Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 982 – 989

In-store music and consumer–brand relationships: Relational transformation

following experiences of (mis)fit
Michael Beverland a,⁎, Elison Ai Ching Lim a,1 , Michael Morrison b,2 , Milé Terziovski c,3
a
Department of Management and Marketing, University of Melbourne, Alan Gilbert Building, 161 Barry St, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
b
Department of Marketing, Monash University, Caulfield East Victoria 3145, Australia
c
Department of Management and Marketing, 4th Floor, Babel Building, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
Received 1 March 2006; received in revised form 1 June 2006; accepted 1 July 2006

Abstract

We examine the role of in-store music–brand “fit” in reinforcing brand position using in-depth interviews. Fit is particularly important for
stores wishing to attract new consumers without prior brand experience or knowledge because these consumers view music as an important
signaling cue to the brand's position, image and quality. We also identified the effect of misfit. Misfit had two contrasting brand effects: misfit
resulted in counterfactual thinking about the brand, leading to a decline in the consumer–brand relationship, and misfit could be used strategically
as part of a repositioning strategy. These positive effects of fit were moderated by music volume.
© 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Retail atmospherics; Music; Consumer–brand relationships; Interpretive research

1. Introduction music should be incorporated into a firm's brand identity. Given

that any encounter with the brand shapes brand knowledge
Retailers use atmospherics in order to reinforce and enhance (Keller, 2003), this lack of research is surprising given the focus
brand image (Baker et al., 2002; Babin and Attaway, 2000; by advocates of experiential retailing on the creation of ex-
Berry et al., 2002), and build emotional connections with con- periences that “instill vigor in, and tangibility to, brands…. they
sumers (Schmitt and Simonson, 1997). Music is one important provide a place for retailers to leverage and broaden the impact
atmospheric variable (and the most commonly examined; Gar- of other media related events to the brand” (Kozinets et al.,
lin and Owen, in press) in creating an in-store experience and 2002, p. 18, italics in original).
connecting directly with customers' emotions (Morrison and Although research has highlighted the positive effects of in-
Beverland, 2003). Research has examined the impact of in-store store music (Garlin and Owen, in press), these effects do not
music on consumers' affective states, attitudes to the store, occur in isolation from other in-store variables, and the brand's
products and staff, and behavior (Garlin and Owen, in press). position (Baker et al., 1994; Mattilia and Wirtz, 2001; Sharma
Yet, little is known on how in-store music effects (and consu- and Stafford, 2000; Wakefield and Baker, 1998). Music needs to
mers expectations of it are shaped by) perceptions of the brand. be used strategically in an effort to ensure ‘fit’ between the
Schmitt and Simonson (1997) support the view that sound and store's brand image and positioning (Dubé and Morin, 2001;
Sharma and Stafford, 2000) because research has indicated that
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 8344 1933; fax: +61 3 9349 1921. certain musical types are more appropriate for certain stores and
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Beverland), mismatches can have negative results (Machleit and Eroglu,
[email protected] (E.A.C. Lim), 2000; Yalch and Spangenberg, 2000).
[email protected] (M. Morrison),
For example, failure to attend to the relationships between
[email protected] (M. Terziovski).
1
Tel.: +61 3 8344 1860; fax: +61 3 9349 1921. atmospherics, staffing, and processes could create an irritating
2
Tel.: +61 3 9903 1592; fax: +61 3 9903 2900. customer experience, and undermine the positive effects of
3
Tel.: +61 3 8344 7868; fax: +61 3 9349 4293. individual variables (D'Astous, 2000; Garlin and Owen, in
0148-2963/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.07.001
 M. Beverland et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 982–989 983

press). Baker et al. (2002) found that stores that trigger high Secondly, should misfit occur, how does it impact consum-
shopping experience costs or a taxing emotional environment ers' evaluations of the store, product, and brand? Evidence
may encourage the customer to avoid the store. Given that suggests that poorly crafted in-store experiences may cause
research on the effects of in-store music identifies the link confusion or annoyance, potentially leading the consumer to
between consumers emotional state, their cognitive appraisal leave the store (Cox et al., 2005; D'Astous, 2000; Maxwell and
of the store (and its merchandise and staff), their behavior, and Kover, 2003). In cases of misfit, confusion may give rise to
their overall satisfaction judgment of the store (Spangenberg counterfactual thinking. Counterfactual thinking occurs when
et al., 2005), fit between the store's atmospherics and the brand “people compare thoughts about what could have occurred with
is crucial. what they perceive actually occurred” (McColl-Kennedy and
Fit also has beneficial results. For example, classical music Sparks, 2003, p. 254). In the case of retail brands, consumers
used in conjunction with soft lighting and multiple salespeople may experience confusion because the in-store music does not
helps create a prestigious image in a retail setting, leading to fit with prior expectations of the brand's position, image and
higher service and quality ratings (Baker et al., 1994). Also, target market. We believe that such a process may diminish the
ensuring fit between the music and other in-store atmospherics consumer–brand relationship.
(and products) is crucial for consumers with limited brand
knowledge because they are more likely to use store cues to 2. Method
form expectations of the product (Baker, 1998). Atmospheric
factors such as music also communicate important messages The need to account for the role of music within a wider
that allow consumers to make inferences about product quality brand context supports the adoption of a qualitative research
(Baker et al., 1994; Zeithaml, 1988). This is especially so for design (Kozinets et al., 2002) because brand effects are highly
consumers with limited product knowledge or brand experi- context-bound (Keller, 2003). Data for this research were col-
ence. These consumers tend to base purchase decisions on lected through a number of methods including background
inferences they make from various information cues commu- interviews with sellers of in-store music packages, observational
nicated by the atmospheric features in store (Baker et al., 1994; research in themed retail stores in Australia and the US, and in-
Garbarino and Johnson, 2001; Zeithaml, 1988). Finally, in-store depth interviews with 20 consumers, using projective techniques
music that reinforces the desired brand personality helps build a to examine issues of fit and misfit. The paper will focus primarily
consistent brand image (Morrison and Beverland, 2003). on the results gained from the 20 in-depth consumer interviews.
For our purposes, ‘fit’ concerns congruency between music Sampling was theoretically driven because the aim was to
and other atmospheric in-store variables (D'Astous, 2000; Baker gain a diverse sample of consumers who could recount multiple
et al., 2002; Bitner, 1992; Garlin and Owen, in press; Spangen- in-store experiences. An overview of the sample is provided in
berg et al., 2005; Mattilia and Wirtz, 2001; Turley and Milli- Table 1. We have included musical preferences in Table 1 to
man, 2000), and perceptions of the brand (Kozinets et al., 2002). control for this effect in perceptions of fit and positive expe-
Also, music may effect the meaning consumers derive about the rience. For example, several consumers reported positive mood
brand (Spangenberg et al., 2005). Fit is therefore likely to effects based on their ‘love’ for a particular song [due to space
reinforce established brand meanings thus enhancing the considerations this analysis has been left out because it merely
brand's equity (Keller, 2003). Likewise, misfit may result in reinforces extant research on the positive effects of music on
counterfactual thinking about the brand, resulting in consumers consumers mood (the findings indicated no brand effect flowing
reassessing their view of the brand and searching out further from personally likeable music) – see Garlin and Owen, in
information sources to form a new judgment about the brand's press], and more critically, examples of music ‘working/not
position (McColl-Kennedy and Sparks, 2003). working’ in the right/wrong environment, even when consumers
Based on the above review this paper has several aims. openly stated their objection/preference for these musical styles.
Firstly, the article examines whether consumers experience in- Questions included grand tour questions that focused on
store music–brand image fit, and what effect this has on the descriptions of positive and negative in-store experiences in-
consumer–brand relationship (defined as the strength of volving music. These were followed by specific probes and
consumers emotional connections to the brand; Fournier, 1998; projective questions asking consumers to identify which life-
Keller, 2003). We propose that in-store music fit may confirm style or target consumer the store's music was trying to appeal
prior expectations about the brand (cf. Oliver, 1996). This pro- to. At all times, the interviewees were asked to provide real
cess could have a number of possible outcomes. In-store music– examples, naming the store brands they had visited. Based on
brand fit may enhance shoppers' in-store experience, possibly these descriptions we explored consumer's reactions to positive
resulting in delight. Delight is a profoundly positive emotional and poor music experiences, and responses to fit and misfit.
experience (Oliver et al., 1997). Delight is the highest form of The first author conducted the analysis. Analysis involved
satisfaction (Arnold et al., 2005; McColl-Kennedy and Sparks, the use of open, axial and selective coding (Strauss and Corbin,
2003; Oliver et al., 1997). A delightful experience may transform 1998). This analysis involved tacking back and forth between
the consumer–store brand relationship resulting in closer emo- the emergent categories, transcripts, and relevant literature
tional ties to the brand, resulting in greater loyalty and profits (Spiggle, 1994). Along the way, a number of accepted quality
(Arnold et al., 2005; Fournier, 1998; Machleit et al., 2005; Oliver checks were conducted. These included the use of multiple
et al., 1997). sources of evidence, pattern matching through cross-case
984 M. Beverland et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 982–989

Table 1 brand. Like I said before about being unique and dif-
Details of sample ferent, you have to be able to distinguish not just the
Name Gender Occupation Age Income (×103) Musical preferences product, but your whole brand. And in-store music is a
Hayley F Self- 28 25–45 MOR part of the brand. It just is because it's what you're show-
employed ing, how you're showing yourself off to everyone else.
Steven M Teacher 46 65–80 Eclectic; dislikes (Bianca)
country and jazz
John M Part time 18 b25 Eclectic
Jeanette F None 48 25–45 Eclectic Bianca's passage identifies that music should say something
Rosie F Teacher 45 45–65 Eclectic; dislikes essential and unique about your brand that goes beyond expec-
jazz tations for the product class. For Bianca, in-store music is es-
Melissa F Sales 28 45–65 MOR sential for brand differentiation (critical to brand equity; Keller,
Nick M Self- 25 25–45 Eclectic
2003). Fit reinforces Bianca's expectations of the brand's po-
employed
Sam M Military 30 45–65 Eclectic sition. Such reinforcement provides a pleasant experience and
Caroline F Accounts 24 25–45 MOR; dance reinforces the brand's image, resulting in a strengthened consu-
Jane F Researcher 27 25–45 MOR; dislikes metal mer–brand relationship. For example:
and alternative
Graham M Retail 36 100+ Soft rock, classical, (I. How did the music blend in with the store?) “Good.
new age Because it's an upbeat sporty type of store, but it wasn't too
Joanne F Part time 32 25–45 Eclectic fast like the other music I was telling you about. It blended
Cori M Student 24 25–45 Eclectic; dislikes
in because Nike – it's more about going harder than relax-
country
Lyn F Publisher 43 25–45 Rock, MOR ing.” (I. Going harder?) “You know, physical, running,
Jason M It 31 45–65 Rock gym, sweating.” (I. Did the music portray that?) “Yes, more
Adam M Construction 34 25–45 Eclectic about being active rather than the opposite.... I love the way
Priya F Accounts 25 25–45 R n B, Hip Hop the shop is set out. Everything always looks fantastic. I'm
Eva F Administrator 27 45–65 MOR; dislikes jazz
always quite happy to browse and try things on and have a
and alternative
Aidas M Self- 26 45–65 Electronic look and see what they've got that's new. I can spend hours
employed in there, I love it.... I guess their staff are always quite sporty
Bianca F Student 20 b25 MOR looking, it's the whole theme of the store.” (I. Did the music
MOR = middle of the road pop (top 40's). make any particular impact?) “I think it fits in with the
whole sporty theme. As I said before it's more about being
physical, it's more of a physical rather than a passive
music.” (I. What would be the type of passive music?) “Like
analysis, the seeking of rival explanations, the use of multiple
if you went into a store and they were playing jazz. That
researchers, presenting findings to colleagues and practition-
wouldn't fit with Nike for me because Nike is not about
ers, reflections on findings and conclusions, the use of an
relaxing, it's more about what their logo is – Just Do It”
interview guide, and spending significant time in the field.
(Hayley).
3. Findings Hayley's experience at Nike reinforced the brand's core
personality of activeness and the brand's espoused identity of
3.1. The experience of in-store music–brand fit “Just Do It”. Hayley's passage also reinforces the importance of
congruency or fit between the atmospheric variables in the store
We identified several instances of in-store music–brand fit. and her view of the brand (which moderated the experience of
Firstly, in-store music often reinforced prior perceptions of the in-store music). Music that fits the brand also reinforces previ-
brand, thus reinforcing the consumer–brand relationship. Se- ous expectations, thus maintaining and strengthening the bond
cond, where consumers had no prior experience or expectations Hayley has with the brand because fit reinforces the familiar
of the brand, music was an important signaling cue about the (cf. Keller, 2003). Hayley's emotional response to music–brand
brand's position and target market. The right music could entice a fit resulted in a positive cognitive appraisal of the brand, and
consumer to enter the store, possibly beginning a brand relation- had positive behavioral outcomes. Hayley's response also con-
ship. In either case, the brand effect could be one of reinforce- firms the importance of context in understanding music's effect
ment resulting in a pleasant, expected experience, or music could (cf. Garlin and Owen, in press). However, this context goes
be part of a transformational experience, resulting in delight and beyond classifications of store types and suggests that consu-
increased loyalty. These findings will be explored below. mers draw on multiple in-store atmospheric cues, and their
In the context of retail brands, in-store music was identified knowledge of the brand to assess fit. This suggests that music–
as an important brand attribute, often reflecting the core image brand fit can be assessed holistically (Baker et al., 2002; Chebat
of the brand. For example: and Dubé, 2000; Turley and Milliman, 2000), with reference
either to experiential realms (Pine and Gilmore, 1999), or themes
I like in-store music because it can get you in the mood to (Kozinets et al., 2002) in future field research (cf. Garlin and
shop but the right music has to be played to reflect the Owen, in press).
 M. Beverland et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 982–989 985

However, not all consumers had prior expectations of par- because I love the music. It's South American music and it's
ticular brands. As a result, brand reinforcement via in-store got that whole ethnic feel. I love it. The music fits in
music–brand fit occurred indirectly. For example: perfectly and it almost made the environment more jovial
because they do water features and they've got a lot of
The kind of music that they play would make me think of a
bright colors and all that essence. Fluffy pillows every-
similar thing of the clothing, if you know what I mean. So if
where, and plants and you felt like you were transformed
they were playing classical music, I would probably have
into this other place. It's just amazing. It really created such
more of a feel for their kind of clothing that they have if I
a nice feel to the place and you almost want to get up and
didn't necessarily know their kind of clothing. If they were
dance. I've never liked that kind of music at all, I was just
playing really loud disco, rap or whatever, I would probably
walking around all different shops, and I was just taken
think that's a little bit younger for me and I may not go in
back. I'd say as you walked into the store you could hear it
there, I would even think it is poor quality. (Eva)
and it emphasized the feel of the shop. It's just like the type
Eva uses music as an important cue about the product range of stuff that they sell there – it's not from here. It's like it
and quality rather than the brand per se. For Eva, music sends an could be in South America, because of the music. It almost
important signal about the brand's target market, image, and emphasizes that feel…. just a very warm place. Just very
importantly, quality. Without prior brand knowledge, Eva uses friendly, the staff were very friendly as well which helps the
music as a key cue to decide if the brand is desirable. As a result, image. You just feel welcomed there, you feel at ease.
for new-to-the-brand consumers, music can reduce uncertainty (Melissa)
about the brand and reduce potential risk. Without prior expec-
tations, the brand effect of in-store music is indirect because Melissa's in-store experience went beyond the pleasant ex-
customers draw on multiple cues to make inferences about fit, periences identified in the earlier passages. Melissa's experience
confirming previous suggestions on the importance of fit for is more akin to extraordinary or flow experiences (Czikszent-
consumers with limited or incomplete knowledge of the brand, mihalyi, 1990) where consumers are literally transported to a
or of the product (Baker, 1998; Baker et al., 1994; Garbarino magical realm and lose themselves in the experience. For Me-
and Johnson, 2001). For example: lissa, in-store music (in conjunction with other in-store cues)
reinforced the brand's position and image at an emotional level,
I went into Country Road and I found that music to be just
thus building stronger resonance with the brand (cf. Keller,
right because they had some sort of relaxation type of music
2003). In contrast, the bonds identified in the earlier passages
on. Like cafe music, and it's kind of relaxing and makes you
had a less powerful emotional effect; rather they reinforced
feel good. And my perception of that was it kind of matched
perceptions of quality, market position, and target audience.
because when I walked in there I saw the home ware and the
Melissa was delighted by the store and overall experience be-
home ware is quite nice, and anyway, that music kind of
cause the experience resulted in unexpected pleasure (Oliver
matched the home ware because your home is meant to be a
et al., 1997). Music in this context helped tie together the other
relaxed environment. (Jane)
in-store cues into a complete experience and not only introduced
Rather than relating the in-store music choice to previously the brand to Melissa for the first time, but also helped form a
formed expectations of the brand's position, Jane draws on in- powerful emotional bond that resulted in increased loyalty (as
store cues and forms associations between them (home ware) evidenced by her subsequent purchases mentioned in the pas-
and idealized images (the home should be relaxed) and forms an sage and her ongoing patronage).
expectation of appropriate music. For Jane, consistency bet- In summary, fit between in-store music and the brand ope-
ween all three resulted in fit and positive views towards the rated at many levels. For consumers with clearly formed expec-
Country Road brand. In this case, fit is experienced in situ. For tations of the brand, fit results in brand reinforcement and a
Jane, fit between a product range and the in-store music enhan- positive in-store experience, albeit one that is more satisfactory
ces her perceptions of the product, which then transfers to the rather than delightful. For consumers without prior experience
brand. Because she relates the music primarily to the product of the brand, music is an important signal of product quality and
class (which is just one part of the store environment), and she is appropriateness (i.e., target market). As a result, this form of fit
an inexperienced Country Road customer, the emotional effect helps introduce the brand to the consumer. In other cases, music
is less than for a transformation experience (see Melissa's can play a key role in creating a powerful all encompassing
passage below). experience resulting in delight. In each case, in-store music
plays a key role in reinforcing, forming and transforming a
3.1.1. In-store music–brand fit and delight consumer–brand relationship.
Music can also transform the in-store experience, creating
powerful consumer–brand bonds. In this case, music combines 3.2. The experience of in-store music–brand misfit
with other cues to form a powerful emotional experience for the
consumer. For example: The study includes evidence of in-store music–brand mis-
fit. Misfit had two outcomes in terms of consumer–brand
A shop in the Jam Factory… a furniture store, they play such relationships: dilution and repositioning. As such, misfit can
gorgeous music and I actually bought three CD's from them result in either negative or positive brand-related outcomes.
986 M. Beverland et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 982–989

For consumers with prior expectations of the brand, misfit core values of the brand, ultimately reducing the brand's au-
resulted in counterfactual thinking. For example: thenticity. For example:
I suppose I do expect chart music to be in there and the It was clear to me in what it was trying to be on that day or
reason why is because when I think of Esprit I think of a period of time, however it wasn't clear to me in terms of
relaxed feeling. A lot of their clothing is comfortable and that's the image that we're trying to project. I suppose
relaxing. So I do expect hip music but I was kind of Christmas is like an engine of capitalism. At Christmas time
expecting something a bit more relaxed than what they were everyone spends money, buys presents and it increases
playing. The music didn't match that. Even though I liked sales. However the Body Shop is a shop that is on the other
the song, it doesn't really match the person that you would side of politics, it's more concerned about humans and the
expect to come out of Esprit because it is a little bit more environment…. (Jane)
aggressive. Esprit is a really clean-cut place. If you bought a
Jane's passage identifies how a decision to play music
whole Esprit outfit, you would look clean cut, you would
inconsistent with the Body Shop's position leads her to ques-
look good as opposed to what I call a trash shop – where
tion the motives behind the brand. She identifies that the Body
they sell bright neon shops at $10. If you wore that, then
Shop's non-commercial motives clash with her view of Christ-
you would look cheap and nasty, trashy, but coming out of
mas as a largely commercial holiday. Sincere brands may be
there you would look clean cut so that's why I would expect
particularly prone to such challenges and deligitimization
the music being more clean cut. (Joanne)
(Aaker et al., 2004) because sincerity requires a high degree of
Joanne's passage identifies an instance of counterfactual consistency between the brand's espoused values and its ac-
thinking about the brand. Jane compares her mental image and tions (Beverland, 2005). While Jane understands that everyone
expectation of the brand with her experience of the in-store plays Christmas carols during this time of year, this only
music. For Joanne, the two do not fit, and she begins to reassess serves to remove the crucial source of differentiation between
the situation in terms of “what might have been” (McColl- the Body Shop and other, more commercial brands. As a result,
Kennedy and Sparks, 2003). In this instance, misfit results in a such a choice leads her to challenge her previous assumptions
not so subtle shift in the brand's position as Joanne reassesses about the brand's inner character, and effectively question its
the brand as a lower quality brand. legitimacy (Kates, 2004).
Misfit could result in a decrease in the strength of the con-
sumer–brand relationship, potentially devaluing the brand, as 3.2.1. Brand repositioning through misfit
the following projection shows. Counterfactual thinking caused by misfit also had positive
outcomes. For brands seeking to reposition, challenging consu-
(I. What if Britney Spears was playing?) “I think that would
mers' previous assumptions about the brand was critical. Music
probably turn me off a bit. I think that's the kind of thing
played a crucial role in shifting consumer perceptions about the
you associate with a shop that's really trying to sell shoes to
brand. For example:
teeny bopping girls. They're not the type of shop that I
would shop in.” (I. Even if it was that particular jeans store I tend to associate Witchery with slightly older people
that you always go to and one day you walked back and because it's a little bit more expensive. I would have thought
Britney Spears was on?) “I'd probably think it doesn't fit. that they'd had some more classical sort of music in the
Because that's a really cool shop and something that's got background, whereas this was sort young, cool music. Ge-
really good quality products in there.” (Nick) nerally when I'm thinking of younger people's stores I'm
thinking the clothes are a little bit more affordable, young
Nick's passage identifies the potential damage to the brand
people are students with not a whole heap of money. Like
resulting from perceived misfit. Nick identifies that should a
when I think of their ads I think of people wearing suits
store he frequents play music that is not in keeping with the
and that sort of thing. I thought oh, it's a different brand to
brand's personality and position, his emotional connection to
what I thought it would be. I certainly turned my per-
this previously loved brand would diminish, and potentially
ception of the clothes into maybe younger, groovier clothes
result in him dropping the brand altogether. Should the (new) in-
and also the girls that were working in the shop did that as
store experience conflict with his (existing) perception of the
well because they were wearing Witchery clothes and I'd
brand (i.e., misfit occurs), Nick would infer that the brand was
gone oh, I thought Witchery stuff was all older and con-
targeted at another market and was less desirable, thus dimi-
servative and you're wearing cool jeans and a cool top.
nishing his quality perceptions of the brand.
(Caroline)
For Nick and Jane, misfit between the in-store music and
brand challenged the perceived quality, desirability, and target Caroline's passage reveals that the Witchery clothing brand
market of the respective brands resulting in deligitimization was positively repositioned in her mind. For Caroline, the brand
(Kates, 2004). In these cases deligitimization undermined the is now perceived as somewhat more modern and younger.
brand's status because the music challenged consumers' per- However, this choice of music has also had another, more subtle
ceptions of the brand's functional quality. In both cases, this effect – it has led Caroline to associate the brand with lower
deligitimization reduced the brand's status, but did not neces- prices. As a result, the brand is repositioned in her mind, but not
sarily end the relationship. For other brands, misfit attacked the in the way intended by the brand managers of Witchery.
 M. Beverland et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 982–989 987

In summary, misfit resulted in both positive and negative tions of the store, and perceptions of the brand. To our know-
outcomes for the brand. Misfit between in-store music and the ledge this is one of the first papers examining the brand effects of
brand's position could trigger counterfactual thinking, resulting atmospheric variables. Our findings also confirm the views of
in consumers downgrading the brand, challenging its legitima- brand researchers (Ailawadi and Keller, 2004) on the need for
cy, or changing perceptions of the brand (repositioning). research into how a retail store affects consumers' perceptions of
brand image and positioning. Our findings also support the view
3.3. Music volume as moderating influence on role of fit that the positive effects of in-store music do not occur in isolation
from other in-store variables, and the brand's position (Dubé and
The positive (negative) effects of in-store music–brand fit Morin, 2001; Sharma and Stafford, 2000).
(misfit) were moderated by music volume. Consistent with our Achieving fit resulted in brand reinforcement (for consumers
earlier view that music plays an integrating role, low music with prior expectations of the brand), delight, or attraction (for
volume decreased the overall affect of the experience. For new-to-brand consumers). We also identified the importance of
example: prior brand experience or knowledge on the role of fit. For
consumers with prior experience of the brand, fit resulted in
I think that they need to have something in background music,
repositioning and (all things being equal) a satisfactory (though
especially at their quiet times. Like I was saying about General
not delightful) experience. As a result, the consumer–brand re-
Trader, if it's deadly silent in the store and especially if there's
lationship was strengthened. For consumers without prior brand
only you and the service person there, it's almost like in
experience, in-store music served as one important cue to the
society we're taught very much to break the silence, you feel
brand's position. In this case the effect of fit was indirect because
you have to talk and sometimes it's a bit like ‘hi how are you
the brand effects were reliant on perceptions of product quality
going?’ And you go ‘good,’ and that's how far our
being confirmed as well as other in-store cues. Nevertheless, fit
relationship needs to go. But because it's quiet and because
was critical to introducing these consumers to the brand. In
you're both just there, they feel like they have to go ‘how is
particular, fit helped build emotional connections between the
your day going?’, and I feel like going ‘it's fine, I don't want to
consumer and the brand. Such connections are believed to be
talk to you, I want to look at what's in your shop.' (Caroline)
central to experiential marketing (Pine and Gilmore, 1999) and
Caroline's passage reveals the negative effect of a lack of branding practices (see emotional branding; Keller, 2003). Se-
music. For Caroline, silence in the store results in an uncom- cond, we also identified that music played a central role in
fortable feeling, and imposes an unwanted obligation on her to integrating other atmospheric variables to create a consistent, and
interact with staff. For Caroline, this intrudes on her desire for a in some cases, transformational experience.
personal and efficient shopping trip, and results in a negative Third, we identify two contrasting effects of misfit. Misfit
attitude towards the brand. In contrast, loud music could destroy triggered counterfactual thinking about the brand, resulting in a
a positive experience resulting in dissatisfaction and store exit loss of status, or positive repositioning. In the case of lost status,
(cf. Arnold et al., 2005). For example: misfit could result in confusion leading to reduced stay time or
exit, or for new-to-brand consumers, store avoidance. In these
I like music on when you're shopping but not when it's
cases, misfit did not go to the heart of the brand and as a result
overpowering, you just can't hear what they're saying, you're
misfit would be easier to remedy. We also identified more
screaming over the top of people, it's just ridiculous. I just
serious effects. In the case of sincere brands (such as the Body
want to rush and get it over and done with as soon as possible.
Shop) misfit could challenge the brand's legitimacy, resulting in
(I. Did you try things on?) “Not really because you don't pay
a loss of status and declining equity. In this case, poor music
much attention to the clothes, you're kind of just browsing
choice could clash with the values underpinning the brand, thus
really quickly so you can just get out of there so you don't
undermining the brand's authenticity and perceived sincerity
pay much attention to what they've got. Half the time literally
(Aaker et al., 2004; Beverland, 2005; Kates, 2004). We also
if I see it and if I really like it I won't bother trying it on, I'll
identified positive instances of misfit. This suggests that misfit
just buy it so I can just get out of there. (Rosie)
is beneficial for firms wishing to reposition their brands, al-
The above passage illustrates how music volume that breaches though changes in music style may have unintended conse-
Rosie's zone of tolerance results in a dissatisfactory experience, quences (such as repositioning the brand down-market).
impedes her ability to efficiently shop, and decreases store stay We also contribute to the emerging research on delightful
time. As a result, a potential brand reinforcement occasion is lost. and terrible in-store experiences (Arnold et al., 2005; Machleit
The ability to experience the functional benefits of the brand (in et al., 2005). Confirming research on in-store hassles, we find
this case the clothes), and the service aspects of the brand are that misfit and music volume effects are key drivers in “atmos-
reduced. In both cases, any positive effects of fit are lost because pheric responsiveness” (Machleit et al., 2005) that contribute to
of the music volume. both negative in-store experience and patronage decisions. We
go beyond this research in two ways. First, we identify how and
4. Conclusion why music volume affects in-store experiences. Music that is
too quiet imposes an undesired “obligation” to interact with
This paper contributes in a number of ways. First, we identify sales staff, while very loud music intrudes on the overall
the effects of in-store music–brand fit on consumers' percep- experience (cf. Arnold et al., 2005). Second, misfit triggers
988 M. Beverland et al. / Journal of Business Research 59 (2006) 982–989

Fig. 1. The effect of in-store music on attitudinal/behavioural outcomes, store/product brand perceptions, and consumer–brand relationships.

counterfactual thinking about the brand and store, potentially such as music should be considered as part of an integrated
leading to discomfort, exit, or non-entry. More importantly we marketing communications strategy to ensure a “one voice,
also identify effects of such hassles on brand image as well as one look” to brand-related communications. Fourth, sincere
the store itself. Future research could examine whether these brands should give careful consideration to changing music to
effects are different depending on shopper orientation (Machleit reflect holiday norms as such a choice may undermine the
et al., 2005). Finally, the examination of the experience of (mis) brand's point of difference. Finally, these results reconfirm the
fit contributes to our understanding of the emotional and beha- importance of controlling the type and volume of in-store
vioral elements of delightful and terrible shopping experiences music. Retailers that leave it up to staff to choose in-store
(Arnold et al., 2005). music could pay the price in terms of declining brand equity,
Based on the above findings, a conceptual model showing and unintended repositioning.
the direct and indirect effects of music–brand fit/misfit is ad-
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