NARATE LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING WITH NEAT SKETCH.

Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is a rapid prototyping system developed by Helisys Inc. (Cubic Technologies is
now the successor organization of Helisys) In it, layers of adhesive-coated paper, plastic, or metal laminates are
successively glued together and cut to shape with a knife or laser cutter. Objects printed with this technique may be
additionally modified by machining or drilling after printing. Typical layer resolution for this process is defined by the
material feedstock and usually ranges in thickness from one to a few sheets of copy paper

Diagram:
1 Foil supply.
2 Heated roller.
3 Laser beam.
4. Scanning prism.
5 Laser unit.
6 Layers.
7 Moving platform.
8 Waste.

Process:

The process is performed as follows:

• Sheet is adhered to a substrate with a heated roller.
• Laser traces desired dimensions of prototype.
• Laser cross hatches non-part area to facilitate waste removal.
• Platform with completed layer moves down out of the way.
• Fresh sheet of material is rolled into position.
• Platform downs into new position to receive next layer.
• The process is repeated until full model or prototype prepared.


WHAT ARE THE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF LIMITED OBJECT MANUFACTURING?
Merits:

• Ability to produce larger-scaled models

• Uses very inexpensive paper
• Fast and accurate
• Good handling strength
• Good handling strength
• Environmentally friendly
• Not health threatening

Demerits:

• Need for decubing, which requires a lot of labor
• Can be a fire hazard
• finish, accuracy and stability of paper objects not as good as materials used with other RP not as good as
materials used with other RP methods

HOW FDM IS USED IN RPT EXPLAIN WITH SKETCH?

In this technique, a spool of thermoplastic filament is fed into a heated FDM extrusion head. The X and Y movements are
controlled by a computer so that the exact outline of each section of the prototype is obtained. Each layer is bonded to
the earlier by heating. This method is ideal for producing hollow objects.
In this technique, the object is made by squeezing a continuous thread of polymer through a narrow, heated nozzle that
is moved over the base plate. The thread melts as it passes through the nozzle, only to get hardened again immediately
as it touches (and sticks to) the layer below. A support structure is needed for certain shapes, and this is provided by a
second nozzle squeezing out a similar thread, usually of a different color in order to make it easier to distinguish them. At
the end of the build process, the support structure is broken away and discarded, freeing the object. The FDM method
produces models that are physically robust. Wax can be used as the material, but generally models are made of ABS
plastic.

WHAT ARE THE APPLICATIONS OF FDM MODEL?

Fit, Form and Function Testing
Determine the physical, functional and performance features that identify a specific part. With fit, form and function
testing, determine characteristics that will help you better evaluate your model.
Rapid Tooling Patterns
Form metal/ceramic composite molds for injection molding which can produce thousands of plastic parts.
Precise, Detailed Parts
Although FDM technologies produce durable models, they can still produce small intricate models. Scaled down models
of your prototype can be tested appropriately.
High Heat Applications
Unlike regular 3D Printing, FDM technologies can withstand high heat tolerances. This is great for parts that will be
subjected to high heat, allowing you to better test and analyze your model.

WRITE THE LIMITATION AND ADVANTAGES OF FDM PROCESS.

Advantage of FDM:

1. This method is highly accurate, since it uses fine mesh.

2. It is the only widely used method in time domain for solving general problems.
3. Simple to implement than MOM or FEM.

Disadvantage of FDM:

1. Meshing is inflexible
2. Uncertainty about precision of boundaries
3. Frequency domain finite difference formulation are available but never become popular for general problems.
DESCRIBE SLS PROCESS WITH A SCHEMATIC CONFIGURATION OF THE PROCESS SETUP.
In this method, a thin layer of powder is applied using a roller. The SLS uses a laser beam to selectively fuse powdered
materials, such as nylon, elastomers and metals into a solid object. The CO2 laser is often used to sinter successive layers
of powder instead of liquid resin. Parts are built upon a platform which sits just below the surface in a bin of the heat-
fusible powder. A beam of laser then traces the pattern on the very first layer thereby sintering it together. The platform
is further lowered by the height of the second layer and powder is again applied. This process is continued until the part
is completed. The excess amount of powder at each layer helps to support the part during its build-up.

WHAT IS STAIR STEP EFFECT ASSOCIATED WITH SLS PROCESS?

Because of layer by layer deposition of the material and due to the finite thickness of each layer, situation similar to stair
case will be resulting on the surface and this effect is known as stair stepping effect. From the figures it can be seen that
layer thickness will directly affect the maximum cusp height attained and the stair case effect on the surface.

To reduce the surface roughness, one may go with very fine layers, but this will be increasing the overall build time and
build cost considerably. If we choose maximum allowable layer thickness then, this will be generating a part with high
surface roughness. So an optimum layer thickness must be decided. The solution for this is to go for adaptive slicing or
local adaptive slicing.
Adaptive slicing is slicing the entire part with different thicknesses according to the local surface geometry and maximum
cusp height that can be reached as shown in the figure above. In local adaptive slicing, maximum layer thickness will be
considered and then checked for maximum slice thickness and each layer is further divided accordingly if required.
EXPLAIN WITH NEAT SKETCH THE PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF STEREOLITHOGRAPHY
PROCESS.
StereoLithography (SL) is the best known rapid prototyping system. The technique builds three-dimensional models from
liquid photosensitive polymers that solidify when exposed to laser beam. The model is built upon a platform in a vat of
photo sensitive liquid. A focused UV laser traces out the first layer, solidifying the model cross section while leaving excess
areas liquid. In the next step, an elevator lowers the platform into the liquid polymer by an amount equal to layer
thickness. A sweeper recoats the solidified layer with liquid, and the laser traces the second layer on the first. This process
is repeated until the prototype is complete. Afterwards, the solid part is removed from the vat and rinsed clean of excess
liquid. Supports are broken off and the model is then placed in an ultraviolet oven for complete curing.

DISCUSS ON STL FILES AND DEFINE SLICING RELEVANT TO CAD.

STL FILE
The developed 3D CAD model is tessellated and converted into STL files that are required for RP processes. Tessellation
is piecewise approximation of surfaces of 3D CAD model using series of triangles. Size of triangles depends on the
chordal error or maximum fact deviation. For better approximation of surface and smaller chordal error, small size
triangle are used which increase the STL file size. This tessellated CAD data generally carry defects like gaps, overlaps,
degenerate facets etc which may necessitate the repair software. These defects are shown in figure below. The STL file
connects the surface of the model in an array of triangles and consists of the X, Y and Z coordinates of the three vertices
of each surface triangle, as well as an index that describes the orientation of the surface normal.

Slicing the STL file
Slicing is defined as the creating contours of sections of the geometry at various heights in the multiples of layer
thickness. Once the STL file has been generated from the original CAD data the next step is to slice the object to create a
slice file (SLI). This necessitates the decision regarding part deposition orientation and then the tessellated model is
sliced. Part orientation will be showing considerable effect on the surface as shown in the figures.

The thickness of slices is governed by layer thickness that the machine will be building in, the thicker the layer the
larger the steps on the surface of the model when it has been built. After the STL file has been sliced to create the SLI
files they are merged into a final build file. This information is saved in standard formats like SLC or CLI (Common
Layer Interface) etc.
 WHAT IS TRI-HATCH PATTERN?

To solidify (or to create) the area inside the part surrounded by the outer boundaries, internal hatching is used to reduce
build time. Initially the boundary lines are created and then the interior is criss-crossed with lines, giving the part
adequate internal stiffness. The style of hatching can vary. The pattern may consist of parallel lines making 0°, 60° and
120° with the x-axis resulting in an internal structure which consists of equilateral triangles . The spacing between the
consecutive lines is about 0.625 mm, and this common hatching pattern is called Tri-Hatch.

EXPLAIN PHOTO POLYMERIZATION OF SL VEINS.

Photo-Polymerization is basically a light based process. It requires three chemical components: a monomer, a photo-
initiator and a reaction terminator. The mor and the photo-initiator are mixed in the initial liquid resin. The terminator
normally comes from the oxygen in atmosphere. Impact of light activator the photo-initiator, which is decomposed in
radicals having free electors. Those radicals react with a monomer chain to form a larger molecular chain still having a
free electron, further reaction with monomer molecules, lengthens the chain causing polymerization to proceed. The
reaction can be stopped by binding the free electron with an oxygen atom. As large as the light remains the formation of
radicals will super side the availability of free oxygen molecules in the liquid. As the light disappears, the lack of new
radicals will leave free way to the oxygen to react with the remaining free electron and prohibit further polymerization.
The presence of oxygen of the liquid’s surface and its diffusion within the surface layer are thus essential for controlled
solidification.

WHY SLICING IS NEEDED IN RAPID PROTOTYPING?

The slice programme converts the three-dimensional object in the STL file into two-dimensional crosssections. The slice
axis is defined as the normal to the plane created by slicing and this is also the build direction while creating the part by
GMP. The thickness of slice dictates the texture, accuracy and build time. The layer thickness is normally in the range
0.0625 mm to 0.75 mm. It is, however, not correct to assume that using thicker layers (and reducing the number of layers)
leads to reduced build time in all cases. In many processes the speed of scanning of the activating element (laser beam in
many processes) depends greatly on the layer thickness. So, the time required for creating individual layers increases
greatly when large thickness is used. Figure 1.10 shows the typical characteristics of how the build time changes when
the layer thickness is gradually increased for three different power levels of the beam used. It is seen that the range 0.125
mm to 0.25 mm is the optimum irrespective of the beam power.

WHY ISOLATED ISLANDS ARE PROVIDED WHILE SLICING THE CAD MODEL?
Slicing is done to avail the part to be 3D printed and for the generation of the G-codes.
• Isolation may provided to have a better degree of view of the generated slices for visualisation and to know how
layer by layer printing will take place.
• Isolation is necessary to have a look of the inside cavity in the design.
• Virtually each and every layer will be distinct from its immediate predecessor and successor, so for creating a
better G-CODE isolation may be provided.
• To have the insight of the design and anticipation of the entire slicing and printing process, it is necessary.
• Those islands are the representations of the mesh that has divided the topology of the design by assuming a
convenient shape function, you will find that in the same visual patent of the islands, additive manufacturing or
3D printing.



DRAW VARIOUS TYPES OF SUPPORT REQUIRED IN IT.

EXPLAIN THE APPLICATION OF RAPID PROTOTYPING IN MEDICAL FIELD WITH EXAMPLES.

• Design and development of medical devices and instrumentation. This is the field where applications of RP show
the best results. It specially applies to hearing aids but also to other surgical aid tools.
• Great improvements to the fields of prosthetics and implantation. RP techniques are very useful in making
prostheses and implants for years. The ability to quickly fit prosthesis to a patient's unique proportions is a great
advantage. The techniques are also used for making hip sockets, knee joints and spinal implants for quite some time.
Both the release of and the improvement of the properties of used materials have had a significant influence on the
quality of prostheses and implants made by RP. One interesting example is maxillofacial prostheses of an ear which
is obtained by creating a wax cast by laser sintering of a plaster cast of existing ear. Due to RP technologies it is very
easy to manufacture custom implants. The made model could be used as a negative or a master model of the custom
implant. Many researchers explored new applications of RP in this field.
• Planning and explaining complex surgical operations. This is very important role of RP technologies in medicine
which enable presurgery planning. The use of 3D medical models helps the surgeon to plan and perform complex
surgical procedures and simulations and gives him an opportunity to study the bony structures of the patient before
the surgery, to increase surgical precision, to reduce time of procedures and risk during surgery as well as costs (thus
making surgery more efficient). The possibility to mark different structures in different colors (due to segmentation
technique) in a 3D physical model can be very useful for surgery planning and better understanding of the problem
as well as for teaching purpose. This is especially important in cancer surgery where tumor tissue can be clearly
distinguished from healthy tissue by different color. Surgical planning is most often done with stereolithography
(SLA) where the made model has high accuracy, transparency but limited number of colors and 3DP (for more
colored models, presentation of FEA results).
• Teaching purposes. RP models can be used as teaching aids for students in the classroom as well as for researchers.
These models can be made in many colors and provide a better illustration of anatomy, allow viewing of internal
structures and much better understanding of some problems or procedures which should be taken in concrete case.
They are also used as teaching simulators.
• Design and manufacturing biocompatible and bioactive implants and tissue engineering. RP technologies gave
significant contribution in the field of tissue engineering through the use of biomaterials including the direct
manufacture of bioactive implants. Tissue engineering is a combination of living cells and a support structure called
scaffolds. RP systems like fused deposition modeling (FDM), 3D printing (3-DP) and selective laser sintering (SLS)
have been proved to be convenient for making porous structures for use in tissue engineering. In this field it is
essential to be able to fabricate three-dimensional scaffolds of various geometric shapes, in order to repair defects
caused by accidents, surgery, or birth. FDM, SLS and 3DP can be used to fabricate a functionalscaffold directly but
RP systems can also be used for manufacturing a sacrificial mould to fabricate tissue-engineering scaffolds.

WHAT IS MEANT BY RAPID PROTOTYPE? WHAT ARE THE ROLES OF PROTOTYPE IN
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS?
Rapid prototyping is the new manufacturing technique that allows for fast fabrication of computer models designed with
three-dimensional computer aided design software. RP is used in a wide variety of industries from show to car
manufacturers. This technique allows for fast realisation of ideas into functioning prototypes shortening the design time
leading towards successful final product. RP technique compromises of two general types; additive and substractive each
of which has its own pros and cons. Substractive type RP or a traditional tooling manufacturing process is the technique
in which material is removed from a from a solid piece of material until the desired design remains. Example of this type
of RP includes traditional milling turning onto leave me a link to more advanced version computer numerical control,
electrical discharge machining. Additive type RP is the opposite of subtraction type RP. Instead of removing materials
material is added layer upon layer to build up the desired design such as stereolithography use fused deposition modelling
and 3-D printing. The impact rapid prototyping can have on the design process and the product development process as
a whole. The speed and flexibility of Arby technology is decreased the overall time to come be complete the new product.
This also ensures that the final mechanical and closure of the new handheld Video game incorporated ergonomic design
features that users desire.

EXPLAIN INFORMATION WORKFLOW INDICATING THE MAIN STAGES OF RP SYSTEM

WORKFLOW.
All RP systems have a common information workflow. The main stages in preparing and preprocessing data for
automated fabrication of 3-D objects are as follows:
Data creation:
A 3-D CAD package or today scanning device can be employed to create Geometric data. In both cases the data must be
presented in a model who is surface define a closed 3-D volume without any holes, services with zero thickness or more
than two surfaces meeting along common ages. Formally the model is valid if the system can deter mine uniquely for
each. In the 3-D space whether it lies inside, On, or outside the object surfaces.
Data export:
The valid 3-D model is exported from the CAD package in an external format which is most cases is STL. Some CAD
packages allowed the size of generated file to be controlled by increasing or decreasing the model.
Data validation and repair:
The exported data is an approximation of the precise internal 3-D model. During this approximation process the model
surfaces are very presented with simple geometric entities in the form of triangles. Unfortunately, SDL model created in
this way can contain undesirable geometric errors such as holes and overlapping areas along surface boundaries.
Therefore, the generated files have to be validated before being further processed. Some RP packages after facilities for
model repair automatic and or manual. These packages include software tools that evaluate the STL models and deter
mine whether any triangles are missing. In case of errors the gap in the models are filled with a New triangle
Part orientation and scaling:
RP systems bed parts along the Z axis of their STL models. Through reorientation of the parts related to the model
coordinate systems their accuracy surface finish and build time can be optimised. Some RP systems allow several parts to
be nested in the system chamber in order to be built Simultaneously. In addition the parts can be scared to compensate
for anticipated and normalise that might be introduced by downstream process as such as Deformation, shrinkage
,warpage and curling.
Support structure generation:
Liquid based RP processes required support structures to build overhanging areas of the parts. These structures are usually
generated automatically employing specialised software tools. These areas requiring support structures can be minimised
by the approximately selecting the part build direction.
Setting up process parameters:
Process related parameters are entered to specify the build style and desired system attributes. These parameters are
can be adjusted based on part requirements and RP material being used.
2D slice data generation:
The STL file is sliced to produce successive cross-sectional layers. In each cross-sectional polylines are used to approximate
the exterior and interior boundaries of RP models. These polylines boundaries can be offset by a particular value to
compensate for process errors. The slice data can be generated off-line for the entire model or online, process section at
a time during part building.