Introduction the cement particles and the negatively

charged tails protrude. These repel each

use of this type of admixture depends upon
the individual mix composition; typical water
This learning text covers admixtures, additives other, as illustrated diagrammatically in reductions are in the range 7.5 - 12.5%.
and water. A glossary of terminology and Figure 1. The repulsion of the like charges Water reducing admixtures are based on
bibliography are included and the final results in a powerful deflocculating action modified lignosulfonic acid derivatives,
section includes self-assessment questions and hence a more uniform distribution of the hydroxycarboxylic acids or hydroxylated
and answers. cement particles throughout the mix; this polymers. The addition of an admixture
action also frees some of the water trapped can have secondary effects, which may be
Admixtures have been used for centuries to by the flocculation of the cement particles beneficial or detrimental. Water reducing/
enhance the properties of mortar, renders as shown in Figure 2. This has a lubricating plasticising admixtures normally entrain small
and screeds. The ancient Chinese were known effect on the mix components and results quantities of air but overdosing may lead to
to have used black grain molasses while the in an increase in the level of consistence or retardation of the hydration mechanism
Romans used animal fat, milk and blood. It is workability. This is a plasticizing effect. Where and/or excessive air entrainment. In addition
likely early use began when workmen found this is not wanted, the quantity of added to the single function water reducing/
that the addition of a particular substance to water can be reduced, leading to an increase plasticizing admixture, multi-function
a mortar mix enhanced its fresh properties. in the compressive strength of the mix. admixtures such as water reducing/air
Use of admixtures by ancient civilisations was A third way that this type of admixture can entrainers, water reducing/retarders and
therefore based on practical experience and be used is to reduce the water content but water reducing/accelerators are available.
observation, not on chemical theory. keep the strength constant by reducing the
cement content. This has an environmental
There are three categories of admixtures: benefit because the less cement used, the Superplasticisers
• Active materials - those which react less raw materials and fuel for production are These materials are sometimes described as
chemically with a component within the consumed. high range water reducers. First generation
cementitious material. superplasticisers were commercially launched
• Surface active admixtures (surfactants) - The actual water reduction achieved by the in the early 1960s and had an effective
these are generally split into two components working life of less than one hour. Current
(one positively charged and the other generation superplasticisers can be effective
_
negatively charged) and react with the
+ + + _ for periods of up to four hours. The original
air-water-solid material interface within
_ _ _ application for superplasticisers was for the
the mortar, thereby resulting in orientation _ production of flowing concrete. They now
and adsorption. (Orientation means that
+ + + + have far wider applications including the
the particles all face or point in the same
direction. Adsorption means a concentration _ production of high strength and/or early

of molecules gathering or being deposited

+ _ _ drying screed mixes. When used as a water
+ + reducer, typical reductions compared to
on the surface of a solid material - see Figure _ _ _ + a control mix can be in the order of 30%.
1). _
• Passive or inert admixtures - these do not + + +
Superplasticisers can be used in the same

change their form but have a physical effect

+ three ways as a conventional plasticiser:
• to impart a high level of workability,
such as light absorption and reflection as in beyond that obtainable with a conventional
the case of pigments. Some admixtures are Figure 1: The effect of a water reducing
plasticiser
multi functional, meaning that their addition admixture on the dispersion of cement
• to permit large water reductions to be
to a mix results in more than one property of particles
made beyond the limits of normal plasticising
the mix being affected (eg, a water reducing admixtures
air entrainer). • to achieve economic and environmental
benefits (eg, reduction of cement
Water reducing/ content) whilst maintaining performance.
The mode of action of superplasticisers
plasticising is similar to conventional plasticisers with

admixtures
the admixture particles being adsorbed
onto the cement particles, causing them to
This group of surface active (surfactants) become mutually repulsive and thus having a
admixtures have the ability to disperse or dispersing effect.
deflocculate the cement particles within
the mix. Some water reducers/plasticisers Entrapped Water Materials used to manufacture
are based on detergents. When these are superplasticisers include:
incorporated into a mortar mix, admixture Figure 2: Flocculating cement particles trapping • Naphthalene formaldehyde (introduced in
particles are adsorbed onto the surface of the mix water Japan 1963)

1
• Melamine formaldehyde condensates characteristics. Air entraining admixtures also Mortar air entrainer/plasticisers are similar to
(introduced in Germany in 1964) have a plasticising effect and require less those used for concrete admixtures. The air
• Modified lignosulfonate water to achieve the desired workability. entrainer/plasticiser when added to a mortar
• Synthetic polymers. A very important requirement for air mix does not have a chemical reaction with
entraining admixtures is that the bubbles other mix constituents. The mortar’s setting
they produce are stable. A practice which time and hardening are not altered but there
Air entraining should never be encouraged, is the addition may be some change in the rate of water loss

admixtures to mortar mixes of detergents such as

washing-up liquid. In the short term, a
into the masonry units due to better control
of “bleeding”.
The Romans used animal fat, milk and blood more cohesive mix will be obtained but the
in their construction and while no one can
be sure of the reasons for this it was probably
bubbles formed are not stable and confer no
long-term advantage to the product. Retarding
to improve the workability of the material in
its fresh state. Air entraining admixtures are In concretes, the optimum content of air
admixtures
surfactants and act at the air-water interface entrainment is approximately 5.5% although Retarding admixtures slowdown the rate of
in cement paste, resulting in the stabilisation this varies with the maximum aggregate setting with cement. There are two principal
of air entrapped during the mixing process size. Mortar mixes are very different and ways:
in the form of very small, separate bubbles. the optimum air entrainment content is • By altering the solubility of the hydrating
The addition of the admixture to the mix approximately 20%. Admixtures designed compounds in the cement - for example,
lowers the water surface tension, assisting the for plasticising/air entraining mortars should gypsum slows down the dissolution of
formation of bubbles. never be used for concrete production. aluminates and therefore retards the setting
of cement
There is an important difference between The quantity of air that is entrained is • By reacting with a component to form an
entrapped and entrained air. Entrapped air influenced by a number of factors including: impermeable coating (precipitate) on the
normally exists in the form of relatively large cement content, fineness and type, aggregate cement particles thus slowing down the
air voids, not dispersed uniformly throughout grading and fines content, temperature and hydration mechanism (Figures 3 and 4).
the mix. Entrained air takes the form of efficiency of mixing.
minute disconnected bubbles (0.02 - 1.0mm
in size), well distributed throughout the mix. Air entrainment does lead to some loss in
To achieve an increase in durability the air- compressive strength of the mix, because
entrained bubbles have not only to be of the the same quantity of binder is being used to
correct size, but also correctly spaced. cement a larger volume of mortar.

The resistance of hardened mortar to the

destructive effects of frost damage (freezing Air entraining
and thawing) is significantly improved by
the use of intentionally entrained air which
plasticising
improves durability. As the water in the
hardened mortar paste freezes, it causes
admixtures
The European standard for mortar admixtures,
pressure that can rupture the material. The
BS EN 934-3, states that the incorporation
entrained air voids act as reservoirs for the Figure 3: Cement particles free to react with
of an air entraining plasticising admixture
excess water forced into them, thereby water
improves the plasticity of the mix.
relieving pressure and preventing damage to
the mortar or screed.
Sand supplies are becoming scarce that
have a suitable particle size distribution
Air entraining admixtures are manufactured
and shape to enable mortars with desirable
from a number of raw materials including:
properties to be made without the addition
• Natural wood resins and their sodium salts,
of a plasticiser. Lime has been added as a
for example vinsol resin
plasticiser to cement mortars for many years
• Animal and vegetable fats and oils
so that the required working properties
• Alkali salts of sulfated and sulfonated
can be obtained; air entraining plasticisers
organic compounds
provide an alternative. Incorporation of an air
• Water soluble soaps.
entraining plasticiser leads to the formation
of small bubbles, which together with the
The minute air bubbles present in a fresh
cement particles, fill the voids between the
mortar mix act almost like fine particles.
coarser sand particles. A further alternative
The bubbles behave like small ball bearings Figure 4: A precipitate on the surface of the
is the addition of lime and an air-entraining
and increase workability, resulting in a cement particles preventing water reaching
admixture.
more cohesive mix with reduced bleeding them

2
Materials based on the second of these Chloride-free accelerators based on liquid form.
categories are the more widely used and triethanolamine, calcium formate and sodium
include: thiocyanate are widely available although Water repellents applied to the surface of a
• Unrefined lignosulfonates containing generally not as effective as calcium chloride. render may have a limited life as these type of
sugars The use of accelerators in mortar is unlikely to materials only reduce the ingress of water, not
• Hydroxycarboxylic acids and their salts (ie, be beneficial. make the mortar impermeable.
sugars)
• Carbohydrates including sugars
• Gelatin (Sodium heptonates - animal or fish Bonding agents Water repellent admixtures are also known
as permeability reducers or, incorrectly,
fats) Bonding agents are used for two main waterproofers.
• Hydroxylated polymers applications:

An important sub group of retarders is

• To improve adhesion of renders to
substrates Cellulose ethers
that used in the production of ready-to- • To improve the adhesion of levelling Cellulose ethers are named after and based
use mortar, covered by BS EN 934–3. screeds to a concrete base. on cellulose, one of the most common
Their use enables mortar delivered to site to chemical compounds in organic nature.
be used for up to seventy-two hours after The incorporation of a bonding agent is
manufacture. Conventional retarders are sometimes specified for mortar mixes used in There is a broad range of cellulose ethers
used at a high dosage rate in combination brickwork below the damp proof membrane. available including carboxymethylcellulose,
with air entraining/plasticising admixtures. ethylhydroxyethylcellulose,
Air entrainment assists in the retention of Bonding agents are formulated from hydroxyethylcellulose,
workability and the minimisation of bleeding. polymers including: hydroxypropylcellulose,
• Styrene-butadiene polymer (SBR) - methylhydroxyethylcellulose and
Fines content of the sand can have a sometimes referred to as latex methylhydroxypropylcellulose.
significant effect on the working life of the • Polyvinyl acetate (PVA)
mortar and the dosage of the admixture may Cellulose ethers are divided into ionic and
have to be altered accordingly. Care must be taken when using a bonding nonionic types. The ionic cellulose ethers,
agent in mortar mixes as some products eg, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, contain
Absorption of water from the mix by the affect the quantity of air that is entrained. In substituents which are electrically charged.
masonry units starts the stiffening process use in a mix, the polymer emulsion, in the Nonionic cellulose ethers, like methylcellulose
(hydration) of the mortar. Units can absorb form of a milky liquid, replaces approximately and hydroxyethylcellulose, carry electrically
up to 30% of the water component together half the normal amount of mixing water. neutral substituents. Both types are available
with a quantity of dissolved retarding When used as a bonding coat, a slurry is with varying rates of reaction eg, fast acting,
admixture. made with cement and applied to the very fast acting and slow release. Very fast
substrate or base before the render or screed. acting is required for use in dry silo mortar

Accelerating as there is a very short mixing period. Upon

admixtures Water repellents contact with water the cellulose polymers

dissolve through progressive hydration, and
The inclusion of this type of admixture in thus increase the viscosity of the matrix.
This group of admixtures are not generally a mix reduces water absorption and the The cellulose ethers are more effective if
used in mortar and screed production passage of the liquid through the matrix they are dispersed thoroughly throughout
although some proprietary screed mixes by capillary action. The admixtures in this the mixture. Cellulose ethers help improve
incorporate an accelerating admixture. They group principally act by blocking or lining product quality and can act as thickeners,
achieve their effect by increasing the rate the capillaries or pores within the matrix. water retention agents and help reduce
of chemical reaction between the Portland Alternatively, some materials produce a segregation. They are relatively expensive in
cement and water (hydration) within the mix hydrophobic (water repelling) action at the comparison with general admixtures.
by either increasing the rate of dissolution of surface of the material. Some publications
the silica and alumina phases of the cement
or by dissolving the lime.
describe this type of admixture as a
permeability reducer. Handling and
An accelerator that was formerly widely Water repellent admixtures may be
storage of
used was based on calcium chloride, this
was added at a dosage of between 1 and
formulated from a variety of compounds
including:
admixtures
2% by weight of cement. However, calcium Admixtures are complex chemicals and one
• Long chain carboxylic acids
chloride was found to increase the rate of type may not be compatible with another, so
• Calcium, ammonium and butyl stearates
corrosion of embedded metal and now is not they should not be premixed without seeking
• Acrylic resins
permitted to be used where the mortar or advice from the manufacturer.
screed contains any embedded metal eg, ties A number of manufacturers produce water
or lathing . Liquid admixtures should be introduced into
repellent admixtures in powdered as well as

3
the mixer by means of automatic dispensing and methods of test, defines a pigment as: shows that early civilisations used materials
equipment at the same time as the water “A substance, generally in the form of fine like horsehair to improve the mechanical
and aggregates. They should never be added particles, which is practically insoluble in properties of their mortars. A number of
to dry material. The quantity of admixture the application medium and for which the materials such as glass, carbon and asbestos
to obtain the desired performance may be sole purpose is to colour cement and/or lime have historically been used to produce fibres.
quite small and overdosing may result in based building materials”. Currently, polypropylene is the most common
undesirable effects. Admixture manufacturers’ fibre type used in the production of mortars,
data sheets list approximate dosage figures Pigments are normally inert materials that renders and screeds.
for individual admixtures based on trials. do not react with the other constituents in
Field trials should always be undertaken a mortar mix. It is very important that the Polypropylene fibres are manufactured
to determine the optimum dosage for the hydration of the cement is not affected and by chemical and mechanical processes to
particular mix constituents and proportions. for this reason the use of materials containing produce fibres, which are either fibrillated or
lead or zinc salts should be avoided. It is increasingly of a monofilament type.
Admixtures may deteriorate if stored for also important that the pigments are alkali
prolonged periods. Where admixtures have resistant and their colour retention is not Fibrillated fibre is manufactured by extruding
been stored in drums or tanks for periods impaired in an alkaline environment. molten polypropylene through a slit plate
of over twelve months, advice from the die to form a flat sheet. This is then slit into
manufacturer on their use should be sought. Pigments that are incorporated into individual tapes and passed over a series of
Admixtures should be stored above 0ºC building products are frequently exposed razor-sharp pins set into a revolving barrel
and protected from frost, although some to variations in temperature and humidity called a fibrillator. This breaks the individual
admixtures have freezing points in the range and it is therefore important that they are tapes into interconnecting fibres. The tapes
- 5 to -10ºC. Manufacturers’ data sheets give environmentally stable and do not change are then coated to aid dispersion and cut to
further information on the storage facilities colour. the required lengths to form irregular fibres
and conditions necessary to maintain the rectangular in cross section. Typically, 1kg of
admixture’s properties. Admixtures are usually A further requirement is that a pigments is 12mm long fibres will contain between 5 and
stored in bunded tanks to prevent spillage “lightfast”, meaning it does not decompose 20 million individual pieces depending on the
and provide added protection. In periods when exposed to ultra-violet radiation. type or brand.
of hot weather drums should be stored in Consequently, organic materials are generally
shaded conditions. unsuitable. Monofilament fibre is manufactured by
extruding molten polypropylene through a
In dry silo mortar all admixtures are added in Pigments colour mortar by coating the number of dies, which usually have several
powder form. They are batched using smaller, cement and fine aggregate particles so it thousand individual holes on a circular or
more accurate calibrated scales because of is essential that the particles are uniformly rectangular shaped plate. The fibre produced
the small quantities added per tonne. The distributed throughout the mix. It is also is usually smooth and round although
admixtures are stored in small hoppers or important that the pigment particles are other shapes can be obtained. It is coated
directly fed into the dry mortar-mixing pan easily mixed. Generally, a pigment addition to aid dispersion and cut into the required
from tonne bags that are stored in close of 3-7% by mass of cement is required. At lengths. Typically, 1kg of a 12mm thin,
proximity. additions of over about 10%, a saturation level long fibre will contain between 50 and 450
is reached and the addition of more pigment million individual strands depending on the

Pigments has no effect on the intensity of the colour. thickness of the fibre.

Colour has always been important to human A number of pigments are based on oxides Incorporation of polypropylene fibres into
beings and many prehistoric cave paintings and hydroxides of iron and these are used to renders improves the bonding to the backing
exhibit a variety of colours. These paintings produce various shades of red, yellow, brown material, reduces permeability and improves
were achieved using mineral oxides, charcoal and black. Chromium oxides produce green, frost resistance. When used in screed mixes,
and animal fats. Some one hundred and cobalt compounds blue, titanium dioxide the fibes can give enhanced resistance to
fifty years ago, William Perkin began to white. Carbon is sometimes used as a black curling, minimise early-age cracking and
manufacture synthetic colours and this led to pigment, although carbon-based materials improve abrasion resistance.
the development of the synthetic pigments may not retain their colour over a period
that are available today. of time and their use is not recommended. A number of fibre manufacturers supply
Oxides of aluminium, nickel and antimony are polypropylene fibres in pre-packaged,

Pigment also used, often in combination with other

metallic oxides.
water-soluble bags that dissolve when
added to the mix. The approximate dosage
characteristics of polypropylene fibres is 1kg/m3. BS EN

The standard BS EN 12878:2005 Pigments Fibres 14889-2 details the requirements for polymer
based fibres.
for the colouring of building materials based The use of fibres is not a modern
on cement and/or lime - Specifications development and analysis of ancient mortars

4
Water
Water should be clean and free from
contaminants harmful to the setting of
mortars, renders and screeds. Where the
water is obtained from a public supply it can
be assumed that it is free from impurities that
would affect the hydration mechanism (either
retarding or accelerating) of the cementitious
components within the mix.

Increasingly, water that is extracted from

boreholes and obtained from recycling
systems is used in mortars, renders and
screeds. That obtained from boreholes is
normally consistent in quality and once
tested and found to be of acceptable quality,
needs only re-testing at regular intervals. An
acceptable practice is to test the water source
at six-monthly intervals for the first two years
of use and then at two-yearly intervals.

Where water from recycling systems is used,

regular quality checks are needed and quality
control procedures implemented to ensure
material detrimental to the product is not
discharged into the recycling system.

The European standard for water suitable

for use in concrete is BS EN 1008:2002,
Mixing water for concrete - Specification for
sampling, testing and assessing the suitability
of water, including water recovered from
processes in the concrete industry, as mixing
water for concrete.

British/European
standards
The European standard for admixtures is EN
934, Admixtures for concrete, mortarand
grout. This standard has a number of parts.
Part 3: Admixtures for masonry mortar -
Definitions, requirements, conformity and
marking and labelling. The standard makes
reference to a series of testing standards
including BS EN 480: Admixtures for concrete,
mortar and grout - Test methods, Part 13:
Reference masonry mortar for testing mortar
admixtures. BS EN 934-1 was revised in 2008
and a number of general requirements to
which all admixtures shall conform were
taken from the individual parts of the
standard and consolidated within Table 1-
General requirements.

5
Glossary of terms the flow, or which produces both effects
simultaneously. (These materials are often
Admixture known as water reducing/plasticising
Organic or inorganic material added in small admixtures).
quantities to modify the properties of the
mortar in the fresh/hardened state. Reinforcement
Bars, wires, meshes or fibres added to mortars
Additive or materials incorporated within a plaster/
A finely divided inorganic material that may render system to improve its mechanical
be added to mortar in order to improve or strength. (Only fibres are discussed in this
achieve special properties. learning text).

(Note: some confusion exists over the Set retarding admixture (also known as
differences between an admixture and an retarder)
additive. Generally additives are materials Admixture, which extends the time to
added to cement to control some property commencement of transition of the mix
eg, set controlling gypsum stearate added from the plastic to the rigid state. There is
during the grinding of cement; other parts an alternative definition of these materials
of the construction industry classify liquid as follows: Set retarding admixture for long
materials as admixtures and solid materials as -term retarded masonry mortar: Set retarding
additives). admixture as defined in BS EN 934-2 but
specifically intended for use in long -term
Adsorption retarded mortar incorporating entrained air
Adsorption is the adhesion of molecules of (BS EN 934-3).
gas or liquid, to the surface of a solid or liquid,
with which it is in contact. Superplasticiser
An admixture, which, without affecting
Air entraining admixture the consistency, permits a high reduction
An admixture that allows a controlled in the water content of a mortar or screed
quantity of small uniformly distributed air without affecting the water content, increases
bubbles to be incorporated in a mortar and the flow, or which produces both effects
which remain after hardening. simultaneously.

Air entraining/plasticising admixture Waterproofing admixture

Admixture that increases consistence, or Admixture that increases the resistance to
allows water reduction, by incorporating the penetration of water. (Some guides to
during mixing a controlled quantity of small admixtures state that the term Waterproofing
uniformly distributed air bubbles, which should not be used and the term Water
remain after hardening, (BS EN 934-3). (Often resisting/ Water repelling should be
known simply as air entraining admixtures). substituted).

Bleeding
Separation of water from fresh mortar.

Bonding agent
Admixture that improves the bonding
properties of the mix

Pigment
Material used for imparting various colours
to a mortar mix (see further definition in the
section on pigments - EN 12878).

Plasticizing admixture
An admixture which, without affecting the
consistency, permits a reduction in water
content of a mortar, or which without
affecting the water content, increases