Schizophrenia Research: Xavier Benarous, Marie Raf Fin, Vladimir Ferra Fiat, Angèle Consoli, David Cohen

SCHRES-07422; No of Pages 12
Schizophrenia Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Schizophrenia Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/schres
Catatonia in children and adolescents: New perspectives

Xavier Benarous a,b,⁎, Marie Raffin a,b, Vladimir Ferrafiat c, Angèle Consoli a,b, David Cohen a,d
a
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France
b
GRC-15, Dimensional Approach of Child and Adolescent Psychotic Episodes, Faculté de Médecine, UPMC, Paris, France
c
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, CHU Charles Nicolle, Rouen, France
d
CNRS UMR 7222, Institute for Intelligent Systems and Robotics, Sorbonnes Universités, UPMC, Paris, France
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Introduction: Catatonia is a rare and severe psychomotor condition in children and adolescents. In the current re-
Received 5 April 2017 port, we aimed to review the recent literature.
Received in revised form 6 July 2017 Method: Using a PRISMA approach, we searched MEDLINE between 1982 and 2017 using the keywords ‘CATATO-
Accepted 9 July 2017 NIA’ and ‘CHILD’ or ‘ADOLESCENT’. In total, we reviewed 130 reports (controlled study, N = 4; clinical chart, N =
Available online xxxx
23; case report, N = 54; and editorial/review, N = 42).
Results: Several aspects seem to be age specific: (1) although the clinical presentation resembles that in adults,
Keywords:
Catatonia
some symptoms are important in children and adolescents (e.g., psychomotor regression). (2) Associated disor-
Childhood ders are similar to that found in adults; however, schizophrenia is more frequently observed than mood disorder.
Adolescence Additionally, a history of neurodevelopmental disorders maybe encountered. (3) Morbidity and mortality are
Electroconvulsive therapy among the worst in child psychiatry. (4) Underlying organic conditions are highly prevalent (N20% of the
cases), and their search is warranted because some diagnoses may result in specific treatments (e.g., immune-
suppressor therapy for autoimmune conditions). (5) Symptomatic approaches – high dose of benzodiazepines
and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) – are as efficient in children or adolescents as they are in adults, but this
finding needs to be acknowledged because a resistance against the use of ECT or high-dose medication exists
among child psychiatrists.
Discussion: Recent advances in child and adolescent catatonia research have offered major improvements in
understanding catatonia and in new therapeutic opportunities. The syndrome is rare, but these advances need
to be acknowledged in order to direct patients to centers that have developed a specific expertise.
© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction (1999) and Dhossche et al. (2006) in cohorts of inpatient youths pro-
moted a syndromic view of the condition. This perspective, which has
While catatonia has been described as an adult condition, catatonic progressively been internationally endorsed (American Psychiatric
symptoms have been reported in children or adolescents since the nine- Association, 2000, 2013), has also contributed to the acceleration of
teenth century. In a series of 26 adults with catatonia, Kahlbaum noted evidence-based research development and helped in the recognition
that the majority had their first symptoms in childhood (Kahlbaum, of catatonia in children and adolescents.
1874). Raecke (1909), who presented the first clinical series in youths In this article, we provide a review on catatonia in children and ado-
(n = 10), observed that the presentation was comparable between lescents. Section 3 presents the epidemiology and the phenomenology
children and adults. The first attempt to separate catatonia from other of the syndrome, including the differential diagnoses. Section 4 summa-
mental conditions in children was made by Karl Leonhard (1979), rizes the etiological factors and disorders associated with catatonia in
who listed the differences between “infant catatonia”, autism and the children and adolescents. Section 5 attempts to propose a comprehen-
“state of feeblemindedness” (Leonhard, 1979). sive model for catatonia. Finally, Section 6 provides an overview of ther-
Leonhard's research on youths with neuro-developmental disorders apeutic approaches.
helped distinguish catatonia from motor dysfunctions associated with
autism (Ohta et al., 2006; Wachtel and Dhossche, 2010; Wing and 2. Methods
Shah, 2000). In the same vein, the observations made by Cohen et al.
The systematic review was conducted following the recommenda-
⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Pitié-
tions outlined in the PRISMA guide (Moher et al., 2009). To take into ac-
Salpêtrière Hospital, 83, boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France. count relevant papers that were written in English, MEDLINE databases
E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Benarous). between 1982 and 2017 were searched using key terms that included
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028
0920-9964/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Benarous, X., et al., Catatonia in children and adolescents: New perspectives, Schizophr. Res. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028
2 X. Benarous et al. / Schizophrenia Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
‘CATATONIA’ and ‘CHILD’ or ‘ADOLESCENT’ in addition to manual 3.2. Clinical description and diagnosis
searches. Titles and abstracts were scanned for relevance. Full texts
were ordered in case of uncertainty to maximize sensitivity. Reference Catatonia is a syndrome of abnormal motor function. Catatonic
lists of retrieved systematic reviews were checked. All full texts were symptoms can be classified into motor (e.g., posturing, catalepsy,
checked for eligibility. Studies in which the onset age of every subject waxy flexibility), behavioral (e.g., negativism, mutism), affective (e.g.,
with catatonia was over 18 and those that did not specify the onset uncontrollable emotional reactions, withdrawal), and regressive symp-
age as either over or under18 were excluded. Any controlled study, clin- toms (e.g., enuresis). Isomorphism across ages is supported by empirical
ical chart, case report, review or editorial were eligible for inclusion in studies (Dhossche et al., 2010) and has been adopted in the internation-
this review. Of the 130 studies obtained by this method, 4 were con- al classification. The DSM-5 criteria for catatonia include the presence of
trolled studies, 23 were chart reviews without case presentations, 54 three symptoms from the following list of twelve: stupor, catalepsy,
were case reports, and 42 were editorial/review articles on a specific waxy flexibility, mutism, negativism, posturing, mannerisms, stereoty-
issue. Seven articles were beyond the scope of this article, and thus, py, agitation, grimacing, echolalia and echopraxia (American
they were excluded (Fig. 1, for detailed research strategy see Table Psychiatric Association, 2013) (Table 1). Other common symptoms are
S1). In addition to the report of current evidence on pediatric catatonia, motor resistance to simple commands, posturing, rigidity, automatic
we also mention possible clinical strategies and research prospects that obedience, and repetitive movements. While the DSM-IV uses different
deserve more attention based on our experience in treating youths with sets of criteria for the diagnosis of catatonia in schizophrenia and prima-
catatonia. ry mood disorders versus neurological/medical conditions, the DSM-5
has adopted the syndromic approach promoted by most catatonia ex-
perts (Dhossche et al., 2010; Francis et al., 2010). In our own cohort,
3. Phenomenology and diagnosis of catatonia in children and contributions to the classification of catatonia symptoms were limited,
adolescents and no symptoms appeared pathognomonic of any psychiatric diagno-
ses, neuro-developmental histories or organic conditions (Benarous et
3.1. Epidemiology al., 2016; Consoli et al., 2012). In addition to the DSM classification, we
previously proposed a specific classification of catatonia in children
A prevalence rate for the general population is not available, which and adolescents, as described in Table 2 (Cohen, 2006). This assumption
indicates that catatonia is a rare clinical syndrome in children and ado- was empirically derived from studies on the phenomenology of catato-
lescents. The prevalence of catatonia in inpatient youths varies from nia in youths (Benarous et al., 2016), the course of the disorder (Cornic
0.6% to 17% (Cohen et al., 2005; Takaoka and Takata, 2003; Thakur et et al., 2009), and its association with psychiatric and organic conditions
al., 2003; Wing and Shah, 2000). In the overwhelming majority of (Consoli et al., 2012; Lahutte et al., 2008).
cases, catatonic episodes occur in patients at pubertal ages (Consoli et
al., 2012) and exceptionally at pre-pubertal ages (e.g., Wachtel et al., 3.3. Clinical scales
2008). Furthermore, although the phenomenology of catatonia in
young people is similar to that reported in the adult literature (see One of the challenges in using rating scales is that catatonic symp-
below), the sex ratio is different, with more boys affected than girls toms fluctuate over time, and a longer period of observation may be re-
(sex ratio approximately 2:1) (Cohen et al., 1999; Takaoka and Takata, quired to obtain the full clinical picture. Several rating scales that were
2003). initially developed for adults were used in pediatric patients, such as
Fig. 1. PRISMA diagram flow of the study search.
10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028
X. Benarous et al. / Schizophrenia Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 3
Table 1
Catatonic symptoms in children and adolescents.
Description of items of catatonia DSM-5 BFCRS PCRS

criteria items items
Motor symptoms
Catalepsy (i.e., passive induction of a posture held against gravity) X X X
Waxy flexibility (i.e., slight and even resistance to positioning by examiner) X X X
Stupor (i.e., no psychomotor activity; not actively relating to environment) X X X
Agitation(i.e., not influenced by external stimuli) X
Negativism (i.e., opposing or not responding to instructions or external stimuli) X X X
Posturing (i.e., spontaneous and active maintenance of a posture against gravity) X X X
Grasp reflex (i.e., per neurological exam) X
Stereotypes (i.e., repetitive, abnormally frequent, non-goal directed movements) X X X
Excitement (i.e., extreme hyperactivity, constant motor unrest which is apparently non purposeful. Not to be attributed X X
to akathisia or goal directed agitation)
Mannerisms (i.e., odd caricature of normal actions) X X X
Grimacing (i.e., maintenance of odd facial expressions) X X
Staring (i.e., fixed gaze, little or visual scanning of environment, decreased blinking) X X
Rigidity (i.e., maintenance of a rigid position despite efforts to be moved, exclude if cogwheeling or tremor present) X X
Impulsivity (i.e., patient suddenly engages in inappropriate behavior without provocation. Afterwards can give no, or only facile X
explanation)
Mitgehen (i.e., “anglepoise lamp”, arm raising in response to light pressure or finger, despite instruction to the contrary) X
Ambitendency (i.e., patient appears motorically “stuck” in indecisive hesitant movement) X
Perseveration (i.e., repeatedly returns to same topic or persists with movement) X
Automatic compulsive movements (i.e., involuntary muscle activity exhibited in posture, attitudes, mimic or gesture due to X
inhibition or forced motor action)
Automatic obedience (i.e., exaggerated cooperation with examiner's request or spontaneous continuation of movement requested) X
Gegenhalten (i.e., resistance to passive movement which is proportional to strength of the stimulus, appears automatic rather than X
willful)
Non-motor symptoms (i.e., behavioral/emotional/autonomic)
Mutism (i.e., no, or very little, verbal response, not applicable if there is an established aphasia) X X X
Echolalia (i.e., mimicking another's speech) X X X
Echopraxia (i.e., mimicking another's movements) X X X
Verbigeration (i.e., repetition of phrases or sentences, like a scratched record) X X
Schizophasia (i.e. word salad) X
Social withdrawal (i.e., refusal to make eye contact) X X
Refusal to eat/drink X X
Autonomic abnormality (i.e., circle temperature, BP, pulse, respiratory rate, diaphoresis) X X
Acrocyanosis (i.e., cyanosis of the extremities) X
Combativeness (i.e., usually in an undirected manner, with no, or only a facile explanation afterwards) X
Incontinence (i.e., nocturnal enuresis, daytime urinary incontinence, or fecal incontinence) X
the Bush-Francis Catatonia Rating Scale (BFCRS) and the Modified Rog- disorders or autism. (ii) Incontinence, a symptom of general psychomo-
ers Scale (MRS) (Kinrys and Logan, 2001; Zaw and Bates, 1997). Cohen tor regression, was reported at a high rate in children with catatonia and
(2006) developed a modified version of the BFCRS for children and ad- was added as a symptom (Dhossche et al., 2010). (iii) The criterion of
olescents called the Pediatric Catatonic Rating Scale (PCRS). In addition automatic compulsive movements was proposed instead of automatic
to the 17-item of the BFCRS, six symptoms were added based on the obedience and was regarded as a manifestation of psychomotor autom-
analysis of 463 catatonic cases from seven studies and the review of his- atism (De Clérambault, 1927) that would predict a higher risk of associ-
torical descriptions of pediatric catatonia (Cohen, 2006): (i) Withdrawal ated psychotic disorder. (iv) Schizophasia and acrocyanosis were added
was separated into refusal to eat/drink and social withdrawal to facilitate as an indication of malignant catatonia in youths in addition to auto-
distinction with other pediatric psychiatric disorders such as eating nomic abnormality. And (v) grimacing was combined with mannerism.
Similar to the BFCRS, each symptom could be rated from 0 (absent) to
Table 2 3 (severe), leading to a maximum score of 60. Receiver operating char-
Proposed categories for diagnostic classification of catatonia in children and adolescents acteristic analysis of the PCRS showed excellent discriminant validity
(modified from Cohen, 2006). with a threshold score of 9 in a sample of 138 inpatient youths with
Classification element Category (N = 88) and without (N = 50) catatonia (Benarous et al., 2016).
Catatonia Stuporous catatonia
Delirious catatonia (or excited catatonia) 3.4. Clinical recognition and differential diagnoses
Malignant catatonia
Psychomotor automatism (the main symptom is Patients with catatonia do not present impairments at the major
compulsive automatic movements) items of the neurological examination (e.g., gross motor and sensory
Specifier for associated Secondary to a mood disorder
function, cranial nerves) (Cohen, 2006; Rosebush and Mazurek, 1999).
disorder Secondary to a medical condition (including
toxic state and neurologic disorder) Discrete neurological signs such as autonomic abnormalities (e.g., in
Secondary to a psychotic disorder case of malignant catatonia) or abnormalities in fine motor skills (e.g.,
Secondary to an acute non psychotic anxious motor coordination) can however exist. Differential diagnoses should
state
be carefully assessed with regards to medical and obstetrical history,
Specifier for symptom course Acute
Chronic physical exam of other systems, and previous neurological examina-
Specifier for history of With a history of ASD tions to help distinguishing between: soft signs in a context of develop-
neuro-developmental With a history of ID mental stressor (such as premature birth), signs of a comorbid
disorder With a history of genetic syndrome developmental disorder, motor neurological signs due to an organic
Adapted with permission from Taylor and Fink, American Journal of Psychiatry, 2003. condition, or medication-induced motor symptoms (McKenna et al.,
10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028
Table 3 episode). The prevalence of catatonia among patients with early-onset

Differential diagnosis of catatonia in children and adolescents. schizophrenia is not known. Green et al. (1992) examined 38 children
Motor symptoms of a psychiatric disorder with schizophrenic disorder who were younger than 12 years of age
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (compulsive rituals involving repeating
and indicated that catatonia or other grossly disorganized behavior
behaviors, indecision, slowness to complete tasks) was present in 12 of them (32%). Catatonic episodes can also emerge
Autistic spectrum disorders (repetitive pattern of behaviors involving ritualistic after the prescription of antipsychotic drugs to patients already diag-
and compulsive behaviors, mannerisms, grimacing) nosed with schizophrenia. Bonnot et al. (2008) examined youths with
Intellectual disability (stereotypies)
schizophrenia that was or was not associated with catatonia. Those
Acute stress disordera
Conversion disorder who have experienced a catatonic episode presented more severe
Complex motor symptoms of a neurologic disorder schizophrenic symptoms, possessed a poorer level of global functioning
Tic disorder (multiple motor and vocal tics) and required a longer duration of inpatient care to attain sufficient im-
Tourette's disorder(facial grimacing, phonic stereotypies, echopraxia and provement for discharge compared to other subjects.
echolalia)
Stereotypic movement disorders
Mood disorder is the second most common psychiatric condition
Developmental coordination disorders (bizarre sequencing of complex motor act) that is associated with catatonia. In our clinical cohorts, 37 out of 89
Pharmacology-induced motor symptoms (41.6%) presented a mood disorder: 26 met the criteria for a major de-
Neurologic effects of antipsychotic (akathisia, parkinsonism, dyskinesia, and pressive episode while 11 had experienced a manic episode. Most of
acute dystonia)
these youths presented both catatonic and psychotic features. In some
Serotonin syndrome
severe cases, the diagnosis was feasible only after an improvement of
a
Acute catatonia is possible in context of acute stress (e.g., catatonic stupor and pos- the catatonic symptoms: Cotard syndrome was reported in an adoles-
turing have been described in children after massive collective traumatic experiences,
such as heartbreak) (Thakur et al., 2003; Dhossche et al., 2012). However, in this context,
cent girl with malignant catatonia who presented with hypochondriac
motor and emotional symptoms are usually transient (Dhossche et al., 2012). delusion only after the most severe catatonic symptoms were treated
(Cohen et al., 1997a). Kinrys and Logan (2001) reported a case of peri-
odic catatonia in a 16-year-old boy with bipolar disorder. Again, the un-
derlying symptoms of the mood episode (i.e., mania with associated
1991; Raffin et al., 2015; Wing and Shah, 2000; Wong et al., 2007). From psychosis) became evident with the improvement of catatonia after
a clinical perspective, the distinction is important as inadequate treat- benzodiazepine treatment and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).
ment may worsen clinical signs and lead to malignant catatonia Traumatic factors play an important role in the onset of catatonic ep-
(Woodbury and Woodbury, 1992). Table 3 details the most frequent isodes in youths (Dhossche et al., 2012). Trauma-induced catatonic ep-
differential diagnoses of pediatric catatonia. isodes are rarely reported in clinical charts. However, these studies
rarely take into account situations observed in other settings (e.g.,
3.5. Course and prognosis of catatonia emergency department, consultation-liaison psychiatry, or disaster
medical facility). Moreover, there is debate as to whether psychomotor
Pediatric catatonia usually presents acutely but its onset can also be syndromes described in youths under conditions of severe adversity
insidious. Duration can be transient or chronic for weeks or months. should be considered as catatonia; for example, pervasive refusal syn-
Similar to adults, children and adolescents with catatonia are at risk drome that has been described among refugee children or the devitali-
for severe complications due to akinesia, including pneumonia, zation syndrome that has been described in Swedish children from
decubitus ulcers, malnutrition, dehydration, contractures or thrombo- ex-USSR countries (Nunn et al., 2014). In our cohort, nearly 25% of the
sis. If untreated, catatonia can progress to malignant catatonia, which patients reported a history of severe traumatic experiences (i.e., abuse
is more frequent when antipsychotic medications are prescribed or severe neglect). However, the nature and the frequencies of these ex-
(Cornic et al., 2009). In this severe form, an exacerbation of motor periences did not significantly differ from those of adolescent inpatients
(intense excitement, catalepsy, rigidity, stereotypies and posturing) with bipolar disorder. In addition, those who reported a history of se-
and non-motor symptoms (e.g., mutism) are observed in addition to vere traumatic experiences exhibited a similar pattern of catatonic
systemic symptoms such as delirium, marked autonomic instability symptoms and response rate to treatment compared to other subjects
and hyperthermia. At this stage, the risk of mortality increases dramat- (Benarous et al., 2016).
ically. The life-threatening impact of catatonia is also evidenced in the
only follow-up study found in the literature. Cornic et al. (2009) con- 4.2. Catatonia in youths with developmental disorders
ducted a 3.9-yearfollow-up study to examine the course of inpatient
youths who were admitted for catatonia (N = 35; mean age = Wing and Shah (2000) were pioneers who studied the prevalence
19.5 years; range 15–26). The authors found that subjects presented a and burden associated with catatonic symptoms in patients with autism
60-fold increased risk of premature death at follow-up, including sui- spectrum disorders (ASD). By assessing 506 patients that were referred
cide, when compared to the general population with the same sex and to a specialist clinic for ASD, they were able to empirically demonstrate
age using the Standardized Mortality Ratio. Delays in diagnosis and that catatonia can be distinguished from motor or behavioral manifesta-
management were associated with increased morbidity. Additionally, tions of a developmental disorder. The assumption that a catatonic epi-
a rare chronic form of catatonia that is associated with schizophrenia sode can complicate the course of a developmental disorder has been
in males was identified. widespread ever since (Dhossche, 2004; Kakooza-Mwesige et al.,
2008; Ohta et al., 2006).
4. Etiological factors and disorders associated with catatonia in In youths with developmental disorders, the diagnosis of catatonia
children and adolescents can be more difficult due to the overlap in symptoms. Catatonia should
be suspected when the patient presents a sharp and sustained increase
4.1. Psychiatric disorders associated with catatonia of preexisting motor symptoms (psychomotor slowness or agitation)
or when new symptoms are observed (extreme negativism or mute-
Unlike adults, the most common underlying psychiatric disorders of ness, stereotypy, peculiarities of voluntary movement, echolalia, or
catatonia in children and adolescents are schizophrenic disorders echopraxia) (Taylor and Fink, 2003). As repetitive movements, postur-
(Cohen et al., 2005; Takaoka and Takata, 2003). In our clinical cohort, ing, and agitation are common symptoms in autism, Dhossche et al.
43 out of 89 youths (48.3%) presented schizophrenia spectrum disor- (2006) suggested that a marked change in motor behavior should per-
ders (i.e., schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, or a brief psychotic sist for at least days or weeks before considering a diagnosis of catatonia.
10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028
Some severe forms of repetitive self-injurious behavior have been con- where an auto-immune etiology of catatonia is highly suspected
ceptualized as catatonic stereotypies (with bodily injury), which require (Ferrafiat et al., 2016).
specific treatments (Wachtel and Dhossche, 2010).
The prevalence of catatonia in neuro-developmental disorder is dif- 4.3.2. Epilepsy
ficult to estimate because the existing studies pool youths and adults There is a complex relationship between catatonia and epilepsy, as
with ASD or Intellectual Disability (ID). Dhossche et al. (2006) found catatonic syndrome can precede, occur with or continue after the
an incidence rate of 4–17% in adolescents and adults based on a review ictus. Also, some of the organic (e.g., anti-NMDAR encephalitis) and psy-
of six studies (N = 811). Catatonia seems to be more frequently ob- chiatric (e.g., ASD) etiologies described previously can manifest as sei-
served during middle or late-adolescence (Wing and Shah, 2000), but zures, making it difficult to differentiate between ictal catatonia and
case reports of prepubertal children have also been published (e.g., other organic catatonia that are comorbid with epilepsy. The therapeu-
Wachtel et al., 2008). Various internal (e.g., epilepsy, pain) or external tic response to anticonvulsant drugs allows for the validation of the di-
stressors (e.g., stressful life events) have been implicated in the onset agnosis of ictal catatonia. In youths, as in adults, only case reports are
of catatonic symptoms. A loss of routine and an inability to perform available (Consoli et al., 2012; Lahutte et al., 2008).
self-soothing ritualistic behaviors could lead to increased anxiety and,
in turn, contribute to the maintenance of catatonic symptoms in ASD 4.3.3. Intoxication and iatrogenic causes
(DeJong et al., 2014; Shah and Wing, 2006). While the vast majority of Various drugs or toxic compounds can cause catatonia in youths, in-
the literature focuses on autistic youths, very little space was devoted cluding steroids (Doherty et al., 1991; Sullivan and Dickerman, 1979),
to the recognition and treatment of catatonic syndrome in youths lithium (Desarkar et al., 2007), phencyclidine (an NMDA-receptor an-
with intellectual disability. For example, the influence of the intellectual tagonist), chlorphenamine (an antihistaminic agent) (Baldridge and
quotient score on the presentation of catatonic symptoms, especially Bessen, 1990), antiretroviral agents (e.g., zidovudine, abacavir)
motor, has not been examined. (Lingeswaran, 2014), insulin (post-insulin coma encephalopathy) and
cyclosporine (Consoli et al., 2012). A toxicity-induced catatonic
4.3. Catatonia due to general medical conditions state has been described in adolescents following cannabis overuse
(Smith and Roberts, 2014) and after using ecstasy (Masi et al., 2002),
In N 20% of pediatric catatonia, an underlying organic condition could gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (a weak agonist GABA-B receptor)
be identified (Consoli et al., 2012; Lahutte et al., 2008). For some of these (Constantinides and Vincent, 2009; Kuiper et al., 2009) and 4-methyl
conditions, specific treatments are available and can drastically improve methcathinone (mephedrone or “bath salts”) (Kolli et al., 2013). In ec-
catatonic symptoms. Table 4 presents the main etiologies that have stasy intoxication, a key issue is to treat the hyponatremia that fre-
been reported in youths with catatonia and the appropriate biological quently accompanies catatonia, as it can be life-threatening.
and non-biological assessments to confirm the diagnoses. Table 5 pre-
sents the clinical symptoms that are likely associated with an organic 4.3.4. Metabolic and genetic conditions
etiology. In our cohort, we found that 25% of young patients with catatonia
presented a potential metabolic and/or genetic condition associated
4.3.1. Autoimmune disease with catatonia. Metabolic and/or genetic conditions should be
There are two separate classes of autoimmune disorders that are suspected when the familial history is suggestive, when an aggravation
eventually associated with catatonia. Systemic autoimmune disorders of catatonic symptoms is observed with treatment or with conditions
should be suspected when youths exhibit extra-neurological symptoms associated with catabolism (e.g., food intake, surgery and fever) and
such as polyarthritis, photosensitivity, malar rash, alopecia, proteinuria when clinical signs of intra-tissue storage are detected (e.g., hepato-
or hematuria. Systemic lupus erythematosus is the autoimmune disor- megaly) (Sedel et al., 2007). Some patients have a history of develop-
der that is most frequently reported (Perisse et al., 2003). The pediatric mental disorders or of cognitive regression. However, acute and
form is known to be more aggressive than the adult form, and neuro- recurrent attacks without preexisting symptoms can also be observed
psychiatric symptoms more frequent (80% vs 24%). Other systemic au- in the late-onset presentation of genetic and/or metabolic diseases
toimmune diseases that are associated with catatonia in youths are (e.g., urea cycle defect, homocysteine remethylation defect and
less frequent (e.g., Hashimoto encephalopathy). porphyria).
Auto-immune encephalitis are autoimmune disorders that are limit- The main metabolic conditions that are associated with pediatric
ed to brain tissues. The most common examples are anti-NMDA-recep- catatonia are Wilson's disease and porphyria. Single-gene conditions as-
tor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis (Consoli et al., 2011) and pediatric sociated with pediatric catatonia that have been reported in the litera-
autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal ture are Huntington's disease (Letort and Gonzalez-Alegre, 2013), fatal
infection (PANDAS) (Elia et al., 2005). The large amount of studies familial insomnia (Dimitri et al., 2006), PRODH mutations, Kleefstra
that have focused on anti-NMDAR encephalitis in the last decade syndrome, creatine deficiency and Sanfilippo syndrome (Consoli et al.,
showed that the condition is more frequent than initially thought. 2012). Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-
Titulaer et al. (2013) found that 38% of the participants in the California like episodes (MELAS) have also been reported (Ju Seok et al., 2009). Cy-
Encephalitis Project (a cohort of 501 patients with confirmed diagno- togenetic abnormalities or significant CNVs have also been described,
ses) were under 18. Approximately 70% of them developed a catatonic including Down syndrome, 22q13.3 deletion including the SHANK 3
syndrome; other frequent symptoms were seizure, delirium, abnormal gene, and Prader-Willi syndrome (Dhossche and Bouman, 1997;
movements and autonomic instability that could lead to malignant cat- Lahutte et al., 2008). A causal link between a specific CNV and the
atonia (DeSena et al., 2014). Of note, approximately 38% of youths diag- onset of catatonia in youths is difficult to determine, as the relationship
nosed with anti-NMDAR encephalitis also had a concurrent tumor (e.g., could be mediated by a large variety of co-occurring neuro-develop-
ovarian teratoma, extra ovarian teratoma, or testicular tumor) (Titulaer mental difficulties that contribute to increased catatonia risk (Consoli
et al., 2013). et al., 2012). However, it seems that converging findings exist regarding
Autoimmune investigations should be conducted when caring for the possible implication of the SHANK3 gene as a vulnerability factor for
young patients with catatonia. In a few patients, inflammation markers pediatric catatonia (Leblond et al., 2014; Serret et al., 2015).
in plasma and CSF as well as causal antibodies remained undetectable Paraclinical assessments of youths with catatonia should systemati-
despite repetitive tests. We developed a score of causality for organic cally involve ammoniemia, homocysteinemia, ceruloplasmin and uri-
etiologies to guide therapeutic decision making (in particular, the use nary copper examination in addition to the standard investigations. If
of immune-suppressors as a therapeutic challenge) in situations a metabolic condition is suspected, ophthalmologic examination and
10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028
Table 4
Organic catatonia in children and adolescents.
Disorder Clinical contribution to diagnosis Paraclinical contribution to diagnosis Specific treatment
Infectious diseases
Toxoplasmosis Congenital: intracranial calcifications, mental retardation, Brain CT scan or MRI (calcifications); Specific antibiotic therapy
seizures, retinal damage serologic analysis of blood or CSF (IgM and
Later: cognitive regression, psychosis, confusion, seizures. IgG)
Typhoid fever Acute: high fever, headache, fatigue, muscle aches, sweating, Isolation of Salmonella enterica serotype Specific antibiotic therapy
rash, weight loss, digestive symptoms (abdominal pain, Typhi from blood, urine, or stool
diarrhea or constipation, swollen abdomen)
Later: confusion, delusions idea, hallucinations
Viral encephalitis Acute: fever, seizures, dysesthesia, paresthesia, speech or Brain CT scan and/or MRI; serologic analysis Antiviral therapy appropriate for the
hearing dysfunctions, double vision, muscle weakness, partial of blood or CSF, followed by PCR specific virus; corticosteroids and
paralysis, seizures, memory loss antiepileptic treatment in some cases
Later: confusion, behavioral and cognitive changes,
hallucinations
Autoimmune diseases
Anti-NMDA receptor Prodromal phase: fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, Inflammatory/autoimmune markers in CSF: Immunosuppressive treatments:
encephalitis and upper respiratory signs high IgG index, oligoclonal bands, – First line: plasma exchange
Onset: Acute behavioral changes, acute psychosis and multiple pleocytosis, ab anti-NMDA (NR1 sub-unit) (adjunctive to corticoids or alone)
hallucinations, manic symptoms, major anxiety and agitation in CSF – Second line: rituximab (pulses then
Neurologic phase: Seizures, abnormal movements, EEG: delta brush, focal and diffuse slow oral)
aphasia/other language disorders, cognitive dysfunction, activity – Tumor removal (if found)
cognitive regression and confusion
Evolution towards dysautonomic activity
Neuro-psychiatric Neuro-psychiatric symptoms: acute psychosis, delusions ideas, Ab in plasma: ANA (anti-Sm; anti-SSA; Immunosuppressive treatments:
systemic lupus hallucinations, manic or depressive symptoms, cognitive anti-SSB; anti-RNP); anti-dsDNAAb; – First line: high dosage corticoids,
erythematosus regression. antiphospholipid Ab; anticardiolipin Ab. plasma exchange, IV Immunoglobulin
Other symptoms: malar rash, discoid rash, photosensitivity, Low complement (C3, C4, CH50) – Second line: azathioprine,
oral ulcers, arthritis, serositis (pleuritis), seizure, hematologic mycophenolate mofetil, methotrexate
manifestations (leukopenia, lymphopenia, hemolytic anemia,
thrombocytopenia), renal involvement with proteinuria
Encephalopathy Neuro-psychiatric symptoms: acute or chronic psychosis, Ab anti-TPO, anti-TSH receptor, anti-TG, Immunosuppressive treatments:
associated with hallucinations (visual), manic or depressive symptoms, anti-alpha-enolase, antinuclear, antigliadin, – First line: high dosage corticoids,
autoimmune thyroid hypersexuality, cognitive regression, seizures, stroke-like antineuronal in plasma plasma exchange
diseases episodes, optic neuritis, atypical headaches, ataxia, lack of Inflammatory/autoimmune markers in CSF: – Second line: rituximab,
coordination, dysarthria, tremors, restlessness high IgG index, oligoclonal bands, aziathropine
Other symptoms: weight gain, mix edema, changes in hair and pleocytosis
skin Ab anti-TPO and anti-TG in CSF
PANDAS Neuro-psychiatric symptoms: prepubertal acute onset of OCD, Plasma explorations: Positive GAS culture b Immunosuppressive treatments:
tics, separation anxiety, school issues with deterioration in ASLO and Ab anti-DNAse B titer – First line: plasma exchange, IVIg
school performance, sleep disruptions
Other symptoms: history of GAS infections, choreiform
movements, enuresis
Epilepsy
Epileptic General or partial complex seizures, cognitive regression, Brain CT scan and/or MRI Intravenously antiepileptic treatment
encephalopathy movement disorders, ataxia, dystonia, isolated hallucinations EEG
Toxic induced states

Lithium Gastrointestinal symptoms: nausea, vomiting, cramping, and ECG: T-wave flattening – Hydration to maximize lithium
sometimes diarrhea Plasma lithium dosage clearance
Neurologic symptoms: confusion, seizures, coma, – Gastrointestinal decontamination
tremulousness, dystonia, hyperreflexia, and ataxia – Dialysis
Cardiac dysrhythmias
Ecstasy Psychomotor excitation, delusion ideas (paranoid or MDMA plasma and urine dosage Symptomatic treatment
megalomaniac), visual hallucinations, major anxiety – Hyponatremia treatment
Nausea, swearing, hypertension, dehydration, tachycardia, – Hypertension treatment
dilated pupils, seizures, confusion – Activated charcoal
Metabolic and genetic conditions

Huntington disease Academic difficulties, subtle changes in handwriting, Elongated CAG repeat (N36) in huntingtin No
clumsiness, choreic movements, aggression/disinhibition), gene (4p16.3)
apathy, suicide
Subsequent: speech difficulties, seizures, rigidity, tremor,
myoclonus, cognitive decline, severe generalized motor
disturbance, physical dependence
Nieman-Pick type C Chronic psychosis, persecutory delusions, hallucinations Skin biopsy (Filipin test) Miglustat
(auditory), learning disabilities, cognitive regression Cholestanol
Abnormal movements, ataxia, seizures, vertical supranuclear Gene NPC1, NPC2
ophtalmoplegia, hepatosplenomegaly
Wilson disease Schizophrenia, manic symptoms, learning disabilities, ADHD Plasma and urine copper Chelating agents: zinc acetate and
Abnormal movements, dysarthria, tremor, rigidity, drooling Gene ATP7B penicillamine
and swallowing problems, jaundice
Mucopolysaccharidoses Developmental delay (especially affecting speech), High level of heparan sulfate in urine Hematopoietic stem cell
type III a–d hyperactivity, severe sleep disturbances, slow cognitive Gene SGSH, NAGLU, HGSNAT, GNS transplantation
deterioration after 10 years old
Seizures, retinitis pigmentosa
10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028
Table 4 (continued)
Disorder Clinical contribution to diagnosis Paraclinical contribution to diagnosis Specific treatment
Acute porphyria Acute attacks with neurovisceral symptoms (abdominal pain, High level of porphyrins in plasma, urine Glucose and other
neuropathy), anemia, hypertension, tachycardia, fine tremors, (porphobilinogen and delta-aminolevulinic) carbohydrates/intravenous heme
nausea, vomiting, constipation or diarrhea and stool samples
Gene HMBS, PPOX, CPOX, PBGS
Cerebro-tendinous ADHD, learning disabilities, cognitive regression, psychosis Cholestanol Chenodeoxycholic acid
xanthomatosis (CTX) Chronic diarrhea, ataxia, spastic paraparesis, peripheral Gene CYP27A1
neuropathy, parkinsonism, bilateral juvenile cataracts,
Achilles (or other) tendon xanthomas
Vitamin B12 deficiency Depression, psychosis, cognitive regression, early dementia Low level of cyanacobalamin Vitamin B12 and folates
Anemia, pancytopenia, glossitis, mouth ulcers, paresthesia supplementation
Tay-Sachs Chronic psychosis, hallucinations, cognitive regression Hexoaminidase type A deficit No
Hypotonia, ataxia, retina “cherry red spot” (loss of vision),
seizures
Prader-Willi syndrome ID, ASD, behavioral problems, ADHD; psychosis Duplication 15q11-q13 No
Hypotonia, seizures, global developmental delay, morbid
obesity
22q11.2 deletion Developmental delay (motor and language), learning Deletion 22q11.2 No
syndrome problems (verbal; mathematic skills), ASD, rarely ID, ADHD,
anxiety, schizophrenia in 20–30%
Conotruncal anomalies, palatal anomalies, feeding/swallowing
difficulties, hypoparathyroidism (±hypocalcemia), mild facial
dysmorphia
Fatal familial insomnia Depression, acute psychosis Polysomnography No
Insomnia, dysautonomia, dysarthria, ataxia, myoclonus EEG
PNRPD178N/129 mutation
ProDH mutation Chronic psychosis, schizophrenia Hyperprolinemia No
PRODH gene mutation
Kleefstra syndrome ASD, ID Heterozygous microdeletion chromosome No
Dysmorphia, heart defects, renal/urologic defects, genital 9q34.3
defects in males, severe respiratory infections, epilepsy/febrile
seizures
Down syndrome ASD, ID Karyotype No
Dysmorphia
Hyperhomocysteinemia Acute psychosis, hallucinations High level of plasma homocysteinemia Hydroxycobalamin (or
Seizures, ataxia, pyramidal signs, strokes, peripheral Gene: MMACHC, MMADHC, MTRR, LMBRD1, cyanocobalamin, or
neuropathy, cerebral atrophy, megaloblastic anemia, MTR methylcobalamin), oral betaine
thromboembolic events (lens dislocation and Marfan-like
appearance in Cystathionine β-synthase deficiency)
Creatine deficiency ID, ADHD, ASD, irritability Creatine deficiency detected by proton Oral supplementation of creatine
Hypotonia, movement disorder: dystonia, extrapyramidal magnetic resonance spectroscopy
Intracerebral serotonin Schizophrenia, ASD, depression 5-HT deficit in CSF Possible benefits of levotonine and
deficit Frontal and extrapyramidal syndrome, headache, facial levodopa
paralysis, cerebellum syndrome, tremor, extrapyramidal
syndrome, seizures
Note: NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate; Ab, antibody; ANA, anti-nuclear antibody; GAS, group A streptococcal; ASLO, anti-streptolysin O; DNAse B, antideoxyribonuclease B; ECG, electrocar-
diogram; EEG, electroencephalogram; IVIg, intravenous immunoglobulin; MDMA, 4-methylenedioxymeth-amphetamine; 5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine; PANDAS, pediatric autoimmune
neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections; ID, intellectual disabilities; ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; ASD, autism spectrum disorder; CSF, cere-
bral spinal fluid; TPO, thyroperoxydase; TG, thyroglobulin; PCR, polymerase chain reaction.
abdominal ultrasonography can help to document the infraclinical contradictory and ambivalent thoughts associated with disorganization
signs. Genetic testing is not systematic. When available, specific treat- of timing and planning. Other ones described intense and uncontrolla-
ments such as alimentary restrictions, vitamins, or chelators can be pro- ble emotions associated with a suspension of their will. Some of them
vided in addition to the usual treatment for catatonic episodes. described an adherence to delusional ideas that leads to a psychomotor
automatism. Finally other ones described a resistance to delusional
5. Proposed integrative model for catatonia thinking or conviction. Unlike patients with impairments in general
cognitive function (e.g., delirium) no major deficit in memory and/or
5.1. Subjective experiences of catatonic patients general awareness are reported in catatonic patients (Northoff et al.,
1998; Rosebush and Mazurek, 1999). Hence, patients, even younger
The subjective feelings experienced by catatonic patients can be ex- ones, usually remembered well the persons who treated them on ad-
amined through retrospective investigations with patients in remission mission (Cohen, 2006). These findings shed light on the problem of lo-
from an acute form of catatonia (Cohen et al., 1999). Northoff et al. comotion and voluntary movement at the level of the subjects'
(1998) and Rosebush and Mazurek (1999) have largely improved in experience in catatonic patients. The psychopathological model for cat-
adult patients our understanding of the specific experience associated atonia presented in Fig. S1 (Supplementary material) stresses how sub-
with catatonia by comparing them with those reported by patients jective experiences affecting emotions, flow and content of thoughts
with neurological symptoms. Unlike patients with motor neurological linked with psychopathology can alter the process involves in locomo-
disorder (e.g., Parkinson disease), patients with catatonia appear un- tion and finally result in catatonic symptoms.
aware of the objective position of their body or of the consequences of
their movements. Despite prolonged posture they appear unable to ex- 5.2. Dysfunction of motor selection/planning
perience pain or fatigue that can result in skin injury lesions. Movement
dysfunction is reported in different modalities by catatonic patients Assuming an intact gross motor system, voluntary movement results
(Cohen, 2006, see Fig. S1). Some of them reported a rush of from intentionality (or will), behavioral planning in both movement
10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028
Note: ALD, adrenoleukodystrophy; CTX, cerebrotendinousxanthomatosis; EAATD, encephalopathy associated with autoimmune thyroid disease; EPS, extrapyramidal syndrome; JNCL, juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis; MPS,
Regression Confusion Hypotonia Seizure Gastro-intestinal Hepatomegaly EPS Ataxia Neuropathy Stroke Eye Skin Kidney Heart control/execution and timing, and emotional context. The integrity and
timely linkage between cognitive (attention, motivation, memory
+
schemes), motor (motor control, timing and computing) and emotional
systems are required to enable the execution of an intentional motor act
±
(Bloulac et al., 2004).
+ A preponderance of glutamate excitatory system over the GABAergic
+
+
mucopolysaccharidosis; NPC, Niemann-Pick type C; NPSLE, neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus; OTC, ornithinetranscarbamylase; Psych, psychiatric (isolated — psychiatric symptoms can predominate at onset).
inhibitory system in cortical regions would be a primary mechanism by
+
+
+
+
+
+
which catatonic symptoms emerge (Parenti et al., 2016). This model is
±
based on the quick and drastic anti-catatonic effect of GABA-A agonists

(Dhossche and Wachtel, 2013; Escobar et al., 2000; Raffin et al., 2015;
+
Sharma et al., 2014) and, on a lesser extent, of NMDA-receptor antago-
nists that decrease glutamatergic activity (Goetz et al., 2013; Mukai et
al., 2011). Functional neuroimaging studies have confirmed the reduced
GABAergic activities in cortical regions in catatonic patients, with for ex-
+
+
+
ample, a lower GABA-A radioligand binding in the right lateral
orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
+
+
+
(DLPFC) found in 10 akinetic catatonic patients compared to non-cata-
tonic patients in a SPECT study (Northoff et al., 1999).
+
+
+
±
An imbalance between hypofunctional GABAergic and hyperfunc-

tional glutamatergic cortical activities would secondarily affect subcor-
tical regions involved in motor control. Basal ganglia is a group of
subcortical nuclei involved, among other things, in the selection of
+
motor action, in particular the striatum arbitrates among different ac-

tions and to allow for the activation of the winner by disinhibiting the
corresponding motor circuits according to the input received from cor-
tical regions. A dysregulation of GABA/glutamatergic cortical tone to the
striatum would interfere with the filtering between different motor ac-
+
+
+
+
tions programs and impact cortico-striatal loops. A full inability to arbi-

trate between different motor sequences would result in a complete
motor inactivity (e.g., observed in patients with stupor or akinesia),
+
+
+
+
+
+
while a partial inability to filter motor sequences would lead to the ex-
ecution of contradictory behaviors and induce bizarre motor activity
(e.g., as observed in patients with ambitendency).
The fact that catatonic patients seem unaware of their own body, de-
+
scribed as “a motor anosognosia” (Northoff, 2002b), was associated

with posturing, this symptom was linked with deficits in visual-con-
structive abilities and abnormalities in the activity of the right posterior
+
+
+
parietal cortex reported in adults (Northoff et al., 1999). Such findings

support the view that the treatment of spatial information from the so-
matosensory cortex (e.g., muscular tone) to control the execution motor
action is poorly effective in catatonic patients resulting in strange or un-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
±
finished movements.
The range of catatonic symptoms due to a lack of motor action inhi-
Intellectual
Psychiatric and physical features of selected medical causes of catatonia in childhood.
bition of either internally initiated (e.g., perseveration and stereotypies)

disability
or externally observed (e.g., mitmachen/gehen and automatic obedi-

ence) was linked to a hyperactivity of the prefrontal regions (Northoff
+
+
+
+
+
+
±
et al., 2004) that disappears after the administration of lorazepam

Isolated psych
(Richter et al., 2010). In catatonia, frontal disinhibition not only in-

creases the general responsiveness to the environment but also emo-
tional hyperexcitability, which results from the loss of the inhibitory
onset
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
±
modulation of cortical areas on limbic regions (Northoff, 2002b).

Acute psych
5.3. Limitations and future research

onset
Dysfunction in basal ganglia activities was first suspected in the de-

+
+
±
velopment of catatonic symptoms since the pioneer work of the neurol-

Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis
Metabolic and genetic conditions
ogist Karl Kleist (1927). A model of the putative dysfunction in basal

Metachromatic leukodystrophia
ganglia associated with catatonia is presented in Fig. 2 and detailed in

Supplementary material. This exploratory model is derived from the
Hyperhomocysteinemia
Vitamin B12 deficiency

Autoimmune diseases
few clinical and neuroimaging available on catatonia. Most of them

Huntington's disease
are uncontrolled observational studies, such as case-reports, for which

Acute porphyrias
Niacin deficiency
Wilson disease
OTC deficiency
causality cannot be inferred and subjects to various biases (e.g., publica-

— late onset
MPS III (a–d)
tion bias and over-interpretation). This work can be regarded as a first

Tay-Sachs
step paving the way to the development of hypothesis-driven research.

EAATD
X-ALD
NPSLE
Table 5
JCNL
NPC
CTX
In particular, dysfunction of motor selection/planning with a focus on

the activities of cortico-striatal loops would be worth testing in animal
10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028
models (as the selective electrical stimulation of the globus pallidus 6.4. Supportive measures
monkeys cited by Bari and Robbins (2013), in pharmacological studies
that would combine clinical and neuroimaging studies in the vein of Concurrent care may include adequate hydration by IV fluids, pre-
Northoff's works or finally in computational models. vention of aspiration, and consideration of thrombophlebitis prophylax-
is. The most common serious complication is pulmonary aspiration,
6. Treatments which can result in pneumonitis and/or pneumonia. Reduction of oral
intake leads to dehydration and malnutrition, which promote other
6.1. Benzodiazepines complications, especially infection and skin breakdown (risk of
decubitus ulcers). When the refusal to eat is observed, enteral feeding
Lorazepam represents the first line of treatment for pediatric catato- may be necessary.
nia (Sharma et al., 2014). In most cases, symptoms are drastically re- A complete immobility and a lack of reaction to stimuli can be seen
duced within three hours after receiving 1 to 3 mg of lorazepam. by the family as the signs of an imminent death. At referral, certain fam-
When a positive response is observed, a titration should be completed ilies may communicate their fear of losing the child; sometimes, it can
to maintain the dose that achieves a complete resolution of symptoms. result in concerns and mistrust of the medical team. At this stage, fre-
This symptomatic treatment should be maintained until the underlying quent contact with the family is extremely important to help the family
cause of catatonia is found and appropriately treated. In a naturalistic handle the situation. Explanations about catatonic symptoms (for ex-
study of 66 children and adolescents with catatonia (Raffin et al., ample, that awareness can be preserved despite the lack of social re-
2015), the response rate for benzodiazepines was approximately sponse) and about the treatment provided by the medical team are of
65%.The mean daily dose of lorazepam was 5.35 ± 3.64 mg/day and major importance.
reached 15 mg/day in some patients. The need for higher doses of ben- Psychomotor therapy by occupational therapists or nurses can be
zodiazepines for catatonia patients than that which is usually prescribed regarded as a valuable adjunct treatment. Bodily mediation (such as
for anxiety symptoms is particularly true for ASD patients, where a re- massages or therapeutic body wrap) has been empirically used as a
sponse can be observed with lorazepam doses as high as 30 mg/day non-specific treatment to relieve anxiety and restore sensori-motor in-
(DeJong et al., 2014). Benzodiazepines are generally well tolerated in tegrity (Cohen et al., 2009; Consoli et al., 2010b). In ASD, behavioral in-
youths, and excessive sedation is the most frequent side-effect that is terventions, especially routine, repetitive, and structured activity, seem
reported (Raffin et al., 2015). In our clinical cohort we reported positive to be beneficial (Dhossche et al., 2006). Indeed, the loss of predictability
responses with clonazepam, clorazepate, and prazepam (Raffin et al., and routine due to hospitalization can cause major anxiety and stress,
2015). Successful use of diazepam and oxazepam were reported in which in turn could exacerbate psychomotor regression (DeJong et al.,
adults but not in pediatric population up till now. No controlled studies 2014; Shah and Wing, 2006).
or pharmacological findings support the preferential use of one benzo-
diazepine on the other for pediatric catatonia. 6.5. The antipsychotics debate
6.2. Other agents Antipsychotics have been found to worsen catatonia and cause the
progression to malignant form (Cohen, 2006; Woodbury and
Zolpidem, a non-benzodiazepine GABA agonist, leads to transitory Woodbury, 1992). This is particularly, but not exclusively, true for the
improvements of catatonic symptoms. It has been reported to be effec- first-generation of antipsychotics with higher affinity for dopaminergic
tive in the treatment of catatonia in adults. A case report showed a pos- receptor. Conversely, there is limited evidence for a possible benefit of
itive response in a 14-year-old boy with ASD (Zaw and Bates, 1997). second-generation of antipsychotics during the acute phase of catatonic
However, zolpidem is mainly used as a therapeutic test because of its symptoms: two case reports published for aripiprazole (Roberto et al.,
very low half-life (Thomas et al., 1997). Because of their NMDA antago- 2014; Strawn and Delgado, 2007) and one for quetiapine (Ishitobi et
nist properties, amantadine (100–500 mg three times a day) and its de- al., 2014). The lack of repeated assessment and the concomitant pre-
rivative memantine (5–20 mg/day) have been tested as a potential scription of benzodiazepine in these studies make virtually impossible
treatment for catatonia in youths. Catatonia in an adolescent girl that to establish the real benefit of these molecules on catatonic symptoms.
was resistant to ECT improved after the addition of amantadine Regarding the paucity of data and the higher-sensibility of the youngest
(Goetz et al., 2013). Memantine at 10 mg/day with benzodiazepine to neuroleptic-induced motor symptoms (Cohen et al., 2012), we rec-
was also effective on catatonia in a young girl with severe Obsessive- ommend that antipsychotics should be discontinue at the acute phase
Compulsive Disorder (Mukai et al., 2011). of catatonic episode and should be used with caution to treat the under-
lying psychiatric disorders when catatonic symptoms are stabilized,
6.3. Electroconvulsive therapy with regular clinical assessment for motor side effects.
ECT should be considered in youths with catatonia that is resistant to 6.6. Etiological treatments
benzodiazepines or when a decisive and rapid response is required in
severe cases with life-threatening conditions, such as malignant catato- While the patient is treated for catatonic symptoms, the underlying
nia (Cohen et al., 1997b). The benefit of ECT in youths with lorazepam- etiological cause must be found and treated without delay. For the ease
refractory catatonia has been supported by case reports (Rey and of presentation, we have distinguished between psychiatric and organic
Walter, 1997; Yeung et al., 1996), retrospective chart reviews (Grover conditions.
et al., 2013) and prospective cohort studies (Consoli et al., 2010a; In patients without a history of psychiatric disorders, at least partial
Raffin et al., 2015). The response rate for ECT in the treatment of cata- remission of catatonic symptoms is often needed to unmask psychiatric
tonic symptoms in youths is 76–92% (Consoli et al., 2010a; Grover et symptoms and establish the final diagnosis. Treatment of the associated
al., 2013), with remission or a marked improvement observed in 75% psychiatric condition should be provided in addition to treatment of the
of patients (Rey and Walter, 1997). The most common adverse effects catatonic syndrome. It should be noted that for patients with schizo-
immediately following ECT are headache, confusion, memory loss, nau- phrenia spectrum disorder or mania, antipsychotics can worsen cata-
sea and vertigo (Cohen et al., 1997b). ECT is effective and safe for tonic symptoms and precipitate malignant catatonia (Woodbury and
treating catatonia in youths with ASD, based on case series and reports Woodbury, 1992). Atypical antipsychotics with the fewer D2 antagonist
(Consoli et al., 2010a; Dhossche and Wachtel, 2013; Wachtel and activity (aripiprazole, clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine and risperi-
Dhossche, 2010; Wachtel et al., 2008). done) would be better tolerated. Additionally, despite lacking formal
10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028
Fig. 2. A neurobiological model of catatonia. ❶ Decreased activation of GABAergic neurons in the striatum; ❷ Decreased disinhibiting of a specific competing channels; ❸ Increased tonic
inhibition of the colliculus and thalamus resulting in difficulties in choosing a specific motor or non-motor executive programs; ❹ Interferences with cortico-striatal circuits involving
action selection. These circuits originate in cortex project to the striatum followed by the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra and finally to the thalamus with feedback loops back
to PFC.
GP: Globus Pallidus; SNc: Substantia Nigra compacta; STN: Subthalamic nucleus; PMFC: Premotor frontal cortex; VC: Visual cortex; PPC: Posterior parietal cortex; OMA: Oculomotor areas;
GLU: Glutamate; GABA = γ amino-butyric acid; DA = Dopamine.
empirical evidence, we suggest waiting for the acquisition of a thera- score (CAUS) has been developed to facilitate diagnosis and treatment
peutic dose of benzodiazepines and some improvement in catatonia be- (if available) decision-making in organic catatonia (Consoli et al.,
fore introducing antipsychotics. 2012). For auto-immune catatonia, we suggest the inclusion of an im-
Organic conditions may have specific treatments as well. For exam- mune-suppressive challenge (Ferrafiat et al., 2016).
ple, some metabolic diseases have been treated with regimens, supple-
mentation (creatine deficit), B12 vitamin and folates (deficit in MTHFR) 7. Conclusion
or anti-storage drugs (Wilson's disease) (Sedel et al., 2007). Auto-
immune modulators and suppressors have been successfully used to Catatonia is an infrequent but potentially lethal condition in children
treat catatonia in neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus and adolescents. While clinical presentation and associated disorders
(Ferrafiat et al., 2016; Lanham et al., 1985; Marra et al., 2008; Perisse are broadly comparable to that found in adults, the presence of an asso-
et al., 2003), PANDAS (Elia et al., 2005; Kovacevic et al., 2015) and ciated developmental disorder or an underlying organic condition
anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis (Consoli et al., 2011; Ferrafiat et al., should be carefully investigated in children and adolescents in order
2016; Florance et al., 2009; Schimmel et al., 2009; Wilson et al., 2013). to tailor the therapies to the patients. Recent advances in childhood
Autoimmune catatonia appears to drastically improve with first-line and adolescent catatonia have majorly improved our understanding
(i.e., corticoid bolus, immunoglobulin and plasma exchange) and sec- and may finally help to reduce the morbidity of this syndrome. In partic-
ond line immune-suppressive treatments (e.g., rituximab and azathio- ular, the identification of organic etiologies has offered new therapeutic
prine). The diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis is based on a set of opportunities among the youngest patients. A lot of work remains to be
clinical and biological arguments; however, a positive diagnosis may done to better understand the mechanisms behind catatonic symp-
not be possible when causal antibodies cannot be identified or are toms; however, we believe that a focus on motor planning/execution
missed despite systematic and repetitive paraclinical assessments. In provides a valuable research framework for the integration of disparate
such situations, the challenge exists during the early use of immunosup- perspectives. The lack of controlled studies on the therapeutic of pediat-
pressive treatment, as drastic improvements in the prognosis appear to ric catatonia represents a limitation. The preliminary findings on the
be time-related to the introduction of drug treatment (Florance et al., benefits of new medication such as NMDA antagonist, presented in
2009; Hacohen et al., 2015; Titulaer et al., 2013). A causality assessment few case-reports, have now to be confirmed in controlled studies.
10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx. 2011. Malignant catatonia due to anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis in a 17-year-old
girl: case report. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry Ment. Health 5 (1), 15.
doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2017.07.028. Consoli, A., Raffin, M., Laurent, C., Bodeau, N., Campion, D., Amoura, Z., Sedel, F., An-
Gourfinkel, I., Bonnot, O., Cohen, D., 2012. Medical and developmental risk factors
Funding/support of catatonia in children and adolescents: a prospective case-control study. Schizophr.
No grants supported this research. Res. 137 (1–3), 151–158.
Constantinides, P., Vincent, P., 2009. Chronic gamma-hydroxybutyric-acid use followed
Note: Distinction between motor and non-motor symptoms was developed by Bush et
by gamma-hydroxybutyric-acid withdrawal mimic schizophrenia: a case report.
al. (1996) and further operationalized to facilitate identification of catatonia in pediatric
Cases journal 2, 7520.
sample by Cohen et al. (1999). DSM-5 criteria for catatonia encompass 12 symptoms. Sub- Cornic, F., Consoli, A., Tanguy, M.L., Bonnot, O., Perisse, D., Tordjman, S., Laurent, C., Cohen,
jects have to present a minimum of three of the 12 catatonic symptoms (APA 2013). The D., 2009. Association of adolescent catatonia with increased mortality and morbidity:
Bush-Francis Catatonia Rating Scale (BFCRS) encompasses 23 catatonic symptoms, 14 evidence from a prospective follow-up study. Schizophr. Res. 113 (2–3), 233–240.
items are used for screening (in bold) (Bush et al., 1996). Compared to DSM-5 criteria De Clérambault, G., 1927. Psychose à base d'automatisme et syndrome d'automatisme.
some of these items are merged (e.g., Posturing/catalepsy, Echopraxia/echolalia, Social Ann. Med. Psychol. 1, 193–239.
withdrawal/refusal to eat and drink, and Immobility/stupor). The Pediatric Catatonic Rat- DeJong, H., Bunton, P., Hare, D.J., 2014. A systematic review of interventions used to treat
ing Scale (PCRS) encompasses 20 items. In addition to the 14-item of the BFCRS, six symp- catatonic symptoms in people with autistic spectrum disorders. J. Autism Dev. Disord.
toms were added based on the analysis of 463 catatonic cases pooled from seven studies 44 (9), 2127–2136.
and review of historical description of pediatric catatonia (Cohen, 2006; Benarous et al., Desarkar, P., Das, A., Das, B., Sinha, V.K., 2007. Lithium toxicity presenting as catatonia in
2016). an adolescent girl. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 27 (4), 410–412.
DeSena, A.D., Greenberg, B.M., Graves, D., 2014. Three phenotypes of anti-N-methyl-D-as-
partate receptor antibody encephalitis in children: prevalence of symptoms and
Contributors prognosis. Pediatr. Neurol. 51 (4), 542–549.
Study concept and design: DC, XB, and VF. Dhossche, D.M., 2004. Autism as early expression of catatonia. Med. Sci. Monit. 10 (3),
Acquisition of data: DC, AC, MR, XB, and VF. RA31–39.
Interpretation of data: DC, AC, MR, XB, and VF. Dhossche, D.M., Bouman, N.H., 1997. Catatonia in an adolescent with Prader-Willi Syn-
Drafting the manuscript: DC, XB, and VF. drome. Ann. Clin. Psychiatry 9 (4), 247–253.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: DC, AC, and MR. Dhossche, D., Wachtel, L., 2013. ECT for catatonia in autism. In: Ghaziuddin, M., Walter, G.
Final draft: All authors. (Eds.), Electroconvulsive Therapy in Children and Adolescents. Oxford University
Press, New York, pp. 217–246.
Dhossche, D.M., Shah, A., Wing, L., 2006. Blueprints for the assessment, treatment, and fu-
Conflict of interest ture study of catatonia in autism spectrum disorders. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 72,
We wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this 267–284.
publication and there has been no significant financial support for this work that could Dhossche, D., Cohen, D., Ghaziuddin, N., Wilson, C., Wachtel, L.E., 2010. The study of pedi-
have influenced its outcome. atric catatonia supports a home of its own for catatonia in DSM-5. Med. Hypotheses
75 (6), 558–560.
Acknowledgements Dhossche, D.M., Ross, C.A., Stoppelbein, L., 2012. The role of deprivation, abuse, and trau-
We thank the medical secretaries for their expert technical assistance. ma in pediatric catatonia without a clear medical cause. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 125
(1), 25–32.
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Schizophrenia Research: Xavier Benarous, Marie Raf Fin, Vladimir Ferra Fiat, Angèle Consoli, David Cohen

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SCHRES-07422; No of Pages 12

Schizophrenia Research xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/schres

Catatonia in children and adolescents: New perspectives

Fig. 1. PRISMA diagram ﬂow of the study search.

Description of items of catatonia DSM-5 BFCRS PCRS

Table 3 episode). The prevalence of catatonia among patients with early-onset

Disorder Clinical contribution to diagnosis Paraclinical contribution to diagnosis Speciﬁc treatment

Toxic induced states

Metabolic and genetic conditions

Disorder Clinical contribution to diagnosis Paraclinical contribution to diagnosis Speciﬁc treatment

based on the quick and drastic anti-catatonic effect of GABA-A agonists

An imbalance between hypofunctional GABAergic and hyperfunc-

motor action, in particular the striatum arbitrates among different ac-

tions programs and impact cortico-striatal loops. A full inability to arbi-

scribed as “a motor anosognosia” (Northoff, 2002b), was associated

parietal cortex reported in adults (Northoff et al., 1999). Such ﬁndings

bition of either internally initiated (e.g., perseveration and stereotypies)

or externally observed (e.g., mitmachen/gehen and automatic obedi-

et al., 2004) that disappears after the administration of lorazepam

(Richter et al., 2010). In catatonia, frontal disinhibition not only in-

modulation of cortical areas on limbic regions (Northoff, 2002b).

5.3. Limitations and future research

Dysfunction in basal ganglia activities was ﬁrst suspected in the de-

velopment of catatonic symptoms since the pioneer work of the neurol-

Metabolic and genetic conditions

ogist Karl Kleist (1927). A model of the putative dysfunction in basal

ganglia associated with catatonia is presented in Fig. 2 and detailed in

Vitamin B12 deﬁciency

few clinical and neuroimaging available on catatonia. Most of them

are uncontrolled observational studies, such as case-reports, for which

causality cannot be inferred and subjects to various biases (e.g., publica-

tion bias and over-interpretation). This work can be regarded as a ﬁrst

step paving the way to the development of hypothesis-driven research.

In particular, dysfunction of motor selection/planning with a focus on

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