07 - Chapter 2 PDF
07 - Chapter 2 PDF
07 - Chapter 2 PDF
SANSKRIT
DRAMATURGY
The dramatic composition and staging techniques of ancient India can
be derived primarily from two sources - the extant plays with their stage
directions and the numerous dramaturgical texts and books of theory and
criticism. The Indian theatre doesn’t have any surviving theatre buildings
which might shed light on its origins and development. From the plays we
the ravages of times. No visual evidence like drawings, floor plans, sketches
have substantial source of information regarding the size and shape of the
buildings that are said to have housed Sanskrit plays. From Natyasastra we
can only know the rules for construction of ideal models, rather than shape and
of the first play house. In the opening chapter of Natyasastra a story is told as
to how a special theatre hall came to be constructed. The first drama is given
in the open during the festival of Indradhvaja. The demons, being offended at
the theme of the play which was the defeat of the Asuras by the gods, try to
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where actors might perform a play uninterrupted by the malevolent spirits and
entrusted the task to Viswakarma. The text gives no details about the
auspicious day and that the gods agreed to assist in its protection.
square and triangular. Each one of these may be of large, medium, or small
as spectators may well receive facial expressions of the actors, and can hear
eight, one is for the stage and another is allocated for use by the spectators.
The stage proper was again subdivided and the closest to the spectators was
designated as the acting area and that the extremity of the building was
reserved for the dressing room. Considering the limited size of the space
reserved for spectators, it would seem that relatively few people could have
work, and have paintings on the wall. The hall should not be too open and
windy as the voices of the actors and music have to be protected against
distortion; the whole building should be like a cave to provide the best of
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acoustic. Bharata’s Natyasastra insists on the special care to be taken when
selecting the site and clearing the land for construction of a new play,
otherwise disasters might befall the country and those responsible for causing
the mistakes. The foundation is laid with the sounding of conch shells and the
eye on the proceedings, undesirable are strictly prohibited from witnessing this
ceremony. After the site is marked out on the ground, the gods of ten
The next step is the raising of the walls and pillars. Four pillars are
(Brahmans, Vysyas, Shatryas and Sudrakas) are the pillars of the theatre. This
seems to support the implication made in the first chapter that drama is created
the four castes were the pillars of the theatre as they are in the society.
Apparently, it had pillars and was higher than the level of the stage. The
notion that the playhouse was to resemble a mountain cave has led some critics
more likely that Natyasastra means to imply that the ceiling was constructed in
such a fashion that it acoustically aided the voices of the actors and the music
of drums. Small windows might have been inserted high up in the structure as
ventilation and perhaps even to let in some light. The final step in the
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construction of the structure seems to have been the plastering, whitewashing
and painting of the walls. The paintings were to depict scenes of “creepers,
The maximum potential acting area of the ideal structure was twenty-
four by forty-eight feet. Two Sanskrit terms used to describe the stage have
led some scholars to conclude that the stage was further subdivided in half, the
part closest to the audience referred to as the “head of the stage” and the part
nearer to the dressing room as the “seat of the stage.” The front half is thought
to have been slightly lower than the back half. A wall with two doors seems to
have separated the dressing room from the acting area. As noted earlier, the
space between the doors was reserved for the musicians. The stage seems to
have been on a different level from that on which the spectators sat, thus it was
clearly demarcated as an acting area. The floor was to be elevated and level as
Natyasastra indicates that it was not to be convex or rough, like the back of a
tortoise or a fish. Precious stones are said to have been laid in the foundation
of the stage, probably for ritual rather than practical purposes. The stage had
pillars, which either helped to support the superstructure of the roof of the main
building or to support a separate roof which may have been constructed above
the acting area. The text is uncertain about the exact number, placement, and
function of the pillars. Wooden figures of elephants, tigers, and snakes were to
be carved, possibly on the pillars or perhaps on the ceiling above the stage, if
the stage had a separate ceiling. The procedures for the construction of the
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square theatre are almost identical to those outlined for the construction of the
king (literally, the master) and to people, young and old of the
which must be performed before the actual drama begins; they are intended to
secure divine favour for the performance, each act having a definite share in
the result. First there is the beat of dram (pratyahara) announcing the
beginning of the performance and the carpet is spread out for the orchestra; the
singers and the musicians then enter and take their places (avatarana): then the
chorus tries their voices {arambga): the musicians try their instruments
(asravana); they tune up their wind and string instruments, and manipulate
their hand to make them ready for the work; then an instrumental concert
follows, succeeded by the appearance and practice steps of the dancers. These
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acts gratify the Apsarasas, Gandharvas, Daityas, Danavas, Raksasas,
Guhyakas, and Yaksas. A song follows, to please the gods; then the Tandava
flowers and purifies himself with water from a pitcher borne by an attendant,
while another carries the banner; there follows a perambulation of the stage,
the praise of the world guardians, and homage to the banner. Then comes the
verse in honour of the god whose festival it is, or the king or a Brahmin; then
comes the Rangadvara, which is said to mark the beginning of the dramatic
action (abinaya) the Sutradhara reciting another verse, and bowing before the
honour of Uma, and more violent movements of the same kind in honour of the
talks nonsense, and an attendant follows. Finally the Prarocana announces the
content of the drama, and the Sutradhara and his two attendants leave the stage,
appearance and qualities to the Sutradhara, enters and introduces the play, a
function which gives him the status of an introducer, the Sthapaka. His
costume should indicate the nature of the drama, as dealing with divine or
human affairs. An appropriate song greets his entrance, praises the gods and
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subjects of the play, mentions the name of the author and the play, and
describes some season in the verbal manner, thereby opening the prologue of
the play. The essential features of the prologue are an address by the director
invited by me.
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of the moon you are deceived by someone.
For, see—
Mandala (orb);__....
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ACT 1
(Enter CHA’NAKYa in an angry mood touching with his hand his loosened
hair).
A person may enter (pravrttaka), who has just been mentioned by the
autumnal season.
Sir! Sir!....
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actress that her song has enchanted him, as gazelle enchants Dushyanta, who
up for representation?
fleet antelope.
(Exeunt)
(Then enter in a chariot the King chasing a deer, bow with an arrow fixed
Next, Bharata takes up the story or plot of the play. The plot may be
derived from old sources, like the epics or narratives, or from history. It may
also be invented. Even if the plot is taken from a myth, the poet is free to be
and the latter from the Vedas, epics, and Puranas. The poet may cut out some
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separate incidents and episodes. The purpose of this reshaping of the story and
the hero straggling for and finally attaining the objects of his desire.
Subsidiary incidents may contribute to this aim but should not divert attention
from it. The realization of the goal relates to the three ends of Hindu life—
duty, pleasure and wealth. Plot is of two kinds: ‘Principal’ and ‘Accessary’.
The Principal is that which relates to the chief characters or the persons
concerned with the essential interest of the piece, and pervades the whole
topic, and is concerned with characters other than the hero and the heroine.
The Accessary is of two kinds; pataka and prakari. The Pataka is an episode
extends to the very end of a play. The prakari is also an episodical incident of
part. Besides these two, there are three other elements requisite for the
development of the plot. These are the seed, the drop and the final issue. Bija
is the circumstance leading to the ultimate end briefly stated, which, as the plot
develops, bears multifarious results and which is as it were the seed of the plot.
Bindu is what cements a break in the plot caused by the introduction of some
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other incident. Karya is the final object of the plot which being attained the
his design and his firm resolves to make efforts to force Rakshasa to accept the
ministerial office under Chandragupta and thereby to give stability to his mle.
The plot or subject matter is regarded as the “body” of the drama. The
To begin with there are five stages in the development of the action called
germ—the desire on the part of the hero to obtain his objective. The second is
effort, the third is prospect of success, the fourth is certain attainment through
the removal of obstacles, and the fifth one is obtainment of the desired object.
heir to his throne. Both of these goals are clearly implied in the excerpt quoted
from Act I. Second, there is a determined effort to achieve the object of desire.
Sakuntala as his wife. Third, there is hope of success. In Act III Dusyanata is
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king. In Act V, as a result of the curse, he does not recognize her when she
nymph to an undisclosed sanctuary. In Act VI, when the king’s keepsake ring
restored and he bemoans the loss of his beloved. The fifth stage in the
development of the action occurs when the hero attains the object of his desire.
In the final act of the play, Dusyanta is reunited with Sakuntala and discovers
From the point of view of enacting onstage the play as worked out
above, Bharata makes a twofold division between story elements that are to be
shown through physical action and those which are to be orally communicated
as being highly sentimental and pleasing (Drusya Kavya). Battles and fights,
death, sieges, and the like are not to be directly enacted or actually shown on
the stage. These happenings, which cannot be managed on the stage or are not
shows the connection between the parts of the story gone and future, by means
by not more than two persons and it may be used at the beginning of a drama
the performers are of middle rank and speak Sanskrit; mixed (Samkima) when
the characters are of middle and inferior class and use also Prakrit. (2) The
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Pravesaka cannot be used at the beginning of a drama, and is confined to
inferior characters, who use Prakrit. (3) Culika is the suggestion of some
the subject of the following Act; thus at the end of Act II in Mahaviracarita
these three open Act III. (5)Ankavatara consists of the seed of the subject-
matter of an Act in the previous Act before it has drawn to its close, so that the
Malavikagnimitra.
identifies ten major types of plays: nataka, prakarana, anka, vyayoga, bhana,
samvakara, vithi, prahasana, dima, and ihamrga. This list is apparently not
species, the most important of which are Natikas, such as Harsa’s Ratnavali,
The chief characteristics of the nataka are that it has as its subject a
well-known story concerning the exploits of a hero who is either a royal sage
or a king; the dominant sentiment of the work should be either love or heroism;
and the extant nataka normally has not fewer than five and no more than seven
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acts each. Celestial beings are the characters in minor episodes of the plot like
contrast the Prakarana, of which The Little Clay Cart is the finest example. It
has story which is invented by the author. It can also be drawn from the
sources like Brhatkatha and similar works of earlier poets and not from the
works like Puranas. Episodes that are popular might be included, but the poet
can invent some details and incorporate them into the plot. The hero might be a
the hero of nataka who is a king. It should consist of four Acts, and abound in
female characters. Its hero should be an illustrious king and of the Dhiralalita
proceeds in his love affair cautiously from fear of the queen and the play ends
with a happy union of the heroine and the hero with the consent of the queen.
as heroes who are prakhyata and udatta and the number of them is twelve.
Distress caused by battles, difference and quarrels forms part of the story.
and kama. The significance of the name is that the plot of this type in the three
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acts need not be a connected whole. Bharata mentions that Amrtamanthana is
of heroes and they are celestial beings. The subject of it is one partly derived
from legend and partly the poet’s imagination. If the legend relates the death
of a great man, this result must be avoided. It owes its name according to the
golden gazelle (iha). The characters are of haughty temperament. Srngara has
a place in incidents like stealing of a woman. It is in one act. The rasa is dipta
specimen. Its subject is legendary. Six rasas are depicted. Srngara, hasya
and santa are avoided. It is in four acts. The heroes are sixteen gods, demi
gods, and demons, all of the haughty type. The erotic and comic sentiments
are excluded, that of fury is predominant. There are four acts without
introductory scenes of any kind. Vyayoga is, as its name suggests, a military
spectacle. The heroes are twelve as in the samavakara; they are not divine but
well-known kings, army chiefs or ministers; and they are not udattas. A few
women also figure. It is in one act, the action not extending over a day, and it
is filled with strife and battle, the intervention of women as the cause of battle
being excluded. The first two and last junctures alone are permitted and the
erotic and comic sentiments are barred. It has diptarasas of raudra and vira as
fighting.
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The Act (Anka) is a single-act piece, whose longer style serves to
from legend, the poet may develop it to dramatize on the stage. It is devoid of
divine beings. The hero should be human, of the common folk. It abounds in
mean that in it are described women whose lives are about to leave them and
is that in which heretics, Brahmins, men and maid-servants and parasites are
Sankirna (the mixed). It is full of events and acts which are vulgar with
characters eunuchs, vesyas and rogues. The subject is the poet’s invention. It
deals essentially with the tricks and quarrels of low characters of every kind.
The monologue, Bhana, like the prahasana, has the characters such as
vita and dhurta, which are suited for the development of hasya. Even
characters which are not present on the stage are made to speak through one
mouth. This is the significance of the name bhana. Only one character
appears on the stage and speaks himself about his own adventures. He himself
enacts the speech and actions of others, speaking in the air. The element of the
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The garland, Vithi, has a certain similarity to the Bhana in that it
includes frequent speeches in the air, and is in one act. It has thirteen elements
uttama (superior) classes. The leading sentiment is the erotic, but others are
hinted at. The name might also suggest that the play was enacted even in
Uparupakas are secondary types of less duration when staged and are
mentioned with the name uparupakas. They are not different from nataka in
definition. That is to say they are modeled out of it. According to propriety
besides natika. It resembles the latter in many respects. But viskambha and
pravesaka which are the means adopted for indicating what would not be
presented on the stage are excluded. The language is not a mixture of Sanskrit
similar to natika, but the hero is that of the prakarana. His love and attainment
of some material gain from part of the plot unlike that of natika, where love of
to be that the story (which must be well known, as in a nataka) shows the
meeting of gods and men, and in practice the examples seem mostly to be
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myths and legends concerning the nymphs apsarasas, who are divine beings,
in their affairs with men. Trotaka has five or more acts like any other nataka.
A feature which is not mentioned in the available theoretical works, but which
is prominent in at least part of the only trotaka which seems to have been
literature, nor is this wonderful, for they show the character rather of
pantomime with song, dance, and music than of serious drama. Gosthi has
nine or ten men and five or six women as actors. Hallica is clearly a glorified
heroine are slaves. It is based on a mimetic dance. Both Bhana and Kavya are
one-act pieces. Rasaka, of the same general type, includes dialect in its
language. Ullapya may have one or three acts, and its hero is of high rank,
while battles form part of its subject, as they do also in Samlapaka, which may
have one, three, or four acts. Durmallik has four acts, a hero of low rank, and a
precise time-table of duration of acts. Vilasika has one act, but is interesting
in that the hero has, to support him, not only the vidusaka, but also the parasite
has four acts, allows all the manners, has a Brahmin as a hero with a man of
lower rank as secondary hero, excludes the calm and comic sentiments, and has
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birth, full of combats and hard words and it has no introductory scenes. Both
the benediction and the Prarocana are performed behind the scenes, but none
of the late works which bear approximately this title conforms to type. The
Srigadita is in a single act, the story legendary, the hero and heroine of high
rank, the manner verbal; the word Sri is often mentioned, or the goddess is
presented seated and singing some verse. The only play known of that name is
play, but contains a narrative verse, suggesting connexion with the shadow-
drama.
The Greek drama recognizes, whereas the Sanskrit drama ignores, the
unities of place and time. Natyasastra clearly states that the events of an act
should take place in the course of a single day. But obviously some events
take longer than twenty-four hours to complete and are of such magnitude
(battles, for example) that they demand more accommodation in the drama.
example, maidservants or the clown, may report the events which have
intervened between the previous act and the events that are about to take place
and compress time and avoid depicting subjects which are taboo and, at the
same time, make use of them for furthering the dramatic action as in
Bhavabhuti’s Uttararamacharita:
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suddenly closed in fearful combat and have
out of season?...'6
, sunrise and end at sunset. Also actions which would normally take a great deal
accomplished in no time on the stage. But Sanskrit has taken certain liberty to
dramatize a series of events. Several years elapse between the last two acts of
Uttararamacarita.
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Unlike the rules laid down for neoclassical French and English drama,
rales for establishing and changing locales in a Sanskrit play are quite flexible.
movement, such as walking around, the actors indicate that they have moved to
numerous transitions of locale. At the beginning of the play, the king and his
charioteer are travelling in the sky on a magic chariot in pursuit of a deer. The
description of the landscape below during the chase, and perhaps some
place. Suddenly they halt outside the hermitage compound, where the king
agrees not to kill the helpless creature which has taken refuge within. It is
presumed that the spectators have to imagine the boundaries of the compound.
This section of the scene ends as the king commands the charioteer to enter the
hermitage. As the act proceeds the locale becomes even more specific until
finally we end with the king in a particular spot in the hermitage garden
from a broad generalized locale in the air to a very specific locale on the
have been regarded as neutral acting area and given symbolic significance
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treat for the spectator. The physical environment is not a mere object, but
forms an integral part of the character and his state of feeling in the given
enters expressing his love for Sakuntala and his longing to meet her again,
“This extremely sultry hour Sakuntala generally passes with her friends on the
banks of the Malini where there are bowers of creepers. Thither I will go at
once.”7 Then the poet’s stage directions are, “He comes round, and shows by
acting, the cool touch on his body” caused by the cool breeze from the river.
He conveys this scenic background through his acting by lifting his arms,
looking at the bristling hair there, inhaling the fine smell of the flowers, and
showing a sense of refreshment. The same acting technique can express the
time of day for which nowadays we resort to all sorts of lighting techniques.
word affects the audience more than mere painted canvas and light. This also
explains the purposiveness of dramatic poetry in a Sanskrit play and the way
may be one of the Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa, separately or mixed up
together. The dramas are classified according to the subject-matter, the hero
and rasa. The subject-matter and the plot are by themselves subject to
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feelings (vyabhicarin). The determinants fall in the later classification into two
the heroine or the hero, for without them there can be no creation of sentiment
in the audience; excitant determinants are such conditions of place and time
and circumstance as serve to foster sentiment when it has arisen, for instance
the moon, the cry of the cuckoo, the soft breeze from Malaya, all things which
foster the erotic sentiment. The consequents are the external manifestations of
feeling by which the actors exhibit to the audience the minds the hearts of the
arm, and -though this is but slightly indicated in later texts-his words.
they observe the work in performance. And yet to give focus to the
dominate all others in the total context of the performance. The most common
dominant sentiment of the extant plays is love. And yet all the plays, even the
short one-act works, employ varieties of feelings and emotions which provide
the needed variety and texture. Corresponding to the eight sentiments are eight
emotions or feelings (bhava). They are expressed by the actor in the process of
laying his or her bouquet of experiences derived from the play before the
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spectators. They are correspondingly love, mirth, anger, sorrow, energy,
death, fright, and deliberation. And eight sattvika states which are paralysis,
weeping, and fainting. This makes forty nine different feelings in all. However
Natyasastra clearly states that “just as a king is superior to other men, and the
preceptor is superior to his disciples, so the bhava are superior to the transitory
and the great mass of theorists, but the Dasarupaka distinguishes three cases,
denotes the inability of two young hearts to secure union, because of obstacles
resentment, and this in its turn may be caused by a quarrel between the two
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that one’s lover is devoted to another. The hero may counteract anger by
Sambhoga Srngara has for its Alambana Vibhava the hero and the heroine
generally. But quite often an army of sporters and sometimes even birds,
beasts, trees and creepers have been depicted as Alambana Vibhava. The Rasa
Kumarasambhava where all- men, birds, bees, creepers, and trees are painted
are painted while depicting the seasons, evening, darkness, rise of the moon,
morning, rise of the sun, aquatic sports, sports in the gardens and forests,
drinking and picking of flowers. Besides these, the decorations of the lover
and the beloved and their physical beauty are treated as the Uddipana
Vibhavas.
form of obstructions from the side of the enemies generally arouses Utsaha, the
Sthayi Bhava of Vira. The enemy is the Alambana Vibhava and his actions
and evil attitudes and the circumstances which excite a hero are the Uddipana
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puts on armour and uses arms and physical force. These activities of the hero
are the Anubhavas. As the nature of the Vibhavas shows, the treatment of wars
has the best scope for the depiction of the Vira rasa. The heroic sentiment
corresponds to the emotion of energy; it may take the three forms of courage in
Raudra rasa is similar to Vira rasa and generally finds scope in course of
suitable to excite the Sthayi bhava of only one of the two rasas. The sentiment
Setubandha, Raudra rasa has been treated in details in which the ocean seems
to bear an inimical attitude towards Rama and does not respond to his
demands. The attitude of the sea is the Uddipana Vibhava here. Perspiration,
the bow, and shooting arrows against the sea has been mentioned as the
Anubhava.
stupor. The sentiment of wonder (Adbhuta Rasa) has its scope in the
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astonishment; the transitory states are usually joy, agitation, and contentment.
characters. The shooting of arrows by Rama, and its effect on the ocean, the
uprooting of mountains, their transportation to the sea-shore, and the fall of the
mountains in the ocean and the construction of the bridge of mountains on the
associated with it are depression, agitation, distraction, fright, and the like.
Bhayanaka has for its Alambana Vibhava great heroes showing their valour
wild animals. The idea of a great loss, especially of life, excites terror, the
Sthayi Bhava. The fierce attitude and activities of warriors and wild animals
are the Uddipana Vibhavas. Withdrawal or flight, leaving the work in hand
The Koruna rasa is based on sorrow; its associated states are sleeping,
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The Santa rasa is fondly depicted by the Jains and the Buddhist poets.
truths, and evil nature of worldly pursuits, transitory nature of life and the
merits of practicing austerities after renouncing the world. The sight of a sage
is the Uddipana Vibhava generally. The renunciation of the world and the
practice of austerities are the Anubhavas. Nirveda, Harsa, Smarana and Daya
The emotions are perceived by the spectators in the actors and evoke a
dominant emotion may be easily determined by the expert spectator (or reader)
from among various transitory feelings, for a play performed with only one
emotion.
that even one sub-kind of a rasa becomes the controlling factor in a dramatic
piece. Only one rasa running through out is never delineated to the exclusion
most fascinating. Hence other rasas are also depicted but they are of secondary
importance only. Those other rasas which are not incompatible with, or
contradictory to, the principal one but are friendly to it leading to its maturity
and excellence are freely used, whereas others rallying under the hostile flag
are handled with care and caution. The different ways in which they are
harnessed to do services to the principal rasa should be pointed out. The Vira
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lead well to the excellence of principal rasa in the dramatic piece which is the
Vira rasa. This is an illustration of the two contradictory rasas residing in two
different loci but leading to a unitary effect. Another case occurs when such
contradictory rasas reside in the same locus and lead to one whole effect as in
the first act of Nagananda where the Santa rasa and the Smgara rasa have been
unitary effect by interposing the Adbhuta rasa between them through the hero’s
Yet another case comes in when in the words of Pururava on seeing Urvasi the
Smgara rasa is alternated with the Santa rasa. Though the two rasas stand
independent yet the total effect in the above case is the Smgara rasa as the role
of the Santa is only secondary and hence helpful. When one rasa is accepted as
principal in a dramatic piece care is taken that it is not hampered in its full
the second act where the Vira is depicted growing unimpeded between Rama
and Parasurama, the former being suddenly called inside to have the wristlet
ICill.No....................... . i
When the playwright composes a partictitar‘dramatic piece lie chooses a*
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the Alambana Vibhaas which suit it. These Alambana Vibhavas are shown in
in dramas lovers meet in gardens and in lonely places, the pisachas roam on the
figuring in the drama. As shown before they may be fully divine or half divine
or human beings. They are either high or middle or low in status. The gods
are the divine beings; the kings are partly divine and partly human. What is
appropriate to each of the above should be duly depicted. For instance, kings
serpent world, for such activities are in fitness with them. The journey of
high lineage. In the same way the carrying away of Sakuntala to the ethereal
region by her mother is quite in fitness with the state of affairs as Sakuntala is
inappropriate. All these do not detract from the maturity of rasas of which they
are the Vibhavas as these activities and conditions are suitable to them. The
leads to jarring effects and renders the particular rasa defective. In order to
not found in the basic story are created as Anasuya and Priyamvada in the
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Sakuntala for Dusyanta. They are her confidantes and interested, though
unselfish companions. The hero has been described to be of four kinds, viz.
the Dhiroddhata, the Dhirolalita, the Dhirodatta and the Dhirosanta. That these
also are controlled by rasa is clear. When the sentiments of serious, grave and
depiction of the Vira, the Smgara (of a serious type). When the sentiment is of
a frolicking type as love intrigues of the king within his palace depicted in
Ratnavali, the hero is of the Dhirolalita kind. Such sentiments as the Raudra
have Dhiroddhata hero and the Smgara which is neither very serious nor very
fickle has the Dhirosanta hero. Any change in the above position will surely
mar the effect, that is, rasa. For instance, the Smgara of the type aimed at in
the Natika will not admit of the Dhirodatta hero. The love intrigues rampant
there will find no scope with the Dhirodatta hero as they will be inconsistent
with his nature. It is, therefore, proper that characters figuring as heroes of
Vali by Rama through a trick would surely have stood inconsistent with the
through his minister Malyavan, as Vali opposes Rama on the instigation of the
minister. This is obviously to keep the character defectless. The propriety and
its observance become clear in the Smgara rasa which receives wide treatment.
The hero in his love relation with heroine has been described as the Anukula,
the Daksina, the Satha and the Dhrsta. Rama is the Dhirodatta hero of the
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Anukula kind. He is perfectly and exclusively devoted to Sita. The slightest
departure in this relation is sure to mar the effect intended. Hence all the
dramatists have been cautious in this. The Dhirosanta hero of the Anukula
exclusively devoted to Malati. In the Dharma Smgara, the Artha Smgara, the
Kama Smgara and the Moksa Smgara the heroes respectively are the
Dhirodatta, Dhiroddhata, the Dhirolalita and the Dhirosanta. Where the hero
has many beloveds he can stand in any relation with them. He can be the
pines in the absence of one, no doubt, but does not let his mind out before the
other. On the other hand, he expresses his love equally for the other. The case
seems otherwise with Dusyanata whose affection for all the beloveds is not
expressed in such a way. This may account for the taunt flung at Dusyanta by
of love of the king for all the beloveds and not exclusively to one. Hence he is
a Dhirodatta hero of the Daksina type. The Dhiralalita kind of hero may be of
the Dhrsta type but even then he is not generally represented such as in
Ratnavali and Priyadarsika where though the love intrigues of the king are
fully rampant the king is shown under the control of the chief queen in whose
hands completely lies the union of the king, her husband, with his new love.
Thus in such cases the Daksina type is preferred. The Dhirosanta hero may
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also be of the Daksina kind as in Mrcchakatika where though his love is not
depicted for his wife, how hardly comes in the forefront, yet absence of
indifference on his part towards her and her devotion to him bear out his being
he may not belong to any one particular kind, for example, to the Dhiroddhata
Ravana, as haughty towards the untried Rama, and as calm when he has
experienced the superior prowess of that hero. In the Dima, however, where
the heroes are the gods, the Gandharvas, the Yaksas, the Raksasas and the
Uragas are mostly of the Dhiroddhata type, for the Dima though having many
The heroines are the wives of the heroes or maidens or others’ wives or
the courtesans. The heroine may be the Swiya, the Anyodda, the Kanya, the
Samanya, the Mugdha, the Madhya or the Pragalbha according to her age and
adroitness in love. She has been further divided on the basis of love relations
into eight kinds as the Virahothkantita, The Vipralabdha, the Khanditha, the
Vasakasajja.
The ladies of importance other than the heroines are the Mahadevis (the
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where the final union of the hero with the heroine rests in the hands of the
Malavikagnimitra.
The heroes and the heroines have certain helping persons, male and
female, in their love affairs. The most prominent among them is the Vidusaka.
inadvertence discloses the king’s love for the heroine but who undergoes all
instrumental in bringing about the union of the hero with the heroine. He is,
Ravana. Thus he plays the friend and adviser in love affairs; here, of course,
second act. He appears again but only in course of the king’s love affairs.
Thus helping in the development of rasa he so much gains the favour of the
hero that any trouble to him from the external agency at once enrages the hero.
That explains why Matali chooses him as the instrument for exciting anger in
the hero. The Vidusaka, thus, figures in the development of the Smgara rasa
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where the hero displays his insusceptibility to love, the Vidusaka makes all
efforts to make the hero fall in love with the heroine as in the first act of
to turn the hero towards the worldly enjoyments. Then after sometime he
actually drags the hero in the presence of the heroine, thus making love arise at
first sight. The Vita and the Cheta are other characters appearing as help in
The Pratinayaka is the rival of the hero and serves as the Alambana
Vibhava of the rasa which is, no doubt, subsidiary but which generally
contributes to the nourishment of the principal rasa of which the hero is the
same play paints the Pratinayaka in such colours as may lower him in
comparison with the hero. Ravana in the Rama dramas is another such
instance where his inappropriate love for Sita is depicted. Nandana in the
Charadatta, the hero, in his ideal love for Vasantasena is very strikingly
contrasted with the mean abject, dare-devil but at the same time coward Sakara
Charadatta only expresses his attachment to, and never runs after, Vasantasena.
She, on the other hand, keeps her love tryst with Charadatta. The case is
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reverse with Sakara. He gives a hot pursuit to Vasantasena who detests his
amorous advances and keeps herself at a safe distance from him as far as
The heroes and the heroines are much helped in their love affairs by
love between the hero and heroine. Those filling the neuter roles are in charge
of the inner apartments and engaged in accompanying the heroines in their love
appointments. The low characters become the heroes and the heroines in
minor types of dramas as in the Bhana where the Vita figures as the hero,
though he is the only character there; and as in the Prahasana where very low
due to want of propriety and decency. But they furnish instances of how
particular rasas determine the particular Vibhavas. All these characters amply
bear out how they are controlled by different rasas of which they generally
Vibhavas.
The heroes and the heroines, when they have been selected as the
activities which come under the Vrttis. That these Vrttis also are controlled by
rasas has been expressly mentioned by the dramaturgists. These Vrttis are four
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in number as shown before. They are the Kaisiki, the Satvati, the Arabhati and
the Bharati.
The Kaisiki is connected with the Smgara and the Hasya rasas. It
concerns itself with song, dance, lovely and variegated garments and depicts
love, gallantry, jokes and such other objects as are instrumental in exciting
love. Its four kinds are (i) the Narma, (ii) the Narmasphinja (the Narmasphurja
according to Bharata), (iii) the Narmasphota, and (iv) the Narmagarbha. The
first, that is, the Narma, which is full of decent sports aiming at the pleasing of
the beloved, has three sub-kinds it is purely through the Hasya or the Hasya
mixed with the Smgara or the Hasya mixed with the Bhaya. The Smgara
mixed with the Hasya may be to express one’s affection or longing for union or
imputing a fault to the lover. The Bhaya mixed with the Hasya may be pure in
its being the predominant factor or secondary in its being ancillary. Each of
the above six kinds may differ according to speech, dress and movement. Thus
eighteen kinds in all obtain. Dramas furnish illustrations of these kinds out of
which a few may be quoted. The Hasya narma with respect to dress occurs in
the third act of Nagananda when the Vita, Sekharaka, misled by the female
dress of the Vidusaka, mistakes him for his beloved, Navamalika. The
Vidusaka by dropping upon him a stick which is taken by him for a serpent.
The Narma in respect of the Bhaya is illustrated in the second act of Ratnavali
where Susangata makes fun of the king by saying that she has known not only
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the presence of the king there but also the picture-board along with the
necessary details which she would disclose to the queen. The second, the
ending in a note of fear at the meeting of the lovers. The illustration can be
seen in the fourth act of Malavikagnimitra where the king and Malavika meet
together but the latter expresses her apprehension of the queen. The third is the
where Makaranda describes the slight affection of Madhava for Malati. The
fourth, the Narmagarbha, shows the development of love; the hero here puts on
disguise to achieve his end as in the third act of Priyadarsika where the king
The Satvati is connected with the Vira, the Adbhuta and the Raudra
rasas. It is without sorrow and abounds in the Sattva, courage, self sacrifice,
compassion and straightforwardness. Its four kinds are (i) the Samlapaka, (ii)
the Utthapaka, (iii) the Sanghatya and (iv) the Parivartaka. The first, the
serious dialogue full of bhavas and rasas. The second, the Utthapaka, is a
challenge for fight as in the fifth act of the above drama when Vali defies
Rama. The third, the Sanghatya, is the division brought about among the foes
collected together through good counsel, wealth, fate etc. The illustration of
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Chanakya through his intellect brings about a division among the characters
Parvataka come into the hands of the former. The illustsration of the breach
through fate is to be found in the Rama dramas wherein Bibhisana severs his
This obviously detracts from the rasa of which he is the Alambana Vibhava.
Raudra rasas. In it the activities are teeming with magic, conjuration, war,
anger, frenzy etc. Its four kinds are (i) the Sanksiptika, (ii) the Sampheta, (iii)
the Vastutthapana and (iv) the Avapatana. The first, the Sanksiptika, consists
dramas the substitution of Sugriva for Vali or a change of heart in the hero as
change of heart in the hero should take place only with respect to the secondary
hero otherwise the effect, rasa, will suffers. The second, the Sampheta, is the
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consists in creating some objects by magic etc. Here Bharata differs as
of a compounding of all rasas; there might be fights or not. The fourth, the
second act of Ratnavali where the monkey escapes or as in the first act of
says that the situation here arises from fright or delight, quick dialogue takes
place with sudden flights and panic and sudden entries and exits take place.
connected with the Karuna and the Adbhuta Rasas according to Bharata
whereas others connect it with all Rasas. Its kind is (i) the Prarochana, (ii) the
Vithi, (iii) the Prahasana, and (iv) the Amukha. The Prarochana is bringing the
spectators through praise of the work in hand to a receptive mood as in the fifth
stanza of the Prastavana of Ratnavali where the Sutradhara praises the poet.
sentence or sense expressed by the Sutradhara and effecting the entry as in the
the Sutradhara and appears on the scene; or in the first act of the Venisamhara
Bhimasena denounces the Sutradhara for his benediction upon the Kauravas
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uttered in the seventh stanza of the first act. The subject may also be
introduction of the subject may be made through the Prayogatisaya wherein the
Sutradhara actually mentions the entry of the character as in the fifthe stanza of
Sutradhara admitting the fascination of the Nati’s song actually mentions the
entry of the king. The Amukha utilizes the thirteen parts of the Vithi. Bharata
Astpralapa, the Prapancha, the Nalika, the Vakkeli, the Adhibala, the Chhala,
the Vyahara, the Mrdava, the Trigata and the Ganda. Dhananjaya and
the Avalagita, the Prapancha, the Trigata, the Chhala, the Vakkeli, the
Adhibala, the Ganda, the Avasyandita, the Nalika, the Asatpralapa, the
Vyahara and the Mrdava. The Udghatyaka may be in the form of a series of
answers. Bharata defines it as that in which the Padas coming without context
are eagerly taken hold of and joined with other Padas by characters in the
to the forest for pleasure is sent into exile. This is one kind; the other is that
which marks a turn of event in progress. Bharata considers only the first kind.
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the dialogue which is based on false knowledge and excites laughter as the
dialogue between the Vidusaka and the Cheti in the Pravesaka of the second
act of Vikramorvasiya where she works out the secret of the king’s love from
the Vidusaka. The Trigata is that which admits of various meanings due to
Bharata says that in the Trigata the words are exalted and distributed among
the three characters in the representation. They are mixed with the Hasya rasa.
The Chhala is deception through seemingly loving but in reality harsh words as
in the twenty sixth stanza of the fifth act of Venisamhara wherein Bhima
enquires about Duryodhana. Visvanatha notes the view of some writers who
say that the Chhalita is the statement causing deception, laughter and anger
uttered by someone with an end in view. The Vakkeli is either the repartee or
a series of questions and answers. The first is illustrated in the twenty sixth
illustrated in the first act of Ratnavali in the dialogue of the Vidusaka with
dialogue where one vies with the other through envy as in the fifth act of
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the Pratihari to Rama; and as just after the utterance of Duryodhana expressing
that his thigh is sufficient to seat his wife on it in the twenty second stanza of
the second act of Venisamhara, the Kanchuki suddenly pronounces the words,
‘Bhagnam, Bhagnam’, which give just the opposite sense as they predict the
brought about suddenly with fear or calumny or through the use of many
arisen out of good and evil and creating a new sense due to the ingenuity of
intellect. The Nalika is the enigmatic statement full of jokes and with sense
concealed as in the dialogue between the spy and the pupil preceding the
words of the spy just following the nineteenth stanza in the first act of
Visvanatha gives one more sense which means the good counsel rejected by
the fool as in the fifth act of Venisamhara when Duryodhana turns a deaf ear to
Gandhari’s wise advice. Bharata notes both these definitions. The Vyahara is
the remark exciting laughter and desire made with some other object in view as
in the second act of Malavikagnimitra where the Vidusaka’s words make all
the people including Malavika laugh, thus giving an opportunity to the king to
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which allows the hero, who is present, to have a look without apprehension
that is, at the object of his love without being detected and reprimanded by his
consort. The Mrdava is the turning of evil into good and vice versa. The
illustration of evils turning into merits is to be seen in the fifth stanza of the
extolled as virtues. These thirteen constitute the parts of the Amukha or the
Prastavana; the Sutradhara, therefore, can select any of them befitting his
purpose and introduce the subject-matter or the character. The vrttis thus
present the Vibhavas in action. They also show how different objects are
presented on the stage and how the representation is made dramatically; they
indispensable and at the same time devoid of rasa (Nirasa). These incidents
have to be given place in the plot, therefore they are indicated through the
Ankavatara as seen in the dramatic pieces. These means are not supposed to
rasa. But then the body of the plot even though overflowing with rasa may
have such a wide canvas as to try the patience of the spectator, and thus, tell
upon his pleasure. This wide canvas, therefore, is reduced to a short one by
such means as keep the interest alive. These means consist mainly of
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Sundaraka enter into a series of questions and answers forming the narration of
the battle. Such instances are also to be found in the Rama dramas as in the
Hemangada seated in an aerial car, narrate the battle between Ravana and
Rama and their troops or as in the seventh act of Prasannaraghava where the
Vidyadhara and his mate narrate the battle between Rama and Ravana. Such
means serve to reduce the plot to a tolerable limit. This purpose is sometimes
served by those means also which are employed for indication, that is, the
few sentences the destruction of so many Ksattrias as may cover a long space if
depicted in detail. It becomes clear, therefore, that all these means were to
shorten the wide canvas to a tolerable limit in the light of the principal
sentiment. The division of the plot into the Sarvasravya, the Niyatasravya and
the Asravya in suitability with the stage requirements is without any doubt to
help the maturing of rasa as the stage aims at that function. The Akasabhasita
(speech in the air) is a device which is the backbone in the Bhana type of
drama. Without it the whole fabric falls and consequently no rasa, either the
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comprehensive survey of bodily movements. They are said to be of three
kinds: those of the limbs, those of the face, and those of the entire body.
Natyasastra identifies the major limbs as the head, hand, breasts, sides, waist,
and feet. The minor limbs are those of the face—the eyes, eyebrows, nose,
lower lip, and chin. Thirteen head positions are itemized and thirty-six
Movements of the eyes, eyelids, and eyebrows are categorized and identified
according to the emotions they convey. The nose, cheeks, lower lip, chin,
mouth, and neck are all discussed according to their ability to communicate
breast, side, stomach, waist, thigh, shank, and feet are categorized and
discussed at length. Different eye, head, face, and hand movements are
designated for each of the five senses. Provisions are also made for the actors
movement are discussed with reference to the walking around, traversing from
one locale to another. The stage directions of extant texts provide numerous
examples that suggest that acting was highly conventional and yet had a firm
basis in reality.
shields, armour, and banners. Realistic objects such as swords, spears, bows
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and arrows, and the like are considered inappropriate for stage use. Properties
painted to look like the actual object. Great care was required in the
rituals.
that these objects are used to symbolize an actual place and thereby establish
the identity of a certain part of the stage. The items are to be fashioned in cane
frame and covered with cloth. This suggests two possible methods of
and wrapped with cloth, producing the outline of the object. The second
possibility is that cloth can be stretched over a bamboo frame and then painted
to resemble the object. The text also makes reference to the construction of
masks
decoration for an actor. Specific instructions are given for the decoration of
men and women according to the region of the country to which they belong,
their caste, station in life, and the occasion of their appearance on the stage.
Headgear, earrings, necklaces, bangles for the arms, wrists, and ankles, and
finger and toe rings are also mentioned. From the tops of their heads to the
tips of their toes the actors of the Sanskrit theatre were to be profusely and
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stones are deemed inappropriate because they might easily tire the actor due to
light wood and glazed with shellac to resemble the real object.
The sage Bharata in defining the aim of a hero says that he should strive
for some worthy or noble object in life and its fulfillment should be the play’s
writers will not permit of any defeat for the hero on the stage. Even fate’s
of penance. The ideal chosen as the motive of the play should be such that
people beholding it should return with their faith strengthened in the good
resulting from high endeavours and their senses soothed by the happiness
representation of evil getting destroyed and sorrows that had erstwhile seemed
The tragic element as such has never been tabooed in the Sanskrit play,
and we have many dramas in Sanskrit in which tragedy seems almost to engulf
the important characters but, with the wave of the magic wand of the poet, it
recedes as the mist before the rising sun. To bring happy ending the Sanskrit
poets freely use devises like supernatural elements. The main difference
between the dramas in Sanskrit and the plays in other languages, as far as the
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introduced to bring tragic element in the dramas of other languages while in
Sanskrit dramas it is introduced to bring a happier ending. This does not mean
tragic element but the key to remove it is also included in the same. For
example, the curse of the sage Durvasas brings tragic element in the fifth act of
Anasuya, the friends of Sakuntala, says that if the ring is shown to the king it
would mitigate the power of the curse and the king can remember Sakuntala.
Thus supernatural element introduces the tragic element as well as the key to
introduced to restore the life of the hero and thus to avoid the tragic ending.
Death is not allowed in Sanskrit dramas as they must have a happy ending.
Rama. The end of the original story is tragic, where Sita is taken to the nether
world by the goddess Earth, and Rama soon finishes his earthly career. But
the poet changes the original and makes the play end with the happy meeting
of Rama, Sita, and their sons, after a period of long, sorrowful separation. The
May the king exert himself for the good of his subjects: may the
and may thy self-existent Siva, with his energy diffused in all
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The closing stanza, Bharatavakya, in a drama, containing an expression
of good wishes on the part of the actors, is put in the mouth of some person
actor, as a member of the dramatic party, and not in his dramatic character, all
acting being over. It may have been possibly so called in honour of the sage
and dramaturgy.
writing a drama. But a careful poet follows these mles and regulations in such
These constitute the wings of the dramatic art; and one cannot sore high by
cutting away the wings. Any kind of liberty in any sphere by abolishing all
laws and mles would result in anarchy and destruction. That is why the genius
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REFERENCES