RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Chatterjee, S. R. (2007). Human Resource Management in India: ‘Where From’ and ‘Where To?’, Research and
Practice in Human Resource Management, 15(2), 92-103.

Human Resource Management in India: ‘Where

From’ and ‘Where To?’
Samir R. Chatterjee

ABSTRACT
India is being widely recognised as one of the most exciting emerging economics in the world.
Besides becoming a global hub of outsourcing, Indian firms are spreading their wings globally
through mergers and acquisitions. During the first four months of 1997, Indian companies have
bought 34 foreign companies for about U.S. $11 billion dollars. This impressive development has
been due to a growth in inputs (capital and labour) as well as factor productivity. By the year 2020,
India is expected to add about 250 million to its labour pool at the rate of about 18 million a year,
which is more than the entire labour force of Germany. This so called ‘demographic dividend’ has
drawn a new interest in the Human Resource concepts and practices in India. This paper traces
notable evidence of economic organisations and managerial ideas from ancient Indian sources
with enduring traditions and considers them in the context of contemporary challenges.

INTRODUCTION
Over many centuries India has absorbed managerial ideas and practices from around the world. Early records of
trade, from 4500 B.C. to 300 B.C., not only indicate international economic and political links, but also the ideas of
social and public administration. The world’s first management book, titled ‘Arlhãshastra’, written three
millennium before Christ, codified many aspects of human resource practices in Ancient India. This treatise
presented notions of the financial administration of the state, guiding principles for trade and commerce, as well as
the management of people. These ideas were to be embedded in organisational thinking for centuries (Rangarajan
1992, Sihag 2004). Increasing trade, that included engagement with the Romans, led to widespread and systematic
governance methods by 250 A.D. During the next 300 years, the first Indian empire, the Gupta Dynasty,
encouraged the establishment of rules and regulations for managerial systems, and later from about 1000 A.D.
Islam influenced many areas of trade and commerce. A further powerful effect on the managerial history of India
was to be provided by the British system of corporate organisation for 200 years. Clearly, the socio cultural roots of
Indian heritage are diverse and have been drawn from multiple sources including ideas brought from other parts of
the old world. Interestingly, these ideas were essentially secular even when they originated from religious bases.

In the contemporary context, the Indian management mindscape continues to be influenced by the residual traces
of ancient wisdom as it faces the complexities of global realities. One stream of holistic wisdom, identified as the
Vedantic philosophy, pervades managerial behaviour at all levels of work organisations. This philosophical
tradition has its roots in sacred texts from 2000 B.C. and it holds that human nature has a capacity for self
transformation and attaining spiritual high ground while facing realities of day to day challenges (Lannoy 1971).
Such cultural based tradition and heritage can have a substantial impact on current managerial mindsets in terms
of family bonding and mutuality of obligations. The caste system, which was recorded in the writings of the Greek
Ambassador Megasthenes in the third century B.C., is another significant feature of Indian social heritage that for
centuries had impacted organisational architecture and managerial practices, and has now become the focus of
critical attention in the social, political and legal agenda of the nation.

One of the most significant areas of values and cultural practices has been the caste system. Traditionally, the caste
system maintained social or organisational balance. Brahmins (priests and teachers) were at the apex, Kshatriya
(rulers and warriors), Vaishya (merchants and managers) and Shwdra (artisans and workers) occupied the lower
levels. Those outside the caste hierarchy were called ‘untouchables’. Even decades ago, a typical public enterprise
department could be dominated by people belonging to a particular caste. Feelings associated with caste affairs
influenced managers in areas like recruitment, promotion and work allocation (Venkatranam & Chandra 1996).
Indian institutions codified a list of lower castes and tribal communities called ‘scheduled castes and scheduled
tribes’. A strict quota system called, ‘reservation’ in achieving affirmative equity of castes, has been the eye of
political storm in India in recent years. The central government has decreed 15 per cent of recruitment is to be
reserved for scheduled castes, and a further seven and half per cent for scheduled tribes. In addition, a further 27
per cent has been decreed for other backward castes. However, the liberalisation of markets and global linkages
have created transformation of attitudes towards human resource (HR) policies and practices (Khalilzadeh-Shirazi
& Zagha 1994, Gopalan & Rivera 1997). Faced with the challenge of responding to the rationale of Western ideas of
organisation in the changing social and economic scenario of Indian organisation, practitioners are increasingly
taking a broader and reflective perspective of human resource management (HRM) in India.

This manuscript has three main parts. In the first part is provided an overview of important historical events and
activity that has influenced contemporary managerial tenets, the second part of the manuscript describes the
emerging contemporary Indian HRM practices and indicates some interesting challenges. Much of the second part
is also summarised on four informative Figures. The concluding section, the third part of the manuscript, succinctly
integrates the two preceding parts.

VALUE OF CONTEXT OF HRM IN INDIA

The managerial ideologies in Indian dates back at least four centuries. Arthãshastra written by the celebrated
Indian scholar-practitioner Chanakya had three key areas of exploration, 1) public policy, 2) administration and
utilisation of people, and 3) taxation and accounting principles (Chatterjee 2006). Parallel to such pragmatic
formulations, a deep rooted value system, drawn from the early Aryan thinking, called vedanta, deeply influenced
the societal and institutional values in India. Overall, Indian collective culture had an interesting individualistic
core while the civilisational values of duty to family, group and society was always very important while vedantic
ideas nurtured an inner private sphere of individualism.

There has been considerable interest in the notion that managerial values are a function of the behaviours of
managers. England, Dhingra and Agarwal (1974) were early scholars who contended that managerial values were
critical forces that shape organisational architecture. The relevance of managerial values in shaping modern
organisational life is reflected in scholarly literature linking them to corporate culture (Deal & Kennedy 1982),
organisational commitment and job satisfaction (O’Reilly, Chatham & Caldwell 1991), as well as institutional
governance (Mowday, Porter & Steers 1982). Thus, understanding the source of these values and in particular
societal work values (which link the macro-micro relationships and in turn organisational practices) had become a
popular line of enquiry, and a great deal of evidence has been presented to support the importance of national
culture in shaping managerial values. One of the most widely read formulations of this literature is the seminal
work of Hofstede (1980) who popularised the notion of clustering culture in generic dimensions such as power
distribution, structuring, social orientation, and time horizons. In turn, these dimensions could be employed to
explain relevant work attitudes, job incumbent behaviours and the working arrangements within organisational
structures. Two of these dimensions were individualism and collectivism.

The traditional social ethos from the ancient roots, which was developed over centuries, underwent profound
transformation during the British rule. Consequently, in the contemporary context multiple layers of values (core
traditional values, individual managerial values, and situational values) have emerged (Chatterjee & Pearson
2000). Though the societal values largely remain very much anchored in the ancient traditions they are increasingly
reflecting corporate priorities and values of global linkages. But in the arena of globalisation where priorities of
consumerism, technological education, mass media, foreign investment and trade union culture predominate,
newer tensions are becoming evident. For instance, contemporary Indian multi national companies and global
firms in India have started shifting their emphasis to human resources with their knowledge and experience as the
central area of attention in extending new performance boundaries (Khandekar & Sharma 2005). Considerable
research evidence attests to this trend with particular relevance to greenfield organisations with little or no
historical baggages in their organisational culture (Settt 2004, Roy 2006).

Within Indian traditions the choice of individualistic or collectivistic behaviour depends on a number of culturally
defined variables. The dynamics of these variables are underpinned through three key elements guiding Indian
managerial mindscapes. These three constructs are Desh (the location), Kaal (the timing), and Patra (the specific
personalities involved). Sinha and Kunungo (1997) claim that the interaction of these three variables determines
the guidelines for decisional cues. This managing or nurturing of the outer layer of collectivism in an inner private
sphere of individualism is expressed in Figure 1 which demonstrates the behavioural anchors in Indian
organisational life.

Figure 1 Behavioral Anchors in Indian Organisational Life

DECISIONAL CUES Desh (place) Kaal (Timing) Patra (Actors)

SPIRITUAL ORIENTATION Sattava guna (Virtue focus) Tamas guna (Negative Rajas guna (Action
focus) focus)
INTERPERSONAL Sradha (Upward respect / Sneha (Downward
Bandhan (Bonding)
RELATIONS Loyalty) affection)

Figure 1 also presents another powerful insight of the Indian tradition of the notion of ‘Guna’ dynamics. According
to Sharma (1996), this culture based framework, which has three types of gunas (attraction), is being increasingly
used in employee assessment and organisational team building strategies. The contention is that each guna is a
separate contribution to the core of human personalities. The Sattava (or truth orientation) is the sentiment of
exalted values in people, organisations or society. Alternatively, the Tamasik guna depicts a negative orientation
which can be expressed behaviourally as ignorance, greed or corruption. Those individuals with a Rajasik guna are
inherently driven by a desire to make a worthwhile contribution to their surroundings. Collectively, these spiritual
orientations, which manifest as Sattava, Tamas or Rajas gunas, articulate as positive or negative HRM functions
such as leadership, motivation or other institutional behavioural activity. The third row of Figure 1 highlights the
linking of HRM trends to socio cultural roots. The culture of Sradha (upward loyalty) and Sneha (mentoring with
affection) outline the behavioural anchors derived from the civilisational roots. The acceptance of ‘Sradha’ by
youngers and the display of ‘Sneha’ by the seniors have been the root of sustainability of all types of Indian
oragnisations. This has a striking similarity to the concepts of ‘oyabun’ and ‘kobun’ in the Japanese cultural context.

CONTEMPORARY INDIA
In a recent survey of Indian CEO’s, it was suggested that Indian managerial leaders were less dependent on their
personal charisma, but they emphasised logical and step by step implementation processes. Indian leaders focused
on empowerment and accountability in cases of critical turnaround challenges, innovative challenges, innovative
technology, product planning and marketing or when other similar challenges were encountered (Spencer, Rajah,
Narayan, Mohan & Latiri 2007). These social scientists contend.

Leaders in other countries often tell about why they chose a peculiar person for a certain role per task,
detailing the personal characteristics that made that person right for that situation. They may also
consider, in detail, how an assignment would help someone grow and develop their abilities. In
general, Indian leaders simply did not discuss how they matched particular people to certain roles or
tasks, nor did they usually consider in detail how the personal characteristics of individuals might
shape or inform the best way to influence that person. (Spencer, et al 2007:90).

Indian HRM in Transition

One of the noteworthy features of the Indian workplace is demographic uniqueness. It is estimated that both China
and India will have a population of 1.45 billion people by 2030, however, India will have a larger workforce than
China. Indeed, it is likely India will have 986 million people of working age in 2030, which well probably be about
300 million more than in 2007. And by 2050, it is expected India will have 230 million more workers than China
and about 500 million more than the United States of America (U.S.). It may be noted that half of India’s current
population of 1.1 billion people are under of 25 years of age (Chatterjee 2006). While this fact is a demographic
dividend for the economy, it is also a danger sign for the country’s ability to create new jobs at an unprecedented
rate. As has been pointed out by Meredith (2007).

When India’s young demographic bubble begins to reach working age, India will need far more jobs
than currently exist to keep living standards from declining. India today doesn’t have enough good
jobs for its existing workers, much less for millions of new ones. If it cannot better educate its children
and create jobs for then once they reach working age, India faces a population time bomb: The nation
will grow poorer and not richer, with hundred of millions of people stuck in poverty. (p.133).

With the retirement age being 55 to 58 years of age in most public sector organisations, Indian workplaces are
dominated by youth. Increasing the retirement age in critical areas like universities, schools, hospitals, research
institutions and public service is a topic of considerable current debate and agenda of political parties.

The divergent view, that each society has an unique set of national nuances, which guide particular managerial
beliefs and actions, is being challenged in Indian society. An emerging dominant perspective is the influence of
globalisation on technological advancements, business management, education and communication infrastructures
is leading to a converging effect on managerial mindsets and business behaviours. And when India embraced
liberalisation and economic reform in the early 1990s, dramatic changes were set in motion in terms of corporate
mindsets and HRM practices as a result of global imperatives and accompanying changes in societal priorities.
Indeed, the onset of a burgeoning competitive service sector compelled a demographic shift in worker educational
status and heightened the demand for job relevant skills as well as regional diversity. Expectedly, there has been a
marked shift towards valuing human resources (HR) in Indian organisations as they become increasingly strategy
driven as opposed to the culture of the status quo. Accordingly, competitive advantage in industries like software
services, pharmaceuticals, and biotechnology (where India is seeking to assert global dominance), the significance
of HRs is being emphasised. These relativities were demonstrated in a recent study of three global Indian
companies with (235 managers) when evidence was presented that positively linked the HRM practices with
organisational performance (Khandekar & Sharma 2005). In spite of this trend of convergence, a deep sense of
locality exists creating more robust ‘cross vergence’ in the conceptual as well as practical domain.

Figure 2 Drivers of Contemporary Indian HRM Trends

Figure 2 presents the key drivers for contemporary Indian HRM trends. In Figure 2 there are four external spheres
of intervention for HRM professionals and these spheres are integrated in a complex array within organisational
settings. The intellectual sphere, which emphasises the mindset transaction in work organisations, has been
significantly impacted by the forces of globalisation. Indeed, Chatterjee and Pearson (2000) argued, with
supporting empirical evidence from 421 senior level Indian managers, that many of the traditional Indian values
(respect for seniority, status and group affiliation) have been complemented by newer areas of attention that are
more usually linked to globalisation, such as work quality, customer service and innovation. The most important
work related attribute of the study was the opportunity to learn new things at work. Such cross verging trends need
to be understood more widely as practitioners face a new reality of human resource development of post industrial
economic organisations.

The other three spheres, of Figure 2, namely the emotional, the socio cultural and the managerial domains are
undergoing, similar profound changes. For instance, the socio cultural sphere confronts the dialects of the national
macro level reform agenda as well as the challenge of innovating by addressing the hygiene and motivational
features of the work place. Consequently, this sphere, which is underpinned by the anchors of Sradha and Sneha,
has the opportunity to leverage work setting creativity in dimensions of autonomy, empowerment, multiskilling and
various types of job design. And the emotional sphere, which focuses on creativity and innovation to encapsulate
the notions of workplace commitment and collaboration as well as favourable teamwork, brings desirable
behavioural elements of transparency and integrity into organisational procedures and practices. The managerial
sphere provides the mechanisms for shifting mindsets, for in Indian organisations HRM is viewed to be closely
aligned with managerial technical competency. Thus, understanding of the relativity of HRM to strategic intended
organisational performance is less well articulated in Indian firms. The current emphasis of reconfiguring cadres
(voluntary and nonvoluntary redundancy schemes), downsizing, delayering and similar arrangements will become
less relevant as holistic perspectives gain ground. A hallmark of future Indian workplaces is likely to be a dominant
emphasis on managerial training, structural redesign and reframing of institutional architectures to achieve
enterprise excellence. Thus, a primary role of Indian managers will be to forge new employment and industrial
relationships through purposeful HRM policies and practices. In Figure 3 is presented a variety of HRM practices
that are being employed in Indian organisations.

Figure 3 Key HRM Practices in Indian Organisations

HRM Practice Observable Features

Job Description Percentage of employees with formally defined work roles is very high in the public sector.

Strong dependence on formal labour market. Direct recruitment from institutions of higher
learning is very common amongst management, engineering and similar professional cadres.
Recruitment
Amongst other vehicles, placement agencies, internet and print media are the most popular
medium for recruitment.

Strong emphasis on security and lifetime employment in public sector including a range of
Compensation
facilities like, healthcare, housing and schooling for children.

Training and Poorly institutionalised in Indian organisations. Popularity of training programmes and their
Development effect in skill and value development undeveloped.

Performance A very low coverage of employees under formal performance appraisal and rewards or
Appraisal organisational goals

Promotion and Moderately variable across industries. Seniority systems still dominate the public sector
Reward enterprises. Use of merit and performance limited mostly to globally orientated industries.

Limited in scope. The seniority based escalator system in the public sector provides stability
Career Planning and progression in career. Widespread use of voluntary retirement scheme in public sector by
high performing staff. Cross functional career paths uncommon.

Driven by proactive court rulings, ILO guidelines and legislature provisions. Lack of strategic
Gender Equity
and inclusion vision spread.

The central government has fixed 15 per cent reservations for scheduled castes, 7.5 per cent for
Reservation
scheduled tribes and 27 per cent for backward communities. States vary in their reservation
System
systems.

IR Challenge

The Indian IR system has two main features. First, is the absence of the provision to recognise a union as a
representative or agent for collective bargaining. Second, is the total dominance of government in regulating the
industrial relations (IR) domain. Though it is relatively easy for members of a work organisation to be registered as
a union under the law, it does not lead to the legal recognition by the employer in dispute resolution or bargaining
process. This contention was made by Kuruvilla (1996) over a decade ago.

In terms of collective bargaining, industry wide bargaining occurs in certain industries where the
employers are organized, but bargaining otherwise is decentralised to enterprise level. Although there
are no restrictions on the subjects of bargaining, the Industrial Disputes Act of 1947 restricts the ability
of employers to lay off or retrench employees or to close business. (p.635).

Indian industrial relations have evolved from political roots and labour market demands. An unique feature of
Indian IR has been the dominance of political parties sponsoring unions. Union membership has been the most
popular breeding ground for politicians, and political leaders have enjoyed the use of union platforms. Such
politicisation has generated conflicts and rivalry creating mayhem and the hurting of labour interest. Nevertheless,
in spite of wage determination by central government boards, and ad hoc industrial awards, enterprise level
bargaining has yielded positive outcomes. Interestingly, during the 1970s in a period of the highest number of
strikes, the registered number of unions grew fivefold. But a decade later profound economic and political reform
movement saw a new direction in the trade union movement. A section of scholarly trade union leaders began to
incorporate new global thinking in the union outlook.

Since the 1980s, the Indian industrial relations culture has been considerably impacted by the intensification of
globalised markets. During this time and beyond, there has been a clear departure from traditional personnel
management. The shift has not only been in the general tone, but in the substantive visions. Adjustment to the
global imperatives of an emerging service sector, sunrise industries, and demographic shifts in competencies has
given rise to new thinking. In spite of most of the Indian labour laws being entrenched in a world view that is very
different to the current realities, and the obvious urgency for them to be updated to incorporate more flexible,
competitive work systems, the built in rigidities are still proving a formidable obstacle.

The most alarming issue in the HR and IR context is the lack of job opportunities outside urban areas where more
than 70 per cent of the population lives. As has been pointed out by Meredith (2007).

While Indian university graduates line up for jobs that can propel them into newly vibrant middle
class, per India’s rural and urban poor, change has been interminably delayed. Expectations, like
incomes, are rising across India, and not just for those working in call centres. Even as the New India
cohort thrives, much of the rest of India is making much slower gains or even being left behind,
creating social and political tensions that cloud India’s impressive strides forward. The lowest paid
workers in the off shoring industry those working in the call centres earn median wages of $275 a
month. But most Indians still earn less than $60 a month or just $2 a day. (p.125).

Technical Services Recruitment and Retention

There has been a dramatic shift in the expectations of employees in the organised and globally linked sectors of the
economy. An unprecedented rise in the disposable income coupled with a declining dependency ratio, has led to
young professionals becoming extremely mobile. The problem is critically evident in the off shoring industry where
the average retention period of an employee is considered to be around six to eight months. And the retention of
senior level executives is an additional challenge. The attrition rates are highest in information technology (IT) (30-
35%), business process outsourcing (BPO) (35-40%), insurance (35-40%), retail and fast moving consumer goods
(FMCG) (20-30%), and manufacturing and engineering (10-15%) (Chatterjee 2006).

Over the past decade, there has been a sea change in the area of Indian technical services and the associated HRM
practices of recruitment and retention. While the higher education system in the country has remained
overwhelming poor in infrastructure and weak in becoming revitalised to grapple with the global imperatives, there
has been a mushrooming of private educational institutions. The recruitment problem is further deepened by the
emergence of a new culture of ‘job hopping’ amongst employers who can demonstrate their world class
competencies. This phenomenon of turnover has seen a chain reaction in entry level salaries, and an increase in
graduates has created significant social and economic disruption to the Indian labour market. A likely scenario
from this rampant activity is that the Indian HR scene will be negatively impacted in the next decade unless the
deregulation and autonomy of the higher education sectors is initiated somewhat immediately. An example of this
widening gap between the university system and market need has become a serious impediment in several new
industries in India. For an example, it has been reported in the popular press (Time 2007), “…out of 13 million
people who applied to work at IT company Infosys last year, just 2% were qualified indicating a sign of stress in the
university system that graduates 2.5 million a year.” (p.33).

One of the most concerning issues for HR managers in India is the high staff turnover. In industries like call
centres, staff attrition is the single biggest issue. The industry has grown from zero employment to an employer of
quarter of a million young English speaking, well educated and ambitious people. The point is well made by Slater
(2007), who wrote.

Attrition is highest in traditional customer service jobs, where young people find themselves having to
spend all night on the phone, often with irate callers. In other areas such as claims processing or
accounting, the turnover rate is much lower. More worrying for many companies is the ‘merry go
round’ in supervising and management jobs, as new centers are only too willing to pay higher salaries
to hijack experienced staff. (p.34).

The issue of retention is much more critical in the high value adding BPO sector such as R&D activities. This $40
billion industry has one of the highest attrition rates of around 20 to 25 per cent. The service laden BPO and Hord
industry have the highest attrition rates. Many companies are developing innovative incentive packages in
countering this job hopping phenomenon. Figure 4 illustrates some of these initiative by leading companies in
India.

Figure 4 Examples of Retention Strategies for young Professionals in India’s BPO and Services Sectors
Name of the
Retention Strategy Impact
Company

Tata Consulting • A choice of working in over 170 offices across 40 • Significant impact on
Services(TCS) countries in a variety of areas. job hopping achieved
• Paternity leave for adoption of a girl child
 Name of the
Retention Strategy Impact
Company

• Discounts on group parties

• Identification of potential talented staff • Have been able to

ICICI Bank • Alternative stock options achieve higher retention
• Quicker promotion rate

• ‘Wings Within’ programme where existing employees

• Has led to a higher
WIPRO get a chance to quit their current job role and join a
retention rate
different firm within WIPRO

• Fostering a sense of belongingness, creative artistic

and social activities for the employees and their
• Moderate Retentions
INFOSYS families.
rate increase achieved
• Initiating one of the best ‘corporate universities’ in the
world

• Excellent sporting and wellness facilities

• Employees allowed to choose flexible working
• Struggling to minimise
Microsoft-India schedule
job hopping
• Moving people across functions and sections in
assisting employees find their area of interest

• Culture change valuing innovation and talent over age

and experience
• Stabilised job hopping
Mahindra & Co • Institutionalising a practice called ‘reverse mentoring’
significantly
where young people are given opportunities of
mentoring their seniors

A dramatic shift in recruitment practices has been taking place as globally pretend Indian companies as well as
global technical services rivals have made India a battlefield of recruitment for the best workers. For example,
IBM’s workforce in India has more than doubled in two years to a cadre of 53,000. This outcome has come with the
elimination of 20,000 jobs in high cost markets like the U.S., Europe and Japan. The R&D centre of IBM is staffed
by 3,000 world class engineers and is being recognised for its ability to innovate on all areas from simple processes,
softwares, semiconductors as well as supercomputers. It is interesting to note that IBM has dominated the
recruitment market in technical services in India during 2006. This leading company recruited 10,000 employees
out of a total of 25,000 people who were recruited to the technical services industry. The prominence of IBM as an
employer of technically qualified personnel has been acknowledged in the popular press (Business Week 2007).

In Pune, a rapidly developing IT centre near Mumbai, the company has been dispatching vans with
signs saying, ‘IBM is hiring’, to the gates of the rivals at lunch time. Their hit rate is pretty good
laments a manager at a tech firm that has lost employees to IBM.

CONCLUSION
The World Competitiveness Report rated India’s human resource capabilities as being comparatively weaker than
most Asian nations. The recognition of world class human resource capability as being pivotal to global success has
changed Indian HRM cultures in recent years. While the historical and traditional roots remain deeply embedded
in the subjective world of managers, emphasis on objective global concepts and practices are becoming more
common. Three very different perspectives in HRM are evident. Firstly, Indian firms with a global outlook;
secondly, global firms seeking to adapt to the Indian context; and thirdly, the HRM practice in public sectors
undertakings (PSV’S). As the Indian economy becomes more globally linked, all three perspectives will move
increasingly towards a cross verging strengthening. Interestingly, within the national context, India itself is not a
homogenous entity. Regional variations in terms of industry size, provincial business culture, and political issues
play very relevant roles. The nature of hierarchy, status, authority, responsibility and similar other concepts vary
widely across the nations synerging system maintenance. Indeed, organisational performance and personal success
are critical in the new era.
AUTHOR
Samir Chatterjee is professor of International Management at Curtin University of Technology in Australia. He has
been involved in university teaching, research, corporate consulting and advisory role with UN, ADB and many
other scholarly activities in the Asian region for over 35 years. He has authored and co-authored eight books, 22
book chapters and over 150 refereed journal and conference papers. He is currently the President of the Society for
Global Business and Economic Development.

Email: [email protected]

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