!" # $ %# &'( )*# *#
+   , # &  $ -. $ & /0 #  /
1 2& 3## 4
   , # &  ,#
2%
 &  $
   5 $ * 5. $ # 6 571       #  8 # 9: *# 4# 3#
 0 21 ;# ! <  # $ 4#* . = * 571 >$ 8 ? 8 # @ A
$  = $ $
 . 5# B * 2 57 5" 5 +. @  %+ $ #$ 7$ 571 @   %+"  ,# 5$ 
 ;#
2#&  1 /C *# D" ) $
 %E0   $ %
#  3  3 2# * *?

4& 5F *
 % *# 5 G  3,# @ 31H 3,#   
" =G6   4$
 !I  
'< 3J   2#&  3## = /C *# D"  *# *#  K  *# 3*L  5
/
  >J 31
 '< 3J 
( 3 M 2#&  3## = D" @  * ,/7N  
 5.E F  45 4=N >O
 P%+"Q   $ -. 7  0H 5 !R *#  
" 3,# !S 3S @
T % 
" 3,# @  *
 2&  5
 +. @
  * *# D" @ ,/7N *# 5  7 4%
1  
" 3,#
 U * %
  "$  &. K%
#  ? 0 >8" *# $ *$H %
$   =:#  * VB !I $ *
U * %
 0  W< $ %
& * 
 %
  K%
#  ? >8" @*# $ *$H %
$ 
< X1   E

"  3,# *# # *$   "$ =1 & K## %
1 ?  >8"
Y *# $ *$H S 
2%
$
< ,# 3*L W  %
  !G 4 G  T  %  "( 5F *
 %  0 % @  3#  5((

@  * #1 9: Z7  Z7N $

  0 5
" 2%3#$ 
$ 4

   T P%+"Q 3F  *
 3#  %
 $ %
$  E [T*T  %
 $ %   *$   0 @  * 3F @ 3  23#$ >0 3F
$ %
 *# %
 ( 6 4%
$ 
 \
< @L  ]*1 
# 
&  * #1  \. M  ? 3## 5.

Paul Adrian Maurice Dirac1

   
      
     !" #$" #" %&  '()   *+
 ,- ./ .0
John von Neumann2

1 !"   

 23 
)4  5 /6  " 7+
3

^
 2#$ @  * $
 + 571 $ 
/, 5
" 4;# W * 5 *#. ! < _^ >&

 U  $ [T*T @
7  3#  $
 2#*'(  T 5 < 5 G 
E 
" 
& @ "*F *#
#*
/
 #*
/
 *# ^ #*  *Y  
"  36  D0 *# $ :# 4# *
 =:#  %
 $ #  *#: *
 = @7 $ %+" @
7 2 $ 
 \
< S *#  * 3,J. *# 
( 3 >:  =
7$ 4*  

$ 
`$ * $ = a: %+" @  2= 3  9
 5* FG  7    a: E
* 5J1*# b 6 3& 1 9 */  $ *
 SI  $  *"* % $  c * 7/$ @ 5.  @
2 #  5J

7 5 $  $ = @  & / =

 ,# 3
,   L /   & P%+"Q 3F 
0 *# 

d @

1 # 
 3 .*# Ue @ Z 7/ 23# f" =0
R %+"  J
 "*F  @"*  
( <  Ue
$ 
 * 
 4%
$  
< * D"*#  XY  *# 5 G *D6 !76 .  3 eN %
  * & 2="
U( 5  =0
R %+"  "*F @
T  5
* $ #  5J %/N g * 2%
$ 
<  ?.   3#$ R 5 G

5 4 T$ *
 *
  Z O J 36
  /I" $  $  4J
 *
 *
  F   @"* e
*L  5 G 4 5"  *L 3J  %
C %
 U( * #1 J 36 $   2='<
 9 #* # # & ( h
 5.  ? =SI *# $ =
0X: N >I 4%
$ 3# /0" 3& 1 &
Z O $ %
$
< * *L  * 4=0
R i7N  @"* "  $ = @7 2= 5 G 
 3J
( # =
I1 e
4 T #$  1 

d 
 $
  $ *1 =
0X: N >I *I @*# 2 & & 3*L ]
5 *# *# 5 G 
  eO *  b*F f
:# =1 & 5 # 1 $
  S
S8 $   E
2 $ %" 5F *
 %

*  #   E  #Y  +  J 36 U( 5  # 5J $ #* #  7 %/N g **#
&# /:  E   3# *
 *1   E $ @ , 4& 3#$ *+  =*# +  E 4+. 5#$

j
    $
   
B  * 0   *#     % +  $      . *      * ?  5
B  * 45 7   5 " 5  _j >&
2= &#

 E   /`$
`$ $ 
&*1 !  , *# $ -. >O = 3#" i @ $ 0: *# 6 2&
 E 2=3# k *
 7& E  36 57 *#  9
  f
:# J % 4## l* )
7/X $ @

5
*#  3
-
< A7 *1 3& #+ J
< % #  $ 4 %  E >O $
 A
:* 
2& 5 5. m
B  $
 $  # m
B *  ?  ?
   
 5 $

 0 # *# 2=1#< %

1  E @ 571 $
 NB !I  >
8  3 . >8" *#
= 
 6 *# 3$ VB @    &. 2%
$  &. X1  0 
 #* 
B *   * #1 =C $ %
$
@
T % 2# C 
$ 
< [1 X1  [$  0GX f R  
  7& $ f
7N  &.  @,
 M athematicalRigor 5.   5
B * $ 
T  0 4B * Gn  0 S =:# *#  &. @
# 2= &. #N 5
 +  3 1 $ %
$  o" 2= "$ $
 5
7+"  G =
  (
* # S 0 *# D" =C 2/C #N 5
 Y
Y6 #N 5
   *N  5
  %+ 7
*'(#7 "0  p81   
$ 2=1#< %
1 0 =+  *# D"  W` %
$  * 
2#
( *: 3##* $
*#  3#( *R  $ =,/7N *#  ;#

 
! 
3& q 0  >7N # 3( %
(  F #N 5
  * *# D"  * V N7?

+ : V × V −→ V . : F × V −→ V K1 H

Bohmian Mechanics4
David Bohm5

r
 K2%
#  5J α, β, · · ·  * F DN Kx, y, z, · · ·  * V DN  * @*#H _ &   =
I1 *#

A1 : x+y = y+x
A2 : (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
A3 : ∃ 0∈V | 0+x=x
A4 : ∀x ∈ V ∃−x ∈V | −x + x = 0,

M1 : α(x + y) = αx + αy
M2 : (α + β)x = αx + βx
M1 : α(βx) = (αβ)x
M1 : 1x = x. K2 H

2#&  3
 v *# *# α G [B α u *# # 97 u + v 4α ∈ F #N  v u *# #   
s s
 Y
Y6 *# D" * V *# D" 4& C s/C #N 5
 R  Y
Y6 #N 5
 F $ @  
s
2%
(  /C

+ G [B + 97 q 0  !O @ A/t *# 2  *# D"  $   N7?  

2 $ #+ J
< * E #* 0
R q 0 #1   3 1 23J 3## m I *R   

2= Y
Y6 *# D"  Y
Y6 A   n N7?  Rn u ^

2= /C *# D"  4/C A  n N7? C n u j

2= *# D"  

 4  F 5
  I N 5.  *# $ m×n  W  N7? Mm×n (F ) u r

23& q 0 [a, b] /I"*# $ x 

d n  Y
Y6   /7 T N7?  Pn ([a, b]) u v

,   *I  g f 9 # 2[a, b] /I"*#'< fJ* k X/C  Y

Y6 9 N7?  C k [a, b] u w
_&  97

(f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x), (αf )(x) := αf (x). K3 H

v
 2%
$ *$ /C *# D"  Z8S  0  @

W ( %
(  V D" * W 3,. 4& 5.  N7? W ⊂ V *# D"  V 3( 


2&  *# *# #N [B *# 97  =

 

DZ  $ X1   /$ *R  2= 0 r D"  D"   xy SI 4G70 0 r D"*# u ^
2= 0  D"  0 # D"   #*', DZ  $  SI 0  D"   #*',

2= D"   O/O n  W  N7? 40   W  D" *# u j

2=D"   Pn ([a, b]) N7? 4C[a, b] 

< 9 D" *# u r

2=D"   '< fJ 9 N7? 4 

< 9 D" *# u v

"# $ % & 

iI &*# 3( %
  /1# [B * ,  : V × V −→ C  # >7N  V *# D"  *# 


_ $

x, y + αz = x, y + αx, z

x, y = y, x∗
x, x ≥ 0
x, x = 0 −→ x = 0. K4 H

     

_C n *# u qG

n

x, y := x∗i yi K5 H
i=1

w
 Mn,m (C) *# u [

A, B := tr(AB † ) K6H

2C k [a, b] *# u ]

 b
f, g := f ∗ (x)g(x)dx. K7 H
a

2%
(  Inner product space  /1# [B # D"  & 3&+? /1# [B   $ * D"

_% *# /1# [B D"  *#  

|x, y|2 ≤ x, xy, y. K8 H

% *# 2% 
( E*# * v := αx + y *# !"

f (α, α∗ ) := v, v ≥ 0 −→ αx + y, αx + y ≥ 0

−→ |α|2 x, x + α∗ x, y + αy, x + y, y ≥ 0. K9 H

−x,y
% 4α = x,x /7  4
d @  *Y    = α 
s /C 
d  j *# 9  X* @ cT bR
*& &$    %
$ 3# * 3. = *N %
# *: cT bR *# * α *Y @ 3( 2= I  (* 
s
2%
* 

 # $ %&'

_#$ q 0 >&  * *#  3 5  /1# [B D"*#

||x|| := x, x. K10H

_ =& 5  *& &$    

|x, y| ≤ ||x|| ||y||. K11H

 # $ %&'  

y
 _C n *# u qG

n

|x|2 := x∗i xi K12H
i=1

Mn,m (C) *# u [

|A|2 := tr(AA† ) K13H

2C k [a, b] *# u ]

 b
|f | := f ∗ (x)f (x)dx. K14H
a

*I  *# # @
   q 0  2#&  >I6 %+ ?
 # *& &$  

|x, y|
cos φ := K15H
|x||y|

_z/O   ,#

||x + y||||x|| + ||y||. K16H

*# 3 D" * & 3& q 0 || || : V −→ R =&, 5.*# $ V *# D"   %&'   ( ') *+

_ & *:  & 3( %

(  N ormed Space 

||v|| ≥ 0 ∀v
||v|| = 0 −→ v = 0
||αv|| = |a| ||v||
||v + w|| ≤ ||v|| + ||w||. K17H

D"  G 4=*# 3 D"  #&  q 0 /1# [B  *  $  3 57 /1# [B D"
2= 3J q 0 /1# [B   *  Z G 3  ,# *N  2=
 /1# [B D"  ZG *# 3
5  C[a, b]s9 D" *#  ||x|| = maxi |xi | *I  * x = (x1 , x2 , · · · xn ) *#  3 5  Rn *# e
Z O

[B   3 # @  $ h

 2#$ q 0 ||f || = supx∈[a,b] |f (x)| *I  5  * f *#  9  3
23
 = /1#

{
 _#$ q 0  >&  * *# # @
 /I" 5  V *# s*# D"  *# $ , *+
s

d(x, y) := ||x − y||. K18H

_=  p1 *# /I" @

d(x, y) ≥ 0
d(x, x) = 0 d(x, y) = 0 −→ x = y
d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z). K19H

 $ >& @  #$ q 0 * XY # @

 /I" 4=
 *# D" Z G $ M  N7?  *# 5  

 ?$ h
 n p1 *# $ 
$ =:# 2 $ iI n p1 *# 3( %
(    * d : M × M −→ R 9
 2#* D" 5# X1  
   q 0 $ = >
G# @
7  2 $ 
<  0 αx  x + y >O 
T $ =

_#$   D"   >  q 0  * M >O CG# N7?  5  !O 5 N


1 x = y
d(x, y) = K20H
0 x=y


' 
G# 0  > 6  +   (   &   3
   X 1 > Y    v1 , v2 , · · · vn  *#  4V *#   D " *#  -  . / , 0
n
2c1 = c2 = · · · cn = 0 $ & 5. c1 , c2 , · · · cn 
s /C  Y
Y6 #N  i=1 ci vi =0
*# N7? @ 3( #&  31 V *# D"  <  e1 , e2 , · · · en X1 >Y *# N7? 
 0 4##  *# @ A6 X1 *I  5 * V  f/0 *#  
k  & X1 >Y

n

∀ v ∈ V, −→ v = vi ei . K21H
i=1


 *#   G 4%
$ oN * < : $ = + 2&  31 i" < *# v *#  G  vi
s
2&  oN
_ $ 3#* . *  |& 3( #&  31 *? +   0 < 

ei , ej  = δi,j , K22H

}
 2=    +.  $ 3 #7N % #  # < *# $ = 0 @  $

##  < *# @ A6 5  * x ∈ V 2% 

( E*# V D"  * {ei , i = 1, · · · N } *? + <
_=&

N

x= xi ei . K23H
i=1

$ = +

xi = ei , x. K24H

6
12# 3 4,0 * # 56 ( 7 89 

 =
7& ( U *  $  U *  5  {v1 , v2 , · · · vN } >O 3CG# <  4/1# [B D"  *#
_=1*? + <  =
_%
# *:

v1 v2 − e1 , v2 e1 v3 − e1 , v3 e1 − e2 , v3 e2

e1 := , e2 := , e3 := ,··· K25H
|v1 | |v2 − e1 , v2 e1 | |v3 − e1 , v3 e1 − e2 , v3 e2 |

2= 3# @& * 

 n U *   
0 2=*? +  < $  $ f
YS 6   3 1

12# * 3  

_C n Rn *# u qG

⎛ ⎞ ⎛
⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 0 0
⎜ 0 ⎟ ⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎜ 0 ⎟
e1 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ · ⎠ e2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ · ⎠ en = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ · ⎠ K26H

0 0 1

_Mm×n (C), Mm×n (R) *# u [

Eij , i = 1, · · · m, j = 1 · · · n, K27H

Gram-Schmidt6

~
 % *# ,# *N  2=I  5.  *#
Y ^   5. (i, j) *# $ =   Eij 5.*# $

[Eij ]k,l = δik δjl . K28H

2   0  < @

q 0  {en (x), fn (x), n = 0 · · · ∞} N7? 4 C k [a, b] *# u ]

2 nπ 2 nπ
en (x) := sin( )x, fn := cos( )x. K29H
b−a b−a b−a b−a

>
7 2#$*? + =
7&u(  "  * 5. ="(E*# {1, x, x2 , · · · xn } >O <  5  4Pn [a, b] *# u #
2%
$  *'( 3 1  * @ 7 @

@*# 2 & V *# D"   *? + < # {ei , i = 1 · · · n} {ei , i = 1 · · · n} $ 

$ o" 3 :

=& 5  *I

ei = Sij ej K30H

5T *I @*# 2%3# 97 *  a1&  *  0 %3#$ 3# 97 ## *:  X* @ @& *# $
% *#   *? + < # 

δij ≡ ei , ej  = Sik ek , Sjl el  = Sik

∗
Sjl ek , el  = Sil∗ Sjk δkl = Sil∗ Sjl . K31H

_=&# %
1 %
    >&  * X* @ 3(

S † S = I, K32H

4 & i" =
I1 *# $  W  2(S † )ij = Sji
∗
_= 3& q 0  >&  W   :SG 5.*# $
2&  31   W  4&  +. 5 *  +. :SG  0
% *# 2 $  

d *#   G < 

d =S
n
 n

x= xi ei = xi ei . K33H
i=1 j=1

%
  2*# %  X * T < # *# *# @  G %
 %
1 

xi = ei , x = Sij ej , x = Sij

∗ ∗
ej , x = Sij xj . K34H

^
 ( )*+, 
3( %
(  Linear operator X1 ,/7N  X1 >  * T̂ : V −→ V =&, 4V *# D"  *#
_&  =
I1 *#

T̂ (x + αy) = T̂ (x) + αT̂ (y) ∀α ∈ F, x, y ∈ V. K35H

 4#&  aCJ < *#  * Uk  +  X1,/7N  45# X1 >
G

N N

T̂ x = T̂ ( xi ei ) = xi T̂ ei . K36H
i=1 i=1

_%
  2%
#  < *# A6 * 5. %
  4= V D"  *# T̂ ei $ ?. 

N

T̂ ei = Tji ej K37H
j=1

 & *? + i" < 3( 2%

(  {ei } < *# T̂ X1 >  |  W  * Tmn  *#  T W 
%
  %


ej , T̂ ei  = Tji . K38H

_ # 1 *N x *#   * T̂ X1 > k

T̂ x = T̂ xi ei = xi (T̂ ei ) = xi Tji ej = (Tji xi )ej = (T x)j ej K39H

@  4#&  [B x  W  *# cT T X1 > W  $ = 5. x  * T̂ X1 > k @ 
_=&# %
1 <  *# *# @  G  3,. 4 x = T̂ x %
& &# *#  ( $  0

[x ] = T [x] K40H

*# * x x *#  G $     W  A

  
 [x ] [x] T̂ ,/7N W  T 5.*# $
2 #  5J aCJ < 

^^
 $ % 
, E*# * {ei } < {ei } <   ( 2& 1 oN 
 X1 > W  %
$ oN * < 3(
=&# %
1 3,. ei = Sli el 5.*#

Tij = ei , T̂ ej  = Sli el , T̂ Smj em  = Sli∗ Tlm Smj , K41H

_=  >: 3#J" *I  $

T  = S † T S, K42H

_#&  q 0 @
T #&  31 S W  :SG  S † 5.*# $

†
S † = (S ∗ )T ,  Sij = (S ∗ )ji . K43H

>     / $ = G 6 *# 2# & q   0   D " 5 7   *#   D "   $ #*     G  X 1 >    ; 

| & *#  ( =   X 1 >    4 , # *#   D "   *#   D "   T̂ : V −→ W = & ,    X 1

5.  * *# D" # $ 
 $ #&  /0 |& @ 2 $ iI T̂ (αx + y) = αT̂ x + T̂ y ∀ α, x, y
2& q 0 >: X1 >  &  =  &  q 0

>  
 α + B̂ 3,. 4& F 5
  f/0 3CG# #N α V  * 3CG# X1 > # B̂ Â 3(
\7 L(V )  * 5. $ #  *# D"  >
J V  * X1 e N7? @  2= V  * X1
q 0  X1 > # [B @
T % 2%
# 

(ÂB̂)x := Â(B̂x) K44H

[B >I6  = *N ÂB̂ X1 >  |  W  $ # 5J  3 1 2= X1 >  


2Tij = k Aik Bkj 3,. 4T̂ = ÂB̂ (  0 2B̂ Â X1  >  |   W 
= *# D" +   L(V ) $ % 
(  ?
 =  
 [B  = X1 e N7? $ ?. 
q 0 (ÂB̂)Ĉ = Â(B̂ Ĉ) '< =$& [B >7N  5.*# $ = *# D"  $ 0 @  =  /
#  8 N 5.*# $  0 @  = (U nital) !
  *#   (ÂB̂ = B̂ Â) =
 ?  @ 2= 3&
2ÂIˆ = IˆÂ =  =
I1  K7,/7N ? *#H #*#

e D" @
 %
$  @
0*D" < $ : 2## = W   5  X1,/7N   $ %#
 X1 >  5  @  2.  #   Mn×n (C)  W  D" L(V )  0 X1
/1# [B D"   * V  * X1 e D" 4 q 0 5  2=( @C 6*   5. W 
_#$ >

^j
 Â, B̂ = tr(AB † ) K45H

2% 
( E*# *# D"  $ =  <  >Y q 0 @ $ # 5J   3 1

- .&!   

W0G 2 $  q 0 X1 >  A ∈ Mn×n (C) 5.*# $ x −→ x = Ax *I  > 4 C n *# u qG
20 n  *#  *# n × n 0  W   [B  =
 
T C n *# X1 > 

 $  > *I  * x ∈ Mm×n (C) $ / 4Mm×n (C) *# u [

x −→ x = AxB T , K46H

m × n W     qG !O  +G  3 1 2= X1 >  B ∈ Mn,n (C) A ∈ Mm,m (C) 5.*# $
D" @
T  * X1 > @  /$ $  $ =k   ="( E *# 0 mn *#  *I  5  *
_ = *N Mm×n (C)  W   * > @  /$  0 2i" e  07  = *N

x −→ x := Ai xBi . K47H
i

$ = / 4D" @

T  * X1 > @  /$ $ %
, %
  qG !O  +G 2C k [a, b] *# u ]
_ $  > *I  * f ∈ C k (a, b)
 b
f (x) −→ f  (x) := K(x, y)f (y) K48H
a

K(x, y) !, >  * > @ 2='< fJ * k #1 8C #  = $ = 0 K(x, y) 5.*# $
!O 5 N  _=& 
 >
# ,/7N  *I  * X1 > 5  #* D0 *# 2 1  5.  *
V e '< fJ =+  9 D"  0 C ∞ [a, b] D"*#

dr
f (x) −→ f (x)  f (x) −→ xr f (x) K49H
dxr
_ > >O = X1,/7N  +. X1 A
$

d2 d
f (x) −→ (x2 2
+ + 1)f (x). K50H
dx dx

^r
  
! $ 
- 
@*# 2& '< 5 * φ 3( %
(  *# D" # @
 7   * φ : V −→ W X1 =&,  


2= 5 M2,2 (C) D"  C 4 D" !O 5 N  2%

1  8 5 * *# D" # =G6
X1 =&,  +. @
 5 3( &  31 5 W V *# D" # *  # *+ 9 '<=

mn
@
T % 2= 5 C *# D"  m × n  W  *# D" !O 5 N  2#$ q 0 '< 5 *
D"  C (−1, 1) 9 D" @
T % 2= 5 C n D"  n  /C   /7  T *# D"
k

*   k 2= 5. +. k   +  # !    2= 5 C k (−∞, ∞) 9
  J
  !O   #1 3 1 2# 5J y = tan π2 x 
d 

d  A  3#    3 1

2 $ 
< *# D" @


)+% .$ /

 01
 
! 
&$ G#  G# @ 2% 
( E*# {x1 , x2 , · · · xn · · ·} >O *#   G# *# D"  *#  !'

#& =" N >O #N  > 0    3( Y

:# *N  2#& %$ M *  *# @
 /I" 3( #&  3

$ 7: 

∀ m, n > N −→ |xn − xm | ≤ . K51H

5 N  * ( #N 5

 3( !O 5 N  2#**: D" #1*# Z G &$ G#  6 *# D"  *#
1 n
5
 >1#*# 5. 6 G 4= &$ G#  T( {(1 + n ) } G# % 
, E*# U#1  * *# D" 
 G# 6  0 = >$ $ .  = Y
Y6 #N 5
 ( #N  € ( #N 5# " 2#**: (#N
2#*# #1*# * &$

2& &# #1*#* &$  G# 6 3( %

(  >$ *# D" * *# D"  > *  # *+

2%
  l D" & >$ $ * *#  *# D"  ?'# *+

Y
Y6 #N 5
 $ ? 2%
  /
 D" & >$ $ * /1# [B D"  !  *+

3# >$ 
 #&  1  5
 @  * $ 0 # S D" $ #$ =k 5  4  >$ /C

Isomorphism7
Isomorphic8

^v
 2= /
 D"  @ 

2
D" @*# 2% 
( E*# f, g = −1 f (x)g(x)dx #* /1# [B  * C[−1, 1] Y
Y6 9 D" _!O
_%
$  q 0*  9 G#
⎧
⎪
⎪ 0 x ≤ − n1
⎪
⎪
⎨
1
fn (x) := 2 (nx + 1) − n1 ≤ x ≤ 1
n K52H
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ 1
1 n ≤x

$ = /< 

< 9 G# @6  2= &$ G#  G# @ $ # 5J 6   3 1
2=
 /
 D"  C[−1, 1] @  2#**: C[−1, 1] D"*#

b
=O 3CG# 9  w 5.*# $ f, g = a w(x)f ∗ (x)g(x)dx /1# [B  /C 9 D" L2w [a, b] *+

 = >$ D" @ $ = 3#$ =k /

 2#&  31 '< * '? !, 9 D" 4||f || < ∞ |& =
$
 *# +. 9
 3# *# D" V @ =
7 2#&  3
 /
 D"  D" @ =  @
7
2 $ 0 0
G.  
G.  [$  =  3 1 4
D:
D: @ k  2=

2= 5 L2w [a, b] D" 4& 0 # S $ /

 D" 

 "2$ %3- 

 T̂ k =S $ = I
t *# @" = *N *Y 3 /‚ 2% 
( E*# * T̂ : V −→ V /,7N
 0 4& > #1   D

T̂ x = λx K53H

   0 &'< 5 * T − λI W  3( # 1 I 

t x *#

det(T − λI) = 0. K54H

^w
5J {λi , i = 1, · · · N } *+. $ #*# [  N Z76 /C #N 36*# $ = N *# G#0  G#0 @
2 
   % 7 Z G  [ @ 2%
(  T̂ > *Y 3 * 5. %
# 
2%
( *Y 3 5.  | *# 3  $  iI T̂ vi = λi vi G#0*# $ * λi  | *#
2= gi 5.  ( *# %
( #&* * gi 4λi >O *Y 3  $ 3(
@    2=  λ  |    *#  3  
 + .  X 1 A
$   $ =   +    &  λ  |   *#  3  y x 3 ( 
2 ( *Y 3 5.  |  D" 3 * 5. $  # D"  >
J*Y 3   f/0 *# N7?


45 $ 
 0  . 
.6%7
2*# 3 =
7 *? + ,/7N @
T %  
#< 4
 ,/7N 
" *# % 
B * *# %
2%
  ,/7N  :SG * 5. $ = 
T q 0 ,/7N @ q 0  V & XY

_ $ iI |&*# $ = T̂ † >O ,/7N T ,/7N sAdjoint  :SG 4/1# [B D"  *# 


v, T̂ w = T̂ † v, w ∀v, w ∈ V. K55H

2#$ =k*  p1 6 5  q 0 @ 3#



(† )† = Â
(cÂ)† = c∗ †
( + B̂)† = † + B̂ †
(ÂB̂)† = B̂ † † . K56H

% *# 2= J  *

Y k 2%
$  =k * 1. X* Y" !"

x, ÂB̂y = (ÂB̂)† x, y K57H

"R 

x, ÂB̂y = † , B̂y = B̂ † † x, y. K58H

^y
 % * .  = X* # @ Y 

[(ÂB̂)† − B̂ † † ]x, y = 0, ∀x, y. K59H

% 
(  ?
 = =*# y *#   X* @ $ ?. 

[(ÂB̂)† − B̂ † † ]x = 0 ∀x, −→ (ÂB̂)† = B̂ † † . K60H

iI T̂ † = T̂ |&*# $ #&  ( ,/7N  

,/7N /1# [B D"  *# ,  @ 6A 


2 $ iI T̂ † = −T̂ |&*# $ #&  ( ,/7N  

 #< ,/7N 2 $

$ 
# 5J @
T % 2= 
#< ,/7N  iA 3,. 4& 
 ,/7N  A 3( $ 
# 5J 4 6

 A
 @  2  
 #  Y X 5.*# $ =& Z = X + iY *I  5  * Z >O 3CG# ,/7N 
2= m
SI 
0 @ # %
1 Z0 $  0   2  Y
Y6 #N >O 
 ,/7N $ =( #&

∂
#&  >
J    9  $ D" *#,/7N @ 2% 
( E*#* D̂ := ∂x ,/7N C ∞ [a, b] D"*# 

*# 9 @ @
T % 2# 1 
 D" @*# P̂ := −iD̂ ,/7N ?
*# 2 = 
#< Kf (a) = f (b) |&H
2= 
 L2 [−∞, ∞]s/
 D"

2 $ iI Û † = Û −1 |& *# $ #&  ( ,/7N  9  ,/7N 4/1# [B D"  *# '= @ 6A

 0 4 $  ƒ6 **# /1# [B  ,/7N 

Û v, Û w = v, w. K61H

<  *# : *  ,/7N  $ = mB 2 $  iI Û Û † = Û † Û = I |&*#  ,/7N @ 

2# 1  W      %
# \7 *? +

2= 
 ,/7N  H 5.*# $ =& eiH >&  5  3*7 *  ,/7N  $ 
# 5J 4 6

2= m
SI # %
1 Z0 $ 
  % 
0 @ 2=  3  /C #N 
&  ,/7N   0 @ 

( = ! N  0 #& ? U :SG  U#1 $ #&  ( ,/7N  10 !  *? + ,/7N 


2N N = N N †
†

Unitary9
Normal10

^{
# G ,/7N  0 2=
 =*# 5. WN G   ! Z76  
 ,/7N $ = mB
$ =& Z = X + iY *I  5  * 3CG# ,/7N  %# $ @    2
     $ *#
5. Y X  0 5.  Y
Y6  =7: $ = ! ,/7N $ % 
(  ?
 4 & 
 Y X 5.*#
=&# %
1 ,/7N @
T  2& ? %

Z † Z = ZZ † = X 2 + Y 2 . K62H

2
  &   $ 
# * ! W    GO 4 6

2%
$  5
  *# * 
D: @ 2#*# # G D: !  4
 ,/7N #* *#

ƒ6 * *# 7 3 ,/7N ( . $ = @ ! 2 $  ƒ6 * *# 3  ,/7N $ %# e:
2= =O ! @ g< „=  ,/7N @ . 4 $

2 $ ƒ6 * *# 7 3 ( Y" ( =  Û ,/7N 

7 3 Û $ 
$ o" !6 2 $  ƒ6**# 3 $ #&  /0 61  3# &  Û ( !"

$ %
#  x, y 3CG#*# #   2 $ ƒ6 * *#

||Û x|| = ||x||, ||Û y|| = ||y||, ||Û (x + y)|| = ||x + y||, ||Û (x + iy)|| = ||x + iy||. K63H

2Û x, Û y = x, y $ % 
(  ?
  * @

%
& &# x *#    ( Y" ( =*? + N̂ ,/7N 
s

||N̂ x|| = ||N̂ † x||. K64H

@  2N̂ N̂ † = N̂ † N̂ % *# & *? + N ( _!  =+ k !"

N̂ x, N̂ x = N̂ † N̂ x, x = N̂ N̂ † x, x = N̂ † x, N̂ † x. K65H

% 
(  ?
   3CG# *# # y x 5.*# $ x + iy x, y, x + y   (??H    _ # =+ k

N̂ x, N̂ y = N̂ † x, N̂ † y, ∀x, y. K66H

^}
 ?
*#

N̂ † N̂x, y = N̂ N̂ † x, y, K67H



(N̂ † N̂ − N̂ † N̂ )x, y = 0. K68H

2=*? + ,/7N  N̂ @  N̂ † N̂ = N̂ N̂ † $ % 

(  ?
   3CG# y x 5T

2#*# # 7+ AG *

 D: *? +  4
 ,/7N q
s
R #* *#
† ∗
2N̂ x = λ x 3,. N̂x = λx ( *I @*# 2=*? + ,/7N  N̂ $ 
$ o" 

_%
$  3# >:
D:  !6 2=*? +
 N̂ − λI 3,. & *? + N̂ ( !"

||(N̂ − λI)x|| = 0 −→ ||(N̂ − λI)† x|| = 0 −→ ||(N̂ † − λ∗ I)x|| = 0 −→ N̂ † x = λ∗ x. K69H

_.  = 3# ?

 #
D: @

2  Y
Y6 
,/7N  #Y 3 9 1,'

2  aG1"  ,/7N  #Y 3 B(9 1,'

2#7N %  7 *Y 3    $ ! ,/7N  *# 3 

*I @*# 2Ây = μy Âx = λx %

$ o" !"

x, μy = x, Ây = † x, y = λ∗ x, y, K70H

?.

−→ (μ − λ)x, y = 0 −→ x, y = 0. K71H

2= *: 
  
 ,/7N  =
I1 @ $ #&  ?
 

D: @ 

^~
 8 9 :4,

5. 12 
R ? …eXI   ,/7N 5. 11 q
R 5#$ 
< * *? + ,/7N  *# 3 #Y 3 5#$
<
2 (  ,/7N
2 #  >
J D"  <  *? + ,/7N  *# 3 0 # S *# D"  *# 

3  *Y 3  Z76 ,/7N $ %

#  2% 
( E*# V 0 n D"  * * Â ! ,/7N !"

_%
#  5J e1 λ1  * R *# 3 *Y 3 @ 2#*#*#

Âe1 = λ1 e1 . K72H

#7N e1  T ( < @ *#

Y 2& 5. DN @
G  e1 $ %
$  [C D"   *? + 0 < 

 A ,/7N W  ?
*# ej=1 |A|e1  = 0 =&# %
1 *I @*# 2 
 A *# 3 Z  G G  
_. *# >&
 
λ1 bn−1
A= K73H
0 An−1

( $ %
#  >: 
D: 2= 0 n − 1 X*#  bn−1 0 n − 1 W   An−1 5.*# $
 =  
 A W  @  2% 3#$ 3# A ,/7N 5# *? +  @*# 2A† e1 = λ∗1 e1 3,. Ae1 = λ1 e1
†

_. *# sX: $/ >&  A W< 2bn−1 = 0 =  ?

*# & O/On "

 
λ1 0
A= . K74H
0 An−1

= !,/7N  #1   An−1 !6 K2%

$ 3# AA† = A† A    Z7
Y $ = 5.  3# 3*  H
@
G  $  < *# $ %

  %
$ * 5.#**#* !n @
7 2#*#*# 3  *Y 3  >:6
_. *# >&  A ,/7N W    e2 e1 5. 8 N @
 #

⎛ ⎞
λ1 0 0
A=⎝ 0 λ2 0 ⎠. K75H
0 0 An−2

2#&  X: >$*R  A 4{e1 , e2 , · · · en } <  0 A *# 3 < *# $ %

  >7N @*

Spectrum11
Spectral Decomposition12

j
 % 
(  E*# *  W  4!O 5 N  2=
 i#I *? +  W  ,/7N  VB @
 
1 c
B= , c = 0. K76H
0 1
 
1
>&  $ #*# # W  @  *# 3 +   2    # W  @ *Y 3
0
2 # >
J D"  <    7 W  @ *# 3 @  2=

   
$ #*# #  >  $ = 0 @   @ 2= X: #1 *# 3 < *# !,/7N  $ %#
*Y 3 2%
$  >7N A
   > @ m I " 5#$
<  2 $  X:* A ,/7N W 
_%
$ 
< * A *# 3

Aei = λi ei , i = 1, · · · n. K77H

* @( *Y 3   |  *# 3 2 #7N % 7 *Y 3    *# 3 $ %
# 
 *  ei ( 2 $  iI ei , ej  = δij &*# *# 3 @ ?
*# 2%
$  #7N % =
7& ( U *  

†
>&  +. 5# *? + X* .  1*# X *# *I   ei 4% 
, E*#  *# *I
†
_%
  >&  * S W  !6 2ei ej = δij #&  5
 

 
S= e1 e2 · · · en K78H

=&# %
1 ?
*# 2 "(*: S *#  *# 5 N   ei 5.*# $

⎛ ⎞
e†1
⎜ e†2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
S =⎜
⎜
†
· ⎟.
⎟ K79H
⎝ · ⎠
e†N

†
$ % 
(  ?
 ei ej = δij |& >
G

⎛ ⎞
e†1
⎜ e†2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ 
S S=⎜
†
⎜ · ⎟ e1
⎟ e2 · · · en = I, K80H
⎝ · ⎠
e†N

j^
 2=  S  0

% * .  = 4Aei = λi ei $ ?.

   
AS = A e1 e2 · · · en = λ1 e1 λ2 e2 · · · λn en K81H

?
*#
⎛ ⎞
λ1 0 ··· 0
⎜ 0 λ2 ··· 0 ⎟
S AS = ⎜
†
⎝ 0
⎟. K82H
0 ··· 0 ⎠
0 0 ··· λn

Z 6eXI ! ,/7N  *Y 3 *# 3 N7?  2= 3& X:  >  A @ 
2#&  3
 
 
R ? ,/7N  5#$ X: $ = =+ @
7  2 (  ,/7N 5. spectrum  q
R

*# 3  >$ N7?  +.  5 ( Y" ( & ? , B A ! ,/7N # 

2=" ;J
 < 5  Z 76 &? , !,/7N # (   5. #$ 5
 5  
 ,# >&  *
D: @
( + 
D: =
*: CG# <   =
I1 @ $ %
$ 
$  2 & X:,/7N # 5.*# $ ="
2& *: =
I1 @ 5.*# $ ="  < 5  $

=:#  =  3 1 #*# $

*# # =
7 # *$E  % +E %
D: @
2#
," . k
$ ?. 2 & &# {e1 , e2 , · · · eN } >O ;J*# 3 N7?  $  & ,/7N # B A $ %
$ o" _k
% *# < @*# 2#$ [CD" < 5 N  5  * N7? @   
,/7N # @

Aei = λi ei , Bei = μi ei K83H

% 
(  ?
 5. $

ABei = BAei −→ AB = BA −→ [A, B] = 0. K84H

2[A, B] = 0 $ %
$ o" WN

<*  >& A 4\*# 3 < *# 2%
  gi * λi *Y 3  ( 2%
$  
< * A ,/7N *# 3
2 $

jj
 ⎛ ⎞
λ1 Ig1 ×g1
⎜ · ⎟
A=⎜
⎝
⎟
⎠ K85H
·
λk Igk ×gk

ei    _%
$  >7N A
  !6

A(Bei ) = B(Aei ) = B(λi ei ) = λi (Bei ), K86H

3  A ,/7N *# 3  

 Bei *# $ #  5J i" X* 2% 3#$ 3# B A 5&?  5.*# $
< @*# $ = 0 @   @ 2=  >: λi D" 3 < *# A6 
 Bei @  2= λi *Y
_=  >&  B ,/7N K= X: 5.*# A $  < 57H
⎛ ⎞
B1g1 ×g1
⎜ · ⎟
B=⎜
⎝
⎟.
⎠ K87H
·
Bk gk ×gk

>  5  !6 2= 3& X: $/ B /,7N X: A ,/7N i" < *# ,# *N 

⎛ ⎞
S1g1 ×g1
⎜ · ⎟
S=⎜
⎝
⎟.
⎠ K88H
·
Skgk ×gk

  7 =# * A 5# X: > @ 2#$ X:* B W  >$ = Bi W  3 $ X: Si 5.*# $
†
2  X: ,/7N # 5.*# $ =  <  < 2Si Ii Si = Ii

 
     
B*  ) 5  @
T %  2=&# 3 *+ i L 3 $ 3#   *'(#7 V *# ;# ! <
*Y % 5. =&# *Y XY  *# Y" # I   Y
Y6 #N 1 |Y 7*# $ #$ q 0 0 5
B *
2#$
< 
B * *# 7S   4 
" *#  %+ *
 N * $ *# ;# N @  # 0 †=+ 

 ( Z Y $ %

#  m
  G 
* N @  ? #$ V & B * %S  < 5.  5 
@ 2%
$ B * S " * +. # *$ =
/: %
 (#  & * %
$ R 3* # #* @*# * ;#
*#  N?&  ( 
B * @
T % 
" *#   3## ?  5
" 5 $  $ = *$

jr
 >8" @ 3 . *# Y @  2
B * ="J
<  % = 3&?  
B * 
" ="J
<  % Z + $
& 
 $
 *# # *$ S  $ & *  * *# D" * [B 4;# *'(#7
2 $ V* X1  [$    B * =:#   7:eN 3 1 2#$ %
1 5


 < *# X v ∈ V *#  2% 

( E*# {e1 , e2 , · · · eN } *? + <  0 N sV *# D" 
_= >&

N
 N

v= vi ei = ei vi . K89H
i=1 i=1

_%
   >&  * n X* %
  %
$ 3# vi = ei , v  X*  3(

N

v= ei ei , v. K90H
i=1

N
>7N 6 ,/7N >O i=1 ei ei ,  *N $ =( 5  = =*# v 3sCG# *#   X* @ $ ?. 
ei , v /7 4 $  k v >O *#   * ,/7N @ : $ = "B
: @  37 3*( @ G 2 $ 
*# 4 i  7  * @ 97 ei * $ *# @"(*:  W< $ #&  aCJ vi G 3#$ [6 * /1# [B
%
  %
  @  2 $  
G * v

ei ei ,  = I. K91H
i

%
# 5J |v  v 3# #7   *  *# 0  @  ( =& + >&  5  * i" 5
 X* @
_.  *#  >&  n X* *I @*# 2%
# 5J v|w  v, w   * *# # /1# [B @
-7

|ei ei | = I. K92H
i

 w| $ = @ g< „= 

T ,T K ei | i" X* *#H w| = *#  |v ( $ 
< 5  !6
_ $ iI  ##*:  X* *# $ & 
T =

w|v = w, v. K93H

 *#  !#0 * |v < @*# %

& 3#$ [C D"  *? + 0 <  (
s
⎛ ⎞
v1
⎜ v2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
|v = ⎜
⎜ · ⎟
⎟ K94H
⎝ · ⎠
vn

jv
 *I  X *#  !#0 * w| 5  $ #  5J n  X* 3,. % 
,

 
w| = w1∗ w2∗ · · wn∗ K95H

2%
+   Bra *#  * w| *# ket *#  * |v *# 2% 
,

@
 /1# [B 57 $ #* . = #N  #$ [B |v >O ket *#  *# * w| >O bra *#  5 
4= *# #

⎛ ⎞
v1
⎜ v2 ⎟ n
 ⎜ ⎟ 
w|v = w1∗ , w2∗ , ·, ·, wn∗ ⎜ · ⎟= wi∗ vi . K96H
⎜ ⎟
⎝ · ⎠ i=1
vn

_#* . = W   #$ [B bra *#  *# * ket *#  5  @
T %

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
v1 v1 w1∗ v1 w2∗ v1 w3∗ · v1 wn∗
⎜ v2 ⎟ ⎜ v2 w1∗ v2 w2∗ v2 w3∗ · v2 wn∗ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ∗  ⎜ ⎟
|vw| = ⎜
⎜ · ⎟ w1 ,
⎟ w2∗ · · wn∗ =⎜
⎜ v3 w1∗ v3 w2∗ v3 w3∗ · v3 wn∗ ⎟
⎟ K97H
⎝ · ⎠ ⎝ · · · · · ⎠
vn vn w1∗ vn w2∗ vn w3∗ · vn wn∗


Z 70 5. # *$
n = 
 *
 X* =*: *? + 0 <    $ |ei ei | = I  X*
i
bR *# * *N @ 3( !O 5 N  2& + #S  > X1  D:  *
 $ #&  zN
_%
*   X*  |v =$ scT

|v = |ei ei |v, K98H
i

v|   =* bR *# * 5. 3( 2vi := ei |v   *N |v *#   AB $  $  5
 9: *# $
%
*   X*  %
# *:

v| = v|ei ei |, K99H
i

jw
% =* bR *# % * 5. %
  2vi∗ := v|ei     ei |  < A6 v|   AB  $  5
 $
_%
   X*  %
# *: T̂ >O ,/7N  cT bR *#

 
T̂ = |ei ei |T̂ |ej ej | = Tij |ei ej |, K100H
i,j i,j

 = Tij := ei |T |ej   X*  5.  *# $ T  = T̂ ,/7N    W  #  5J $
2 .

< *#  5## 5J  |i   3# #7  |ei  #7   4. 7 \
< + $ : #*  *
 *#
s
_.  *#  *I  ,/7N   |  W  #* *# n ?
 *I @*# 2%
$  3#

⎛ ⎞
1|T̂ |1 1|T̂ |2 . . 1|T̂ |n
⎜ 2|T̂ |1 2|T̂ |2 . . 2|T̂ |n ⎟
⎜ ⎟
T =⎜
⎜ . . . . . ⎟.
⎟ K101H
⎝ . . . . . ⎠
n|T̂ |1 n|T̂ |1 . . n|T̂ |n

.  
! $
. ; 
! <  ;
6
   2=   D" ,#  =$s D" +.   $ %
  *# D" #  $ =( 5 
% *# 95  X*

|w = |v −→ w| = v|,

|w = c|v −→ w| = c∗ v|,
|w = |u + |v −→ w| = u| + v|,
|w = T̂ |v −→ w| = v|T̂ † . K102H

jy
 =>, 
.6%7 
2% 
( E*# {|i, i = 1, · · · m} >O <  W  2% 
( E*# W >O 5. D"  V *# D"
,/7N *I @*#
m

PW := |ii| K103H
i=1

= 
,/7N @ 2 $ 8 W   * D" *# ,/7N @ 2#&  31 V  * 13 8,/7N
#7N % +. *#  0H  & #7N % $ %
& &# W1 W2 D" # ( 2 $  iI P 2 = P |&*#
_*# *  X* %  +. (8 ,/7N $ = + 3,. K &

P12 = P1 , P22 = P2 , P1 P2 = 0, P2 P1 = 0. K104H


    
  
0 *# 3 4& K  ( *#  ,/7N @ *Y 3  a1 ( 2 & *? + ,/7N  A $ 
$ o"
(1) (2) (K)
 *#  a1  |  D" 3 *I @*# %
# 5J |e1 , |e1 , · · · |e1   * ,/7N @     
,/7N #&  [ * i" 0
s
K
 (i)
P1 = |ei1 e1 |, K105H
i=1

_% 
(  E *#  *I  * A,/7N q
R 2=D" 3 @  * 8 ,/7N

Â|e(i) (i)
n  = λn |en , i = 1, 2, · · · gn , K106H
(i)
>&  6 /,7N 2 #  >
J *? + 0 <  |en  *# = λn *Y 3  ( *# gn 5.*# $
s s
_#&  & 

I= |e(i) (i)
n en |, K107H
n,i

% * .  = 106  X*   Â bR # *# 6 ,/7N 5## *: 

  gn 
 = λn |e(i) (i)
n en | = λn ( |e(i) (i)
n en |) = λn Pn , K108H
n,i n i=1 n

2= λn *Y 3  |  D" 3  * 8 ,/7N Pn 5.*# $

s
Projection Operator13

j{
 !  "#   
3CG# ,/7N  T $ 
$ o" 2%
$ q 0 * 
 ,/7N  0 $ % *#
 A/t $
*#
_&   0 f : C −→ C
∞

f (x) = fn xn K109H
n=0

2#&  q 0  @

7 
 f (T ) 9 *I @*#

∞

f (T ) := fn T n . K110H
n=0

Ω T 3‡& X: D 5.*# $ T = ΩDΩ−1 =& 5  ='< X: ?

 *# ! T ,/7N $ ?. 
n n −1
_. *#  >&  n X* 3,. T = ΩD Ω $ %
$   @  3( 2= T 3‡ $ X: W 
∞
 ∞

f (T ) = fn ΩDn Ω−1 = Ω fn Dn Ω−1 = Ωf (D)Ω−1 , K111H
n=0 n=0

5.*# $
∞

f (D) := fn D n . K112H
n=0

λ1 , · · · λN ‡3 #Y  0 N W   T $ $ 

$ o" 2#&  S 6 f (D) W  $ 
$ =:#
*I @*# 2&
⎛ ⎞
λ1
⎜ λ2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
D=⎜
⎜ . . . . . ⎟
⎟ K113H
⎝ . . . . . ⎠
λN
112 q 0   
⎛ ⎞
f (λ1 )
⎜ f (λ2 ) ⎟
⎜ ⎟
f (D) = ⎜
⎜ . . . . . ⎟.
⎟ K114H
⎝ . . . . . ⎠
f (λN )

 * #* 
 */  9 $ :  $ #  = ,/7N  9   /$ q 0 9: *# 111 X*
_ = *N q 0 @ 2# *

f (T ) := Ωf (D)Ω−1 . K115H

j}
  
√ 0 1
2
$ 
< * σx 4& σx = 3( 
1 0

$ %
7+"  σx 5#$ X:  W< >C
 
1 0
σx = H H† K116H
0 −1
 = 3 $ X: W  5.*# $
 
1 1 1
H= √ K117H
2 1 −1
 
√ 1 0
*# * D= Z O +.   2=    #  J *  v *# D  0 3& X: W   @*#
e
0 i
% * .  = % 
(  E
 
√ √ 1 1+i 1−i
σx = H DH † = . K118H
2 1+i 1−i

3,. 4A2 = I s=
I1  & ! ,/7N  A ( $ ## 5J 5  3
& @
7  

eiθA = cos θ + iA sin θ. K119H

λ  * *Y 3  ( 2±1   A *Y 3 $ %

$   @  = "$ X* @ k 
$ #&  /0 6 %
# 5J

eiθλ = cos θ + iλ sin θ. K120H

% * .  = X* @  %

# 5J D  * 3& X: W  3(

eiθD = cos θ + iD sin θ. K121H

2#&  k 119  X* ?

 *# $

! $ ? - @A 
 q 0  >&  D" # @ %
Y 97  & 0 n 0 m A
  D" # W V $ 
$ o" _ q 0
#&
 
v
V ⊕ W := { , | v ∈ V, w ∈ W }. K122H
w

j~
 _#&  q 0 >&  G  *#*#  [B *# # 97
     
v v v + v
+ = ,
w w w + w
   
v αv
α = . K123H
w αw


$ o" 2= *# D"  Z0: n *# 3& q 0 [B 97  V ⊕ W $  $ f
YS   6 3 1
*I @*# 2& W   < {fj }j=1,···n V  <  {ei }i=1,···m $
   
ei 0
{ , }i=1,···m , j = 1, · · · n K124H
0 fj

V ⊕ W *# D" $ #&  /0 A

 @  2 =3 1 3+N   @ k 2= V ⊕ W  < 
_= >&  D"  # *# V ⊕ W D" $ 
$ =:# 2= m + n 0 *#
   
v 0
{ , | v ∈ V }, { , | w ∈ W }, K125H
0 w

@    @
T %  @    2  5 W V D"  =*  cT  A
  D"  # @
%
  %
  $
     
v v 0
= + K126H
w 0 w

 *# N7? $ 
$ =:# 2= W V D" *#  N7? V ⊕ W D"  *#  $ %
, %
 
   
0 v
2* $& h
 { } *#  N7? { } V
w 0 s

*# D" 5  4 & , W /1# [B  +? W D" , V /1# [B  +? V D" 3(
_#$ +? /1# [B   * V ⊕ W
    
v v
 ,  = v, v  V + w, w W . K127H
w w

2= 3 1 3+N   $  q 0 * /1# [B  Z0: X* @ $ @ k

2Rm+n = Rm ⊕ Rn /$ *X  4R3 = R2 ⊕ R $  $ f

YS 6   3 1 

_  >&  $ *# # V ⊕ W  * X1 e  # !6

 
A 0
T = . K128H
0 B

r
2 $  >7N B X1 > >O W D"  * A X1 > >O V D"  * 9: *# X1 e V @
< W V *# D"  ( $ #  5J (128H X* 2%
# 5J A ⊕ B  *+. $ =+ =+ @
7 
7 G 2. 1*# X: $/ *8 T > W  4%
# 5J W   *+.  * e %
$ [C
2 
 (128H *I  V ⊕ W D"  * e

 
.
! -
, & 
$
 *# 5. # *$ $  *E   & B * S *# $ *R 4D" * [B f
:# q 0
@
T %  $ * # + @ #+& %+"  *  = @7 f
:# q 0 @ * 2& 
 5 T $ = @7 4=
$ %
$ ˆ* + @   0 $ %
$  0  *$ @   2%& 5 5. S # *$ *# $ #& zN
2%#<  3CG# W  # * [B q 0  =C 2# U( D" * [B  *$  *  
#0    $ *+. * [B 5   & 3& 3## #0  W  # (B)p×q (A)m×n 3( 


_#$ q 0 >&  = (mp × nq)

(A ⊗ B)ij,kl := Aik Bjl K129H

_#&  ?  >&  W  # @ [B /7N ‰SG 
⎛ ⎞
a11 B a12 B · a1n B
⎜ a21 B a22 B · a2n B ⎟
A ⊗ B := ⎜
⎝ ···
⎟ K130H
··· ··· ··· ⎠
am1 B am2 B · amn B

_= A
  X U*7& 3S i" W *#

{11, 12, 13, · · · 1p, 21, 22, 23, · · · 2p, · · · m1, m2, m3, · · · mp}, K131H

_= >&  

  5 U*7& 3S

{11, 12, 13, · · · 1q, 21, 22, 23, · · · 2q, · · · n1, n2, n3, · · · nq}. K132H

_ $ f
YS * +. =SI (129Hsq 0  3#    3 1 $ = p1 *# [B @

A ⊗ (B + C) = A⊗B+A⊗C

r^
 A ⊗ (αB) = (αA) ⊗ B = α(A ⊗ B)
(A ⊗ B) ⊗ C = A ⊗ (B ⊗ C)
(A ⊗ B)(C ⊗ D) = AC ⊗ BD
†
(A ⊗ B) = A† ⊗ B † K133H

*   V # #* #  W  #0  * # S V h

 4[B V @*# $ = @ %+  
|v, w  * 5. $  *# #$ [B % *# * |w |v >O Ket *# # 5  @  2#$ [B % *# 5 
_#* . = %
#  5J

|v, w := |v ⊗ |w. K134H

 * 5. $ #* . =   *#  #$ [B % *# 

 * y| x| >O bra *# # 5  @
T %
_%
#  5J x, y|

x, y| = x| ⊗ y|. K135H

_% * .  = 133 *#   X*  3# 

x, y|v, w = (x| ⊗ y|)(|v ⊗ |w) = x|vy|w. K136H

< *#  <  W *# D"  {|i, i = 1, · · · m} *#  <  V *# D"  !6
5  2 & 5 C n  
 W D" C m  V $ % 3#$ *$  A
 @  2% 
(  E*# {|j, j = 1 · n}
 = |i ⊗ |j >&  < *# mn A
 @  2% * . = n q 0  fX * < *# * [B
_%
#  \7 |i, j  *81  * +. $ % * .

|i, j := |i ⊗ |j i = 1 · · · m, j = 1 · · · n. K137H

2   0 *# @ 136  X*   

<  *# D"  V 3( 
   
1 0
{|0 = , |1 = }
0 0

_=  <  0 v *# D"  V ⊗ V 3,. &

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 0 0 0
⎜ 0 ⎟ ⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎜ 0 ⎟ ⎜ 0 ⎟
|0, 0 := ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠ |0, 1 := ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠ |1, 0 := ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠ |1, 1 := ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠ K138H

0 0 0 1

rj
4& 3& >
J /C AB   *# V @ 7 X1 A
$  $ %
$  q 0 D" * V ⊗ W D" !6
 0

V ⊗W ={ zij |i, j, | zij ∈ C}. K139H
i,j

V ⊗ W D" 0 $ = 0 @  @  #  >

J D" @  <  {|i, j} *# q 0 
$ #&  /0 6 133 
s  *  3#  % 2mn  =
  
|v, w = |v ⊗ |w = ( vi |i) ⊗ ( wj |j) = vi wj |i, j. K140H
i j i,j

 *# >O =& |v ⊗ |w *I  5 7 G * V ⊗ W D" *# 3CG# *#  $ 
$ =:#

|ψ := |0, 0 + |1, 1, K141H

d c, b, asAB   h

 $ #&  /0 %
# *: (a|0 + b|1) ⊗ (c|0 + d|1)   * 5. 3( 
2%
(  14 3
 %*# * *# @
T 2#* #

 : V −→ V 3 (  2%
$ q   0  
 *    , / 7 N *    [ B %
     *#  *    [ B   0 
5. W  $ %
$  q 0 ,/7N 5 N  * Â ⊗ B : V ⊗ W −→ V ⊗ W ,/7N 4 & ,/7N # B̂ : W −→ W
s
,# *N  2& B̂ Â  |   W  * [B

i, j|Â ⊗ B̂|k, l = i|Â|kj|B̂|l. K142H

_=&# %
1 S 7$  0 4 $  k |v ⊗ |w *#  * Â ⊗ B̂ ,7/N $ : A
 @ 

(Â ⊗ B̂)(|v ⊗ |w) = (Â|v) ⊗ (B̂|w). K143H

@   "0 %
(  *# $ *X7 2*  5<  ? *# *# D" # * [B 3* *#  zS
<   57  .  # 2%
"( 0 # S * D" # . =C 2# B * S :" >
G#  T  +
>
/Y C n C m  0 /C *# D"  p1 < 5. *# * D" # A
 @  %#$ "0 D" #  
@*# 2%
"* \
< 2%#$ t. 129 3CG# 0  W  # * [B q 0  * 
T 7 A
 @  2%##

Entangled States14

rr
D" @
G  *# $ C m ⊗ Mp,q (C) >O *# D" # * [B ,T $ ` $ = @7 [T*T
: $ = @ g< „%
#  ? *    W  *I  D" @
 #  *# /C 0 m  *#
  . 1*# 0 pq 
s /C *#  *I  W   3,. %
$ [C <  
 D" @
 # 
C[a, b] ⊗ C n >O D" # * [B ,T $ ` $ ( @
T % 2%
$ 3# n *# 3& ˆ* q *0  %

 /I" 5#$ ( $ %
(  % %
#  ? *   A   n  # *# 9 G  *# $
= *  *
 #N  N 5. *# $ ="( E *# A  N  *I  * f ∈ C[a, b] 9  5  [a, b]
5 T  U * @  $ + eJ @  3 eN 2 $  
< >
/Y 0  T /C *# # [B  /‚ %
%
$  oN * *# D" #  < $ : %
# 5J  $ #*# # 
 !& @ &  V* 9"* A-G#
q 0  "* * U * $ %

  2 $ 7 

d ,/7N # [B  *# # [B >O %3#$ q 0 $ #

@  = > $ 3 1 2#  M* + eJ  G =3# =*  T ( D" # * [B
 *# @ 3 .  = *# % & 2 $ 0 X1
 *# *# [$      * M*
2#& 3#* . 7
7B  *I  f
:# q 0

B 
C @
, 
!  3,*# 2#&  3
 ;# G# 9  #1   5 $ $ # 0 "0 ;# N" N @ 7+  
2= =+  5. *Y $ XY  *# ? = I  Y
Y6 *S |Y 7 *# ; # G# 9 $ =( 5 
2="( E *# 
< 9  G#  
Š 6 *I  * 5. 5  / =
 9  G# 9 4U  be1 

2 0 <  << 1 5.*# $ % 

( E*# *  
< 9

⎧
⎪
⎪ 0 x ≤ −
⎪
⎪
⎨
1
δ (x) := 2 −≤x≤ K144H
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
0 ≤x

_=  =
I1 *# 9 @
_qG
 ∞
δ (x)dx = 1, K145H
−∞

rv
 4&   (−, ) /I"*# $ 0  _[
 ∞
δ (x)f (x) = f (0) + O() K146H
−∞

2=    
7$ O() 5.*# $
%
# *: %
#  5J δ(x) 9   −→ 0 $ : * δ (x) 9 6

δ(x) := lim δ (x). K147H

−→0

#$ 3, ,/7N  5 N  5.  5  / =

 9  δ(x) #1 #1  2%
  ;# G# 9 * 5.
2#*# 0 !,   *# +  $
_=&# %
1 ?
*#
 ∞  ∞
δ(x)dx = 1, δ(x)f (x) = f (0). K148H
−∞ −∞

_=  =
I1 *# 9 @ 2#$ q 0 J *R  * δ(x − b) 9 5 

 ∞  ∞
δ(x − b)dx = 1, δ(x − b)f (x)dx = f (b), K149H
−∞ −∞

 "0 * G# @   T  *# 2="( 

 9 ,#  G# 6 5 N  5  * ;# G# 9
2%
$

%
# *: _ 9 !'

1 x2
gσ (x) := √ e− 2σ2 , K150H
σ 2π

2^ =  

 5.  S  mX 2= x = 0 XY*# √1 %7$ σ  +<  ( 0 3‡ # 5J $
σ 2π
% *# ? *#

δ(x) := lim gσ (x). K151H

σ−→0

rw
 %
# *: (9 !'

 T
1 sin T x
δT (x) := eix dt = . K152H
2π −T πx

% *#
 ∞  ∞  ∞
sin y
DT (x)dx = DT (x)dx = dy = 1. K153H
−∞ −∞ −∞ y

% *# G# @ 

δ(x) := lim DT (x). K154H

T −→∞

_%
*  %+*
 X*  ?.
 ∞
1
δ(x) := eixt dt. K155H
2π −∞

_  …&  G# 9 p1,# D0

δ(x − x ) = δ(x − x)

df
δ  (x − x )f (x )dx = − (x). K156H
dx

"#  $%  #  
& ' # () "#   
9 D" 2="(E*# 9 D"  <  5 N  5 *G# 9 $ %
# 5J %
1  =7: @*#
D" @ 2%
$ 7 '< fJ  ,
< 
E 9 @ 3* *# I8C o" V h
 2% 
(  E*# * F [0, 1]
 1 A Y $ % 
( E*# <  D" @  N *  #N    !6 2= 0 =+  D"
3& q 0 <  =:#  D" 9 5.*# $ % 
( E*# * N −→ ∞ 6 W` 2 $ [ * * 9 D" 
% *# A
 @  2%
$  %
Y =7: N * [0, 1] /I" 2&  3## \7

[0, 1] = Δ1 ∪ Δ2 ∪ · · · ΔN K157H

5.*# $

n−1 n
Δn := [ , ] K158H
N N

ry
 en (x) d ( x-y )
N

x x
n 1 n y
N N

n
2 $  >
 δ(x − y) 9  en (x) 9 y 
< a1& =7  N ( a1& 4N −→ ∞ 6*# _r >&

_%
$  q 0 *  9

N x ∈ Δn
en (x) := { K159H
0 x∈/ Δn

_ 
*? +  #7N,  9 @ 2=    9 @ mX

 1
en , em  ≡ e∗n (x)em (x)dx = N δm,n . K160H
0

_ % *# f ∈ F [0, 1] 9   $ *#* =

I1 @ @
T %

 1 
1
en , f  ≡ e∗n (x)f (x)dx =N f (x)dx =: N ( f (xn )) = f (xn ), K161H
0 x∈Δn N

_,# *N  4= Δn

6 *# 9*Y 3 # 5J 1 A Y $ = Δn 5 *#  XY xn ∈ Δn 5.*# $

x∈Δn f (x)dx
f (xn ) := 1 K162H
N

n
 y := N >O 
< W   * #1  
 n W =G6 @*# 2%
#  >
 =+  =7  * N !6
Z : $ J7  fX 
 en (x) 9 2#
4 $  >
 δ(x − y)  0 ;# G# 9  %# ;# 9 #**# e
KrH >&

2= >&  N −→ ∞ 6*#  =

7$ > 3S

r{
 n
−→ y
N

en (x) −→ δ(x − y)

|en  −→ |y

x|en  −→ x|y

en |em  = δn,m −→ y|y   = δ(y − y  ). K163H

>&  (161H X* 2= y| *I  5. s \7 $ %

#  5J |y‹*# *I  =G6 @*# * en 9
2. *#
 1
y|f  = δ(y − x)f (x)dx = f (y), K164H
0

   4  y  = m
N y= n
N 5.*# $ %
# 5J K(y, y  ) 9 5 N  * N δm,n 
Š 6 @*#3(

 1
N δm,n =1 K165H
n
N

$ % 
(  ?

  
Δy 1
K(y, y  )dy  = lim N δm,n = N δm,n = 1. K166H
N −→∞
m
Δm m
N

_=& *I  =  * (160H X* = ;# G# 9 57 K(y, y  ) @ 

y|y   = δ(y − y  ). K167H



 1
dxδ(x − y)δ(x − y  )dx = δ(y − y  ). K168H
0

r}
=$*#  *I  * f ∈ F [0, 1] 9  $ = 5. %
$ 
$ 5.  * \C @ 5< *# %
1  $ -.
 0 4 = x| < *#  * 5.8 f (x)  0 9 @*Y 2%
#  \7 f | s  |f 

f (x) = x|f . K169H

_. *# >&  

 (168H X*
 1
y|xx|y  dx = y|y  , K170H
0

bR # y| |y   @&#

 1
|xx|dx = I, K171H
0

2= 7,/7N I 5.*# $


 F (−∞, ∞)   F [a, b] 9    D "    < @  2%
 " ( E*#* [0, 1] / I "  (#    +  $ %
$ 
$    
2   %
70 
 0 J
   * @ 6 @
T % 2=*:

! 1+, 
D" @  * /1# [B 2%
#  5J C[ −L L L L
2 , 2 ]  *D" @ 2% 
( E*#* [− 2 , 2 ] /I"*# /C 9 D"
 L
9 2= 3& q 0 f, g = 2L f (x)g ∗ (x)dx >& 
−2

1 2πinx
en (x) := √ e L , n∈Z K172H
L

_=6  +. 7  3# #7N ,  9 @ 2% 

( E*# *

 L  L
2 1 2 −2πinx 2πimx
en , em  = e∗n (x)en (x)dx = e L e L dx = δn,m . K173H
−L
2
L −L
2

_##  9 @ A6 5  * 3CG# 9 4@ 3 eN

∞

f (x) = fn en (x). K174H
n=−∞

r~
 _#* . =  A
  5  * fn AB

 L  L
2 1 2 2πinx
fn = en , f  = e∗n (x)f (x)dx =√ e− L f (x)dx. K175H
−L
2
L −L
2

 = (174H X* *# (175H  , 2 #  D" @  <  >
J {en } 9 N7? @ 
% * .

∞ 
 L  L
∞
2 2
f (x) = e∗n (y)f (y)dyen (x) = ( en (y)∗ en (x))f (y)dy K176H
n=−∞ −L
2 −L
2 −∞

$ #  5J (156H X*  Y

∞

en (y)∗ en (x) = δ(x − y). K177H
n=−∞

2%
(  {en }  < 5# >$ X* * X* @

&  # %  *
 2πin
L >N RC en (x) 9 =G6 @*# 2%
#  >
 =+  =7  * L !6
2πn
s 6 9 @*# >& @
7  ( 5. 3 eN 2%
$ aCJ k := L  0 
< a1&  *+. $ =+ ?
*#

@7B * < 9   @  2&  1I ,7 9 @ √1 >N R1  4%
$ !7N* L −→ ∞
L
2πn
êk (x)  *  9 2%
$ [B 
 8CJ A B*#
G  9*# k 
< a1&  L ‡ ( a1&  ,
%
# *: %
#  5J

2πn
êk (x) := Aen (x) k := K178H
L

@ 2= (177H X*  0 < 5# >$  *$ @  3* @ + 2#& @

0 =  A A B 5.*# $
_%
  %
  *I  * X*

∞
 ∞
 Δn
en (y)∗ en (x) = en (y)∗ en (x) Δk
n=−∞
Δk
k=−∞
∞
1 L
= êk (y)∗ êk (x) Δk = δ(x − y). K179H
C2 2π
k=−∞

v
 
L
_=&# %
1  , @ 2% 
, 2π   * C =  $ (   X* @

1
êk (x) := √ eikx K180H
2π

_. *# >&  K179H X*

 ∞  ∞
1
ê∗k (x)êk (y)dk ≡ e−ik(x−y) dk = δ(x − y). K181H
−∞ 2π −∞

 n a1& $ ?. _%

$  3, K174H X*  =C 2 $ 

d    /:  *  , @

_. *# *I  X* @ = 3## k = 2πn
L 
< a1&   * #1
∞
 ∞
 Δn
f (x) = fn en (x) ≈ fn en (x) Δk
n=−∞
Δk
k=−∞
∞  ∞
L
= fn en (x) Δk = dk fˆ(k)êk (x)
2π −∞
k=−∞
∞
1
= √ eikx fˆ(k)dk. K182H
2π −∞


_#* . = f (x) A6 * fˆ(k) 4(175H X*   %
  n X*  2fˆ(k) := L
2π fn 5.*# $

 ∞
L 1
fˆ(k) ≡ fn = √ e−ikx f (x)dx. K183H
2π 2π −∞

s * =
 ∞
1
f (x) ≡= √ eikx fˆ(k)dk
2π ∞−∞
1
fˆ(k) = √ e−ikx f (x)dx. K184H
2π −∞
2   %
70 0 n D"   *I  X * @ 2 (  3
d  9 D"*#  *" > *
 ∞
1
f (x) ≡= √ n eik·x fˆ(k)dn k
2π −∞
∞
1
fˆ(k) = √ n e−ik·x f (x)dn x. K185H
2π −∞

0 SI *# $  7

7B *# 2*  5<  $
 *1 ;*#  n B *   @*#
2=1. 1 * *
1 AGX D0 3 1 43.

v^
 
45 
.6%7 @,    D    
*# AG /
1
D:  7
7B @*# 2#$ q 0 * ! ,/7N   9  5  ,T $ %# )*# @ *#
2*  E  @L  * # !  / *# $ %
$  =k ,/7N V @ 9 #*


D: @ 5# @L  * #H 2# 1  /7  T  3*7 f (T ) 9 & *? + ,/7N  T ( 

%
#  #N #* *# $ *X.  Z O $ #&  /0 ? 
= T A6  /7  T  f (T ) = sin(T ) 9 e
K2=+   
% *# =*? + T 5T !"

k

T = λi Pi , K186H
i=1

?.

k

f (T ) = f (λi )Pi . K187H
i=1

gj (x) 5.*# $ Pj = gj (T ) $ 
$ o" 2%
  5.  5 T A6 * Pi (8 ,/7N %
  !6
=&# %
1 *I @*# 2 2%
$ 
< * 5. " %
1  $ = 0
 
Pj := gj (T ) = gj ( λi Pi ) = gj (λi )Pi K188H
i i

^   5.*Y x = λj   $ & 5 T =  gj (x) 9 @  2gj (λi ) = δij % 
(  ?
 5. $
_#*#*  " 0 @
T 2& I  5.*Y x = λj  

 x − λk
gj (x) = K189H
λj − λk
k=j

?
*#
 T − λk
Pj ≡ gj (T ) = . K190H
λj − λk
k=j


T 
 f (T ) 9 ?
*# T A6  /7 T  =
 
T (8,/7N $ #  5J X* @
%
  %
  + *N  2# C T A6  /7  T 

k
  T − λk
f (T ) = f (λi ) . K191H
i=1
λi − λk
k=i

vj

. %3- 
$ 
# 5J 2T 2 = I $ = =
I1 @ *#,/7N @ 2% 
( E*# T >O *? + ,/7N  u ^

eαT = cosh αI + sinh αT. K192H

_#&  q 0 X* fX $  

, E*# * T : R2 −→ R2 ,/7N u j

T (x, y) = (−y, x)e K193H

$ 
# 5J

eαT = sin αT + cos αI. K194H

2
$ [6 (x, y) XY  * eαT k

  X 1  
$  * I  *   eiαS  , / 7 N 2 $   i I S 3 = I X * *# $ =  * ? +   , / 7 N S u r
2
  S 2 S 4I ,/7N

9 2 & *? + ,/7N # B A $ 

$ o" u v

f (λ) := eλA Be−λA K195H

%
  %
#  λ = 0 !6 /
/S 9  5 N  * 9 @ %
  !6 2% 
( E*# *

∞
f (n) (0) n
f (λ) = λ . K196H
n=0
n!

4 [A, [A, B]] 4 [A, B]  G     , D  0  B A  6  * = * b R f (λ)s G    Y  J    S   _q G

2
  · · · [A, [A, [A, B]]]

2
$ [6 * eλA Be−λA *N [A, B] = αI %
& &# 3( _[

_ 
, E *#  A
 * G <  W  u w
     
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σx = σy = σz = . K197H
1 0 i 0 0 −1

vr
 2n · 
σ = nx σx + ny σy + nz σz  = n · σ s*N &  *#  n := (nx , ny , nz ) (

_
$ =k *   #S _ qG

σk σl = δkl + iklm σm

(n · σ )(m · σ ) = m · n I + i(m × n) · σ

(n · σ )(n · σ ) = I. K198H

2
$ 
< * G < ,/7N *# 3 *Y 3 _[

2
$ [6 * n · 
σ ,/7N *# 3 *# 3 _]

_ 3& q 0 ,/7N #&  q 0 |0, |1, |2, · · · |n − 1 < *# $ 0 n D"  *# u y

S|0 = |1, S|1 = |2, ··· S|n − 1 = |0

T |0 = |0, T |1 = ξ|1, ··· T |n − 1 = ξ n−1 |2 K199H

2ξ n = 1  0 =   n J * ξ 5.*# $
s

_
$ [6*  ? X* _qG

[S, T ] K200H

_
$ [6*  *N =* bR _

eiαS T e−iαS K201H

2πi
2= G6 T |k =G6   * e n S k _]

2
$ [6 * S ,/7N *# 3 #Y 3 _#

2 * . = * H ,/7N *# 3 #Y 3 4H = S + S −1 − 2 %

$ q 0 3( _3

vv
 _
$ [6*   *N =* bR 2 $  iI [A, B] = I X* *# B A ,/7N u {

eαA Be−αA
eαA eβB e−αA . K202H

_=*:   !   4= T$ =+  *<  5.*# $  X* A ,/7N  $ 
# 5J u }

det(I + A) = 1 + T r(A) K203H

$ 
# 5J !6

det(eA ) = eT r(A) . K204H

 
1 α
2 
, E*#* A = W  u ~
α 1

„= =O W   W  @ a  #Y T   _qG

√
2 * . = * A W  #Y 5.   _[

√
2
  A I  W  A6 * A W  _]

& ,/7N  B 3( u^

2= =O 3*7 BB † ,/7N $ 

$ =k _qG

_ 
, E*# *  W  _ [
⎛ ⎞
1 0 0
B=⎝ 0 2 1 ⎠. K205H
0 1 2
√
2 
$ [6* B W 

√
2
  B m
SI  5 A6 * B W  _]

_ 
, E *# *  ,/7N u ^^
N
 N

√ √
A= n + 1|nn + 1|, A† = n + 1|n + 1n|. K206H
n=0 n=0

vw
 2
$ [6 * ,/7N # @ (? _qG

2=I   bR #  #Š* $ 

# 5J [A, A† ]s  bR # #Š* _[

2
$ [6 * bR # #* =G6 @*# 2[A, A† ] = I $ 
# 5J N −→ ∞ $ 
$ o" !6 _]

vy