CHAPTER

3.4
Parameters in site selection and
monitoring
SHEILA MAE S. SANTANDER

Introduction
Before starting an aquaculture venture, it is necessary to first select
an appropriate project site. Doing this ensures that money invested
in the project is not later wasted because the site does not meet the
requirements of the culture organism. It also makes sure that the
environment is not compromised and will be able to sustain the
aquaculture activities.

Two major parameters are considered during site selection. These are R VILLANUEVA

the 1) physico-chemical; and 2) environmental parameters. Physico-

chemical parameters affect the health of the culture organisms while the
environmental parameters will give insights on the sustainability of the
aquaculture venture. However, the task does not end with site selection.
Monitoring of the aquatic environments is also essential to note any
changes in the environment that may affect the aquaculture project and Figure 3.4.1
Proper site selection and monitoring of the physico-chemical
the environment itself. and environmental parameters could prevent huge losses such
as this fish kill in Pangasinan, Philippines caused by very low
levels of dissolved oxygen and overcrowding of fish cages.

Physico-chemical parameters

Physical and chemical parameters affect one another. Once, the physical parameters change,
the chemical parameters change as well. Generally, a diversion from the desired range of values
of the physico-chemical parameters will affect the growth of culture organisms. Thus, the
suitability of the sites depends on the specific requirements of the species.

Physico-chemical parameters should be monitored once a month or as often as possible should

any unusual water characteristics or fish behavior be observed. Basic parameters should include
salinity, dissolved oxygen, temperature, and pH.

Salinity
Salinity is a measure of salt concentration in the water. Salinity controls the osmotic pressure
which affects the ionic balance of the culture organism. Salinity is affected by the sources
of water. Freshwater has a salinity of <0.5 psu while seawater has >32 psu. Brackishwater is
a mixture of fresh and seawater and comprise the middle values. Salinity also changes with
seasons (e.g. rain input) and with the mixing of the water column. A handheld refractometer is
use to measure salinity.
44 SECTION 3 • IMPORTANCE AND CONSERVATION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Table 3.4.1
Three major aquatic environments grouped by salinity values

Freshwater Brackishwater Seawater

Lakes Intertidal flats Shallow coastal
Rivers Mangrove swamps Deep coastal
Streams Estuarine areas Intertidal flats
Creeks
Swamps
Dams
Reservoir
Ponds
Source: BFAR-PHILMINAQ. 2007. Managing aquaculture and its impacts: a guidebook for local
governments. BFAR-PHILMINAQ Project, Diliman, Quezon City.

Temperature
Temperature is the hotness or coldness of a body. Fish and other cold-blooded organisms’
body temperature changes with that of the environment. A change in water temperature will
change the fish metabolism, oxygen consumption and feeding rate which will affect its growth.
Temperature changes with seasons and is determined using a thermometer. The optimum
water temperature is 27-31ºC. A thermometer could be installed in a site and monitored twice a
day (morning and afternoon) for temperature fluctuations.

Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the oxygen present in the water used by aquatic
organisms in their respiration. DO comes from the mixing of oxygen
from the atmosphere with the water through wave actions and through the
photosynthesis of plants in the water. At night, DO decreases due to the
absence of photosynthesis. DO also decreases with increasing temperature
and salinity because these lower oxygen solubility. High stocking densities and
organic matter loads (e.g. feeds, industrial effluents, sewage, phytoplankton
blooms) consume high amounts of oxygen. Optimum DO is >5ppm and not
less than 4ppm. DO is easily measured by a DO meter. The absence of DO in
the water results in a rotten egg smell or the presence of sulfides. A low amount
of oxygen in the water is also characterized by fish staying up and gasping at the
Figure 3.4.2 water surface. Once this is observed, the stocks should be reduced, the water
Measuring dissolved oxygen in a lake pen using a DO changed, and aeration supplied. Dissolved oxygen is one of the most important
meter parameters in monitoring a site.

pH
pH is the alkalinity or acidity of the water. pH ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (alkaline). A pH
value of 7 is neutral. pH is greatly affected by high amounts of acid rain. The ideal pH for
most farmed species is in the range of 6.5 to 8.5. Extreme values of pH damage the gill
surfaces causing death. pH is easily measured using pH paper or a pH probe. pH should be
included as one of the basic monitoring parameters.
 CHAPTER 3.4 • Parameters in site selection and monitoring 45

Turbidity
Turbidity indicates the amount of suspended solids in the water column. Turbid water usually
occurs during rainy season because of high amounts of run-off water from the land. When
water is turbid there would be less light penetration for photosynthesis and there is higher
organic waste deposition which would cause low oxygen levels. Suspended solids of 10 mg/L
is suitable for netcage culture while 100mg/L of suspended solids may occur in estuarine areas
during flood tides. Rapid currents may prevent sedimentation in the area. A turbidity meter
could be used to measure turbidity but a cheaper secchi disk, which reflects the depth of water
turbidity or transparency, may also be used.

Occurrence of Harmful Algal Blooms

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) occur when there are high light and organic matter levels
causing algae to grow rapidly. Blooms clog the gills of fish and consume DO when the
algae die off. It is helpful to consult locals if there have been HAB occurrences in the site.
During culture, the water could be monitored through its color changes. Brownish-red water,
commonly called “red tide”, is a dangerous level. Advice from experts should be sought for
water sample analysis.

Fouling organisms
Fouling organisms are organisms that cling to the nets and other aquaculture structures. They
block water movement especially in fish cages causing lower levels of dissolved oxygen. This
means that nets should be cleaned often and this entail high maintenance costs. Checking
structures that has been left submerged for a long while, such as floaters and nets of fishers,
will give clues on the presence of a lot of fouling organisms. A simple test may also be
conducted to determine the time it takes for fouling organisms to cover nets and other
structures. A net or a pole may be left submerged on the site and checked from time to time.

Diseases
Diseases could kill the farmed organism or lower its quality. It is necessary to collect samples
of the water and existing organisms in the site to determine the probable presence of disease-
causing microorganisms.

Weather
The frequency of extreme weather conditions such as strong winds, harsh wave actions and
typhoons should be determined in a project site. These may result to high maintenance costs
for seacages and the flooding of pond dikes.

Soil and water supply

Soil is a substrate for nutrients needed by the phytoplankton which serves as natural food for
the fish. Preferable soil types for fishponds are clay, loam and mixtures of clay-loam, silty-clay
loam, silt-loam and sandy-clay-loam. In sea cages and pens, the substrate should not be sulfidic. Figure 3.4.4
A mixture of sand and silt is desirable for a given 15 m depth to avoid the resuspension of Brown oxidized sediment (left) and black
sulfidic sediment (right)
settled particles.
46 SECTION 3 • IMPORTANCE AND CONSERVATION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Water supply should be available year round for ponds. For sea cages and pens, the site should
be located in an area away from sources of run-off which brings salinity and temperature
changes.

Pollution
The presence of industries, households, agricultural farms and rivers that may bring pollution
should be taken into account. Sites should be located far from these areas.

Environmental parameters

The environmental sustainability of an aquaculture operation means having

minimal impact on the environment without compromising the water
resources of the future generation. Some components of site selection
involving environmental parameters are usually done with marine biologists.

Carrying capacity
Carrying capacity is the size of a population of a given species that can be supported
in a given area or water body volume which will not lead to its deterioration (BFAR-
PHILMINAQ, 2007). Beyond the carrying capacity of an area, aquatic environments such as
rivers and coral reefs will be disturbed.

Baseline status of the aquatic environment

For sea cages/pens infauna and coral reefs should be assessed in order to have a baseline of
the status of the aquatic environment prior to culture and to determine where to properly
locate the cages/pens to avoid negative impacts on the environment. This is then where the
buffers should be based. Locals or fishers have a big role in initially determining the location
of the reefs and other features on the sea floor.

Buffers
A buffer is a space between the aquaculture area and the sensitive ecosystems. In selecting
a site, the total area should include buffers. Buffers would prevent direct settling of the
waste discharged such as uneaten feed, fecal materials and other effluents on the ecosystems
such as the coral reefs; and the sanctuaries. Together with this, positions of cages should be
alternating to allow good water flow and a distance of 1 meter between units and 20 meters
between clusters are required (FAO 214, 2001). Fish pens on the other hand, should be
positioned 200 meters apart. Should the coral reefs and sanctuaries be near a selected site, a
wider buffer and lower number of cages/pens is needed. It is wrong to establish a site within
coral reefs! A water depth of at least 15 meters is also desirable to have a good clearance
between the bottom of the cage net and the substrate in order to avoid direct settling of
waste to the bottom.

For brackishwater projects, at least 100 meters from the sea to the main dike and 50 meters
along the river bank should not be targeted as a site for the same ecological reasons (FAO
 CHAPTER 3.4 • Parameters in site selection and monitoring 47

214, 2001). For freshwater, a distance of 20 meters (for non typhoon prone areas) and 50
meters (for typhoon prone areas) away from the embankment should be designated as a buffer
zone.

It should be noted that these buffers are always relative to the area but should be the minimum
standard. Monitoring the nearby ecosystems should be taken into account. Environmental
monitoring could be done in the middle and end of culture period. Should any drastic impact
be observed during or after the culture period, the number of structures should be reduced
and fallow period should be observed. This is the reason why the use of draining canals and
settling ponds should be strictly practiced.

Other important factors

Accessibility
In choosing a site, accessibility of the site to the market and roads should never be neglected.
This gives an assessment of how much should be spent for transportation of feeds, fingerlings,
supplies and other necessities.

Security
A site should be away from poachers or far from a village. A safer site will save costs on
security and management.

References

Beveridge M. 2004. Cage Aquaculture – 3rd Ed. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington
Rd, Oxford OX4, UK
BFAR-PHILMINAQ. 2007. Managing aquaculture and its impacts: a guidebook for local
governments. BFAR-PHILMINAQ Project, Diliman, Quezon City
Code of Practice for Aquaculture. 2001.Fisheries Administrative Order No. 214, Ser 2001,
Sec.3
NACA. 1989. Site selection criteria for marine finfish netcage culture in Asia. NACA, Bangkok,
Thailand
Tenedero R, Surtida M. 1986. Site Selection for Brackishwater Ponds. Aquaculture Technology
Module No. 4. SEAFDEC/AQD, Tigbauan, Iloilo