Lecture Notes by Dr.

Abdul Rauf Nizami

Subject: Calculus and Analytic Geometry

The Indefinite Integral

Instructor: M. Zeeshan

Spring 2019
2

Antiderivative. A function F is called an antiderivative of a function f on an

open interval if F 0 (x) = f (x) for all x in the interval.

x3
For instance, F (x) = 3 is an antiderivative of f (x) = x2 .

Integration. The process of finding antiderivatives is called the antidifferen-

tiation or integration.

The Indefinite Integral. If F is any antiderivative of f , then, for any constant

C, F + C is also an antiderivative of f . The set of all antiderivatives of f is
called the indefinite integral of f , and is symbolically represented as
Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + C.
R
• is called the integral sign.
• f (x) is called the integrand.
• x is called the variable of integration.
• C is called the constant of integration.

Some Useful Integration Formulas.

R
• dx = x + C
n+1
• xn dx = xn+1 + C
R

• e dx = ex + C
R x
ax
• R eax dx = ea + C
R

• x1 dx = ln x + C
n+1
• [f (x)]n f 0 (x)dx = [f (x)]
R
n+1 +C
R f 0 (x)
• dx = ln f (x) + C
R f (x)
• R cos xdx = sin x + C
• sin xdx = − cos x + C
Here are some more formulas.
• cos(ax)dx = sin(ax)
R
a +C
R − cos(ax)
• R sin(ax)dx = a +C
• R sec2 xdx = tan x + C
• R csc2 xdx = − cot x + C
• R sec x tan xdx = sec x + C
• csc x cot xdx = − csc x + C

Example 1.
R
a) 2dx = 2x + C
 The Indefinite Integral 3

x2+1 x3
x2 dx =
R
b) 2+1 +C = 3 +C
R√ 1
1
x 2 +1
3
x2 3
+ C = 32 x 2 + C
R
c) xdx = x 2 dx = 1 +C = 3
2 +1 2

x−2+1
1
x−2 dx = + C = −x−1 + C
R R
d) x2 dx = −2+1

e3x
e3x dx =
R
e) 3 +C
R sin(2x)
f) cos(2x)dx = 2 +C

Properties of the Indefinite Integral.

R R
• cf (x)dx = c f (x)dx
R R R
• f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx

Example 2.
4
2x3 dx = 2 x3 dx = 2( x4 ) + C = 12 x4 + C
R R
a)

1 1 −1
sin xdx = 12 (− cos x) + C =
R R
b) 2 sin xdx = 2 2 cos x + C

Example 3.
Z Z Z Z Z
(6x5 − 4x3 + 6x − 3)dx = 6 x5 dx − 4 x3 dx + 6 xdx − 3 dx

x6 x4 x2
= 6( ) − 4( ) + 6( ) − 3x + C
6 4 2
= x6 − x4 + 3x2 − 3x + C

Differential Equation. Finding an antiderivative for a function f (x) means

finding a function y that satisfies the equation
dy
= f (x).
dx
This is called a differential equation (DE).
• The function y = F (x) that satisfies the equation is called a solution of
the differential equation.
• If F (x) is a solution of the differential equation, then F (x) + C is also
a solution of the DE, and is called the general solution of the DE.
• The graph of a solution y = F (x) is called the integral curve.
4 The Indefinite Integral

• In order to obtain a fixed value of the constant C we apply the condition

y(x0 ) = y0 , called the initial condition. This mean the function y(x) has
the value y0 when x = x0 .

Initial-Value Problem. The problem of finding a function y(x) whose deriv-

ative is f (x) and whose graph passes through the point (x0 , y0 ) is expressed
as
dy
= f (x), y(x0 ) = y0 .
dx
This is called an initial-value problem.

Example 4. Solve the initial-value problem

dy
= cos x, y(0) = 1.
dx

Solution.
Step 1. (Separate Variables)
Keep the variable y on one side and x on the other side:

dy = cos xdx

Step 2. (Integrate)
Integrate the equation, keeping in view the variables of integrations:
Z Z
dy = cos xdx
y = sin x + C

Step 3. (Initial Condition)

Apply the initial condition y(0) = 1; this means y = 1 when x = 0.

1 = sin 0 + C
1 = 0+C

This gives C = 1.

Step 4. (Solution)
The solution of the initial-value problem is y = sin x + 1.
Step 5. (Integral Curve)
The integral curve of y = sin x + 1 passing through the point (0, 1) is
 The Indefinite Integral 5

————————-Solution Ends——————————–

Example 5. Solve the initial-value problem

dy √
= 3 x, y(1) = 2.
dx
Solution.
Step 1. (Separate Variables)
Keep the variable y on one side and x on the other side:
√
dy = 3 xdx
or
1
dy = x 3 dx
Step 2. (Integrate)
Integrate the equation, keeping in view the variables of integrations:
Z
1
dy = x 3 dx
3 4
y = x3 + C
4
Step 3. (Initial Condition)
Apply the initial condition y(1) = 2; this means y = 2 when x = 1.
3 4
2 = (1) 3 + C
4
3
2 = +C
4
3
2− = C
4
5
= C
4
This gives C = 45 .

Step 4. (Solution)
4
The solution of the initial-value problem is y = 43 x 3 + 45 .
6 The Indefinite Integral

Step 5. (Integral Curve)

4
The integral curve of y = 34 x 3 + 5
4 passing through the point (1, 2) is

————————-Solution Ends——————————–

Remark. By the slope of a curve we mean the slope of the tangent line to the
curve at a point (x, y).

Example 6. Find the curve that has slope 2x + 1 and that passes through the
point (−3, 0).

Solution.
Step 0. (Initial-Value Problem)
Let y be the curve that has slope 2x + 1. Then, according to the statement,
we get the initial-value problem

dy
= 2x + 1, y(−3) = 0.
dx

Step 1. (Separate Variables)

Keep the variable y on one side and x on the other side:

dy = (2x + 1)dx

Step 2. (Integrate)
Integrate the equation, keeping in view the variables of integrations:
Z Z
dy = (2x + 1)dx
Z Z
y = 2xdx + 1dx

y = x2 + x + C
 The Indefinite Integral 7

Step 3. (Initial Condition)

Apply the initial condition y(−3) = 0; this means y = 0 when x = −3.

0 = (−3)2 + (−3) + C
0 = 9−3+C
−6 = C

This gives C = −6.

Step 4. (Solution)
The curve that has slope 2x + 1 and that passes through the point (−3, 0) is
y = x2 + x − 6.

Step 5. (Integral Curve)

The integral curve of y = x2 + x − 6 passing through the point (−3, 0) is

————————-Solution Ends——————————–

Example 7. A particle moves along an s-axis with position function s = s(t)

and velocity function v(t) = s0 (t). Find s(t) such that v(t) = 32t; s(0) = 20.

Solution.
Step 0. (Initial-Value Problem)
According to the statement, we get the initial-value problem

s0 (t) = 32t, s(0) = 20

or
ds
= 32t, s(0) = 20.
dt
Step 1. (Separate Variables)
Keep the variable s on one side and t on the other side:

ds = 32tdt
8 The Indefinite Integral

Step 2. (Integrate)
Integrate the equation, keeping in view the variables of integrations:
Z Z
ds = 32tdt

s = 16t2 + C
Step 3. (Initial Condition)
Apply the initial condition s(0) = 20; this means s = 20 when t = 0.
20 = 16(0)2 + C
20 = C
This gives C = 20.

Step 4. (Solution)
The position of the particle is s(t) = 16t2 + 20.

Step 5. (Integral Curve)

The integral curve of s(t) = 16t2 + 20 passing through the point (0, 20) is

————————-Solution Ends——————————–

Practice Problems.

dy
1. Solve the initial-value problem dx = 2x − 7, y(2) = 0.
dy
2. Solve the initial-value problem dx = 3x−2/3 , y(−1) = −5.
ds
3. Solve the initial-value problem dt = 1 + cos t, s(0) = 4.
4. Find the curve that has slope (x+1)2 and that passes through the point
(−2, 8).
5. A particle moves along an s-axis with position function s = s(t) and
velocity function v(t) = s0 (t). Find s(t) such that v(t) = sin t; s(0) = 0.

——————————————————–
(I shall welcome your suggestions to improve these notes.)