G19' (T4)

INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
1.1 Overview
An earthquake is the vibration, sometimes violent to the earth’s surface that follows a release
of energy in the earth’s crust. This energy can be generated by a sudden dislocation of segments
of the crust, by a volcanic eruption or even by a manmade explosion. The dislocation of the
crust causes most destructive earthquakes. The crust may first bend and then the stresses exceed
the strength of rocks, they break. In the process of breaking, vibrations called seismic waves
are generated. These waves travel outward from the source of the earthquake along the surface
and through the earth at varying speeds depending on the material through which they move.
These waves can cause disasters on the earth’s surface. No structure on the planet can be
constructed 100% earthquake proof; only its resistance to earthquake can be increased.
Treatment is required to be given depending on the zone in which the particular site is located.
Earthquake occurred in the recent past have raised various issues and have forced us to think
about the disaster management. It has become essential to think right from planning stage to
completion stage of a structure to avoid failure or to minimize the loss of property. Not only
this, once the earthquake has occurred and disaster has taken place; how to use the debris to
construct economical houses using this waste material without affecting their structural
stability. [1]
Earthquake-resistant construction, the fabrication of a building or structure that is able to

withstand the sudden ground shaking that is characteristic of earthquakes, thereby minimizing
structural damage and human deaths and injuries. Suitable construction methods are required
to ensure that proper design objectives for earthquake-resistance are
met. Construction methods can vary dramatically throughout the world, so one must be aware
of local construction methods and resource availability before concluding whether a particular
earthquake-resistant design will be practical and realistic for the region.
There is a fundamental distinction between the design of a building and the construction
methods used to fabricate that building. Advanced designs intended to withstand earthquakes
are effective only if proper construction methods are used in the site selection, foundation,
structural members, and connection joints. Earthquake-resistant designs typically
incorporate ductility (the ability of a building to bend, sway, and deform without collapsing)
within the structure and its structural members. A ductile building is able to bend and flex when
exposed to the horizontal or vertical shear forces of an earthquake. Concrete buildings, which
are normally brittle (relatively easy to break), can be made ductile by
adding steel reinforcement. In buildings constructed with steel-reinforced concrete, both the
steel and the concrete must be precisely manufactured to achieve the desired ductile behaviour.
Building failures during earthquakes often are due to poor construction methods or inadequate
materials. In less-developed countries, concrete often is not properly mixed, consolidated, or
cured to achieve its intended compressive strength, so buildings are thus extremely susceptible
to failure under seismic loading. This problem is often made worse by a lack of local building
codes or an absence of inspection and quality control.
Building failures are also frequently attributed to a shortage of suitable and locally available
materials. For instance, when a building is designed with steel-reinforced concrete, it is critical
that the amount of steel used is not reduced to lower the building cost. Such practices
substantially weaken a building’s ability to withstand the dynamic forces of an earthquake.
Under normal conditions, a building’s walls, columns, and beams primarily experience only
vertical loads of compression. However, during an earthquake, lateral and shear
loading occurs, which results in tensile and torsional forces on structural elements. Those
forces result in high stresses at the building’s corners and throughout various joints.
Strong construction joints are critical in building a structure that will withstand the shear
loading of an earthquake. Since stress is concentrated at the joints between the walls, it is
important that all the joints be properly prepared and reinforced. Concrete joints must also be
properly compacted and anchored in order to achieve optimum strength. In the case of
unreinforced masonry joints (mortar joints, such as those found in brick buildings), the
anchoring between adjacent walls is especially important. When all the joints are tied together
well, the building will act as a single integrated unit, enabling the forces of an earthquake to be
transferred from one section to the next without catastrophic failure.
Earthquake-resistant construction requires that the building be properly grounded and

connected through its foundation to the earth. Building on loose sands or clays is to be avoided,
since those surfaces can cause excessive movement and non-uniform stresses to develop during
an earthquake. Furthermore, if the foundation is too shallow, it will deteriorate, and the
structure will be less able to withstand shaking. The foundation should therefore be constructed
on firm soil to maintain a structure that settles uniformly under vertical loading.
Currently, there are several design philosophies in earthquake engineering, making use of
experimental results, computer simulations and observations from past earthquakes to offer the
required performance for the seismic threat at the site of interest. These range from
appropriately sizing the structure to be strong and ductile enough to survive the shaking with
an acceptable damage, to equipping it with base isolation or using structural vibration
control technologies to minimize any forces and deformations. While the former is the method
typically applied in most earthquake-resistant structures, important facilities, landmarks and
cultural heritage buildings use the more advanced (and expensive) techniques of isolation or
control to survive strong shaking with minimal damage. Examples of such applications are
the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels and the Acropolis Museum.

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INTRODUCTION

Earthquake-resistant construction, the fabrication of a building or structure that is able to

Earthquake-resistant construction requires that the building be properly grounded and

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