Chapter 1

Principles of Cellular

Telecommunications

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ii CP02: Introduction to Digital Cellular EMOTOROLA LTD. 1999

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Chapter 1
Principles of Cellular Telecommunications i
Principles of Cellular Telecommunications 1-1
Objectives 1-1
Overview 1-2
Advantages of Cellular Communications 1-2
Network Components 1-4
Frequency Spectrum 1-6
Introduction 1-6
Cell Size 1-8
Large Cells 1-8
Small Cells 1-8
The Trade Off - Large vs Small 1-8
Frequency Re-use 1-10
Co-channel Interference 1-10
Adjacent Channel Interference 1-10
Sectorization 1-12
Using Sectored Sites 1-14
4 Site/3 Cell 1-14
Switching and Control 1-16

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ISSUE 5 REVISION 4 Principles of Cellular Telecommunications

Principles of Cellular Telecommunications

Objectives
On completion of this section the student will be able to:
S Name the main components of a cellular network and describe their functionality.
S Understand the options available for site configuration.

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Principles of Cellular Telecommunications ISSUE 5 REVISION 4

Principles of Cellular Telecommunications

Overview
A cellular telephone system links mobile station (MS) subscribers into the public
telephone system or to another cellular system’s MS subscriber.
Information sent between the MS subscriber and the cellular network uses radio
communication. This removes the necessity for the fixed wiring used in a traditional
telephone installation.
Due to this, the MS subscriber is able to move around and become fully mobile, perhaps
travelling in a vehicle or on foot.

Advantages of
Cellular
Communications
Cellular networks have many advantages over the existing “land” telephone networks.
There are advantages for the network provider as well as the mobile subscriber.

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ISSUE 5 REVISION 4 Principles of Cellular Telecommunications

Overview

Advantages to Mobile Subscriber

S Mobility

S Flexibility

S Convenience

Advantages to Network Provider

S Network expansion flexibility S

Revenue/profit margins

S Efficiency

S Easier reĆconfiguration

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Network Components ISSUE 5 REVISION 4

Network Components
GSM networks are made up of Mobile services Switching Centres (MSC), Base Station
Systems (BSS)and Mobile Stations (MS). These three entities can be broken down
further into smaller entities; such as, within the BSS we have Base Station Controllers,
Base Transceiver Stations and Transcoders. These smaller network elements, as they
are referred to, will be discussed later in the course. For now we will use the three major
entities.
With the MSC, BSS and MS we can make calls, receive calls, perform billing etc, as any
normal PSTN network would be able to do. The only problem for the MS is that all the calls
made or received are from other MSs. Therefore, it is also necessary to connect the GSM
network to the PSTN.
Mobile Stations within the cellular network are located in “cells”, these cells are provided
by the BSSs. Each BSS can provide one or more cells, dependent on the manufacturers
equipment.
The cells are normally drawn as hexagonal, but in practice they are irregularly shaped,
this is as a result of the influence of the surrounding terrain, or of design by the network
planners.

Actual Cell Coverage

Diagrammatic Cell Coverage

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ISSUE 5 REVISION 4 Network Components

Network Components

PSTN

MSC
BSS

BSS MS

MS
BSS BSS

MS BSS MS

MS
BSS

MS

PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)

MSC (Mobile service Switching Centre)

BSS (Base Station System)

MS (Mobile Station)

(Cell Coverage Area)

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Frequency Spectrum ISSUE 5 REVISION 4

Frequency Spectrum

Introduction
The frequency spectrum is very congested, with only narrow slots of bandwidth allocated
for cellular communications. The list opposite shows the number of frequencies and
spectrum allocated for GSM, Extended GSM 900 (EGSM), GSM 1800 (DCS1800) and
PCS1900.
A single Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number (ARFCN) or RF carrier is actually a
pair of frequencies, one used in each direction (transmit and receive). This allows
information to be passed in both directions. For GSM900 and EGSM900 the paired
frequencies are separated by 45 MHz, for DCS1800 the separation is 95 MHz and for
PCS1900 separation is 80 MHz.
For each cell in a GSM network at least one ARFCN must be allocated, and more may be
allocated to provide greater capacity.
The RF carrier in GSM can support up to eight Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
timeslots. That is, in theory, each RF carrier is capable of supporting up to eight
simultaneous telephone calls, but as we will see later in this course although this is
possible, network signalling and messaging may reduce the overall number from eight
timeslots per RF carrier to six or seven timeslots per RF carrier, therefore reducing the
number of mobiles that can be supported.
Unlike a PSTN network, where every telephone is linked to the land network by a pair of
fixed wires, each MS only connects to the network over the radio interface when
required. Therefore, it is possible for a single RF carrier to support many more mobile
stations than its eight TDMA timeslots would lead us to believe. Using statistics, it has
been found that a typical RF carrier can support up to 15, 20 or even 25 MSs. Obviously,
not all of these MS subscribers could make a call at the same time, but it is also unlikely
that all the MS subscribers would want to make a call at the same time. Therefore,
without knowing it, MSs share the same physical resources, but at different times.

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ISSUE 5 REVISION 4 Frequency Spectrum

Frequency Range

GSM 900
S Receive (uplink) 890-915 MHz
S Transmit (downlink) 935-960 MHz
S 124 Absolute Radio Frequency Channels (ARFCN)

EGSM 900
S Receive (uplink) 880-915 MHz
S Transmit (downlink) 925-960 MHz
S 174 Absolute Radio Frequency Channels (ARFCN)

GSM 1800 (DCS1800)

S Receive (uplink) 1710-1785 MHz
S Transmit (downlink) 1805-1880 MHz
S 374 Absolute Radio Frequency Channels (ARFCN)

PCS 1900
S Receive (uplink) 1850-1910 MHz
S Transmit (downlink) 1930-1990 MHz
S 299 Absolute Radio Frequency Channels (ARFCN)

ARFCN
S Bandwidth = 200 KHz S
8 TDMA timeslots

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Cell Size ISSUE 5 REVISION 4

Cell Size
The number of cells in any geographic area is determined by the number of MS
subscribers who will be operating in that area, and the geographic layout of the area
(hills, lakes, buildings etc).

Large Cells
The maximum cell size for GSM is approximately 70 km in diameter, but this is
dependent on the terrain the cell is covering and the power class of the MS. In GSM, the
MS can be transmitting anything up to 8 Watts; obviously, the higher the power output of
the MS the larger the cell size. If the cell site is on top of a hill, with no obstructions for
miles, then the radio waves will travel much further than if the cell site was in the middle
of a city, with many high-rise buildings blocking the path of the radio waves.
Generally large cells are employed in:
S Remote areas.
S Coastal regions.
S Areas with few subscribers.
S Large areas which need to be covered with the minimum number of cell sites.

Small Cells
Small cells are used where there is a requirement to support a large number of MSs, in a
small geographic region, or where a low transmission power may be required to reduce the
effects of interference. Small cells currently cover 200 m and upwards.
Typical uses of small cells:
S Urban areas.
S Low transmission power required.
S High number of MSs.

The Trade Off -

Large vs Small
There is no right answer when choosing the type of cell to use. Network providers would
like to use large cells to reduce installation and maintenance cost, but realize that to
provide a quality service to their customers, they have to consider many factors, such as
terrain, transmission power required, number of MSs etc. This inevitably leads to a
mixture of both large and small cells.

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ISSUE 5 REVISION 4 Cell Size

Cell Size

Max 60-70 km

Large cells

200 m+

Small cells

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Frequency Re-use ISSUE 5 REVISION 4

Frequency Re-use
Standard GSM has a total of 124 frequencies available for use in a network. Most
network providers are unlikely to be able to use all of these frequencies and are generally
allocated a small subset of the 124.

Example:
A network provider has been allocated 48 frequencies to provide coverage over a large
area, let us take for example Great Britain.
As we have already seen, the maximum cell size is approximately 70 km in diameter,
thus our 48 frequencies would not be able to cover the whole of Britain.
To overcome this limitation the network provider must re-use the same frequencies over
and over again, in what is termed a “frequency re-use pattern”.
When planning the frequency re-use pattern the network planner must take into account
how often to use the same frequencies and determine how close together the cells are,
otherwise co-channel and/or adjacent channel interference may occur. The network
provider will also take into account the nature of the area to be covered. This may range
from a densely populated city (high frequency re-use, small cells, high capacity) to a
sparsely populated rural expanse (large omni cells, low re-use, low capacity).

Co-channel
Interference
This occurs when RF carriers of the same frequency are transmitting in close proximity to
each other, the transmission from one RF carrier interferes with the other RF carrier.

Adjacent
Channel
Interference
This occurs when an RF source of a nearby frequency interferes with the RF carrier.

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ISSUE 5 REVISION 4 Frequency Re-use

Frequency Re-use

Frequency 1

Frequency 2

Frequency 1

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Sectorization
The cells we have looked at up to now are called omni-directional cells. That is each site
has a single cell and that cell has a single transmit antenna which radiates the radio
waves to 360 degrees.
The problem with employing omni-directional cells is that as the number of MSs
increases in the same geographical region, we have to increase the number of cells to meet
the demand. To do this, as we have seen, we have to decrease the size of the cell and fit
more cells into this geographical area. Using omni-directional cells we can only go so far
before we start introducing co-channel and adjacent channel interference, both of which
degrade the cellular network’s performance.
To gain a further increase in capacity within the geographic area we can employ a
technique called “sectorization”. Sectorization splits a single site into a number of cells,
each cell has transmit and receive antennas and behaves as an independent cell.
Each cell uses special directional antennas to ensure that the radio propagation from one
cell is concentrated in a particular direction. This has a number of advantages: firstly, as we
are now concentrating all the energy from the cell in a smaller area 60, 120, 180
degrees instead of 360 degrees, we get a much stronger signal, which is beneficial in
locations such as “in-building coverage”. Secondly, we can now use the same
frequencies in a much closer re-use pattern, thus allowing more cells in our geographic
region which allows us to support more MSs.

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ISSUE 5 REVISION 4 Sectorization

Site Sectorization

360 Degree cells

Omni cell site

1 Transmit/receive
Site antenna

120 Degree sectors/cells

Cell

3 cell site
Cell
Site 3 Transmit/receive
antenna
Cell

60 Degree sectors/cells

Cell

Cell Cell
6 cell site
Site 6 Transmit/receive
Cell Cell
antenna

Cell

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Using Sectored Sites ISSUE 5 REVISION 4

Using Sectored Sites

The distribution of RF carriers, and the size of the cells, is selected to achieve a balance
between avoiding co-channel interference by geographically separating cells using the
same RF frequencies, and achieving a channel density sufficient to satisfy the anticipated
demand.
The diagram opposite illustrates how, by sectoring a site we can fit more cells into the
same geographical area, thus increasing the number of MS subscribers who can gain
access and use the cellular network.
This sectorization of sites typically occurs in densely populated areas, or where a high
demand of MSs is anticipated, such as conference centres/business premises.

4 Site/3 Cell
A typical re-use pattern used in GSM planning is the 4 site/3 cell.
For example, the network provider has 36 frequencies available, and wishes to use the 4
site/3 cell re-use pattern he may split the frequencies up as follows:

ell ell ell ell ell ell ell ell ell ell ell ell
A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 1 2 3 D1 D2 D3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

In this configuration each cell has a total of 3 carriers and each site has a total of 9
carriers. If the provider wished to reconfigure to a 3 site/3 cell then the result would be:

ell ell ell ell ell ell ell ell ell

A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

As can be seen from the table, each cell now has 4 carriers and each site has 12
carriers. This has the benefit of supporting more subscribers in the same geographic
region, but problems could arise with co-channel and adjacent channel interference.

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4 site/3 cell

A2

A1 A
A3 D2

D1 D
B2 D3 A2

B1 B A1 A
B3 C2 A3 D2

C1 C D1 D
A2 C3 B2 D3

A1 A B1 B
A3 D2 B3 C2

D1 D C1 C
B2 D3 C3

B1 B
B3 C2

C1 C

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Switching and Control

Having established radio coverage through the use of cells, both omni-directional and
directional (sectored sites), now consider what happens when the MS is in motion (as
MSs tend to be).
At some point the MS will have to move from one cell’s coverage area to another cell’s
coverage area. Handovers from one cell to another could be for a number of reasons
(e.g. the signal strength of the “serving cell” is less than the signal strength of a
“neighbour cell”, or the MS is suffering a quality problem in the serving cell) and by
handing over to one of its neighbours this may stop the quality problem.
Regardless of the reason for a “handover” it has to be controlled by some entity, and in
GSM that entity is the Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC).
To perform a handover, the network must know which neighbour cell to hand the MS
over to. To ensure that we handover to the best possible candidate the MS performs
measurements of its surrounding neighbour cells and reports its findings to the network.
These are then analyzed together with the measurements that the network performs and
a decision is made on a regular basis as to the need for a handover. If a handover is
required then the relevant signal protocols are established and the handover is controlled
by the MSC.
Handovers must be transparent to the MS subscriber. That is the subscriber should be
unaware that a handover has occurred.
As we will see later in this course, handovers are just one of the functions of the MSC,
many more are performed by the MSC and its associated entities (e.g. such as
authentication of MS, ciphering control, location updating, gateway to PSTN).
Note:
Some networks may allow certain handovers to be performed at the BSS level. This
would be dependent on the manufacturer’s equipment.

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ISSUE 5 REVISION 4 Switching and Control

Switching and Control

BTS
SITE
BSS
#1

BSS
MS #2
BTS
SITE BTS
SITE
MS
MS

BTS BTS
SITE SITE

BS
SITE
WITH MS
X DR

BTS BTS
SITE SITE

MS
BTS
SITE BTS SITE
WITH
OLLO ATED
BS
BSS BSS
#3 #5

BTS SITE MS BTS SITE

WITH WITH
OLLO ATED OLLO ATED
BS & X DR BS
BSS
#4

RX DR
BTS SITE
WITH
OLLO ATED
BS

MS MS

PSTN/ISDN/PUBLI DATA NETWORK

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