Chapter V

GENDER ROLES SOCIALIZATION IN PATRIARCHY SOCIETY

5.1: INTRODUCTION

Patriarchy literally means "rule of the father", today it is a term that refers to

social systems where power is concentrated in the hands of adult men. In this type of

system men hold authority over women, children and property, leading to female

subordination.

A key feature of Patriarchy is the notion of traditional gender roles.

Traditional gender roles cast men as strong, decisive, rational and protective while

women are seen as emotional, irrational, weak, nurturing and submissive. These

gender roles are restrictive of both men and women as it is degrading for a man to

have some sort of female characteristic and unattractive for a woman to have some

sort of a male characteristic.

Gender roles are a set of social and behavioral norms that, within a specific

culture, are widely considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a

specific sex. The perception of gender roles includes attitudes, actions and

personality traits associated with a particular gender within that culture. Gender

roles are predominantly considered within a family context as well as within society

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 in general and may collectively be referred to as gender stereotypes which are

transferred to members during socialization flow inside a cultural context.

Socialization process is a permanent process and several factors such as family,

friends, school etc. can effect on that as socializing factors. So, it is observed that

appropriate gender behaviours of women and men that are learned during

socialization process mostly are associated with gender stereotype beliefs which are

rooted in patriarchy society; they are transferred through socialization factors to

next generation.

5.2: PATRIARCHY IDEOLOGY

Kate Millet introduced the key concept of patriarchy to the feministic

thoughts in early years of 1970s in a book called “sexual Politics”. Kate Millet

opened a new discussion in feministic literature to construct a linkage between mind,

objectivity, agency and structure. The term patriarchy has a long old history in

political science theories. The origin of this word is the word Patriarchs which means

tribe leader. This concept was used widely in political literature of 17th century for

mentioning monarchy power.

In fact this word was used for explaining government in which the relation

between the king and people was like father and son. Millet borrowed this term from

politics and there are two reasons for this borrowing. First, according to Millet’s

opinion in a patriarchy system, all men have domination on women. Second, old men

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are prior to younger and children. It seems that due to same reason Millet has

considered no significant difference between patriarchy in families and society. In

any way gradually this term extended between all feminists whom have now changed

to an abbreviation term which indicates some typical social system in which

domination of men on women and women’s lowering is so obvious.

Patriarchy literally means rule of the father in a male-dominated family. It is

a social and ideological construct which considers men (who are the patriarchs) as

superior to women. Sylvia Walby in “Theorizing Patriarchy "calls it “a system of

social structures and practices, in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women”

(Walby,1990). Patriarchy is based on a system of power relations which are

hierarchal and unequal where men control women’s production, reproduction and

sexuality. It imposes masculinity and femininity character stereotypes in society

which strengthen the iniquitous power relations between men and women. Patriarchy

is not a constant and gender relations which are dynamic and complex have changed

over the periods of history. The nature of control and subjugation of women varies

from one society to the other as it differs due to the differences in class, caste,

religion, region, ethnicity and the socio-cultural practice.

Subordination of women in developed countries is different from what it is

in developing countries. While subordination of women may differ in terms of its

nature, certain characteristics such as control over women’s sexuality and her

reproductive power cuts across class, caste, ethnicity, religions and regions and is

common to all patriarchies. This control has developed historically and is

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institutionalized and legitimized by several ideologies, social practices and

institutions such as family, religion, caste, education, media, law, state and society,

which are discussed in the later sections.

Patriarchal societies propagate the ideology of motherhood which restricts

women's mobility and burdens them with the responsibilities to nurture and rear

children. The biological factor to bear children is linked to the social position of

women’s responsibilities of motherhood: nurturing, educating and raising children by

devoting themselves to family.

The first lessons of patriarchy are learnt in the family where the head of the

family is a man/ father. Man is considered the head of the family and controls

women’s sexuality, labour or production, reproduction and mobility. In a patriarchal

family the birth of male child is preferred to that of a female.

According to Gerda Lerner, family plays an important role in creating a

hierarchal system as it not only mirrors the order in the state and educates its children

but also creates and constantly reinforces that order (Lerner, 1986: 127; also see

Bhasin, 1993: 10). Family is therefore important for socializing the next generation

in patriarchal values. The boys learn to be dominating and aggressive and girls learn

to be caring, loving and submissive. These stereotypes of masculinity and femininity

are not only social constructs but also have been internalized by both men and

women. While the pressure to earn and look after the family is more on the man, the

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women are supposed to do the menial jobs and take care of their children and even

other members of the family. It is because of these gender stereotypes that women

are at a disadvantage and are vulnerable to violence and other kinds of

discriminations and injustices. Systemic deprivation and violence against women:

rape, sexual harassment, sexual abuse, female feticide, infanticide, sati, dowry

deaths, wife-beating, high level of female illiteracy, malnutrition, undernourishment

and continued sense of insecurity keeps women bound to home, economically

exploited, socially suppressed and politically passive (Bhasin, 1993: 13).

Patriarchal constructions of knowledge perpetuate patriarchal ideology and

this is reflected in educational institutions, knowledge system and media which

reinforce male dominance. More subtle expressions of patriarchy was through

symbolism giving messages of inferiority of women through legends highlighting the

self-sacrificing, self-effacing pure image of women and through ritual practice which

emphasized the dominant role of women as a faithful wife and devout mother (Desai

and Krishnaraj, 2004: 299).

Laws of Manu insist that since women by their very nature are disloyal they

should be made dependent on men. The husband should be constantly worshipped as

a God, which symbolized that man is a lord, master, owner, or provider and women

were the subordinates. It legitimizes that a woman should never be made

independent, as a daughter she should be under the surveillance of her father, as a

wife of her husband and as a widow of her son (Chakravarti,2006: 75). While in

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ancient India (Vedic and Epic periods), women were by and large treated as equal to

men, the restrictions on women and patriarchal values regulating women’s sexuality

and mobility got strengthened in the post-Vedic periods (Brahmanical and Medieval

periods) with the rise of private property and establishment of class society.

Patriarchal constructions of social practices are legitimized by religion and

religious institutions as most religious practices regard male authority as superior

and the laws and norms regarding family, marriage, divorce and inheritance are

linked to patriarchal control over property biased against women. A person’s legal

identity with regard to marriage, divorce and inheritance are determined by his or her

religion, which has laid down duties for men and women and their relationship. Most

religions endorse patriarchal values and all major religions have been interpreted and

controlled by men of upper caste and class. The imposition of parda, restrictions on

leaving the domestic space, separation between public and private are all gender

specific and men are not subjected to similar constraints. Thus the mobility of

women is controlled. They have no right to decide whether they want to be mothers,

when they want to be, the number of children they want to have, whether they can

use contraception or terminate a pregnancy and so on and so forth (also see Bhasin:

6).Male dominated institutions like church and state also lay down rules regarding

women’s reproductive capacity.

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5.3: MORE DETAILED ANALYSES OF PATRIARCHAL BELIEFS IN THIS

STUDY

In this study, patriarchal beliefs has been identified as an effective factor on

the acceptance rate of gender stereotypes, so the researcher has focused on the

patriarchal beliefs in this chapter as a main factor which explained 66% of

acceptance rate of gender stereotypes variance. She has tested the relationship

between patriarchal beliefs and nationality, gender, marital status, study field, family

size, occupational status, living area variables which has shown in the following

tables:

Table-5.1

T Test for Gender and Patriarchal Beliefs by intervention of the nationality

Nationality Gender N Mean Std.Deviatio t d.f. Sig(2-
n tailed)
India Male 204 14.72 4.79 6.3 357 0.000
Female 155 11.05 4.70
Iran Male 134 13.22 4.42 0.5 26 0.6
Female 135 12.98 5.05 7

The T-test of the variables (table-5.1) shows the T value as 6.3 and 0.5 at a

significance level of (0.00 & 0.6) respectively for India and Iran. Thereby, it can be

said that the gender has affected the patriarchal beliefs in India but it has not affected

the patriarchal beliefs in Iran. The mean differences are significant in India regarding

T value; so it can only be generalized to the India.

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 Chart-5.1
Gender and Patriarchal Beliefs by intervention of the nationality

16
14
12
10
8
6
4 partiarchy
2
0

The chart-5.1 shows that the acceptance rate of gender stereotypes among

Indian male is more than Indian female but there is no significant difference between

Iranian male and female and also this chart indicates that the acceptance rate of

gender stereotypes among Indian male is more than Iranian male and the acceptance

rate of gender stereotypes among Indian female is less than Iranian female.

Table-5.2
ANOVA Test for Study Field and Patriarchal Beliefs by Intervention of the
Nationality
Nationality Sum of Mean F d.f. Sig

Square Square

India Between groups 686.99 343.494 16.957 2 0.000

Within groups 7211.33 20.257 359
Total 7898.32 358
Iran Between groups 240.02 120.008 4.770 2 0.009
Within groups 6692.94 25.161 266
Total 6932.95 268

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 The ANOVA test of the variables (table-5.2) shows the F value as 16.957 &

4.770 at a significance level of (0.00 & 0.009) respectively for India and Iran.

Thereby, it can be said that the study field and patriarchal beliefs is valid; therefore,

it is inferred that there is a significant difference between the study field of Indian

and Iranian students regarding patriarchal beliefs; so the result can be generalized to

the universe.

Table-5.3
TUKEY HSD Test for Study Field and Patriarchal Beliefs by intervention of the
nationality

Nationality Study Field Frequency Subset for alpha=o.o5

1 2 3
India Eng-Tech 103 11.14
Science 130 13.24
Art & Social Science 124 14.62
Iran Eng-Tech 65 11.74 _
Science 125 13.87 _
Art & Social Science 79 12.24 12.24 _
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed

TUKEY test shows the study field is influenced the patriarchal beliefs only

among Indian students, while the study field is not influenced the patriarchal beliefs

among Iranian students. The table-5.3 shows that among three study fields, there is a

significant relationship. It means that there is a significant difference between Art &

Social Science, Engineering & Technology and Science in India. But the above table

shows that there is only a significant difference between Engineering & Technology

and Science study field in Iran.

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 Chart-5.2
Study Field and Patriarchal Beliefs by intervention of the nationality
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 Series 1

The above chart indicates that the patriarchy beliefs among Indian students

of the Art & Social Science is more than the other study fields (Science and Eng-

tech) and also the patriarchy beliefs among Iranian students of the Science is more

than the Eng-Tech and Art & Social Science.

Table-5.4
T Test for Living Area and Patriarchal Beliefs by Intervention of the
Nationality
Nationality N Mean Std.Deviation t d.f. Sig(2-
Living Area tailed)
India Urban 142 11.74 4.62 4.575 366 0.000
Rural 216 14.00 4.54
Iran Urban 243 12.72 5.17 1.594 267 0.1
Rural 26 14.38 3.96

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 The T-test of the variables (table-5.3) shows the T value as 4.575 at a

significance level of (p=0.00). Thereby, it can be said that the living area and

patriarchal beliefs by intervention of the nationality is valid only for Indian

respondents ; therefore, T-test shows that mean of the patriarchal beliefs of Indian

urban respondents (11.74)is less than Indian rural respondents(14.00). This

difference is significant regarding T value (4.575); so it can only be generalized to

the Indian students. But this is not significant for Iranian students.

Chart-5.3
Living Area and Patriarchal Beliefs by Intervention of the Nationality

15
10
5
0
patriarchy beliefs

The chart-5.3 shows that the patriarchal beliefs among Indian and Iranian

rural students is more than Indian and Iranian urban students.

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 Table-5.5

Correlation between Family Size and Patriarchal Beliefs by Intervention of the

Nationality
Nationality Family Size

India Pearson'scorrelation 0.130

Sig 0.01
Patriarchal Beliefs N 359
Iran Pearson'scorrelatio 0.119
Sig 0.05
N 269

The above table (5.4) reveals that there is a positive and weak correlation

between family Size and patriarchal beliefs (r=0.130, sig=0.01) among Indian

students and there is a positive correlation between family size and patriarchal beliefs

(r=0.119, sig=0.05) among Iranian students. Thus, it can be inferred that as the

number of family size of Indian and Iranian respondents increases, the patriarchal

beliefs increases. This result is significant and it can be generalized to the universe.

5.4: EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN - THE DECLINE OF THE

PATRIARCHY

Since the mid-1980s, the term empowerment has become popular in the

development field, especially with reference to women. However, there is confusion

as to what the term means among development actors. The concept of women's

empowerment is the outcome of important critiques generated by the women's

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movement, particularly by "third world" feminists. They clearly state that women's

empowerment requires the challenging of patriarchal power relations that result in

women having less control over material assets and intellectual resources. Women

participate in their own oppression so they must first become aware of the ideology

that legitimizes male domination.

The empowerment process starts from within but access to new ideas and

information will come from external agents. With new consciousness and the

strength of solidarity, women can assert their right to control resources and to

participate equally in decision making. Ultimately, women's empowerment must

become a force that is an organized mass movement which challenges and

transforms existing power relations in society (Batliwala-1994).

Empowerment is a process by which those who have been denied power gain

power, in particular the ability to make strategic life choices. For women, these could

be the capacity to choose a marriage partner, a livelihood, or whether or not to have

children. For this power to come about, three interrelated dimensions are needed:

access to and control of resources; agency (the ability to use these resources to bring

about new opportunities); and achievements (the attainment of new social outcomes).

Empowerment, therefore, is both a process and an end result.

Women are empowered; does that mean that men have less power?

Empowerment has become a new buzzword in international development language but is

often poorly understood. The need to empower women responds to the growing

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recognition that women in developing countries lacks control over resources and the

self- confidence and/or opportunity to participate in decision making processes. At the

same time, the realization that women have an increasingly important role to play in

social and economic development has become widely accepted.

For the protection of women from discrimination, law empowers women

through various ways by equipping the right and power as so to enable to fight

against male hegemony. Apart from the Constitution which provides for the gender

equality and also to lessen the gap between two sexes, law can create empowerment

through various other ways which includes empowerment through conferment of

substantive rights or power, empowerment through institutional infrastructure and

supporting, stimulating and monitoring the attitudinal and values change in society.

In particular there are four methods of empowerment through conferment of

substantive of rights or power on person to be empowered. Firstly, by creating penal

sanctions against certain types of behavior that violates the dignity and liberty of

women. Secondly, by creating proprietary entitlement for women such as giving

them a share on matrimonial property or giving them a right to work and an equal

wage. Thirdly, by providing preferential treatment for women or providing

compensatory discrimination in their favour by reserving jobs and seats in local self-

governing institution. Lastly, by facilitating the exercise of liberty and freedom for

females.

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 In relation to empowerment of women through institutional infrastructure,

one of the most important strategies for their empowerment is to facilitate access to

grievance redresses and rights enforcing institution. Contrasting with the ancient

times when patriarchy was all supreme, the modern Indian and Iranian infrastructure

encompasses various institutional frameworks for the empowerment of women

which includes the Family Court Act which was passed and which provides an

establishment of family court in the view of conciliation and securing the settlement

of dispute relating to marriage and family affair.

The movement to change public opinion and societal attitudes and values can

at the most catalyze by law. But such change cannot come merely through legal

prescriptions. The law can help by protecting the freedom of those people who

crusade for the change and by firmly preventing those who try to subvert. Gender

justice will be an important item on this agenda.

Further, the considering the wake of female empowerment in the male

dominated society, the judicial response relating to gender-justice has to be

considered. Before the national legal instruments are discussed, it is better to know

first about the international legal instruments which give guarantee and protection for

women. They include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, the

Convention on the Political Rights of Women, 1953, Convention of the Elimination

on of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), 1979 and also the

Optional Protocol to the CEDAW, 1999.

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 With respect to the Indian and Iranian constitutional guarantee against

patriarchy, both Constitutions have provided many provisions to give guarantees and

safeguard women and also in order to raise the dignity and strengthening the

empowerment of women. First and foremost the preamble itself contains the goal of

equal status and opportunity for all citizens, either men or women. Further various

articles which include Articles which give guarantee on equality before the law and

equal protection of law, forbid discrimination on the ground of sex by the State,

prohibit traffic in human being, guarantee for undiscriminating of the sex in

educational institution.

5.5: SOCIALIZATION OF GENDER ROLES - THE INCREASE OF THE

PATRIARCHY

Socialization is a process in which children, teenagers and adults learn what

others expect in reciprocal action with them. This process helps people to adapt with

the group (Doyle and Paluti, 1998:73). Values teaching process, attitudes formation

and learning appropriate behaviors with accepted norms of a society is called

socialization. With realization of this process, individual would find identity or social

self. Socialization factors have important role in transferring gender roles and gender

stereotype beliefs. Sociologists basically divide socialization factors to several

fundamental parts: families, schools, media etc. In patriarchal society, these factors

usually make obedience, passive, emotional and dependent picture from women and

an independent, firm, deserve, capable and decisive picture of men. And choose toys

in two years old which are suitable for their gender. In the third birthday child can

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classify people according to being men and women and have some social

expectations of both genders. In about five years old children start to learn

abstractive psychological related to the gender stereotypes. In their opinion boys are

adult, too noisy, aggressive, and capable and girls are little, silent, obedient and

emotional. So the socialization process reinforces the inequality gender in a

patriarchal society.

Jefri Rubin and his coworkers in a research in 1974 found that parents

behave with their children based on their gender role traits. Several studies showed

that the way in which adults behave with their children is completely affected by

their classifying in boys and girls groups (Doyle and Paludi, 1998:74). According to

parents' stereotype expectations from sons and daughters often are shown that gender

roles socialization of children are simplified using toys and clichés clothes choice. In

another way, parents enhance gender roles of their children with choosing method of

children's overall participation in doing house work. For example girls are used for

works such as cleaning up, setting the table and washing and boys are used in objects

transporting, gardening and … So the adults as a socialization factor transfer gender

inequality to their children.

In another way, mass media such as books, magazines, radio, TV, internet,

cinema… have important role in socialization. In most Medias women should act in

a separate way in comparison to men. Usually in children stories, men perform

amazing activities and active roles while girls are generally limited and act passive.

Usually in children stories, men perform amazing activities and active roles while

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girls are generally limited and act passive. School and friends also directly and

indirectly produce and reproduce gender roles in children (Ibid: 79). Definitely

women gender behaviours are completely distinguishable and different from men

that affect interactions of two genders. Always in social interactions and

communications, definitions of roles, activities and emotions related to each gender

are represented which are the basis of gender identity of a person. People's thoughts

about themselves are never performed in the void but are formed in the interactions

(Wood, 1999:57). In the patriarchal cultures, women's roles are considered so much

lower than men's and this consideration is produced and reproduced through social

relations, therefore there is a mutual relation between patriarchal society and gender

role socialization. It means both patriarchal society and gender role socialization

reinforce each other.

In social role theory, men and women learn femininity and masculinity

through social conditions and even learn gender roles related to their biological

gender through different actions with social structures (Alsop, et al ,2002:66).

Surveys show that behavioral differences are mostly based on gender stereotype

beliefs and caused women act as feminine style and also men act men's fashion.

Gender role theory, is one of the most effective explanations for reasons of

"consolidation and intensification of stereotype beliefs".

Eagly believes that one of the reasons which men and women enhance

gender stereotype beliefs is the way of their performance based on social roles. Roles

which have been separated based on gender borders (Vogel, et al, 2003:1).so, men

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and women act based on type of gender classification because roles which they play

need different skills and include different expectations. for example since women

have been seen in educational roles and roles combined with humans relations

traditionally, they are expected to look after children and olds of a family, While

men are expected to have instrumental and active roles . According to this theory,

men and women enhance gender stereotype beliefs because different roles that they

play and create different social demands for them and their roles.

5.6: ROLE OF MEN IN DECLINING OF THE PATRIARCHY

Men need to learn more about women’s problems and find the way to use

their existing power and authority, to change the culture in a more equal direction,

for instance changing gender stereotypes in educational materials and change

workplace cultures Labor, child rearing and family-care have to be addressed. This

will necessitate further rethinking of men's roles in the child- and family-care arenas

( marinova, 2003: 9).

A more gender equal society would be one that would leave men with more

options in terms of careers, life styles and general ways of being. This could not be

good for their emotional, physical and mental health. At the individual level they

would not have to prove their masculinity by dominating other men and women, by

adopting a hyper-masculine façade and in consequence engaging in life-threatening

life-style activities( ibid: 9).

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 Research on attitudes toward gender roles and gender equality reveals that

the majority of men, especially of young men support gender equality. Most

egalitarian attitudes are found among men from the educated middle classes…But

there is a huge gap between egalitarian attitudes and social practice. More and more

men express the wish to be involved actively in parenthood, not limiting fatherhood

to being the economic provider; But only two percent of fathers make use of the

possibilities of parental leave. More detailed qualitative research shows that

especially the men from the educated classes who strictly vote to gender equality and

for wife- husband relations that are freed from a typical gender division of labor,

live in quite traditional gender arrangements(ibid: 10).

But in this study, the results show that male students more than female

students believed in the gender stereotypes and patriarchal beliefs. It means the male

educated class supported gender inequality and patriarchal beliefs (table-5.1).

5.7: GENDER EQUALITY AND DEVELOPMENT

There are some major events that paved the way to gender equality and

gave more arguments to the movement that supported it. Starting with the Vienna

Conference in 1993 and the UN International Conference on Population and

Development (ICPD) in Cairo in 1994 we came to Beijing in 1995, whose Platform

of Action and Declaration became major program documents that fueled the struggle

for women’s rights and gender equality for many years on.

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 Gender equality has been and still is perceived in many societies as

something concerning only women, invented for women and implemented by

women. Women are struggling for gender equality, what about men? Do they need

it? Will they allow it? Will they accept it? The stereotypes concerning both genders

are so deeply enshrined in our minds that sometimes even the strongest advocates for

gender equality are stepping back unconsciously and are paying tribute to their

stereotypical thinking. This is maybe the reason why the gender equality cause was

perceived only as a “women’s” cause and men were more or less isolated from this

process.

Studies have shown that in most societies, gender-based norms and practices

favor men over women in granting access to recourses, opportunities, rights, voices,

decision-making power at home and in the public spheres. There have been various

interpretations of the term gender equality in the past. The World Bank (2001)

defines gender equality in terms of rights, recourses and voices-equality under the

law, equality of opportunities (including access to human capital and other

productive resource) and equality of rewards for work and equality of voice.

Similarly, based on previous analytical work of various experts, the UN

Millennium Project Task Force for Education and Gender (Grown et al-2005) adopted an

operational framework for understanding gender equality which has three main domains

(i) The capabilities domain which is referring to basic human abilities as measured by

education, health and nutrition; (ii) the access to resources and opportunity domain

which refers primarily to equality in the opportunity to use or apply basic capabilities

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through access to economic assets(such as land, property) or infrastructure (such as

income and employment) as well as other political bodies, and (iii) the security domain

which is defined as reduced vulnerability to violence and conflict, as violence,

particularly targets at women and girls, and restrain them from reaching their potential.

The gender approach in the field of planning for sustained development shows

increasing public opportunities for the educated women's active role and social

participation in sustained development plans of any country are taken as necessary and

deprivation of women, from access to equal opportunities, economic insecurity and

especially, poverty, can affect development. Making efforts towards improvement of

those indicators and criteria as well as increasing public opportunities for women's

social participation is a leap towards sustained development but it seems that household-

supporting women, as a part of the society, encounter numerous problems, so efforts are

necessary for recognition, removal or reduction of those problems. Therefore, one cannot

cease his or her efforts towards decline and weakening of the patriarchal beliefs in the

society, since paying attention to gender equality could have a significant effect on the

country's growth and development.

One of the most important criteria that show improvement in the gender

equality in the patriarchal societies (countries) is that women and men can equally

access to cultural, social, economic and political sources and they have equal

opportunities to achieve their potential through education, information, good health,

nutrition, employment etc.

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 Today, improvement in the gender equality is the most important duty to of

Governments because the gender equality can be used to comment frequently on key

issues that have affected people and contributed to the public debate about how to

improve the gender equality in the community.

Finally, developing countries need to develop cultures for economic growth

and enhanced gender equality, especially both men and women as two important

parts of the population. This kind of works can help the governments to take

necessary steps to increase the gender equality and attempt to promote it. Especially,

through weakening the patriarchal ideology.

5.8: SUMMARY

This chapter is about socialization of gender roles and patriarchal beliefs

related to gender stereotypes. The researcher has written briefly about socialization

process of patriarchal beliefs, role of women and men in weakening of patriarchate

and also improvement of gender equality. So the researcher has examined the

patriarchal beliefs with some variables of the research and found that there is a

significant relationship between patriarchal beliefs and gender (male more than

female), study field (respectively Art & Social science field more than Science field

and Science field more than Engineering- Technology field), family size (the number

of family size increases, the patriarchal beliefs increases), living area (rural area is

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more than urban area). This chapter has also covered gender equality and

development with special focus on both women and men role.

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