Visuals PDF

Visuals
ABOUTGRAPHS,
WRITING
AN D
TABLES
DIAGRAMS
Gabi Duigu
@ Gabi Duigu 2001
All rights reserved
Published by Academic English Press

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F a x : 0 29 2 1 11 8 6 8
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Part1
t. The Purposeof GraphsandTables .. .. .. .2
Part 2
2. \WritingaboutGraphsandThbles ......9
2 . 1 \ W r i t i n g t hI en t r o d u c t i o n ......10
2.2 TimeExpressions .......13
2.3 Expressions of Measurement . . . .15
Part3
3. \TritingtheReport ......25
3.1 Contrast.... ...,.25
3.2 Tiends ......32
3.3 Correlations ......35
Part4
4. Using the Right sryle . . . . .39
4.1 Modifiers ...39
4.2 Using the CorrectSryleand Avoiding Errors . . .48
Part5
5. Diagrams ...55
5.1 VocabularyandGrammar ......55
5 . 2 U s i n g a g o o d s r y.l e ......56
AnswerK"y.. ...59
\With thanks to Maryanne Sheafor making the book possible,and for her
enduring patience and encouragement.
Many of the graphs and tables in this book are basedon visualsfrom various
issuesof the UNESCO Courier, to which very worthwhile publication grateful
acknowledgment is made.
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lntroductionand Overview
Many books exist that are guides to academicwriting for native speakers.There are
also a number for non-native speakers.Of these,quite a few deal with the use of
graphs, tablesand other visuals.However, they normally explain how to insert or use
thesevisuals to make your work more interesting and easyto understand.They do
not usually explain how to write about thesevisual aids.
The primary purpose of this book is to help you with the \Writing Thsk I of the
IELIS Academic test. Howevet becauseit attempts to deal with the language
required in a systematicway, you may find that much of the information it contains
could be useful to you later during your studies,if you ever need to use graphs,
tablesor the like in your work. So perhapsyou should not give the book away as
soon as you have passedyour IELIS.
)i()K)K)t()K
'Writing
In order to write about visuals,as required in IELIS Academic Thsk 1, it is
necessaryto understand what to write, as well as ltotl to write it. The first section of
this book therefore beginswith a discussionabout the main purpose and featuresof
graphs, tablesand other visuals,and provides exercisesto practiseidenti$'ing these
correctly.
The later sections then go on to deal with the languagerequired to write about
them. There are vocabulary lists, explanationsabout meaning and grammar, and
exercises.There is also an Answer Key, and model answersare provided, so that the
book can be used for self-studyas well as class-roomuse.
2 Visuals:Writingabout Graphs,Tablesand Diagrams
Since most of the IELTS Academic \Writing Thsk 1 questions deal with graphs and
rables,and since they require specific interpretation and writing conyentions,we will
first focus on these.
A Note on terminology: The IELIS Handbook mentions diagrams and tables.

Clearly this includes graphs (the most common visual used in \Writing Task 1)
under diagrams. Other books talk about visuals to cover all of these.Youdo
not need to worry about this as the label is usually given in the introduction to
the task and you can simply use the sameword in your answer.
1. ThePurposeof Graphsand Tables

In order to know how to do something properly, it is necessaryto understand the
parpose of that thing.
tWe actually need to know two things:

a) the purpose of using graphs and tables;and
b) the purpose of utriting about the graphs and tables that have been used.
\Wewill deal with the first one first.
1.1UsingGraphsand Tables
TASK1
'Which
of the following statements do you think best describe the purpose of
providing graphs and tables in an academic text?
a) to explain what is in the t€xt in a different way

b) to provide information which is additional to that provided in the text
c) to make it easierto understand the conceptsby using a visual rather than
by just using words
d) to give an overview or an impression or a summary
e) to provide more exact details than is desirablein the text
rc Answer Key
Visuals:Writingabout Graphs,Tablesand Diagrams 3
1.2 Writingabout Graphsand Tables

In real life, the text usually comesfrst, and the graph or table is added to support
the text. In fact, most books that adviseon writing, explain how to use graphs or
tables to illustrate the words more cleady. However, in IELTS the reverseoccurs -
you are given the graph, table or diagram and must supply the words.
In Thsk 1 candidatesare askedto look at a diagram or table, and to present the

information in their own words. Depending on the type of input and the task
suggested,candidatesare assessed
on their abiliry to:
r organise, present and possibly compare data

.describe the stagesofa processor procedure
.describe an object or event or sequenceofevents
. explain how something works
IELTS Handbooh, 1999
Note that the first of theseis the most common task found in the Test, and the one
we are dealine with now
TASK2.
\(zhich of the following do you think best describes the purpose of writing
about graphs and tables (in real academic writing)?
a) to explain what is in the graph or table in a different way which makes it

easierto understand
b) to give exactly the same information in words, in order to emphasiseit
c) to expand on what is in the graph or table by giving additional explanations
about the reasonsetc.
d) to draw attention to the most important asp€ctsof the information shown
in the graph or table.
tc Ansuter Ke!
Visuals:Writingabout Graphs,Tablesand Diagrams
1.3 Understandingthe Purpose
TASK3.
Look at the following graph and the descriptions given underneath, and decide
which one is the most suitable. Try to explain why you think so.
AnnualUrbanGrowthRates
Average
ltsto-ts
T--l 1995-2000
ffiil 2020-2025
Asia Europe Latin North

America America
a) This gdph showsthe auerageannualurban groluth rate of 5 continentsfrom 1970

to 2025. According to the graph, Africa had about 5o/oauerageannual urban groutth
rate in 1970 and ouer 4%oauerageannual urban grozuthrate in 1995 and in 2025
the auerageannual urban grou.tthrate is expectedto bejust ouer3o/o.For Asia the
auerageannual urban groutth rate wasjust ouer3o/o in 1970 and 1995 and it utas
expectedto be about 2o/oin 2025. In Europe, by contrast,tlte auerageannual urban
groutth rat€ was only about 1.5% in 1970 and it went down to about 0.5o/oin
1995, and in 2025 it utill be lessthan 0.2o/o.In Latin America tlte auerageannual
urban groutth rate utentfrom just under 4o/oin 1970 to just ouer2%oin 1995 and it
tuill probably bejust ouer 1o/oin 2025. In North America the auerageannual urban
groluth rAte uAs about 1o/oin 1970 and 1995 and is ffiPectedto stay tlte samein 2025.
b) Looking at the graph lae cdn seethat urban {ouath has happenedon all 5
continentssince 1970 and that it is expectedto continue right up to 2025. The most
dramatic grouth is in Africa, Asia and Latin America, becAusetbesecontinentshaue
experiencedthe most deuelopmentand industrialisation since 1970, while Europe and
North America show lessincreaseprobably becausethey already started being more
urbanised. In deuelopingcountriesmary)peoplefom the countrytsideare attrdcted t0
the cities to loohfor u,,orhand better opportunities in heahh and education, but this
rapid urbanisation is causingmany problems and needsto be connolled.
Visuals:Writing about Graphs, Tablesand Diagrams
that since 1970 there has beenconsiderableurban grotuth in all 5

) The graph shou,,s
continentspresented and that this trend is expectedto continue at least until2025.
Houteuer,the ratefor eaclt continent ltas not beentlte same. The deuelopingcounnies
of Afica, Asia and Latin America experiencedtlte most dramatic growth rates in
1975, with Afica hauing around 5o/oPer Annum, Latin America just ouer 4%oand
Asia ouer3o/o. In 1995 theseratesdeneasedto just ouer 4o/oin Afica and doun to
about 2o/ofor Latin Anterica, but Asia remained tlte same. This grouth rate is
expectedto decreaseby about 1% for all three continentsbjt the year 2025.
Mennuthile North America is expectedto maintain its groutth rate of 1o/op.a. ouer the
entire period, tahile Europe, hauing started theperiod at about 1.5o/ogrowth rate is
expectedto reducethis to only about 2% by 2025.
a Ansuer Ke!
differenttypesof Graphsand Tables

1.4 Understanding
\7e now need to look more closelyat what graphs and tablesshow, and the
differencesberween them.
'What
a) features do the following graphs have in common?
CigaretteConsumptionin China 1950- 90

WorldMeatProduction,
billions: Million Tons
2000
t Pork
1500
a Beef/Buffalo
40 ,.a( u Poultry
30 -ta
20 .---'-+/
R .A'
't0
..,.8'
/ F-.:::--.ts_+
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
b) Vhat features do the following graphs have in common? How are they
different from the previous ones?
Percentageof distributionof Internet-connected Waste1999
Household
computers, by incomeof countlies, July1999
Paper& Food& Garden
21%
Carboard Materials46%
High-incomecountries95.1 =-
Plastic 8%
Middleincome counldies4.7 -
/ Metal 6%
Low-incomecounti reso.z
Glass8%
Other'l l%
'What
c) about these graphs?
Percentaqe of all children

5 - 1 4 y e a - r sw h o w o r k 1 9 9 5
World AnnualWaterConsumption:
Europe
150
Africa
120
tuia
Thousands9o
Latin America of Litres
& Caribbean (percapita)6o
ffieoys
Icitlt 30
Oceania
o ',I990
1950 1960 1970 1980 2000
'What
d) kind of information do the following tables provide? How does this
differ from the graphs?
computers
Internet-connected Thelargestnumberof foreignstudentsby country
worldwide,1981-1999 of origin,in the 50 majorhostcountries:
1995
1987 28,174 China 115,87'l

1988 s6,000 Korea.Republicof 69,736
'1989 159.000 Japan 62,324
1990 313,000 Germany 45,432
'1991 617,000 Greece 43,941
1992 1,136,000 Malaysia 41,159
1993 2,056,000 lndia 39,626
1994 3,864,000 Turkey 37,629
r 09s 6,642,000 Italy 36,515
1996 12,881,000 Morocco 34,908
1997 19,5r+0,000 France 32,411
1998 36,739,000 Canada 28.280
1999 56.218,000 United States 27,749
a Ansuer Ke!
Understanding graphs and rables involves understanding the following details:
1. \X/hat is the information or data in the graph or table abo :ut?[ This
infarrnation is norma$t suppheA uith ilte graplt or tabla,J
2" r$fhat are the units of rneasufemeflt used?
3. \{hat is the area (place) involved ?
4. \f,hat is the time-scale involved ?
5. What is the purpose of the graph or table?
Let us look at the graphs and tablesshown above once more, and answer the
following questions:
'What
1. are the units of measurementused?
2.'W-hat is the area (place) involved ?
3. Vhat is the time-scaleinvolved ?
4. \What is the purpose of the graph or table?
After examining the graphs and tables above you will have noticed the following:
In the caseof a line graph, the horizontal and vertical axes provide most of the
information. Usually trends over a specific period of time are shown in this way.
A bar graph shows the samekind of information but with the units presentedas
bars or columns. Another kind of bar graph (also called a histogram) may show
numerical distributions rather than changes.
Pie graphs show proportions, normally representedas percentages.
Thbles give detailed data and may be used to display changes over time or they may
show distributions of variablesaccording to place, or rype. They usually require
more interpretation than graphs do.
1.4.1Wedge-shaped
Graphs
There is one kind of graph that can causeconfusion becauseit appearsto combine
the featuresof both the pie chart or the bar graph and line graph. Look at these
graphs and answer the questionsthat follow.
TASK4
Region
fromFossilFuelBurningby Economic
WorldCarbonEmissions
Million
Tons
7000
6000
s000
4000
3000
2000
1000
1990 1990
Visuals:Writingabout Graphs, Tablesand Diagrams
l. tVhat was the amount of emissions from industrial countries in 1950?

2.'What was the amount of emissions from developing countries in 1950?
3. How much did the Former Eastern Bloc countries emit in 1980?
from 1985- 2000

WorldSpendingon Advertising
(in5USmillions)
: : Total
33-olO90
,,::,:::,:,:::
North America
ffi rrrop" c282,OOO
ffi Asia/lacific
242,000
I utinAmerica
.r9l,ooo
1124ooo
Il
J€4sog,,i:
4. Did the European countries spend more or less than the Asia/Pacific ones on
advertising in 1985?
5. Did the Latin American countries spend more or less than the European
ones in 2000?
a Ansuter Ke!
1.4.2 CombinedGraphs
It is is very common to find two or more graphs presentedtogether.This is usually
done to show either a comparison, or a more complicated correlation than can be
shown in one graph.
A correlation is the way two setsof facts are related to each other. The relationship
may be a change over a period of time, or it may be a possiblecauseand effect link.
There is a section dealing with Correlations in more detail, starting on page 35.
Writingabout Graphsand Tables
This section is going ro deal with selectingthe right approach and sryle, learning to
use the appropriate vocabulary,and becoming aware of the grammar related to this
vocabulary.
The languageof graphs and tables is divided, for convenience, into:
introductory expressions
time expressions
terms of measurement
In Part 3 we will deal with:

expressions of comparison and contrast
expressions for trends
correlations
To use this languagecorrectly,it is necessaryto keep the following points in mind:
1. You must know the exact meaning and usageof the terms
2. You must know the collocations of the terms: i.e. you must know which
expressionsgo together, and which are never found in combination
3. You must know the grammatical featuresof the terms
4. YOU MUST CAREENOUGH TO BEACCURATE
\?arningl From the lis* that follow in this.::.rio:l do NOT, in.your own.
writing, useanf expressions you areunfarniliar with. Only usethe terms that
you know, and make sureyou know them correctly.Only selectedexamplesare
given here.Ir is essentialfor you to haveat leastone of the following ESL
dictionaries,which will give you mor€ examples:
Oxford Advanced frarner"s Dictionary
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
Collins CoBuild Dictionary
CambridgeDictionary of InternationalEnglish
2.1 Writingthe Introduction

Often the hardest part of writing anything is writing the introduction. If you have a
good technique for this, then the rest of the task is usually lessdifficult.
The first thing to note is that writing about visuals is not the same as writing an
essay.This m€ans three things in particular:
'iwite
1. You are not asked to discuss the information, but generally to a
report describing" the information.
2. It is not necessaryto write an introduction like in an essayfor this writing
task You are writing a report, which means that you do not begin with a
broad general statement about the topic.
3. You do not need to write a conclusion which gives any kind of opinion
about the significance of the information.
So how do you begin?There are three steps.
Step l: Identify the main idea behind the graph or table. This will be the focus
ofyour first sentence.
Step 2: Consider the details of what is being shown -the units of measurement
and the time frame - and decide how much you need to include.
Steps 1 and 2 involve understanding the visual. This was discussedin Part 1.
Step 3: Consider the languageto use-the introductory expressions,the tenses

of the verbs, the correct expressionsof time and I or measurementetc.
For Step 3 this section should help you.

2.1,1 What introductoryexpressionsto use

There are three possibleways to start.
One is to refer to the visual directly (e.g. This graph shous thepopuktion ofAlia in
the 20th centur!.) Howeve! this method is not advisable,since the instructions in
the IELIS test will normally give you just this information. If you copy directly
from the paper you are wasting time, since the examiner cannot assess
your English
from a copied sentence.
The secondway is to refer directly to the main messageconveyedby the visual (e.g.
Tltere was a sharp increasein the population ofAlia in the 20th century.)This way is
perfectly acceptable,and shows that you are able to recognisethe main concept or
m€ssagethat the graph or table shows.
The third way combines the two (e.g. The graph shoutstbat there utasa sharp increase
in thepopulation ofAlia in the 20th century.)This is also acceptable, and is often
used as a convenient way to start. In order to use this method, it is necessaryto use
a few fixed expressions,which refer to the text itself, like those below.
2.1.2 Introductory
Expressions
The graph / table shows / indicates / illustrates / reveals / represents
It is clear from the graph / table
It can be seen from the graph / table
As the graph / table shows,
As can be seen from the graph I table,
As is shown by the graph / table,
As is illustrated by the graph / table,
From the graph / table it is clear
Notice that it is best to avoid using personalpronouns. Instead of saying We can see
fom the graph.... it is better to use the passiveor impersonal constructions, as above.
Do not forget that the secondway is also very acceptable(i.e., not referring to the
text directly at all). There will be more examplesof this in the following pages.
Most of the above expressionscan be followed by a clause starting with that.

Severalof the above expressionscan be followed by a noun or noun phrase.
Severalof the above expressionsmust be followed by a main clause.
Tiy to identi$' which is which by doing the next exercise.

12 Visuals:Writingabout Graphs,Iables and Diagrams
TASK5:
Make all the possible matches between the expressions in the table on the left
with those on the right:
1. The graph shows/ indicates I a) that thepopulationofAlia greu',

2. It is clear from the table I i" the 20th centur!
3. It can be seen from the graph I O1tltt groutth in the size of the
4. As the table shows, I populationofAlia
5. As can be seen from the graph, I c) the PoPulation ofAlia grew in the
6. As is shown/illustratedby the graph, | 20th century
7. From the graph it is clear
o Answer KeJt
'Warnings:
1. Avoid using the phrase: according to the graph. This is becausethe phrase
according to generally means that the information comes from another person or
source, and not from our own knowledge. (For example,Accordingto tlte
Handbook, lou cannot take the exdm more tltan oncein three months. According to
my friend, the essayquestion aas not too dfficuh.)
In the caseof a graph or table that is shown, the information is there right in
'knoJ
front of you, ,h."*rir.r, and.also the reader,and so you can both it. That
is, it does not come from another source.
2. Note that the expressionsas cAn be seenfrom the graph or as is shotttn/

illustratedby the table do not contain the dummy subiect ir. Avoid these
expressionsif you think you are going to forget this unusual grammar'
3. The word preserutrsis best avoided, since it requires a sophisticated

summarising noun ro follow. For example: ThegrdPhpres€ntsan oueruiewof the
population gotath of Alia in the last 20 years.
TASK6
Which is the best introductory sentence for a description of this graph from
the following?
1950- 90
Million Tons
80
70
Potk
,,r
60
50 ./ a Beef/Buffalo
/.n
40 o E Poultry
,,,
30 ,r
20 ts-q
tr
. - -. , a '
l0 -- - .4 Sheep/Goats
e-.,:::- €. E
0 ',1990
1950 1960 1970 1980
a) This graph sltotasthe changesin world rneatProduction betueen 1950 and

1990.
b) From this graph we cAn seethat most meatProduction is a lot higher in 1990
than in 1950.
c) Between1950 and 1990 meatproduction in the world rosesignifcantly for all
hinds of meat excePtsheepand goat meat.
d) The graplt shoutsthat in 1950 production ofpoulny and sheepand goat meat
was lessthan 5 million tons, uthileproduction ofpork and beefand buffalo
1n€Atuas around 20 million tons.
rc Ansuter Ke!
2.2TimeExpressions
fu you can seein the above exercise,you can start your description with a time
phrasein some cases:
Betuteen1950 and 1990productionrosesignificant[t...
Even if you do not begin your sentenc€with a time expression,in many cas€s,
particularly those involving line graphs, the time frame is given and is an important
elemenr of the visual and will need to be mentioned. For this reasonit is important
that you know how to use the common expressionsof time, and that you revise
them from any normal grammar book if they causeyou difficulties.
Here are the common ones:

in for during from-to/until
between -and before after
in:
In 1999... In the 20th century... In the first ten years...
tltere was a significant increasein production
for:
For the first six months... For twenry years...
the number of employes remained the same.
during:
During the first six months... During the first half of this century...
During the remainder of the year...
production was slouing down, while imports increased.
from-to/until:
From August tol until November... From 1950 to 1960...
tltere was no changein energl use.
between -and:
Berween1950 and 1960...
tltere uas no changein the rate offuel consumption.
before I after:
Before 1960 the number remained small,6u afrcr 1965 t/tere utasa sudden increase.
around / about:
Around / about l9B0 there was a changein the number offemale part-time employees.
byt
By the late 19th century the rural workforcehad declinedsignificantQ.
at:
At the end of the last century tltere utasa sharp increasein manufacturing.
since:
Since the 19th century there has beena steadyd.ecline.
Orher usefulexpressions are:

(in) the period from - to
(in) the oeriod between and
in the first/last three months of the year
over the period - to
over the next years/ decades/ quarter ofa century etc.
over a ten year period
throughout the 19th century
from that time on
after that
then
in the 1980s
Note that you can refer to a decade as the 1980s etc. There is no apostrophe
before the s.
2.2.1Usingthe right tenses.

It is important to selectthe correct tenses.Points to remember:
a) For most visualsa specific time in the past will be given and you will need to
use the past simple tense. If two things took place at the same time, you may
use the past continuous tense for one of them. (\Ylhilepoulny production uas
rising during this period, tltere utasno changein mutton production).
b) If you usesinceor recent(ly)it means that you are referring to events that have
come up to the present.That means using the present perfect tense. ( The useof
tlte Internet has risen enormouslysincethe 1990s.)
c) \flith by you will often need to use the past perfect or the future perfect tense.
($t the end of the centur! tlte rate of urbanisation had doubled.)
TASK7
Look again at the graph ofVorld Meat Production (in Tirsk 6) and complete
the following statements with a suitable expression of time:
1. Theproduction of sheepand goat meat remained almost unchanged

2. theproductionofpork rosesharply.
slowly
3. Pouhryproductionincreased and
rosedramatically.
steadygrouth
4. Beefand bffilo productionexperienced
a Answer Ke!
of Measurement
2.3 Expressions
Since graphs and tablesshow measurements,it is necessaryfor you to have a
knowledge of the most common terms used to describequantiry and related
expressions,and, as always,to know how to use them CORRECTLY. The followins
lists are there to act as a reminder for you of nouns that you are probably aheady
familiar with, and to show you the verbs that they are associatedwith, and the
rypical phrasesused to describevisual aids.
2.3.1 Quantities
amount quanuty number
figure the total the total amount
the total quantity the total number all of the
the whole of the the whole amount the full amount
the majority the greatest amount the greatest number
the maximum the minimum
It is best to use arTount and quantity for uncountable nouns, although both are
used for countable nouns as well, particularly quantity. However, num'ber can
generallybe safelyused for all countable nouns.
The amount of production increasedin the last 20 years'
The number of cars on the roadsincreasedin the last 20 yearl
However, you cannot say *The quantit! ofproduction increased.
This is becausequantity is only used for items that can actually be measuredor
counted (e.g. iron ore, shares,weapons), not for abstract terms. Sinceamount can be
used more widely (e.g. the Amount of utealth / experience/ waste)it is generally safer
to use this word if you are not certain.
For number you must of course have a plural, countable noun following: the number
of cars; tlte number of unemployedpeople.
There is some confusion about whether the verb following thesephrasesshould be

in the singular or plural. Strictly speaking,it should be singular, becausethe noun
number is itself singular, so we should say: The number of carsbas increased.The
number of unenployedpeople ltas drcreased.
But you may also come acrossthis kind of sentence: Thereare a number ofpeople
taho ltaue ashedfor this book. This is becausein this casewe are thinking about the
people rather than the number.
Thewordf.gure refersto the actual number itself, not the thing that the number
refers ro: While tlte number of Internet usersu)Asonly 2.6 million in 1990, thisf.gure
ltas more than doubled in the last tuo years.
Note the combinations given in the table above (e.g. the total amounr)' A more
simple and idiomatic way of expressing the whole/ total amount is to say all of the or
the utholeof the. However, note that all of the can be used with both countable and
uncountable nouns (e.g. all of thepopulation; all of the people), while the uthole of the
can only be used with uncountable nouns (e.g. the whole of thepopulation; the
uhole of theproduction for that year). It is clearly safer to useall of the.
'17
Warning! A common error is to omit the after expressionsIike all.of or tlte

.
whoh of Do not write Vll of population; "the tahole of energt used.k must be:
All of the population; the utholeof the energyused.
Remember also that many is used for countable nouns, while a great deal a/should
be used for uncountable nouns. (For uncountable nouns a lot of can be used
informally, but it should be avoided in formal writing.) Here is a summary of the
points made above.The expressionsin bracketsare the lesscommon ones:
\07ith countable nouns With uncountable nouns
(amount) amount
(quantity) (quantiry)
number the whole (of the)
all of the a great deal of
many (a lot of)
(a lot o0
2.3.2 OtherMeasurements
(i) range rate level degree
€xtent scale ProPortion ratio
Percent percentage
(ii) length weight distance height

altitude area volume size
frequency duration
The words in set (ii) above (and the adjectivesrelated to some of them) are very
restricted in use, and you will be unlikely to need them in the IELIS Academic
\WritingTask 1. If you need them in universiry work, you will certainly know their
meanings and use.
However, most of the words in set (i) are very widely used becausethey refer to
changeof to the relationship of something to something else,and that is what
graphs and tablesare usually designedto show.These terms, however,can present
difficulties in usase.
2.3.3Usage
Rnte is defined in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English as:
a quantity such as aalae, cost, or speed, measured hy its relation to sonxe
other am.ount,
The Cambridge International Dictionary gives this definition:
a leuel of speedwith uhich sometbing happens or changes,or the number
of times it happens or changes utithin a particuhr period.
So we can talk about the rate of grouth, or, more commonly, the groutth rate of the
population; the birth rate; unemPloyment rate; diuorce rate etc. These are all
measurementsconsideredin relation to the rest of the population, or involving
changesover time.
Leuelindicates lteigbt, as in the leuel of utater in a gl.ass,but it also has the meaning
of amount. The Oxford Advanced Learner'sDictionary defines it as:
a point or ltosition on a scale of quantity, strengtlt, ualue etc.
Collins Cobuild English LanguageDictionary gives this definition:
the am.ount of something at a particuhr time;
Thus we can talk about rhe leuel of production| the leuel of expenditure; and also
the leuel of unemployment.
In all the examples given above, the word leuel could be replaced by the word rate.
(i.e. the rate of production; tbe rate of expenditure; the rate of unemltloyment (or the
unemplolment rate).In most casesit is probably safer,therefore, to use the word
rateunless you especiallywant to refer to a particular point, rather than to make a
comparison.
If you think of leuel6eing representedby a bar graph, and rate by a line graph, it is
easier to remember that leuel goeswith the verb rise and rate goeswith the verb
increase.(Go to the section on Tiends for further examples.)
Most of the other words in the list are not quite so common, and you should not
use them unlessyou are confident that you know them well. However, another very
common and important term rspercentage. \flhile percent means lircrallyfor euery
hundred the word percentage is used more broadly to mean proltortion. Thus we can
say that the percentage / proportion of uomen in the utorhforce has risen.
The term proportion is also used to compare two things:

The proportion of utomen to men in the uorffirce increased.
2.3.4 RelatedVerbs
be make up consist of
constitute comprise amount to
equal account for represent
include record reach
stand at become
The verbs that show change are given in the next section - Tiends.
2.3.5 Usage
It is usually correct to use some form of the verb to be. However, it is not good to
keep repeating the sameverb. On the other hand, it is safer to use the sameverb
repeatedlyand correctly than to use any of the other ones incorrectly. It is therefore
best to learn to use at least two or three of the expressionsabove accurately.Your
ESL dictionary will give you more examples,but here are some:
The number of unemployedutas 10% of thepopulation.

Thepercentageof uomen in the u.,orkforceuas higher than in t/tepreuiousyear.
Women madc up / constituted a signifcant Percentdgeof the uorkforce.
Food and garden materials *comltrise nearly half of all householdwaste.
Paper and cardboard amounted to 2lo/o of the total householdLuaste.
Thepopulation ofAlia stood at 21 million at the turn of the centur!.
Fossilfuel emissionsaccountfor the majority of greenhouse
ga;es.
The consumption offossil fuels reached the highest leuelsin recentlears.
*Note: It is difficult to use comprise correctly, since it has several related

meanings, and can also be used in the passive. It is best to avoid using this
word, unless you are very confident. Check your ESL Dictionary for examples.
2.3.6 MathematicalExpressions
half n. halve vb. double n. / vb.
triple n. treble vb. threefold adj.
quarter n. / vb multiply vb. divide vb.
average ad1.I vb I n. total adj. / vb. partial adj.
equal adj. / n.. fraction n.
2.3.7 Phrases
Note especially the use of the prepositions at, in and,uith in some of the
following, and try to learn these phrases, as they are very useful:
production roseat a rate of 20o/oper yar / per annum / p.a.
consumptionstoodat tlte sameleuel in thefollouing decade
the annual increaseuas in / uithin the range of 10o/oand 20o/o
production increased/ decreasedby 20o/o
tbe innease taasuer! signifcant, at 50o/o
X was the largestproducer, u.,ith 45o/oof the total production
tlte number remained steadyat 300 for tl'te next year
Exports doubled, to reaclt 80o/oof imports in 1990
There zueretltree times as many usersAs in thepreuiousledr
The number of usersincreasedf.uefold
TASK8
Graphs and tables often refer to common situations, and certain nouns often
occur. Test yourself to see if you know how to use some of them by making all
the possible matches between the words in the first column and those in the
second.
number I population
amounr I GDP
size I employees
l l
degree I unemployment
quantiry | literary
rate I production
level I growth
arms sales
clgar€tt€consumptlon
smokers
income / expenditure
years
a Ansuter Ke!
Warning: Be carefulto usem€asurementterms to avoid mistakeslike the

Following:
"In thepast 10 yearsthe carsrose
insreadof;
In thepast 10 yearsthe numberof carsrose.
2.3.8 RelatedAQjectivesand Adverbs

The expressionsof amount should be modified with suitable adjectivesand adverbs:
Common Adjectives:
These are some of the more common adjectives,with examplesof appropriate
collocations:
high / low: a high / lota percentage
large: a large number
greau a great number
significant: a signifcant number / percentage/ amount
considerable: a considrrableamount / increase
substantial: a substantial increase/ decrease
major: a major increase/ decrease
remarkable: a remarkable increase
steady: a steadydecrease
widespreadz the widespreadconsumption
2.6.2 Common Adverbials:

Adverbs and adverbial phrasesare also widely used to modi$' adjectivesor numbers
in order to expressprecisemeaning. Here are some examples:
overz ouer20o/o
under: under 5000
just over / under: just ouer/ under 50 000 people
around / about: around / about 50o/o
approximat ely: approximately 2 5 %
slightly: slightly more tltan half; slightly ouer 40o/o
marginally: a marginalfi smallerpercentage
significantly signifcantlyfewer u)omen
close to: closeto half
considerably: considerablymore exPorts
substantially, substantially lesstrffic
almost: almost exactlytwice as many
NOTE: Many of the above adjectivesand adverbials,as well as others, are listed
under Tiends.
TASK9
Fill the gaps in the following description of the table by selecting any
appropriate expression from those given. Note that more than one choice may
be correct!
of NSWin 1996
Typesof Wasteat the University
yoof total
Auditarea Wastetype twastestream
Outsideeatingareas : 3096
: 40%
Insidebuildings A4 paper-usedon one side ) 22o/o

A4 paper-usedon both sides l 7o/o
otherpaper 520h
cardboard 6%
compostablematerial 30h
Skips(building comoostablematerials 40%

wastecontainers) cardboardand paper 15%
ferrousmetal 9o/o
FoodOutlets ; cardboard 30%

compostable
i compostaDte material
mar 27o/o
plasticpackaging 30Vo
glass 3%
ferrousmetal 3Vo
Of all the wastereportedin the UNSW surueyin 1966, it wasfound that

uaspaper whicb 2 52o/oof the utastefound
in buildings. Both in outsideeating areasand in skips 3 of tuaste
4 compostablematerials, uhich 5 40o/oof the
total. Consideringthe 6 of waste collectedin the uniuersity, it is
clearthatT could be recycledor re-usedin someuay.
1. a) the krgest amount b) the greatestproportion c) the majority

d) the biggestnumber
2. a) made up b) included c) accountedfor d) utas
3. a) the most signifcant proportion b) most c) the highestleuel
d) the greatestpercentage.
4. a) consistedof b) uas c) amounted to d) accountedfor
5. a) represented b) utas c) accountedfor d) stoodat
6. a) u.,holepercentage b) total dmount t) f"ll number d) majority
7. a) the majority b) practically all of it c) nearly the u.,holeAmount
d) most of it
TASK10
Read the following description of the pie chart given, and underline all the
expressions of measurement, and put a circle around the verbs. Then write a
description of the graph that follows, using as many of these expressions as you
can.
generationin Australiaby fuel type,1996/97

Efectricity
ffio,tt
ffi Brown
coal
I c"'
N Blackcoal
fl Hyd'o
It is clearfom thepie chart that in 1996/7 bfo, the greatestproportion of electricity

wasgeneratedby oil, at 59o/o.Lesstltan half as muclt, namely 26%o, tuasproduced
from brown coal.Black coal and gastogetheraccountedforanother 15% of
generatioru,leauing hydropowerat only 0.3o/o.In other utords,uirtually 100% of
electricirygeneration in Australia at the time camefom fossilfuels, and only the
insignif.cant amount of 0.3o/ocamefom a reneuable energJtsource.
WorldEnergySources
Coal
23o/o
TASK11
Read the following description of the bar graph given underneath, then cover
the description and try to fill the gaps in the version below. You do not need to
use exacdy the same expressions as those given, but the meanings and grammar
must be accurate.
TheTenTopRice-producing 1999
Countries
China:
lndia:
lndonesia:
Bangadesh: 28,293
Viet Nam: 27,&6
Thailand: 23,240
Malaysia: 16,600
Japan: 12,53'l
Philippines: 10,000
USA: 8.r83
Thousands
oftons
Mne of the ten top riceproducing countriesin the world in 1999 tuerein Asia. As
one utould expect,China wds the greatestproducer of rice, u.,ith nearfit 193 million
tonnes.It wasfollouted by India, uthichproduced ouer 122 million tonnes,w/tile
for about one third of that
the third lnrgestproducer, Indonesia, uAs responsible
Amount, at just ouer 46 million tonnes.Bangladesh,Viet Nam and Thailand had
similar leuelsofproduction, i.e. between20 and 30 million tonneseach, while
Malaysia, Japan and the Philippines ranged between16 and l0 million tonne*
The only non-Asian producer on the list, the USA, accountedfor just ouer B
million tonnes.
Nine of the ten toP rice-producingcounties in the utorld in 1999 uere in Asia.
As one would expect,China was of rice,
tonnes. b tuasfollowed by India, which tonnes, uhile the
, Indonesia,utasresponsibh
for , A.tJust
ouer46 m. tonnes.Bangladesh,Viet Nam and Thailandhad similar
, i.e. between20 and 30 million tonn€seac/t,uhile Malaysia,
Japanand the Philippines tonnes.The only non-Asian

Droduceron the list, the USA, 8 million tonne;
. : j j : : : : : : : : :: . . . ::
::: :"":::::::::
: r : : : ; : i : : : : : : : : : :: : ::.:::. ..::::i:::
j::::::::::::::l::. .....:......i::: ...:::::..:,::::
' :: l j : : : : : : : : : " r r .
: ::.:.. .:::.r::
... .:.:::::::::.i:::i.::i:i:::
...,,,.:..,........:.-:::
'.:::::t:::::::::::::::::.
t..... :: .:
: ::: t:
l::l:l::,1::llll::::l:i::l:l:: :l
. ::i:ili...i:.:::r:. :...::::::::::i
':::::r..
::::j::r::::*:::::::::::.:::::::::::::::::::::,air...:j:.;.:::::,
Writingthe Report
Graphs and tablesare generally intended to show comparisons,contrastsor
correlations.In some casesa variety of things are compared or contrasted,while in
orher casesthe same items are compared at different times. This is done to show
movement or trends. This section will deal with comparisonsof different items,
while the next section, on trends, will deal with changesover time. \7e will then
look at how correlations are used and interpreted.
Contrastand Correlation
3.1 Comparison,
Note that the verb to comParemeans to show both the similarities and the
differences between two things, while to contrast means simply to reveal the
differences.It is therefore enough to use corrlParefor both Purposes.There is,
however,a significant difference in looking at correlations becausethey may show a
relationship between two things happening at the same time -often a causeand
effect relationship.This will be discussedfurther below.
There are many ways of expressingcomparison.
3.1.1lmplicitContrast
In some casesa conrrast is implied becauseof the way the ideasare juxtaposed, that
is, placed next to each other. For example:
Alia is a republic utith a popukrly electedpresident. Betastan is a military
dictatorship.
In this caseit is not necessary,or even desirable,to use a connector such as
By contrast, becausethe contrast is so obvious. The sryle of writing is improved if
connectorsare not overused,so implicit contrast is worth using at least from time to
time.
3.1.2 Explicitcontrast
Contrast is shown explicitly by using various parts of speech,particularly
connectors.
The most simple comparisonsare expressedwith the words:

more less fewer greater
larger smaller higher lower
3.1.3Usage
To use thesecorrectly you need to consider the nouns they are usedwith. Look
again at the common measurementterms we have studied:
amount number quantity degree
rate level size proportion
Percentage
a greater amount al greater lnumber

larger quantiry larger I proportron
smaller size higher I percentage
smaller
a greater degree lower
higher rate
lower level
l. More hss andfeuer do not combine with any of the nouns listed above.
2. More, greater, higherand lzssare usedwith uncountable nouns and the singular
verb:
There is more / greater / lessgrowth in GNP p.a.in Alia than in Bestastan.
3. More andfewer are followed by countable nouns in the plural:

Tltere uteremore / fewer accidents last lear than tlte year before.
TASK12
The bar graph below shows the number of television receiversper 1,000
inhabitants in the world in 1970 and 1990.
'W'rite
a report for a university lecturer describing the information shown
below.
Developed counfles
ffi rczo
I rcaT
First consider the following ways of expressing the same idea for an
introductory sentence:
a) In 1970 the number ofW per 1000 inhabitants in the world zuas
receiuers
muclt lessthan in 1997.
b) In 1997 tlte number of W receiuersin the utorld uas muclt greater than in
1970.
c) There were nearly tltree times as mdny W receiuersin the uorld in 1997 as
in 1970.
d) There uterefar more W receiuersin the utorld in 1997 than in 1970.
e) The outnershipof W receiuersin 1997 utas200o/o (three time) higher than in
1970.
Which of the above do you think are the best descriptions? Vhy?
Now try to describe the rest of the graph using the most appropriate
expressions you can, and avoiding repetition.
a Ansuer Ke!
Similarity can be shown by using:
similarly likewise equally

in the same way the same in a similar way I fashion
both.... and.... as well as not only... but also
also too like x, y....
as....as.... just as x, y... just as x, so y....
Contrast -which is more common -can be expressedby using:
but while in contrast to

however whereas by contrast
nevertheless although instead of
yet even though aPart from
on the other hand as opposed to except for
unlike
TASK13
Some of the above te conjunctions and are used within sentences, to connect
clauses,while some are connectorsthat are used to join sentences.'lfhich are the
ones that are used to start a new sentence?Some arc ltrepositions and must be
followed by nouns. \7hich are these?
rc Ansuter Key
3.1.4Other Partsof Speech

Contrast can also be shown by using specificverbs, adjectivesand nouns:
Verbs: Adjectives: Nouns:

compare (with / to) compared (with / to) comparison
rn comPanson wlrn
contrast (with) contrasting contrast
ln contrast to
differ (from) different (from) difference (between)
differentiate (between)
distinguish (bemeen) distinct (from) distinction (bemeen)
as distinct from
resemble same resemblance(to / with)
the sameas
similar (to) similarity (with)
vary (from / between) variation (between)
change (from / to) change (from)
WARNINGI!!
Cornparedand carnparingare often usedincorrectly. Look at thesesentences:
Compareduith x, y is morefficient.
Comparingx with y wef.nd that x is moreeficient.
Comparingwith x, y is morefficient.
Two of tlre aboveare ceffect and one is incorrect Can you seewhich is which?
Peoplecomparethings (or people).If the activevoice is used(comparing)then it

must referto someonedoing the comparing-i.e. people.Sowe say:
Comparingx with y wefind that...
Comparingx with y it can beseen(by us)that,,..
If the personor peopledoing the comparingare not relevantto the ssntenc€,

then the passiveform (corupared)must be used.So the first two sentencesare
correct,but not the lastone.
But note also:Co,mpared with ^,?"! efficientis grammaticallycomect,but it

!: ! .Fora comparisonwithin a sentence, the
is not a verygood sentencesrylistically.
useof an explicit expressionof comparisonis not usuallynecessary and actually
makesthe sentenceclumsy.Suchexpressions should only be usedin more
complexcomparisons, betweensentences, or longersectionsof text. Vithin a
sentenq€, it is normally enough to say:X is wore fficient thanjt.
TASK14
Fill in the gaps in the following description, using expressions from the above
lists. Try to vary the expressions you use, to avoid repetition.
in Alia,1920- 2000
Patterns
Employment
80
70
60
50
40 Manufacturing
30 Professional
20 Business
10 Other
Agriculture
0
1920 1960 2000
In 1920, 75o/oof the labourforce in Alia LuasemPlqtedin agricuhure

only 10o/outorked in businessand trade. At the sametime the
mdnulacturxng sector theprofessionalsectorconstitutedjust 2%oof
the utorkforceeach.Thissituation changedonly uerygradually ouer tlte next 20 years,
the professionalutorkforce,which increasedmore t/tan threefold.
by 1970 therehad beena significantchangein thepattern of
emplqtment. had declined in number
the agricubural employees
to 40% of the uorkforce, manufacturing emPlolees
had increased
professionak tlteir shareto 13o/oand 10% respectiuely.
the business until 1970. Tlte most
sectordid not increase
dramatic couldbeseenby 1990, uthentheproportionof
agricubural utorhersuas reducedto just 10o/o the three otlter maior
sectorshad all inueased to ouer 20o/o of the uorhforce.
nj Answer Key
Visuals:Witing about Graphs,Tablesand Diagrams 31
TASK15
1950- 90
Million Tons
80
70
,t Pork
60
50 a Beef/Buffalo
40
",'/
/1 4 Poultry
30 ttt-
n,/
20 -4F
n ...,w'
10 -$
6......:: - --- € &. o Sheep/Goats
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Worldproduction increasedin all typesof meat sheepand

goats betuteen1950 and 1990. There was a shw rise in theproduction ofporh and
beeJ/bffilomeatup to 1980, afier thispork production
morerdpidb. Pouhryproductionshoweda
increased nend.
Startingfom a lou baseofjust 5 million tons, it increasedrelatiuely slowlyfor the
first 20 yearsof the reported
period. , ortt, that it increased sharply,
until by 1990 it had reachedouer30 million tons. , the
production of sheepand goat meat remained steadyt/trougltout the period at around
5 million tons.
rc Answer Kel
3.2 Trends:Increaseand Decrease
Graphsas Landscape
Becauseof the appearanceof graphs,the following geographicand descriptive
er<pressions
areoften usedt describegraphs:
Nouns:
peak trough rop bortom
highest/lowest
point/rever
l;l"r*.,
steep(ly)
""0 "o::*
sharp(ly) steady/steadily gentle/gently
dramatic(all)") high low
Verbs:
climb plunge leveloff drop
fall rise mount
Thesetermsaregenerallyusedwith thoseindicatingchange(seebelow).
However,it is advisableto avoid them unlessyour generallevelof Englishis
quite high, and you areconfidenrthat you can usethem correctly.They can
soundstrangeand exaggerated when not usedin the right way,and it is easyto
avoid them.
A very common kind of comparison is when one comparessomething with itselfi in

other words, one describeschangesover time. Graphs and tablesoften demonstrate
such changes.Graphs often have a time axis, while tablesalso often show variations
involving time or place apart from other factors.
NOTE: The noun nendis not to be confusedwith the verb tend although they
have a similar meaning. There is also the noun tendcncyjust to confuse marters.
Here are examples to show you the difference:
Market resedrchers
are interestedin identif,ing trmds in consumption.
There is a tendencyfor consuTners to follout fashions.
Youngpeople in particular tend to follou the ktest fashions.
The changesover time normally involve increaseor decreaseof some factor and so
it is useful to know a number of expressionsthat have thesemeanings. Here are
some of the most common ones.As usual, it is essentialto know the grammar of
thesewords, and their precisemeaning before it is safeto use them.
3.3.1Verbs
increase go up rise grow
expand double multiply j,t*p
climb gain raise accelerate
develop escalate
decrease go down fall drop

decline reduce shrink lessen
lower contract slow down deplete
diminish level off
remain / stay the same / unchanged / steady/ stable / constant
fluctuate vary
3.3.1.Usage
VARNING: Pleasedo not confusefallwirh ll dawnlThe latter is only used

for physical falls. In other words, a person or a vasecan fall down, but not the
value of the dollar!
Also do not confirse grout with grott up! Only a person c^n grotl) up to become
an adult, but not a whole population or an economy!
Note: You must know the verb forms of the irregular verbs in the above Iist: rise;
(rose; risen) with raise (raised; raised),
fall; shrinh.In particular, do not confuse rise
The other rwo are:fell; fallcn and shranh; shrunh although you can really forget
about the last one becauseit is hardly ever used in the past or present perfect tense.
Note that arise has the same forms as rise, but a very different meaning!
Remember that it is very important to know which verbs are transitive and which
are intransitive, since only transitive verbs can be used in the passive.
TASK16
Mark those verbs in section 3.3.1 which are transitive lvvirthn. and the
intransitive ones intr. Some can be both!
Checkyour Answersin your Letrner's Dictionary.
TASK17
Identi$' which form of the verb should be used in the following:
Note that in those caseswhere the verb can be both transitive and intransitive,
the choice depends on whether the action itself is stressed (intransitive) or
there is the idea that someone was responsible for the action. E.g. The number
of unemployedpeople doubled in the lnst l0 years. But: The out4tut of thefactory
utas doubled uthen the neu machinery uas installed.
1. The number of worhersin manufacturing increased/ utas increased bekueen

1950 and 1960.
2. The total professionalsectorexpandzd / was expandzd tltroughout the last
80 years.
3. The businesssectoralso greut / tr)ltsgroun afier 1980.
4. The number of manufacturing employeesrose/ utas risen / raised / was raised
signifcantly betuteen1950 and 1970.
5. The agricubural u.,orhforcehas steadily dzcreased/ has been steadily
dzcreased ouer tlte last 80 years.
6. Other kinds of emphyment remained / uere rem.ainedfairly steady
throughout theperiod.
7. The agricuhural utorhforce reduced / uas reduced quite sharply afer 1960.
tc Answer Ke!
3.2.2Nouns
increase acceleration development doubling
expansion gain growth rise
j,r-p decrease decline depletion
diminishing drop fall lessening
lowering downturn fluctuation
TASK18
Note that it is very important to combine nouns and verbs correctly.
Combine as many of the following as is possible:
The number of (the) workforce rose

The quantity of (the) banking sector fell
The proportion of (the) workers increased
The rate of (the) consumption dzcreased
The level of (the) production dzclined
The percentageof employment geu)
The sizeof expandzd
The amount of shranh
dropped
reduced
fluctuated
rc Ansuer Key
3.3Correlations
One of the most interesting ways to use graphs and tables is to place two together
that show a connection, or a correlation. This is often used in the IELIS
examination. In this caseit is necessaryto understand what the link is that connects
the rwo.
Correlations can often show an indirect causal link. For example, it has not been
possibleto say that smoking caus€sillness in the sameway that one can say that a
poison cAusesillness, becausemany people smoke without becoming ill.
Nevertheless,as the example below shows, a strong correlation between smoking
and death from certain illnessescan show that tobacco is an indirect causeof illness
and death.
Correlations can also be used to show economic or other activity where there is no
causallink, or where the causeis a separateone (as in the example about tourism
below). These are often interesting becausethey can indicate trends and perhaps
suggestfuture actions to be taken. In the IELIS examination it is necessaryto
understand why the two visuals have been placed together, but you are not expected
to discussthe implications in any detail.
3.3.1Vocabularyand Usage
There is no specialvocabulary to be used for describing correlatedgraphs and tables.
There are two grammatical forms which are more likely to occur in this context: the
superlatives of quantiry such as the greatest number, the louest incidence /
occurrenceetc. and the comparative form: the greater the..... the greater tlte...,etc.
You will find examplesin the model given below.
TASK19
In the following description, underline all the useful expressions you can find
and use them in your own description of the correlation of the graphs that
follow.
Cigareftes
Tobacco related deaths 1 998 consumeo
percapita,
Total Male Female 1995
Africa 125,000 I 12,000 13,000 480

TheAmericas s82,000 413,000 169,000 1,530
Europe I,369,000 900,000 469.000 2,080
5outheastAsia 580,000 505,000 75,000 4't5
't,200
India 383,000 332,000 51,000
WesternPacific 1,185,000 986,000 200,000 1,945
China 913,000 783,000 130,000 1,800
There is a clear correlation betuteenthe number of cigarettessmokedper capita and

the number of tobaccorelated deaths. The table sltoutsthat the greatestconsumptiont
cigarettesin 1995 uAs to befound in Europe, China and theWesternPacifc, and
that eachof theseregionsalso had b fn the largestnumber of tobaccorelated deaths
in 1998. Europe, with the greatestconsumptionper head of cigarettes,nAmely ouer
2000for 1995, also experiencedutellouer I million tobacco-relateddeathsbjt 1995.
The region u.,ith the secondhighestconsumptionof cigarettesuas theVestern Paczfc,
with nearly 2000 per ltead, and it ako recordedthe secondhighestnumber of
tobacco-relateddeaths,namely 1. I 85 rnillion.
In all regionsexceptSoutheastAsia it can be seenthat the higher the consumptionof

cigarettes,the higher the tobacco-related mortality rate. It is interesting that in
SoutheastAsia, uith the htuest leuel of cigaretteconsumption,at 415 per capita, the
mortali4t rate LUasas high as in the AmericAs,namely .58 million, abhough in the
Iatter the consamptionleuel was nearly tltree times as high. Clenly other heabh or
economicfactors must be inuolued. h is also interesting to note that in eaclt casetlte
number offemale deathswas signifcantly lower than that of males,uhich seemsto be
a reflection of thefact that in generalfar fewer raomentltan men smoke.
TASK20
Now write a description of the following, using as many suitable constructions
as possible from the above model.
In the IELIS test the question would typically be expressedas follows:
The graph below shows the rate of women's literacy and population growth in
selectedcountries from 1988 to 2000.
'Write
below.
YemenArab Rep.
Afghanistan
Mali
Sudan
Pakistan
Dominican Rep.
Jamaica
Sri Lanka
Colombia
i
Thailand
1 0 0 80 60 40 20 012345
FemaleLiteracy(70) Growth(06)
Population
rc Answer KeJt
Visuals:Writingabout Graphs,Iables and Diagrams 38
TASK21
Study the following three graphs showing the top ten countries for W'orld
Tourism and comment on the following in your description of the graphs:
1. The relationship between the top spenders and the top earners.
2.'Which countries made an overall profit on tourism.
3. The relationship between number of visitors and amount of income.
Now treat this as an IELIS'W'riting Task 1.'Write about 150 words in no

more than 20 minures.
The tasks below show the top 10 countries in terms of tourist desdnation,
revenue and spending.'Write a report for a university lecturer describing the
information shown below.
Tourist Destinations1998 Revenue

fromTourisim
(arrivals
in millions) (U55billion)
Francefzo unitedstates
spainE+z.z ttatyI : 0 . +
unitedstatesf +l.t Francefzs.t
ttatyI:+.e spainZzg.o
UnitedKingdomIzs.s UnitedKingdomf z r . i
china fz+ Germany !ro.a
Mexicolts.r chinaI rz.s
polandI tg.g Austria
ltz.z
canada ftal canadaI s.r
AustriaI t7.3 Austraria
Ie.o
HighestSpendingCountries,
Tourism: 1997
(USSbillion)
UnitedStates 5l.5
Germany
Japan Is:
UnitedKingdom fzt.t
Italy f ro.or
France f to.st
Canada ! r r . :
Austria I r r
Netherlands! ro.zr
China ! r o.r z
rc Ansuter Ke!
Usingthe RightStyle
There are a number of featuresof academicwriting that you need to observein
order to write well. Modifiers are vety important for giving your €xact meaning, and
you also need to know how to avoid informality, redundancy and repetition.
In all academicwriting it is essentialto know how to use modifiers accurately.This

is one of the most important ways in which you can expressyour €xact understanding
of what you are writing about, and the more accurateyour use of modifiers the
better your writing will be. In writing about graphs and tables there are a number of
common adjectivesand adverbsthat are very frequently used. It is generallyNOT
safe to translatethesedirectly from your own language,as the usagein English is
often quite idiomatic, so you need to study the following examples.
4.1 Modifiers
As you can seefrom the following lists, there are a large number of modifiers
available.Mostly they are used in the form of adjectivesand adverbs(although there
are also other ways of using them).
There are generally more errors made in the use of modifiers than in any other
aspectof \Writing Thsk 1, so it is worth your while to study the grammatical
information given below. If it seemstoo much to memorise all that information,
you should at least learn a numbe r of expressionsas complete phrasesso that you
use them correctly.Ti'anslatingfrom your own languageinto English will seldom
give good results!
4.1.1AdjectivesShowingAmount, Emphasis,Time
Amount:
small slight limited marginal
minor partial restricted
large great substantial enormous
extensive extreme major numerous
vast widespread
Emphasis:
considerable dramatic maior marked
notable noticeable sharp significant
striking strong substantial insignificant
minor slight consistent moderate
Time:
slow gentle gradual steady
constant fluctuating rapid fast
sudden quick
4.1.2Adverbials
These too can show amount, emphasisand time, but they also need to be classified
according to their use. This is becausethere are a number of difficulties with using
adverbsand adverbial phrasescorrectly.
Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectivesor other adverbs.However, not all adverbscan
be used in all theseways. That is one difficulry.
The other difficulry is knowing the correct position for theseexpressionsin relation
to the verbs in a sent€nce.
In the lists below, the adverbsare divided into groups according to their meaning
and the way they can be combined with other parts of speech.After each relevant
section there is information about where they are placed in relation to the verbs in a
sentence.
Visuals:Writing about Graphs, Tablesand Diagrams 41
.Adverbs of degree or amount which can be used with verbs and often also in
comparisons. (Many can be used in adjective form.)
For example slightly:

Thepopulation increasedslightly.
There utereslightly more doctorsthan dentists.
Employrnentin indusny increasedslightly more rapidb.
hardly barely scarcely a little

slightly somewhat marginally moderately
partly relatively significantly considerably
substantially particularly exceptionally remarkably
dramatically enormously to some extent mosdy
mainly largely a great deal very much
to a small/ certain/ largel greail considerable extent
Note: Iargely means nearly the sameas maircly,It does not rnean the same as uery,
Note: Avoid using a bit and a lot as they are used only in informal and spoken
English.
The following can only be used in comparisonsor superlatives:
far by far very much
( fa, mort inhabitants; b fo, the greatestnumber; uery much more raPid(b) )
Placement: The first three adverbs (hardly, barely starcely)go before the verb:
The number hardly / barely / scarcelyincreasedin the nextfeu years.
In the caseof verbs with auxiliaries (e.g. the present perfect tense,the passive),or
with modals (may, could, sltould etc.) they go between the auxiliary or modal and the
main verb: The number of utomen in gouernmenthas hardly (barely, scarcely)
increased in the lastfeu years. The number is so small it can hardfu be considzred.
The rest of the adverbs will eo after the verb (The numbers increaseda little /
significantly etc.).
In the caseof verbs with auxiliariesor modals, it is possibleto place a few of them
between the auxiliary and the main verb, but it is alwayssaferto place all of them at
after the verb.
The number of women in the workforceltas increaseddramatically / signifcantly
etc. in the kst ffty years.
The number of u.,omenin the zuorkforcemay increaseconsiderablyin the next
decade.
.Adverbs which can only be used with verbs. They are indicators of time or of
manner. (The adjective forms are equally commonly used.)
For example: steadily:

Thepopulation increasedsteadily ouer the next lears.
(There utasa steadyincreasein the population.)
slowly steadily gradually quickly

rapidly suddenly sharply strongly
at a fast / faster / slow / slower rate
Placement: All of these,except for the last phrase,can be placed before a verb or
after it:
Thepopuktion increasedsteddib.
Thepopuktion steadily increased.
In the caseof sltarply and strongly it is more common to place them after the verb. In
fact, it is probably simpler to learn to place all of them after the verb.
In the caseof auxiliary and modal verbs, the same principle applies: either the
adverbsare placed between the auxiliary or modal and the main verb, or they can be
placed after the complete verb:
The number of accidentshas sharply declined / bas declined sharply sincethe

neut regulations were introduced.
The amount of unemphyment could sharply increase/ could increasesharply in
tlte next feut years.
.Adverbs which can only be used with adjectives or other adverbs, to intensi&'
them or tone them down. They can not be used with verbs or comparativ€s
(unless the verbs are in the adjectival form, i.e. as present or past participles (e.g.
bigh b increased, hrsb ly increasing) :
For example, highly:
Tltere utasa highb noticeableincreasein the number of complaints.
The increaseoccurredfairly mpidly.
quite rather falLrly very

highly extremely comparatively relatively
.Adverbials which are used with nouns and expressions of measurement.

For example: hardly an!; aPproximately:
There utashardly any changein the number of readers.
Tltere uere approximately 10 million inhabitants.
hardly (any) less than about around

approximately practically almost nearly
(just) under (just) over exactly precisely
some (several)* many more than
most (well) under (well) over all
For example:
Hardly o-frfih of the uorkers tooh theirfull holidays.
Nearly all of thepopuktion watcltesteleuision.
Just under a quarter of all energt is produced by coal.
Note: It is generally not necessaryto give precisefigures when discussinga

graph or table. For exa-mpleinstead of saying:
The uorld\ GDP per capita in 1995 was $US 5,990,
it is better to say:
The world\ GDP per capita in 1995 was about / around / nearly $US 6000.
*Nots You are unlikely to need to use t€a€rdl since it means rnore tltan afea
bat not man! ^nd is so imprecise that it is not likely to be used when describing
graphs or tables.
Common Error!
Note that it is a common mistaketo write
*Someof wastecomes
fom agriculture.
Sorne,many, most and a//should generally be used without the word f
Sorneenergtis supplied hy utind generators.
Most utastecomesfrom indusny.
Many students make this mistahe.
All cauntries ltaae increasedtheir use offox;lfuets
To use these words wirh of it is necessaryto write af thebiecausethe

meaning is that all, rnan! or lnost af a patticular and knoan arnount is / are
being described, and so the definite article is necessary.For example, if we
refer to mostof the studentsthen it must be clear that a specific group of
studentsis meant.
4.1.3 Making Predictions.

Occasionallya graph showing trends predicts what may happen in future. In that
caseyou cannot say that something uillhappen, only that it may or could.
The modals, mAl, might or could are generallytoo vague and uncertain to be used,
however.
The most common expressionsfor discussingpossiblefuture trends are:

/ likely / probable that...
it ispredicted / forecast/ expected/ suggested
If theseare used, then the future tenseshould also be used, rather than may or could
becausethe combination would be too weak. In other words, *It is predicted that the
population may increaseto 6 billion is too uncertain, and should be written as:
It is predicted that the population utill innease to 6 billion.
Another possiblestructure is:

An increasein the population to 6 billion is expected.
4.1.4ldiomaticPhrases
As we noted at the beginning, it is important to learn complete and common
phrases.The best way to do this is to collect examplesfrom your generalreading,
and from models provided in this and other similar books. Here are a few examples
to help you:
a large percentage (NOT big)
a slight increase (NOT little)
a significant rise (NOT great I big etc.)
remain constant
remain relatively steady etc.
Two of the most common errors made by studentswhen using modifiers are
a) using the wrong part of speech(e.g. using adjectivesinstead of adverbsand vice
versa)and b) using exaggeratedor inappropriate expressions(e.g. describing a slight
increaseas a dramatic one). The next taskswill test you in both theseareas.
TASK22
Insert the appropriate expressions from the list given below (more than one
may be correct), changing it to the correct part of speech where necessary,for
each of the following gaps:
The Use of Emoil in Britoin
Millions
of users:
t5
to
1994 2o04
1. The graph shows

a)alan rise in the useof email berween1998 and2004.
b) that email use would have rlsen berween1998and 2004.
c) the number of email usersto have increased
between 1998 and 2004.
d) the increasein email use between 1998 and 2002 tobe
a great dcal enormous significant

2.In fact the number of adult usershas

doubled in that time.
dramatic nzoretltan significant steadlr
3. After the year 2002 it is expected that the growth rate will decline
a bit la.rge significant steady
a Ansuter Ke!
TASK23
Select the best words from the list below to enter into the gaps in the
description that follows this graph, changing the parts of speech where
necessary.
JoponeseMonioges
100
90
80
7a
Lovemorrioges
o/o 60
EN
40
30
20 Arronged monioges
t0
1950 1960 197Q t98Q 1990 2000
Tltere was a changein the type of maniage common in
Japan between1950 and the 1990s.While in 1950 the numberof louemarriages

tuasonly 22%, by 1955 the numberof suchmaniages
ltad increased to 50o/oand by the 1990s tltere zuasAn euen
more trend azuayfom ananged marriages, uhich had
declined to lessthan l5o/o.
about dramatically nearly noticeably rather remarhably
Now replace the words used above with other from the lists that would be just
as suitable.
(You will need a teacher or native speaker to check your work as there are too
many variations possible to put in an Answer Key.)
TASK24
computers
Internet-connected
worldwide,1981-1999
1981 213
1982 235
't983
562
'1984 1,024
1985 1,961
'1986
5,089
1987 28,174
1988 56,000
1989 159.000
1990 313,000
'1991
617,000
't992
1,136000
1993 2,0s6,000
1994 3,864,000
'1095
6,&2,000
't996
12,881,000
1997 19,540,000
1998 36,739,000
1999 s6.218,000
Supply any suitable expressions for the gaps.
The number of Internet-connectedcomputersbas risen

since 1981. Although the number more tltan doubledfom 1981 to 1983, the
fgures at that stagewere small,goingfrom213 to 552.

Houteuer,as tlte rate continued to d.ouble,or €uenmore tltan double in the
following years, tlte grout/t rate ruas. rapid.Onlyafier

1996 uas therea slouterrate of expansionas the grouth
rate no longer doubled eacltyear. Neuertlteless,by 1999 the number of Internet-
connectedcomputers in the utorld had risen, uithin a period of lessthan 20 years,
,fro* 200 to 56 million.
rc AnswerKey
Note: Many studentsorreruseand misusemodifiers.Rememberthat not every

noun or verb needsto be modified,only thosewherethe modifier is really
meaningful.Another commonproblemis exaggeration. Sruden$som€times
like to useth€ word.drantatic,for example,evenwhen the changethey are
describingis not very striking at all, and the word signifcant would be more
surtable.
4.2 Usingthe CorrectStyleand Avoiding

CommonErrors.
There are a number of common problems with style, vocabulary and grammar that
we will discussin this section.
First there are a number of stylistic errors to avoid: informaliry narrative style,
redundancy and repetition.
4,2.1Avoiding Informality
Here's a good example of what a lot of students do. And what they shouldn't do. A
big number don't realisetheret a problem.
The above is a typical example of a style which contains a number of informal

usages.Can you identify them?
a) abbreviations: ltere's; shouldn't; don't; there's.Theseshould not be used. \Write
here is; should not; do not; tltere is.
b) a ht of :This is a very common, informal expression.For countable nouns, use
many ftuhat many studentsdo...) and for uncountable nouns usea great dral of
(there uas great deal of expansionin the 1990r.
c) a sentencebeginning with And: You should also avoid starting sentenceswith
But and So.
d) an incomplete sentence:The last sentenceis not a complete sentence,since
there is no main clause.
e) big is not a formal word: large is. Similarly, Y litth number of studentsshould oe
A small number of students.
An improvement of the above two sentenceswould read: This is a typical exampleof
a style which many studentsuse,and which should be auoided.A large number of
studentsdo not realisethat tltere is a problem.
Can you see the additional improvements as well as the corrections?

f) The repetition of d.ois avoided. (Seesection below)
g) The personalpronoun (they)is avoided and the passiveis used.This is a way of
making the sryle more formal, but you need to be careful not to use the passive
if the result sounds awkward.
h) The weak adjective good is replaced by a more exact one: typical.
Note: It is better to be a little informal and correct than to attempt to be very

formal and make bad errors. Remember: walk before you try to run.
4.2.2Avoidinga NarrativeStyle.
A report is not a story and so you should not use a story-telling sryle. Here is an
example of what to avoid:
Here are two graphs. Thqt show that there taeremanJt cbangesin the kinds ofjobs
thepeople ofAl;a mostly did in the last centuryt.In the 1920s mostpeople worhed.
in agricubure, asfarmers, and tltey continued in this utayfor manlt years.Later,
ltouteuer,a changegradualfu happenedin the tuorkforce.
4.2.3AvoidingRedundancy
Redundant means more tltan is necessary.
Students often use both redundancy and repetition either becausethey are
translating from a languagewhere theseforms are commonly used, or to fill up
space,becausethey fear that they cannot produce 150 words about a graph or table,
as the test question requires.However, it is better to write down more about details
than to fill up your paper with statementsthat contain no real information.
There are two important reasonsto avoid using more words than necessary:
a) it produces an unacademicstyle, being more suited to story-telling or
literature; and
b) becausethere is no real information for the reader (or examiner) to focus on,
any grammatical or vocabulary errors in your writing become very noticeable.
Redundant statements include the following:

a) those that provide information that is so obvious it is not worth stating. Here is
an example:
Twentypercent of car accidentshappen afier darh, uthile the other 80%o
happen during daylight ltours.
(Only the first half of the sentenceis necessary.)
b) those that make a contrast explicit, when it is not necessary(see3.1).
Comparisons ( p. 25).Here is an example:

fn contrast,theposition of uomen ruasjust the oppositeto that of men.
(Omit the introductory phrase,in contrast).
c) those that are used like topic sentences,but are actually empry of content. Here
are some examples:
Thereare somedffirences behaeentltesefiao countries.
The trendsAre not tlte same.
From the graplt we can seetlte uarious rates of change.
(Suchsentences
should simply be omitted.)
In other words, you should aim to use the fewest number of words necessaryto
convey your meaning. If you feel that you are not writing enough (150 words for
the IELfS exam) you should add more detail.
Avoiding Repetition.
Repetition is another very common form of redundancy and should be avoided for
the same reasons:it is not academicin sryle. Moreover, if you have a mistake in a
phraseyour are using, and you continue to use that samephraserepeatedly,your
workwill look bad. Even if you use a phrase correcdy,you cannot gain good marks
in a test if you do not show your abiliry to use a variety of expressions.
There are examplesof repetition in the task given below. First, however,let us look
at some ways to avoid redundancy and repetition.
4.2.4Usinga CompactStyle
Present Participle clausesare extremely useful for a compact style. For example:
Between 1860 and 1900 the temperatureremained steady.During that time the
temperatureroseand fe ll by no more than 0.1" Centigrade.
This can be written as:

Between1860 and 1900 the temperature
remainedsteady,rising andfalling by
no more than 0.1" Centigrade.
Another rypical expressionis seenin this sentence:

The US had byfar the greatestshare of the information technologt marhet,
accountingfor 44% of Internet connections.
It is important to note that the present participle, ending in ing is active in

meaning. It does not indicate the present tenseat all, and can be used for any tense.
The past participle (ending in ed or rz) is used for the passiveand is very useful in
academicwriting, but is not very likely to be neededin describing graphs and tables.
Presentparticiple clausesare also often used with prepositions and can include
nouns and adverbs:
The deuelopingcounnies of Afica, Asia and Latin America experiencedthe

most dramatic growth, with Afica hauing around 5o/oper Annum.
Other parts of speech,such as prepositions, and even punctuation can also be

used to make your style compact.
\When you are describing a graph or table, you need to make a generalstatement
(e.g. carbon emissionsincreasedsigntficantly) and also give the specific details to
support that statement (e.g. carbon emissionsincreasedto 6000 million tons).There
are a number of simple ways to combine this information. Here are some
examples:
(Seealso section 2.4.7 under Measurements, for other examplesof common
phrases.)
Note the use of the comma in the following:

Carbon emissionsincreasedsignificantQ, to 6000 million tons.
Carbon emissionsincreasedby 600%, fom 1000 million to 6000 million tons.
Carbon emissionincreasedto 6000 million tons, an increaseof 600%.
The prepositions at and u.,ith are also useful.

By fo, the greatestproportion of electricity uas generatedby oiL at 59%.
Australia ctme next, u.,ith a total of 42,215 students.
Indonesia uas responsible for about one third of that Amount of riceproduction,
at just ouer 46 million tonnes.
Bettueenlg20 and 1970 the businesssectorremained constantat around 10o/o
ofthe utorkforce.
either by using bracketsor commas, are also yery common:

Parentheses,
Europe, utith the greatestconsumPtionper head of cigarettes(ouer2000) uas...
The greatestproportion of electricity, 59o/o, utasgenerated by oil.
It is also useful to give details by using narnely and that is or i.e.:

The region utith the secondhighest consumption of cigarettesu)astlte Western
Pacif.c, utith nearly 2000 per head, and it also recordedthe secondhighest
number of tobaccorelated dzaths, namely 1.185 million. etc.
Bangladuh and Viet Nam and Thaiknd had similar leuelsof production, i.e.
betueen20 and 30 million tonneseaclt.
Lessthan half as muclt, namely 260/o, wasproducedfom brozuncoal.
Note: A very common error is the use of such as instead of namely. The
expression such as introduces examples, NOT a complete list. For a complete
list, use namely.
Look at the following examples:
Thereare a number of utaysof auoiding redundancy,suclt as usingparticiple
clausesand phrasesbeginning taith at.
Therearefour tlpes of renewabh energ!, namely solar hydro, wind and biomass
enerKy.
TASK25
Improve the following statements by removing the redundancy in any suitable
way. You will need to reduce the number of sentences.
l. From the graphs we cAn seethat there has beena changein the rate of useof
email in the UK. The rate of changeof email useis sltounfrom theyear 1998 to
theyear 2004. Email utasusedbyfeu people in the UK in 1998 but it was used
by many people in 1999 and the number kept increasing.In 1998 the number of
people using email in the UK was about 10 million and fu the yar 2000 the
number had d.oubledto becomeabout 20 million. The graph showsthis nend
continuing until2002 and then a slight reduction in growth rate to 2004.
2. The graph shous the trend in two 4tpesof marriages in Japan benueen1950
and 1990. The ttuo typesof marriages are hue marriages and ananged marriages.
Thepercentageof arranged marriagesdecreased
and at tlte sametime the
percentageof loue marriagesincreaseddramatically betuteen1950 and 1990. In
1950 only 22o/oof the popuktion had loue marriages,uthile 650/outerein
ananged marriages,but by 1990 this proportion uas inuerted, utith 83o/obeing in
loue maniages and only 15% hauing arranged marriages.
tc Ansuer Ke!
Visuals:Writingabout Graphs,Iables and Diagrams 53
4.2.5Focus.
Having consideredwhat to avoid, we will now look at some suggestionsfor ways of
making your sryle both academicand varied by considering your focus.
Look at the following graph:
from 1985- 2000

WorldSpendingon Advertising
(in5USmillions)
, Total
330,00_9
North America
:rtr:::
ffiffieutop" .282,ooo
ffi Rsia/Pacific
242,OOO
I utin America
..'193,OOO
'tl::1Lry
You could focus on different aspectsof the graph in a number ofways, including:
. North America /tas been responsible

for far more expenditurein aduertising than
any other area in the utorld.
. Ouer $333,000 million uas spent on aduertising in the world in theyear 2000.
. Betuteen1995 and 2000 the amount spenton aduertising in the uorld has
more tltan doubled.
However, you need to be careful about using an abstract term as the subject of your
sentence.This is becauseboth the grammar and the logic of your sentencecan easily
become incorrect if your command of English is limited. The problem usually lies in
making the subject (the abstract term, such as expenditure)fit with the verb.
TASK26
Test yourself by identi$'ing which of the following are not correct:
1. A great changein aduertising expenditurein the uorld toohplace behaeen

1985 and 2000.
2. The Amount of erpendinre for aduertisingincreasedsharply bettueen1985 and 2000.
3. The highest expenditurefor aduertising was in North America.
4. North America had the highest expenditure on aduertising in the world.
5. Aduertising expenditureltad an increasein theyears betueen 1985 and 2000.
6. Tltere uas a sharp increasein expenditureon aduertising in the utorld afier 1985.
7. The loutestexpenditure on aduertising happened in Latin America.
8. The louest expenditureon aduertising uas spent 4t Latin America.
9. North America performed the highesta.mountspent on aduertising.
10. The hutest amount of aduertising uas spent$956 million by Latin America.
rc Ansu.,erKey
4.2.6AvoidingGrammaticalErrors:
Editing
Before finishing your work, read what you have written carefully and look for errors
in basic gramma! particularly those involving parts of speechand verb forms.
Many students approach English writing incorrectly by focusing on vocabulary but

ignoring the need to use the correct parts of speech.tVhe n speakingit is easyto
communicate without too much aftention to grammar, but errors with parts of
speechare very noticeable in writing and quite unacceptablefor academicwork.
Many words can appear as nouns, verbs, adjectivesand adverbs.For example:
compare comltar'ison comparatiue comparatiuely

distinguish distinction distinct distinctly
Often, however,there are no other parts of speechavailablefor a particular word.

For example, urban is an adjective,and there is no noun form.
Another yery common €rror is to use the passiveform when this is incorrect.
Sentence10 in Thsk 26 a6oveis an example of this kind or error. {.Jsuallythe passive
is not neededin describing graphs and tables.
Students of all nationalities often forget the s ending on plural nouns in English. Tiy
to take the time to check all your nouns.
Finally, you should also check all your verbs to make sure that you have the correct tense.
:::::t;i:r:i::::1::lilr.ii::i:ii:i:l
:::iitirii::::i:::i.,::::rtijti:i:i:;iii
:
)r:tl::t:t:
iti;l:;::;:ritl::;i::::,.,,r :i i
l.lNrl.tl.,i.'.t.
.., . :,,:.!,,:r]]:]|]:'.'.'':
:':':,::]'],:']
::::r'l :::l::.,
,,:tt:t: t t
lli:rll j,,rl:::.
'..
Diagrams
Diagrams occur infrequently in IELfS Academic \Writing Task 1, and as there
is very little vocabulary and grammar that coversall rypes of diagrams this
section is very short. It includes three practice taskswith model answers.
The purpose of a diagram is normally to show a process,how a piece of

equipment works, or the operational structure of a system.
5.1Vocabularyand Grammar
The vocabulary will mostly be closely related to the specialsubject matter
being shown, and so you cannot prepare for that. There are, however, two
aspectsof the languagethat you will require for describing most diagrams and
you should make sure that you know how to use them well:
a) The verbs will normally be in the present tenseand the passiveform.

b) \Wherea processor structure is being presented,you will need a variery
of connectorsshowing stagesor time.
56 Visuals:Witing about Graphs,Tablesand Diagrams
5.2 Usinga good style

a) Do not attempt to describethe diagram in colourful or'interesting'
language.There is no need for adjectivesor adverbs.
b) Avoid repetition (seeprevious section) and try to vary your language.
c) Do not simply usefrstly secondlythirdly etc. or then to link different
stages.
Here are some other possibilities:
In thefrst/ second/ etc. stage....
Next ......
Theprocesscontinuestuith ....
Afrerthis.....
You can also use then after the subject ofyour sentence,instead ofat the
beginning; e.g. The uater is then transported.
d) Vary the use of nouns and verbs: e.g. instead of :

The uater is then purifed
write:
Thepurifcation of uater is the next stageetc.
TASK27
The diagram below shows career paths in the travel industry.-Vrite a
report for a university lecturer describing the information shown below
Career Paths in theTravel Sector

CHIEF
EXECUTIVE
,t" ,rJo*
M^N^GER
\
/ /' \ \
SMALL BRANCH TRAVEL MARKEflNG
MANAGER
nfoo*rlfl*MANAGER ,XRX#*
TISENIORTRAVEL>/
\ICONSULTANT\./
\l(tnternationa-l/Australianl,/
operations)
rRevdlsalrs TRAVEL5ALE5
'sIPERVTSOR I SUPERVTsOR
(Commercial | (Tourism)
PrivateSector) | PublicSectoror
SpecialisedDomestic
\ |
\ : TRAVEL
rnnvtcorusutteut
CONSULTANT -/
(lnternationalOperations)
.
+
TRAVELCONSULANT
(DomesticOperations)
,.2+
TRAVEL5ALE5
ASSISTANT TRAVEL
CLERK
a Ansuer Key
TASK28
The diagram below shows the nitrogen cycle.
'W'rite
below.
THENITROGEN
CYCLE
NITROGENIN THE SOIL NITROGEN-FIXING

BACTERIA IN
NODULESOF
LEGUMINOUs
PLANTS
DEAD PLANTS.
ANIMALSand
ANIMAL EXCRETA
tc Answer Key
Visuals:U/ritingabout Graphs,Tablesand Diagrams
TASK29
The diagram below shows the production of steam using a gas cooled
nuclear reactor.
'Write
below.
A GosCooled NucleorReoctor
heol exchonger
hotgos duct
chorgefubes
steomto
furbo-
olternotor
uroniumfuelelemenis
grophitemoderotors
pressurevessel
concreteshleld
a Anstuer Ke!
Note: Many text booksfor English learnersdealwith the writing of

descriptionsof processes
and you should refer to theseif you needmore
practice.
AnswerKey
Part 1
1. c) and e). Generally,avisual is used to assistin making a concept clearer,but
often, especiallywith tables, the purpose is to give more details.Actually, a), b)
and d) are also correct!
2. c) and d). Since the purpose of a graph or table is to make the text easierto
understand, a) cannot be correct. Giving exactly the same information (b) is
definitely not the purpose. However, sometimesfurther explanationsare given
(c), and it is always necessaryto comment on the significanceof the visual (d).
3. c) is the correct answer,becauseit givesa summary of the significanceof the

graph. In text a) the figures are simply expressedin words, which are much more
difficult to understand than the graph itself while b) was written by someone
who is going well beyond what is in the graph and is discussingcaus€s.
4. 1) Over 1000 million tons; 2) Too small to identify 3)Just under 1000
million tons; 4) More ($31,000 million, against$27,187 million; 5) Less
($29,815 against$9z,ooo million).
Part2.
5. 1 goeswith a) and b). Although c) is possible,it is more common in spoken
English, and it is better to use thatin front of the clause.
2,3 andT all go with a). Again, c) is possible,but it is better to insert thatin
written English.
4,5 and 6 all go with c) only.
6. .)
7.The following arenot the only possibleanswers,but arethe most likely ones:
l. between1950 and 1990 / fom 1950 to 1990
2. Afier 1960 / From 1960 (on / onutards)
3. benteen1950 and 1970 / fom 1950 to 1970 / for 20 yearsafier 1950,
and then/ afier tltat rosedramatically,
4. throughoutthe 40 yearsfrom 1950 / fom 1950 to 1990 / fom 1950for
t/te next40 years.
60 Visuals:\fdriting
about Graphs,Tablesand Diagrams
8. In this task there are three kinds of answers:a) those which are completely
correct and which are, in fact, the most common expressions;b) those which are
not quite wrong, but not very usual -they sound rather odd to native speakers
of English; and c) those which are completely wrong. The following are the most
commonly used combinations:
the number of smokers;lears
employees;
the amount of G!n; an€mplolment; production; grouth; arms sales;
cigaretteconsumption;income; expenditure
the size of the population
the degreeof unemplolment; literacy; cigaretteconsumption
the quantity of production; arms sahs; cigaretteconsumption
the rate of unemplolment; Iiteracy; production; grou)th; cigarene
consumption;expenditure. (Better is: the unemplolment
rate, tlte literacy rate, the grouth rate).
the leuel of GDP; unemplolment; literacy; income; expenditure.
9. 1. a) and b) 2. a) and c) 3. a) and d) 4.^)

5. a) and c) 6. b) 7.b) and c) and d)
Part3.
'per
12. a) and b) and d) are all too vague, and in a) the phrase 1000
inhabitants' is not necessary.The best sentenceis c). \fhile e) is OK, it is rather
too formal.
13. Conjunctions, within sentencesare: but, uthile, rultereas,abhouglt, euen

tbough.
New sentencesmust be started with: Howeuer,Neuertheless,Yet, On the other
hand, By contrast.
Prepositions are: unlihe, as opposedto, in contrast to, instead of, apartfom, except
for. These must be followed by nouns, not clauses.
14.The following are not necessarilythe only correct answers,but they are the
most likely ones:
uthile both - and - exceptfor / apart fom Houeuer
While / Whereas as well as Similarly change/ dffirence
uthile
15. The following ar€ not necessarilythe only corr€ct answers,but they are the
most likely ones:
exc€ptfor / apart fom but similar Houeuer
Meanwhile / On the other hand.
17. I. increased 2. expanded 3. grew 4. rose

5. has steadily decreased 6. remained 7. utasreduced
18. These are the most idiomatic combinations. Others may occur which are not
necessarilywrong, but are unusual or odd.
the number of + utorkers + all the verbs except: shrank; dropped; reduced
the quantitlt of + consumPtion + all the verbs except reduced
theproportion + tlte uorhforce; the banking sector;( the) uorkers; consumPtion;
production; + all the verbs except dropped; reduced
the rate of + consum?ilon;Production; emplqlment + all verbs except reduced
the leuel of + the same as above for the rate of
thepercentageof + the utorkforce;the banking sector;(the) utorkers;consumption;
production + rose;fell; inneased; decreased;declined; greu;
dropped;fluctuated
the size of + the uorkforce; the banhing sector r increased;decreased;
declined; grew; expanded; shranh; fluctuated
the amount of + consumPtion;Production; emPlqtment + all the verbs except
reduced
Note: reduced cannot be used in any of the above becauseit is a transitive verb
and must have an object! It is possibleto use it in the passive;e.g.the number of
workersuas reducedafrer the businessshrank.
20. This is one possiblemodel answer:

There is a clear correlation betuteenthe leuel offemale literacy and the leuel of
population growth in the uorld. The graph showsf.guresfom selectedcountries
betuueen1998 and 2000. The bighestpercentageoffemale literacy wasfound in
Thailand and Colombia, which also had among* the lowestpopulation grouth
rates,narnely l.4o/o and 1.8o/orespectiuely.The otlter countriesnamed u,,ith high
literacy rdtesare Sri Lanka, Jamaica and the Dominican Republic, each uith
ouer 80%ofemale literaqt, and in eachcasethepopuktion groutlt rate is under 2o/o.
By contrast, thosecounnies utith uery low leuelsoffemale literacy shotu extremely
high f.guresfor population grouth. Afghanistan, with only 9o/oof utomen being
literate, /tas an enormousgrouth rate, namely 4.5o/oand the YemenArab
Republic, with an euenlouer number of literate uaomen(8%), is secondon the
list, utith 3.j% population grotatlt. The other coun*ies listed shouta similar
Pattern.
It seemsuery likely that this correlation is not accidental, and that higherfemale
literacy leadsto greater useoffamily planning methods.
62 Visuals:Witing about Graphs,Iablesand Diagrams
21. L The top ten spendersand top ten earnersare nearly the same.
2. NI except for Japan, UK, Germany, Canada and Netherlands earned more
than they spent.
3. The top destinationsin terms of numbers of visitors did not completely
coincide with the top earnings.
Here is a possiblemodel answer.

There is a strong correlation betuteentlte countries that were the top 10 spenders
andthose utho ouerethe top 10 earnersin tourism in 1998. Allthe top spenders
excePtJaPan and the Netherlands uere also arnong the top 10 earners,abhough
UK Germarytand Canada earned lessthan they spent.
Interestingfit,tlte correlation betuteenthe top eArnersand the mostpopular

drstinations is not so direct. While the US earned more than twice as much as
France ($74 billion as against $29.7 billion), France actually had 70 million
arriuals as opposedto47.1 millionfor the US. Houteuer,in the caseof haly and
Spain the earningsand number of arriuals u)eremore closelycorrelated.
Neuertheless, the costof tourism in somecountriesis clearly much higher tltan in
others,so tltat uthile Mexico and Poknd receiuedaround 19 million uisitorseach
(pkcing tltem aboueCanada and Ausnia), they do not dPPearamong the top
elrners, while Ausnalia, uhich earned $8.6 billion, doesnot aPPearamong the
top ten destinationsfor arriuals.
Part4.
22. l. a) significant; An enormous b) signifcantly; enormously;a great deal
c) a great deal; signifcantly; enormously d) significant;enormous
2. more than
3. signifcantly; xeadily
23.
dramatic/ (noticeable)/ (remarkable); about
(dramaticalll / remarkably; noticeable; rather
24.The following are suggestedanswersonly:

enormously/ drariaricallyi" relatiuelyI quite; uery/ extremely:
slightly; just ouer; more tltan / uell ouer
Visuals:Writingabout Graphs, Tablesand Diagrams 63
25,Here are two suggestedversions.Note that in the first casethe last sentence
of the original is kept, and in the second caseit is only slighdy modified, since
there is no redundancy th€re.
l. The graph shoulsAn enormousinnease in tbe rate of email usein the UK
betueen 1998 and 2004. In 1998 there were about l0 million email usersand
by 2000 thisfgure had doubled. The graph showsthis trend continuing until
2002 and then a slight reduction in growth rate to 2004.
2. The graph showsthat betu,teen1950 and 1990 there uas a dramatic change
in the rate of arranged marriagesin Japan. Whik at the beginning of this period
about 650/oof the population uterein arranged marriages,and only around 22o/o
had loue marriages,by 1990 this proportion taasinuerted, uith B3o/obeing in
loue marriagesand on$ 15%oinuolued in arranged marriages.
26. The incorrect sentencesare:

1. This is not an incorrectsentence,but it is an'empry'one: it conveysnot real
information.
2,3, and 4 arc correctbut 3 is not very good in sryle.
5. Expenditure cannot hauean increase.It can, however, increaseasinsentence2.
6. is correct.
7.Here the verb happenis inappropriate. You can replace itby wasfound.
8. You cannot spendexpenditure- the noun andverb do not go tog€ther.
9. The verb perform is incorrect here. You could sayNorth America was responsible
for the highestamount of expenditureon aduertising.
10. The verb spendis in the passivehere, so it cannot have an object!A correct
version would be: The lowestamount tltat utassPentu)d.s$956 million, by Latin
America. Or: $956 was spent by Latin America, and this uas the louest Amount.
Part5. Diagrams.
The following are suggested model answers:
27.
Nitrogen mouesin a cyclethrough the air plants and animals and the soil, and
back into the air. Tbe action of lightning and offee-liuing nitrogen-f.xing
bacteria carriesthe nitrogen into the soil. At tlte sametime somenitrogen-fixing
bacteria in the nodulesof leguminousplants take the ninogen directlyfom the
air. The nitrogen in the soil is taken up by non-leguminousgreenplants, wltile
leguminouspknts deriue (get) nitrogerudirectlyfom the bacteria in their
nodules.Both typesof pknts are consumedby animak. Tlten, wheruthe animak
and plants die, or tlte animals excretetheir food, the ninogen is returned to the
soil, where it is acted on by dennifiting bacteria. Thesecausethe nitrogen to be
returned to the air and the cyclecontinun.
64 Visuals:U/ritingabout Graphs,Tablesand Diagrams
28.
Tbprogressin the trauel industry there are tu)o careerpaths that can befollowed.
Beginning as either a trauel salesassistantor a nauel clerk, an employeecanfrst
becomea trauel consubantfor domesticolterationsand then bepromoted to
international operations.From there it is possibleto mouein three directions.
Ti,auelconsubantscan becomesenior trauel consuhants,but fom that position
there is no further direct promotion. They can abo cltooseto moueeither in the
direction of the commercialpriuate sector,or tourism and thepublic or specialised
domesticsector.In tlte priuate sectorthe next stePis to trauel salessuperuisorand
fom there to small agenc! manag€r or branch manager.In the tourism sectorone
can either bepromoted to nauel administration manager or marketing manager.
\Vhile both small agenc! mdnagersand marketing managerscan moueuP to
CEO leueldirectly for branch managersand trauel administration managers
there is still another stage,that of senior manager,to go through beforereaching
the top.
29.
A gas-coolednuclear reActorconsistsof the reactor itself and a heat exchanger.

The reactor contains uranium fuel elementswhich are surrounded by graphite
moderatorsand topped by chargetubesfor loadingfuel elements,and boron
control rods. The tuhole reactor is contained in a pressureuesselsunounded by a
concreteshield.
From the reActorthe hot gasflou.,sthrough a duct into the heat exchanger.There
a pipe brings in water uhich is heated to stedm,and this thenflouts out to the
turbo-ahernator. Meanu)hile the hot gas sinks to the bottom of the heat excltanger
and passesthrough a gas blouter uhich pushesit into a coolgas duct and back to
the reactor.

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Published by Academic English Press

Ph: (5r) 29212 1882

A Note on terminology: The IELIS Handbook mentions diagrams and tables.

1. ThePurposeof Graphsand Tables

tWe actually need to know two things:

\Wewill deal with the first one first.

a) to explain what is in the t€xt in a different way

1.2 Writingabout Graphsand Tables

In Thsk 1 candidatesare askedto look at a diagram or table, and to present the

r organise, present and possibly compare data

IELTS Handbooh, 1999

a) to explain what is in the graph or table in a different way which makes it

1.3 Understandingthe Purpose

Asia Europe Latin North

a) This gdph showsthe auerageannualurban groluth rate of 5 continentsfrom 1970

that since 1970 there has beenconsiderableurban grotuth in all 5

differenttypesof Graphsand Tables

CigaretteConsumptionin China 1950- 90

Percentaqe of all children

1987 28,174 China 115,87'l

Understanding graphs and rables involves understanding the following details:

l. tVhat was the amount of emissions from industrial countries in 1950?

from 1985- 2000

ffi rrrop" c282,OOO

The languageof graphs and tables is divided, for convenience, into:

In Part 3 we will deal with:

To use this languagecorrectly,it is necessaryto keep the following points in mind:

2.1 Writingthe Introduction

So how do you begin?There are three steps.

Step 3: Consider the languageto use-the introductory expressions,the tenses

For Step 3 this section should help you.

2.1,1 What introductoryexpressionsto use

Most of the above expressionscan be followed by a clause starting with that.

Tiy to identi$' which is which by doing the next exercise.

1. The graph shows/ indicates I a) that thepopulationofAlia greu',

2. Note that the expressionsas cAn be seenfrom the graph or as is shotttn/

3. The word preserutrsis best avoided, since it requires a sophisticated

a) This graph sltotasthe changesin world rneatProduction betueen 1950 and

Here are the common ones:

Orher usefulexpressions are:

2.2.1Usingthe right tenses.

1. Theproduction of sheepand goat meat remained almost unchanged

There is some confusion about whether the verb following thesephrasesshould be

Warning! A common error is to omit the after expressionsIike all.of or tlte

\07ith countable nouns With uncountable nouns

(ii) length weight distance height

The term proportion is also used to compare two things:

The number of unemployedutas 10% of thepopulation.

*Note: It is difficult to use comprise correctly, since it has several related

Warning: Be carefulto usem€asurementterms to avoid mistakeslike the

2.3.8 RelatedAQjectivesand Adverbs

2.6.2 Common Adverbials:

Insidebuildings A4 paper-usedon one side ) 22o/o

Skips(building comoostablematerials 40%

FoodOutlets ; cardboard 30%

Of all the wastereportedin the UNSW surueyin 1966, it wasfound that

1. a) the krgest amount b) the greatestproportion c) the majority

generationin Australiaby fuel type,1996/97