura
Contents:
1. Abstract
2. Knowledge:
● Analytical Techniques and Instrumentation

● EXPANDING THE SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

● Forensic toxicology

● Forensic methods

3. Subject
4. Introduction:
● Physical and Chemical Properties

● Scientific Method

● THEORY OF FORENSIC ANALYSIS

● FINGERPRINT DEVELOPMENT

● Powder Dusting

● Ninhydrin Reaction

● Silver nitrate reaction

●Iodine

5. Result
6. References
Abstract:
Few processes are more important to society than solving
crimes, both to protect the public from criminals and to protect
the innocent from unjust punishment. Very often, the strength of
a prosecution rests on the ability of law enforcement personnel
to connect the accused with the victim by matching physical
evidence from the crime scene or victim with trace evidence
found on or about the person accused of the crime. Forensic
investigators consult a wide range of experts who analyze
evidence collected at crime scenes and brought to the crime
laboratory for examination. Forensic chemists perform
specialized analyses to identify materials and learn the nature of
such evidence. A highly trained forensic chemist can determine
the composition and nature of materials and predict the source
as well as matching sample against sample. Modern chemistry
employs a wide range of analytical techniques along with
traditional methods of analysis.
Physical evidence collected at crime scenes is sealed in special
containers to prevent contamination and degradation and is
catalogued carefully. A chain of custody is established and
documented as the evidence is sent to a forensic laboratory. At
the laboratory, the evidence is examined by personnel trained in
one of several fields: Forensic serologists examine body fluids,
forensic pathologists examine human remains, firearms
technicians classify and test firearms and explosives, and
forensic chemists determine the composition and identity of
materials.

Knowledge:
Forensic chemistry encompasses organic and inorganic
analysis, toxicology, arson investigation, and serology. Each
method of analysis uses specialized techniques and
instrumentation. The process may be as simple as setting up a
density gradient column to compare soil samples or as
complicated as using a mass spectrometer or neutron activation
analysis to characterize an unknown substance.
A wide array of laboratory techniques and instrumentation is
used in forensic studies. This includes ultraviolet, infrared, and
visible spectrophotometry; neutron activation analysis; gas
chromatography and mass spectrophotometry; high pressure
liquid chromatography; and atomic absorption
spectrophotometry. The techniques and instrumentation chosen
depend on the type of sample or substance to be examined.
The fact that most samples examined are not pure substances,
but are often mixed with dirt or debris, presents a major
challenge to the forensic chemist. This may also be an
advantage, as every substance collected at a crime scene is a
unique mixture of chemical compounds that can ultimately be
identified. Arsonists, for example, often use accelerants such as
gasoline or kerosene to speed combustion and spread flames in
the interior of a building. A forensic chemist may collect samples
of burned and unburned materials, extract
the volatile hydrocarbons, and separate the components for
analysis by gas chromatography.

Analytical Techniques and Instrumentation

The gas chromatograph (GC) separates volatile substances into
separate components by passing the volatile materials through a
long absorbent column. The technique is highly reproducible and
reliable; since each sample is likely to contain a definite number
and type of impurities, it may provide a close match of the
unknown accelerant to a known source such as a gasoline tank
or hardware store. It may be necessary to vaporize a tiny sample
of the material to provide volatile gases for analysis. The
components of the vapor are then passed through the column and
separated into a number of components, each of which can be
captured and analyzed. In most cases, the accelerant will be
mixed with portions of burned paint or building materials, making
simple identification by examination impossible, but the ability of
the GC to separate tiny portions help in identification.
The GC is often connected to a mass spectrometer. Mass
spectrometry (MS) breaks samples apart and separates the
ionized fragments by mass and charge. Vast libraries of
comparison fragments make computer-aided identification of
materials possible even when the sample is very small. Most
forensic laboratories have access to a combined gas
chromatograph/mass spectrometer (GC/MS). High pressure liquid
chromatography (HPLC) separates many types of drugs and may
also be combined with MS.
Analysts may use several types of spectrophotometry. A typical
spectrophotometer consists of a light source that provides light
of a known wavelength; a holder to position solid, liquid, or
gaseous samples; and a system of lenses and photocells that
compare light shining on the sample with light passing through. A
decrease in the intensity of light passing through the substance
indicates the presence of materials that absorb light at that
wavelength; the absorbance is quantitative and a measure of the
concentration of material, and the wavelengths of maximum
absorbance are characteristic of the type of material. Infrared
spectrophotometry is especially useful for the identification of
organic compounds, as bonds between certain atoms readily
absorb infrared radiation (IR).
Ultraviolet (UV) spectrophotometry helps distinguish between
samples of proteins and nucleic acids such as deoxyribonucleic
acid ( DNA ). Atomic

absorption spectrophotometry provides ways of determining

absorption and emission spectra, useful tools in the analysis
of metals such as bullet fragments.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectrophotometry (NMR) makes
use of the fact that nuclei of some molecules absorb radio
frequency radiation in strong magnetic fields. Nuclei in certain
molecules absorb radiation at characteristic frequencies, making
the identification of even tiny or impure samples possible. X-ray
analysis allows the forensic investigator to visualize foreign
objects within the body.
In neutron activation analysis, a beam of neutrons from a nuclear
reactor is directed at a sample of test material. The material
becomes temporarily radioactive, emitting γ -rays that are
characteristic of the composition; analysis of the γ -radiation
provides a highly accurate and reproducible determination of the
content of the sample. This technique has made possible the
determination of arsenic in the hair of corpses buried for
hundreds of years. In one case, the body of an Arctic explorer
who had died under suspicious circumstances during the 1870s
was found buried in a coffin surrounded by ice. Neutron
activation analysis of hair from the body showed that hair that
was several centimeters long contained little arsenic, but that
shorter hair closer to the scalp (which had grown in the few days
before death) contained high levels of arsenic, indicating that
death was probably caused by arsenic poisoning.
Often, the presence of very small impurities makes comparison
possible. For example, cars are painted with paints prepared to
certain specifications of color and composition, and pigments
and binders used vary from one manufacturer to another and
even between models from the same distributor. A small sample
of paint left at the scene of an accident may be checked for color
by spectrophotometry and then analyzed for composition.
Perpetrators of many hit-and-run crimes have been convicted on
the basis of combined GC/MS analysis of paint chips.
Residues left by burning powder from firearms consist of
patterns of particles that have both characteristic physical and
chemical properties. Burned powder, for example, usually
contains traces of nitrites that yield chemical reactions and
traces of metals such as barium that are often present in
primers. Both chemical reactions and microscopic analysis
(including electron microscopy) are employed in the
identification of powder residues on clothes and skin. An early
method for detecting gunshot residue on the hands of suspects
involved coating the hand with melted paraffin , allowing the
paraffin to cool, and then stripping it off. Gunshot residues
transferred from skin to paraffin turned blue or green in the
presence of diphenylamine, but many common substances such
as urine gave a false positive test. The Greiss reagent is much
more definitive, and additional tests can identify traces of lead
around bullet holes. Even microscopic particles are found to have
definite compositions and can be unequivocally identified.

EXPANDING THE SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY:

A notable trend in forensic chemistry research is the increasing application of

fundamental chemical science to diverse aspects of physical and pattern evidence. In
some instances, this means examining old methodology with new scrutiny; in others, it
means developing novel applications of instrumentation. The uniquely forensic science
of fingerprints illustrates this trend. The use of latent fingerprints for individual
identification and for linking an individual to a crime or crime scene was arguably the
first purely forensic science. Latent fingerprint residues are created by deposition of
eccrine sweat, a concentrated aqueous saline solution containing significant amounts
(greater than 1% w/w) of lactic acid, urea, and amino acids. Eccrine sweat is secreted by
glands in the fingers, palms, and soles of the feet and lacks significant lipophilic
components. Sebaceous glands, found in hair follicles, contribute fatty acids and
triglycerides to latent fingerprints through secondary contact and transfer. Any of these
components can be targeted with visualizing methods and via developing reagents . The
fundamental goals of treating any surface are to enhance visualization, and if
appropriate, to develop or fix the pattern so that clear digital images can be made.
Success depends on enhancing the contrast between the substrate and the print, and it
is the substrate that dictates the methodology. Substrates vary widely, with human skin,
blood, paper, clothing, and metal among the most common and the most challenging.
The earliest imaging techniques (which emerged barely a century ago) were based on a
triad of simple physical, chemical, and optical methods. These initially included the
dusting of surfaces with powder formulations containing metal oxide or salt along with
an adhesive material that allowed the powder to adhere preferentially to the latent print
residues. Illumination methods, alone or in combination with powders, remain effective
in many applications. Another early technique involved chemical reagents, which either
stained the latent print (as in the case of iodine fuming) or formed dyes (as in the case of
ninhydrin) with components of the print. Composite methods, such as the use of
powders containing fluorescent compounds, were added to the toolbox in the
midtwentieth century. Although latent prints contain naturally fluorescing materials,
their inherent emission is weak. Intense illumination with filtered polychromatic light
coupled with viewing filters enhances detection of this fluorescence. This methodology
is referred to as alternate light source technology, and it has many uses in forensic
science. In laboratory settings, intense laser sources are valuable for optimizing natural
fluorescence, although their utility is limited by background and substrate emissions.
The best-known chemical reagents used for latent fingerprint development are ninhydrin
and cyanoacrylate. Because of their widespread use, researchers have applied their
understanding of the chemical reactions and processes involved to investigate these
reagents’ mechanisms of action and the optimization of reagents. A significant body of
research since 2000 has contributed to our understanding of reagents and developers,
which in turn has driven the introduction of newer reagents and combined treatments.
Of the dye-forming reagents, ninhydrin (which forms the dye complex Ruhemann’s
purple) is perhaps the most studied with the amino acid alanine in a methanolic
solution. Subsequently, other reports on DFO and related compounds such as 1,2-
indanedione appeared; these compounds form dyes and, with subsequent treatment
with metal salts, fluorescent complexes . Small-particulate reagents have long been used
for processing latent prints. With physical developer (PD), Ag+ ions are reduced by a
ferrous/ferric redox couple to form silver metal. A related method is vacuum metal
deposition (VMD), which has proven useful for supple, thin, or flexible substrates such as
plastic bags and leather. In VMD, the surface is first coated with a layer of gold that
penetrates into the ridges that form the latent fingerprint. Next, a layer of zinc is
applied; the zinc adheres preferentially to the gold that is exposed in areas where there
is no latent print residue. The result is a negative of the latent print, with zinc coating the
residue-free areas. Once coated, the print can be further treated to develop the pattern.
Coating the substrate can significantly diminish background luminescence and can
increase the contrast between it and the print. An exciting line of chemical research
regarding latent prints pertains to nanochemistry, nanoparticles, and quantum dots. One
of the first forensic applications of nanoparticles is a process known as multimetal
deposition, in which gold nanoparticles are utilized as part of PD. The gold molecules are
deposited on the print residue, where they catalyze the reduction of the silver ion to
metallic silver . An extension of this technique, first reported in 1990, is the application
of quantum dots to latent fingerprint development. Quantum dots are semiconductors
on the order of 1 to 10 nm, in which electron promotion between the valence and
conduction bands can result in emission of visible light. When absorption occurs and an
electron is promoted, a hole is created. Depending on the crystal structure, the hole and
electron can become trapped between the valence and conduction bands. When they
recombine, a lower-energy photon is emitted . The characteristics of the luminescence
also depend on the size of the dot and on the materials used; zinc and cadmium sulfides
and selenides are common. Compared to organic dyes, the emission of quantum dots is
typically narrower, and luminescence can be “tuned” by altering the size of the
particulate. A study of mechanistic factors appeared in 2008 , as did a report of the use
of SiO2 nanoparticles doped with europium . Significant advantages of using quantum
dots are (a) their ability to adhere to latent print residues by physical and chemical
means, (b) the inherent intensity of the luminescence, and (c) the ability to adjust
emission wavelength through particle-size adjustment . The main contributions of
analytical chemistry to latent print examination include chemical imaging and probing
current methods to understand fundamental processes. Cyanoacrylate fuming is an
example of the latter. The polymerization mechanism of cyanoacrylates is known, but it
was only relatively recently that we learned why this anionic polymerization occurs
preferentially on the ridges of latent fingerprints. Current research indicates that
carboxylate, lactate, and alanine moieties , as well as water and hydroxide , play a role in
initiation of the polymerization. Raman spectroscopy studies suggest that the
preferential polymerization on the ridges and surfaces of the latent print may be
attributable in part to the formation of a hydrophobic layer over the print and at the
junction of the latent print and the substrate that slows or stops the polymerization
reaction. Raman spectroscopy can also detect materials (such as drugs and explosives)
embedded in fingerprints . Perhaps the most intriguing application of analytical
instrumentation to latent fingerprints involves chemical mapping and chemical imaging.
The potential advantages of these methods are numerous. First, often there is minimal
or no sample pretreatment required (i.e., nondestructive methodology); second, visual
contrast (natural or induced) between the substrate and the latent print does not dictate
what methods can be used for mapping and pattern imaging. Initial research in this area
focused on microspectrophotometry in the ultraviolet–visible–infrared range, with an
emerging emphasis on infrared methods. The recent introduction of focal plane array
detectors facilitates spectral mapping, which, when combined with data display tools,
allows for production of friction-ridge patterns based on chemical functionality. Scanning
electrochemical microscopy has also been used to map fingerprint patterns after
deposition of metals upon the surface of the ridges . X-ray fluorescent mapping has also
been used, and recently, chemical imaging employing MS and a DESI interface was
reported. Although other chemical imaging methods provide greater resolution, the
advantage of the MS approach is its chemical specificity. In this report, images were
produced by mapping exogenous compounds (in this case, cocaine) entrained in the
latent print deposit, as well as by endogenous sebaceous constituents.
Forensic toxicology:
Toxicologists examine a wide range of materials such as blood
stains, urine, and blood gases for traces of poisons or drugs.
Many businesses now require the drug screening of employees; it
is the responsibility of the technician to distinguish between the
presence of illegal drugs and metabolites from foods such as
poppy seeds. Such tests may be as simple as paper or thin-layer
chromatography or as complicated as gas chromatographic or
electrophoretic and serological analysis of a blood sample.
Following death by unknown cause, samples of the victim's lungs,
blood, urine, vitreous humor, and stomach contents are examined
for traces of poisons or medication. Insects found on or near
corpses are also collected and examined; they may actually
absorb traces of drugs or poisons from the body, and in fact,
traces of poisons sometimes are found in the surrounding insects
long after concentrations in the body have fallen below
detectable limits.
Forensic biochemists perform blood typing and enzyme tests on
body fluids in cases involving assault, and also in paternity
cases. Even tiny samples of blood, saliva, or semen may be
separated by electrophoresis and subjected
to enzymatic analysis. In the case of rape, traces of semen found
on clothing or on the person become important evidence; the
composition of semen varies from person to person. Some
individuals excrete enzymes such as acid phosphatase and other
proteins that are seldom found outside seminal fluid, and these
chemical substances are characteristic of their semen samples.
The presence of semen may be shown by the microscopic
analysis for the presence of spermatozoa or by a positive test for
prostate specific antigen.
In cases of sexual assault, tiny samples of DNA in blood, semen,
skin, or hair found on the victim may be purified and the amount
of DNA increased by the use of a polymerase chain reaction to
produce quantities large enough to analyze. Since DNA is as
specific to a person as fingerprints, matching the DNA of a
perpetrator to a sample found on a victim is considered to be
proof of contact. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is
currently in the process of establishing a national Combined DNA
Index System (CODIS) that will collect data from many states and
law enforcement agencies and index it so that particular DNA
patterns from evidence collected at many crime scenes can be
compared and matched. Many perpetrators of crimes have been
convicted and many innocent persons set free after years in
prison as a result of DNA analysis.

Forensic methods:
Forensic chemists rely on a multitude of instruments to identify unknown
substances found at a scene. Different methods can be used to determine the
identity of the same substance, and it is up to the examiner to determine which
method will produce the best results. Factors that forensic chemists might
consider when performing an examination are the length of time a specific
instrument will take to examine a substance and the destructive nature of that
instrument. They prefer using nondestructive methods first, to preserve the
evidence for further examination.Nondestructive techniques can also be used to
narrow down the possibilities, making it more likely that the correct method will
be used the first time when a destructive method is used.

Spectroscopy

The two main standalone spectroscopy techniques for forensic chemistry are
FTIR and AA spectroscopy. FTIR is a nondestructive process that uses infrared
light to identify a substance. The attenuated total reflectance sampling technique
eliminates the need for substances to be prepared before analysis.The
combination of nondestructiveness and zero preparation makes ATR FTIR
analysis a quick and easy first step in the analysis of unknown substances. To
facilitate the positive identification of the substance, FTIR instruments are loaded
with databases that can be searched for known spectra that match the
unknown's spectra. FTIR analysis of mixtures, while not impossible, presents
specific difficulties due to the cumulative nature of the response. When analyzing
an unknown that contains more than one substance, the resulting spectra will be
a combination of the individual spectra of each component. While common
mixtures have known spectra on file, novel mixtures can be difficult to resolve,
making FTIR an unacceptable means of identification. However, the instrument
can be used to determine the general chemical structures present, allowing
forensic chemists to determine the best method for analysis with other
instruments. For example, a methoxy group will result in a peak between 3,030
and 2,950 wavenumbers (cm−1).
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a destructive technique that is able to
determine the elements that make up the analyzed sample. AAS performs this
analysis by subjecting the sample to an extremely high heat source, breaking the
atomic bonds of the substance, leaving free atoms. Radiation in the form of light
is then passed through the sample forcing the atoms to jump to a higher energy
state. Forensic chemists can test for each element by using a corresponding
wavelength of light that forces that element's atoms to a higher energy state
during the analysis. For this reason, and due to the destructive nature of this
method, AAS is generally used as a confirmatory technique after preliminary
tests have indicated the presence of a specific element in the sample. The
concentration of the element in the sample is proportional to the amount of light
absorbed when compared to a blank sample.AAS is useful in cases of
suspected heavy metal poisoning such as with arsenic, lead, mercury,
and cadmium. The concentration of the substance in the sample can indicate
whether heavy metals were the cause of death.

Chromatography

Spectroscopy techniques are useful when the sample being tested is pure, or a
very common mixture. When an unknown mixture is being analyzed it must be
broken down into its individual parts. Chromatography techniques can be used to
break apart mixtures into their components allowing for each part to be analyzed
separately.
Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a quick alternative to more complex
chromatography methods. TLC can be used to analyze inks and dyes by
extracting the individual components.This can be used to investigate notes or
fibers left at the scene since each company's product is slightly different and
those differences can be seen with TLC. The only limiting factor with TLC
analysis is the necessity for the components to be soluble in whatever solution is
used to carry the components up the analysis plate.This solution is called
the mobile phase.The forensic chemist can compare unknowns with known
standards by looking at the distance each component traveled. [18] This distance,
when compared to the starting point, is known as the retention factor (R f) for
each extracted component. If each Rf value matches a known sample, that is an
indication of the unknown's identity.
High-performance liquid chromatography can be used to extract individual
components from a mixture dissolved in a solution. HPLC is used for nonvolatile
mixtures that would not be suitable for gas chromatography. This is useful in drug
analysis where the pharmaceutical is a combination drug since the components
would separate, or elute, at different times allowing for the verification of each
component. The eluates from the HPLC column are then fed into
various detectors that produce a peak on a graph relative to its concentration as
it elutes off the column. The most common type of detector is an ultraviolet-
visible spectrometer as the most common item of interest tested with HPLC,
pharmaceuticals, have UV absorbance.
Gas chromatography (GC) performs the same function as liquid chromatography,
but it is used for volatile mixtures. In forensic chemistry, the most common GC
instruments use mass spectrometry as their detector. GC-MS can be used in
investigations of arson, poisoning, and explosions to determine exactly what was
used. In theory, GC-MS instruments can detect substances whose
concentrations are in the femtogram (10−15) range. However, in practice, due
to signal-to-noise ratios and other limiting factors, such as the age of the
individual parts of the instrument, the practical detection limit for GC-MS is in
the picogram (10−12) range.] GC-MS is also capable of quantifying the substances
it detects; chemists can use this information to determine the effect the
substance would have on an individual. GC-MS instruments need around 1,000
times more of the substance to quantify the amount than they need simply to
detect it; the limit of quantification is typically in the nanogram (10−9) range.

Subject:
A large number of forensic scientists are chemists. Forensic chemists
employ their knowledge of chemistry to analyze evidence such as fibers,
paint, explosives, charred debris, drugs, glass, soil, documents, tool marks,
and firearms. To a lesser extent, forensic chemists also use their knowledge
of toxicology (=the study of poisons and their effects), fingerprints,
footwear impressions, tire impressions, and hair analyses. The forensic
chemist does not typically analyze biological evidence or carry out DNA
analyses. These analyses are typically performed by a forensic biologist.

After a police officer has collected evidence at a crime scene, the evidence
is brought to the crime lab for a forensic chemist to analyze. The chemist
follows a specific process, based on the scientific method, for analyzing
evidence.
Samples collected from a crime scene are called questioned samples(because
the identitiesand origins of those samples are unknown). In order to draw
conclusions about the identity or origins of questioned samples, the forensic
chemist will need known samples as a reference. A known sample might be
collected as part of the evidence—for instance a hair sample collected from
a suspect.
Forensic analyses may be performed to (1) identify a questioned sample or
(2) compare a questioned sample to a known sample for the purpose of
determining the source or origin of the sample (where it came from).

Introduction:
To analyze physical evidence, forensic chemistry draws on chemistry principles and concepts.
Investigating the physical and chemical properties of a substance is central to forensic chemistry.
Without an appreciation for these properties and the scientific method, forensic chemistry
would not be possible.

Physical and Chemical Properties

physical properties are properties of a substance that can be described or displayed without
requiring a chemical change. For example, sulfur is yellow , iron is malleable (able to be
hammered into sheets), cocaine is a white solid, and the density of a glass fragment broken from
a windowpane at a crime scene is approximately 2.5 g/mL. Chemical properties are properties of
a substance that can be described through a chemical change only. Chemical changes require a
chemical reaction to occur between reactants, generating new products. The chemical
properties of a substance are described by the reaction that occurs and the products that are
formed. For example, a chemical property of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) is its reactivity
with vinegar (acetic acid) to produce carbon dioxide bubbles. This reaction also describes a
chemical property of vinegar—its reactivity with baking soda. A chemical property of cocaine is
its reactivity with cobalt thiocyanate, which produces a blue-colored product. This chemical
property of cocaine, in conjunction with its physical properties (a white, fluffy powder), help
investigators identify cocaine. Scientific Method Although the exact manner in which the
physical and chemical properties are analyzed for each substance differs, the analyses are all
based on the principles of the scientific method. The scientific method begins with observations.
Scientists attempt to organize observations and look for trends or patterns. When the scientists
find what appears to be a relationship among the observations, they suggest a hypothesis (an
educated guess) that tentatively explains what is being observed. A plan is devised to test the
hypothesis. Ultimately, the plan is carried out and further observations are made. If the new
observations contradict the original hypothesis, a new hypothesis is suggested and tested.
However, if the new observations validate the original hypothesis, the scientists often choose to
devise a subsequent plan to further validate the hypothesis. For example, when an unknown
substance is submitted to a crime laboratory, the forensic chemist will first observe the
properties of the substance. She may notice that the substance is a crushed and dried green-
leafy material. Next, she will suggest a hypothesis as to the identity of the substance: The
unknown substance is marijuana. This is an extremely crucial step because the analysis to be
performed (the plan for testing the hypothesis) is different for each unknown substance. The
chemist will then devise a plan to test the hypothesis: to view the substance under the
microscope looking for properties of crushed marijuana leaves. If the microscopic observations
validate the hypothesis, she will develop a subsequent plan to further validate the hypothesis: to
react the marijuana leaves with Duquenois-Levine reagent to observe chemical properties. If the
microscopic features do not validate the hypothesis, she will suggest and test an alternative
hypothesis: The unknown substance is oregano. In chemistry, physical and chemical properties
are used to characterize and distinguish one compound or element from another. In forensic
chemistry, these properties aid in the identification, classification, and individualization of
physical evidence.

Scientific Method Although the exact manner in which the physical and chemical properties
are analyzed for each substance differs, the analyses are all based on the principles of the
scientific method. The scientific method begins with observations. Scientists attempt to organize
observations and look for trends or patterns. When the scientists find what appears to be a
relationship among the observations, they suggest a hypothesis (an educated guess) that
tentatively explains what is being observed. A plan is devised to test the hypothesis. Ultimately,
the plan is carried out and further observations are made. If the new observations contradict the
original hypothesis, a new hypothesis is suggested and tested. However, if the new observations
validate the original hypothesis, the scientists often choose to devise a subsequent plan to
further validate the hypothesis. This cycle continues until the hypothesis has been sufficiently
validated.
THEORY OF FORENSIC ANALYSIS Forensic analyses may be performed to (1) identify a
questioned sample or (2) compare a questioned sample to a known sample for the purpose of
determining the source or origin of the sample (where it came from). The results of such
comparisons can link a questioned sample and several known samples either to a class of
samples with several possible origins (classification) or to a single origin (individualization). Thus,
a forensic chemist will analyze much more than the questioned sample. A comparative analysis
may require the examination of several known samples for each questioned sample.

FINGERPRINT DEVELOPMENT

Among the most common items of evidence collected at a crime scene are fingerprints. The
ridged-skin patterns at the end of our fingers contain individual characteristics that make them
highly unique. When perspiration on the hands and fingers combines with oils, dirt, or other
substances, these fingertip ridges can leave an impression on surfaces that are touched.
Fingerprints are useful in investigations because an individual’s fingerprints are consistent over
time, and no two fingerprints have ever been found that are exactly alike. Even identical twins
have unique fingerprints. Fingerprints collected at a crime scene can be compared to fingerprints
collected from suspects and from individuals who had legitimate reasons to be at the crime
scene. They can be checked against databases of prints collected by law enforcement agencies.
Figure 12 shows a court display comparing a print found at a crime scene to a print from a
known source, with individual characteristics marked. The ability to compare fingerprints is an
art that requires skill and training; fingerprint analysts spend years perfecting these skills.
Fingerprint development is the process by which hidden fingerprints can be found, visualized,
and examined. There are three different types of fingerprints: latent, plastic, and negative. Latent
(hidden) fingerprints are those most common to a crime scene. These prints are produced by
touching a surface and leaving behind fingerprint residue (oils, dirt, perspiration) in the pattern
of the ridges. Because the prints are invisible to the naked eye, investigators must use
development techniques to find them. Development techniques use the chemical and physical
properties of the fingerprint residue to produce contrast so the hidden prints can be observed.
To develop a latent fingerprint, investigators must understand the potential composition of the
residue. Fingerprints typically not requiring development include plastic fingerprints made into
soft surfaces such as silly putty, butter, or clay and negative fingerprints created as the skin ridges
of a finger remove transferable material from a surface leaving behind a pattern of the ridges
(e.g., a person touches a dusty chalkboard or a greasy wrench). Virtually all fingerprint residues
of latent fingerprints contain perspiration because our hands and fingers contain sweat glands.
The composition of perspiration is slightly different for each individual and changes as a function
of diet and throughout the day. Perspiration comprises water and any watersoluble salts (sodium
chloride and potassium chloride), acids (lactic acid and acetic acid), and proteins composed of
amino acids. Skin cells are continually being shed from the fingers and may also be present in
fingerprint residue. In addition, our hands are very active during the day and come in contact
with many items. Without thinking about it, we may scratch our backs or necks, rub our noses,
touch our ears, or massage our foreheads. All these activities put our fingers in locations that
contain sebaceous glands, which are found at the base of hair follicles and exude fats and oils.
Contact with these locations will transfer sebum, a mixture composed of fatty acids,
triglycerides, squalene, and wax esters. Cosmetic products may also be transferred to our
fingers. In addition, we put lotion on our hands, touch dirty surfaces, use household cleaners,
pick up food, and even occasionally forget to wash our hands after using the restroom. All these
activities potentially add to the composition of our fingerprint residue. Because the composition
of one person’s fingerprint residue may be considerably different from that of another, many
development techniques have been established. A technique that works well for one fingerprint
residue may not work well for another. In addition, some development techniques work better
on fingerprints found on certain surfaces. Several fingerprint development techniques will be
discussed in the following sections. The properties of the components allowing for development
and the surfaces on which the techniques work best will be identified.

Powder Dusting
Powder dusting involves the use of fine powders to visualize latent fingerprints. It works well
on smooth nonporous surfaces such as glass, certain plastics, and ceramics but is less effective
on porous surfaces such as paper or cardboard (the residue tends to absorb into the fibers over
time) or on wet or sticky surfaces. Among the many components of fingerprint residue, sebum
and perspiration tend to adhere to powder particles. This physical property of fingerprint
residue, in conjunction with the fact that many smooth, nonporous surfaces do not adhere well
to powder particles, allows for fingerprint development. The contrast developed between the
adhered powder and the surface allows for visualization. The same concept is illustrated when
spilled flour sticks to residue on the counter or when beard and mustache shavings stick to the
toothpaste stains in the sink. Investigators use many different types of powders. Most black
powders are made from fine carbon or iron. Light-colored gray or white powders can be made of
any number of substances, such as finely divided aluminum. There are also fluorescent powders
in red, green, yellow, or orange, some of which may also contain iron particles. Any powder
containing iron may be applied with a magnetic applicator. The magnetic applicator, a small
cylinder the size of a marker or pencil, contains a sliding magnet that can be moved up or down
the inside of the cylinder. When the magnet is positioned at the tip of the applicator inside the
cylinder, powder containing iron will adhere to the tip and provide a collection of powder for
application. Sliding the magnet away from the tip will release any excess powder. Other powders
are typically applied with a variety of fine brushes made of animal hair or synthetic fibers.
Whether magnetic or nonmagnetic powder or black or fluorescent powder is used depends on
personal preference and the contrast needed. Some forensic scientists prefer magnetic powders
because they believe brush bristles damage the fingerprint; others think magnetic powders are
too messy. Once the powder has been applied and contrast can be seen, the fingerprint can be
lifted and preserved using fingerprint tape, a high-quality transparent tape typically at least an
inch wide. The lifted fingerprint can then be placed onto a fingerprint lift card that offers the
greatest contrast (black for white-powder lifts and white for black-powder lifts). Identifying
information such as the name of the investigator, date and time of collection, location of
fingerprint, and case number all should be recorded on the card.

Ninhydrin Reaction
For years, biochemists have used the ninhydrin reaction for both qualitative and quantitative
determination of -amino acids. There are approximately 20 -amino acids that comprise proteins.
Proteins are natural polymers (molecules composed of repeating monomer units) containing
-amino acid monomers. Ninhydrin is known to react with -amino acids and produce a purple-
colored product called Rhuemann’s purple, named after Siegfried Ruhemann who discovered the
reaction in 1910. The reaction is sensitive enough to be used on the development of the small
amounts of -amino acids found in fingerprint residue. It became popular with forensic scientists
in the 1950s and is still used frequently by most fingerprint examiners. Although the reaction is
relatively slow (24 hours for development), it can be accelerated by the use of heat or moisture.
Special ninhydrin chambers, which provide a hot and humid environment, allow for ninhydrin
development in 20 minutes or less. When used for fingerprint development, the reaction works
best on porous surfaces such as paper, and because amino acids are relatively stable, ninhydrin
development works considerably well on old fingerprints.

Silver Nitrate Reaction

Chloride salts like sodium and potassium comprise a significant percentage of perspiration, and
thus fingerprint residue. When silver nitrate reacts with any soluble chloride salt, the insoluble
salt silver chloride is produced. The reaction occurs almost immediately. The silver chloride
produced is a white solid that does not offer much contrast for fingerprint development.
However, as the silver chloride remains exposed to ultraviolet light, it decomposes producing
silver and chlorine gas. This produces a purple-black product that offers contrast for fingerprint
development. Silver nitrate development works best on porous surfaces like paper.

Iodine
Fuming Iodine, in much the same way as solid carbon dioxide, undergoes a phase transition
from solid to gas, skipping the liquid phase. This phenomenon is known as sublimation. Iodine is
a purple solid under ambient temperature and pressure. When iodine crystals are heated, they
will sublime, producing iodine vapors. These vapors are thought to be absorbed by the
fingerprint residue so that they produce a transient amber-colored product. Over time, the
amber color will fade. Techniques have been devised to fix the developed print. One technique
employs the reaction of iodine with starch to produce a stable dark purple product. Iodine
fuming is one of the oldest fingerprint development techniques; it works well on porous
surfaces.

Result:
Chemistry is an integral part of forensic science. Forensic scientists must understand
chemistry principles, concepts, and techniques. However, they must also be well versed
in all legal matters relevant to the occupation, like the criminal justice system, state and
federal laws, and chain of custody. Most importantly, forensic scientists must have
spotless criminal records and only exercise the highest ethical standards. Upon
completing an analysis, forensic scientists must be able to present their findings in a
court of law in a manner understandable to the general public. This requires an
extensive understanding of analysis techniques in addition to the ability to speak
publicly and articulate ideas clearly. Forensic scientists work neither for the defense nor
for the prosecution; they simply serve as advocates of the truth under all circumstances.
Forensic chemistry plays a vital role in the criminal justice system by
providing scientifically based information through the analysis of
physical evidence. During an investigation, evidence is collected at a
crime scene or from a person, analyzed in a crime laboratory and then
the results presented in court. Each crime scene is unique, and each
case presents its own challenges

References:

http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Fe-Ge/Forensic-
Chemistry.html

http://quimica.udea.edu.co/~forense/forensic-chemistry-2009.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_chemistry

https://www.journals.elsevier.com/forensic-chemistry/mendeley