4 Coal as a Substance 113

Table 4.18 Formulae for calculation of results to different bases.

Given result Wanted result

As sampled Air Dry Dry, Dry,
(as received) dried ash-free mineral-matter-free
(as despatched) (as fired)

100 − Mad 100 100 100

As sampled –
100 − Mar 100 − Mar 100 − (Mar + Aar) 100 − (Mar + MMar)
(as received)
(as despatched)
(as fired)
100 − Mar 100 100 100
Air dried –
100 − Mad 100 − Mad 100 − (Mad + Aad) 100 − (Mad + MMad)
(as analysed)
100 − Mar 100 − Mad 100 100
Dry –
100 100 100 − Ad 100 − MMd
100 − (Mar + Aar) 100 − (Mad + Aad) 100 − Ad 100 − Ad
Dry, ash-free –
100 100 100 100 − MMd
100 − (Mar + MMar) 100 − (Mad + MMad) 100 − MMd 100 − MMd
Dry, mineral- –
100 100 100 100 − Ad
matter-free

M = moisture %; A = ash %; MM = mineral matter %; ar = as received basis; ad = air dried basis; d = dry basis.
Source: BS 1016-100 (1994). Reproduced with permission of BSI under Licence Number 2002 SK/0003.

1. North America: original Parr formula 4.3.1.2 Proximate analysis

MM = 1.08A + 0.55S; Moisture

modified Parr formula The terminology used in describing the moisture content
of coals can be confusing and needs to be clarified. The
MM = 1.13A + 0.47Spyr + Cl. most confusing term is inherent moisture, which has
many different definitions and should be avoided if at all
2. United Kingdom: BCURA formula possible. If used in any tests it is necessary to ascertain the
MM = 1.10A + 0.53S + 0.74CO2 − 0.36; exact definition that the reference is using.
There is no exact method of determining moisture
KMC formula (revised by British Coal) content. The coal industry has therefore developed the
following set of empirically determined definitions.
MM = 1.13A + 0.5Spyr + 0.8CO2 − 2.8SAsh
+ 2.8SSulf + 0.3Cl.
1. Surface moisture. This is adventitious moisture, not
3. Australia: Standards Association of Australia formula naturally occurring with the coal and which can be
removed by low temperature air drying (ca. 40 ◦C).
MM = 1.1A. This drying step is usually the first in any analysis and
the moisture remaining after this step is known as
In the above equations MM = mineral matter (%), air-dried moisture.
A = ash (%), S = total sulfur (%), Spyr = pyritic sulfur 2. As received or as delivered moisture. This is the total
(%), SSulf = sulfate sulfur (%), SAsh = sulfur in ash
moisture of the coal sample when received or delivered
(%), Cl = chlorine % and CO2 = carbon dioxide (%).
to the laboratory. Usually a laboratory will air dry a
All values are expressed on an air-dried basis.
coal sample thereby obtaining the ‘loss on air drying’.
An aggressive drying step is then carried out which
114 Coal Geology

determines the air-dried moisture. These results are have been driven off from mineral compounds such as
added together to give the total as received/as delivered carbonates, sulfides and clays.
moisture. In a steam coal, a high ash content will effectively reduce
3. Total moisture. This is all the moisture that can be its calorific value. Recommended maximum ash contents
removed by aggressive drying (ca. 150 ◦C in vacuum for steam coals for use as pulverized fuel are around
or nitrogen atmosphere). 20% (air-dried), but for some stoker-fired boilers, much
4. Air-dried moisture. This is the moisture remaining lower values are desirable. In coking coals, a maximum
after air drying and which can be removed by aggres- of 10–20% (air-dried) is recommended, as higher ash
sive drying. In addition to this generally used term, the contents reduce the efficiency in the blast furnace.
following terms are being increasingly used, moisture
holding capacity (MHC), capacity moisture or equi- Volatile matter
librium moisture (EQ). It is not within the scope of
Volatile matter represents that component of the coal,
this book to detail the analytical procedure required
except for moisture, that is liberated at high temperature
but suffice to say that they are lengthy and expensive.
in the absence of air. This material is derived chiefly
from the organic fraction of the coal, but minor amounts
These terms relate to the in-bed or in situ moisture of
may also be from the mineral matter present. Correction
a coal. Numerically the MHC of a bituminous coal will
for the volatile matter derived from the latter may be
be higher than air-dried moisture and lower than total
made in technical works, but is not usually necessary in
moisture. Technically it is the MHC that increases with
commercial practice.
decreasing rank (Figure 4.11). High moisture is undesir-
In pulverized fuel firing for electricity generation, most
able in coals as it is chemically inert and absorbs heat
boilers are designed for a minimum volatile matter of
during combustion, and it creates difficulties in handling
20–25% (d.a.f.). In stoker firing for electricity genera-
and transport. It lowers the calorific value in steam coals
tion, the volatile matter limits recommended are 25–40%
and lowers the amount of carbon available in coking coals. (d.a.f.). There is virtually no limit for the volatile mat-
ter for coals used in the production of cement. In coke
Ash production, high volatile matter content will give a lower
The ash of a coal is that inorganic residue that remains coke yield so that the best quality coking coals have a
after combustion. It should be remembered that the volatile matter range of 20–35% (air-dried) but values of
determined ash content is not equivalent to the mineral 16–36% can be used.
matter content of the coal. It does, however, represent
the bulk of the mineral matter in the coal after losing the Fixed carbon
volatile components such as CO 2, SO2 and H2O, which The fixed carbon content of coal is that carbon found in
the residue remaining after the volatile matter has been
liberated. Fixed carbon is not determined directly, but
Capacity (bed) moisture content (%)

40 is the difference, in an air-dried coal, between the total

percentages of the other components, that is moisture,
ash and volatile matter, and 100%
30

4.3.1.3 Ultimate analysis

20
Ultimate analysis of coal consists of the determination of
carbon and hydrogen as gaseous products of its complete
10 combustion, the determination of sulfur, nitrogen and
ash in the material as a whole, and the estimation of
0 oxygen by difference.
100 95 90 85 80 75 70
Carbon (% d.a.f.) Carbon and hydrogen
Figure 4.11 Generalized variation of capacity (or air-dried) These are liberated as CO2 and H2O when the coal
moisture contents with rank. (From Berkowitz, 1979.) is burned and are most easily determined together.