A Lifecycle Framework of Green Iot-Based Agriculture and Its Finance, Operation, and Management Issues

A lifecycle framework of green iot-based agriculture And Its Finance, Operation, And Management Issues
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The development of the Internet of Things (IoT) has been reshaping various fields such as
industry, transportation, and healthcare. In the literature, increasing attention is paid to both IoT
techniques and their practical applications. The penetration of IoT in the agriculture sector is
deepening. In practice, governments and companies are often reported to be applying some
advanced IoT techniques into agriculture.
The potential and superiority of IoT in agriculture result in its current popularity. It is a
challenging and must-be-solved task to sustainably feed the world’s growing population, which is
predicted to reach 9.6 billion people by 2050. Precision agriculture aims to maximize crop yields
while preserving resources, and is indeed proved with high productivity. To implement precision
agriculture, farmers need to monitor the growth environment and make optimal production
decisions. This is where IoT systems can help farmers. Through various sensors and actuators,
farmers can know in real time the growth status and environment in their farms, and make timely
actions to keep the optimal growth status.
However, the costs of implementing IoT systems in agriculture are huge. In current practice,
most existing IoT devices are deployed in controlled environment agriculture such as greenhouses
and livestock farms. Large-scale promotion in open-field agriculture, which is the key to solving the
world’s food problem, is still not coming. Two aspects that probably limit the promotion are
observed. First, IoT-based agriculture should be viewed from a life cycle of agri-products, not just a
cycle of growth. Both the quality of agriculture ingredients and the circulation of harvested agri-
products have important impacts on yields and production behaviors. Without a whole life cycle
equipped with IoT systems, it is difficult to attract farmers’ interest in deploying IoT devices.
Second, the implementation of IoT systems in agriculture is not only a technical issue but also
involves some challenging finance, operation, and management (FOM) issues. The costly
investment is the first concern to consider. Neither large-scale nor small holder farmers are willing
to undertake the costs without attractive benefits and conveniences. Unfortunately, most existing
studies focus on the technical issues in the growth cycle.
Suma N G – 1CR18SCS04 Dept. of CSE – March – June 2019 Page 1

Meanwhile, the energy concern should be considered in the implementation of agriculture

IoT systems. Motivated by these observations, in this article we try to formulate a life cycle
framework of green IoT-based agriculture, including ingredient supply, growth, processing and
packaging, distribution and storage, and consumption. Through analyzing the applications of IoT
systems throughout the life cycle, we identify some FOM issues that need to be solved to make IoT
systems fully cover agriculture. These FOM issues such as IoT finance in agriculture, supply chain
and big data financing in IoT-based agriculture, farm-todoor delivery optimization, IoT-based
reception box layout, and agriculture IoT data management have the potential to call for innovative
farm production modes and new types of agribusiness enterprises as well as extended or novel
theories and methods in academia.

Chapter 2
TOWARD A LIFE CYCLE FRAMEWORK OF GREEN

IOT-BASED AGRICULTURE
2.1 Categories of IoT-Based Agriculture

In industry and academia, various IoT defi nitions have been reported. One well-recognized
defi nition is from the report “Internet of Things: Strategic Research Roadmap”, that is, Internet of
Things is an integrated part of Future Internet… and could be conceptually defined as a dynamic
global network infrastructure… where physical and virtual “things” have identities… and are
seamlessly integrated into the information network. The concept can be understood from three
aspects. First, since IoT is an infrastructure, its worldwide implementation is necessary for popular
application but will take a huge amount of energy and funds. Second, IoT is based on various
access, communication, and application protocols such as Bluetooth 4.x and IEEE 802.15.4. Third,
both physical and virtual things are connected in IoT systems, so running modes and rules in
various fields probably have big changes.
Figure 2.1 : A basic framework of IoT-based agriculture.

Based on the above defi nition, we formulate a basic framework of IoT-based agriculture, as
Fig. 1 shows. Various sensors are located at agriculture areas, collecting and sending data to the
Internet by communication networks. With support of rules and technical tools in data processing
serverss, users can access the data and send commands from mobile, portable, and fi xed terminals.
Actuators implement warning and control functions based on user commands. In order to formulate
a life cycle framework of IoT-based agriculture, we briefly review the categories of IoT-based
agriculture. As the International Labour Organization has defined, agriculture is the cultivation and
breeding of animals and plants to provide food, fi ber, medicinal plants and other products to sustain
and enhance life. According to types of agricultural products and controllable degree of growth
environments, we summarize the categories of agriculture applying IoT techniques into controlled
environment planting, open fi eld planting, livestock breeding, and aquaculture and aquaponics, as
in Table 1.
Table 1 : The application of IoT techniques in the agriculture growth cycle.

2.1.1 Controlled Environment Planting

The greenhouse is the main form of controlled environment planning. Due to limited and
closed spaces, IoT devices and communication systems can be well equipped in greenhouses, so the
inside environment can not only be collected using sensors (temperature, humidity, pressure, etc.)
but also be adjusted using actuators (heaters, pumps, fans, etc.). By adjusting the environment,
farmers can control the growth of greenhouse plants, and thus achieve expected harvests. However,
the unit costs of applying IoT techniques in controlled environment planting are high. It is a
challenging task to make IoTbased greenhouses attractive and profi table for market-oriented
farmers.
2.1.2 Open Field Planting

Constructing IoT systems in open fi eld planting needs far more sensors to monitor the wild
environment as well as the grow ing crops. In order to ensure efficiency, moving sensors and drones
have great potential to collect data in open fi eld agriculture. With enough data from the IoT
networks, it is possible to perform disease detection and precision irrigation for largescale farms.
Moreover, farm machines equipped with GPS and navigation systems are more efficient in tillage,
fertilization, harvesting, and so on. Obviously, sensors and actuators are helpful for farmers to make
production decisions. However, due to the huge investment and non-tech-savvy farmers, currently it
is difficult to implement IoT systems in open fi eld agriculture. The huge energy consumption is
another concern of implementing IoT systems in open fi eld agriculture. Two kinds of measures
can be considered to reduce the energy consumption. One is to minimize the used sensors by
optimizing network design and applying moving sensors, and the other is to use low-power and
even clean-energy sensors.
2.1.3 Livestock Breeding

IoT techniques present obvious superiority in improving livestock management for both
space-constrained farms and vast pastures. One basic function of IoT-based farms is to make
livestock grow in expected environments by collecting and controlling the temperature, humidity,
and so on. Livestock healthcare monitoring and behavior recognition are two emerging directions
with the further application of new-type IoT devices such as wearable sensors and three-
dimensional accelerometers. Other applications of IoT techniques in livestock breeding include
identifying animal livestock and recording feeding details.

2.1.4 Aquaculture and Aquaponics

Fish farms equipped with specific IoT sensors have realized convenience and benefi ts in
monitoring water quality including water temperature and level, dissolved oxygen, salinity, pH, and
so on. In controllable fish farms, actuators can take corresponding actions such as oxygen
generation and water fi lling to maintain the water quality in optimal situations. With ultrasonic
detectors and underwater cameras, it is easier for farmers to locate fi sh groups and do precision
feeding. Aquaponics, a junction of aquaculture and hydroponics, is another potential application
area of IoT systems. IoT-based aquaponics helps to monitor the growth conditions of both aquatic
creatures and hydroponic plants. Thus, more sensors and actuators as well as processing rules than
those in separate aquaculture and greenhouse are often required.

Chapter 3
A LIFE CYCLE FRAMEWORK OF GREEN IOT-BASED
AGRICULTURE
Most existing studies applying IoT systems in agriculture focus on the growth cycle of
plants, livestock, and aquatic creatures. In the growth cycle framework shown in Fig. 2, various
sensors, actuators, drones, and routers are connected as wireless sensor networks (WSNs) under diff
erent kinds of protocols such as Zigbee, WiFi, and Bluetooth. The collected data from WSNs are
transferred to local or remote data processing servers through cloud, Internet, GPRS, and GPS
networks. Managers and users can monitor the growth status and send out control commands
anywhere by fixed, portable, and mobile terminals.
Figure 3.1 : A growth cycle framework of IoT-based agriculture.

The aim of sustainable agriculture is to provide enough and safe agri-products with
minimum energy consumption, so we need to monitor not only the growth cycle but also the whole
life cycle of agri-products. In practice, many quality and safety problems of agri-products are not
from the growth cycle but from the outside links including ingredient supply, agri-products
processing, transport, storage, and distribution. Meanwhile, the construction of IoT systems in the
whole life cycle of agri-products can help farmers recognize the quality of agriculture ingredients
and produce agri-products creditable to the market, further attracting farmers’ interest in IoT
techniques. However, employing more sensors often means more energy consumption, so the green
norm should be considered in the implementation of agriculture IoT systems. Thus, it is necessary
to apply IoT systems througout the whole agri-products supply chain considering the green norm,
that is, to construct a life cycle framework of green IoT-based agriculture, as shown in Fig. 3. Some
typical applications of IoT techniques in the life cycle of agri-products are listed in Table 2.
Figure 3.2 : A life cycle framework of green IoT based agriculture.

3.1 Typical applications of IoT techniques

3.1.1 Ingredient Supply
The application of IoT techniques in ingredient supply can improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of ingredient management. Given inventory control policies, farmers who equip their
ingredient inventory with IoT techniques are able to monitor in real time the level and status of
various ingredients and do precise ordering automatically. When ingredients such as seeds and
fertilizers arrive, it is easy to detect their quantity and quality by reading RFID smart tags and
assessing the ingredient tracing systems. Meanwhile, IoT systems are also helpful for ingredient
suppliers to cultivate seeds and produce fertilizers.
3.1.2 Processing and Packaging

Agri-products classification marketing is an efficient strategy for improving farmers’ returns.
Traditional classification is manual and low efficiency. In agriculture IoT systems, nondestructive
determination techniques such as near infrared spectroscopy analysis and odor sensors have been
applied to automatic classification, especially on fresh fruits. Moreover, processing environment
monitoring and control is necessary for perishable agri-products. A specifi c application is
processing optimization on multiple varieties of fresh produce that need diff erent processing
environments. Another work-related IoT technique in this link is to formulate intelligent labels
using the data from ingredient supply and growth links, and attach these labels onto packaged agri-
products.
3.1.3 Distribution and Storage

The storage environment has direct impact on the quality change of agri-products. More
and more IoT-based warehouses are built for reducing the loss of fresh agri-products in practice.
Through vehicle-mounted sensor networks and GPS, managers can monitor the status of in-transit
agri-products and the position of refrigerated trucks. Warning messages will be sent out when the
environment in refrigerated trucks is harmful to the quality. Meanwhile, downstream retailers and
consumers can track their ordered agri-products in real time, which facilitates making timely
receiving plans. Automatic sorting is another important function resulting from IoT systems,
especially for the fulfi llment of online agri-products orders.

3.1.3 Consumption
Agri-products with RFID tags or QR codes on the retail shelf make it easy for consumers to
identify the variety and origin, which can avoid consumers buying fake and shoddy goods.
Moreover, consumers can access the details in the whole life cycle from the tracing system, such as
fertilization and pesticide records. IoT devices in the supermarket are also helpful for consumers to
quickly detect additives and pesticide residue. Even when some agri-products are found with safety
problems, it is easy to make recalling precise with the help of life cycle IoT systems.
Table 2 : The application of IoT techniques into the agri-products life cycle.

Chapter 4
FOM ISSUES IN THE LIFE CYCLE OF GREEN IOT-
BASED AGRICULTURE
IoT technical issues in agriculture have attracted much attention in the literature, such as
agriculture sensors design, low-power WSNs, communication protocols in agriculture, and
agricultural fog computing. As mentioned above, the huge investment is hampering further
application of IoT systems in agriculture, so it is urgent to solve the fi nancial issue through
innovative fi nancing modes. Meanwhile, digital agriculture certainly faces new operation and
management issues that face various challenges to existing theories and methods. In addition,
minimizing energy consumption (i.e., the green norm) should be considered as a criterion in dealing
with these issues. Figure 4 shows some examples of technical and FOM issues in green IoT-based
agriculture.
4.1 Finance Issues

4.1.1 Investment in IoT Systems in Open Field Agriculture
IoT systems in agriculture are a capital-intensive infrastructure. Energy and communication
are two key obstacles, because constructing enough power and Internet facilities to support IoT
systems, especially in open field agriculture, with the current technologies needs enormous
investment. Neither large-scale nor small holder farmers can afford to make the investment. Some
countries and companies are currently making plans to promote the construction of IoT
infrastructures in agriculture, such as Britain’s 2013 UK strategy for agricultural technologies and
Microsoft’s FarmBeats project. Low energy consumption, even with higher costs, is recognized as
one basic norm to construct their agriculture IoT platforms. However, more efforts are needed to
fully cover open field agriculture fully by IoT systems, such as innovative financing modes. Since
agriculture data are required by agricultural researchers and enterprises, crowdfunding is one
possible way to raise funds for implementing agriculture IoT systems.

4.1.2 IoT Finance in Agriculture

In the era of IoT, people can make real-time and objective assessments on the value of any
connected thing, making it possible to build a thing-oriented credit system. Due to this situation,
IoT finance will come true. As stated in 2016 China’s first IoT Finance White Paper, IoT finance is
just emerging, but will bring about new profit models and commercial operating modes. A
revolution caused by IoT finance will also happen in agriculture. IoT systems, when fully covering
agriculture, will make any “thing” in farms transparent to relevant stakeholders. Bankers can make
credible loans to farmers after precise assessment of their growing crops, grazing livestock, and
swimming fish. Insurance companies will quickly collect agriculture damage conditions after severe
weather and compensate objective insurance to farmers. However, one major concern in IoT
finance is people’s willingness to thoroughly expose their “things,” which may have impact on
some farmers’ interest in implementing IoT system.
4.1.3 Supply Chain Financing in IoT-Based Agriculture

Supply chain finance has attracted increasing attention in the current literature and practice
to deal with difficulties such as making credit ratings, determining trade credit quantity, and trading
off between bank credit and trade credit. These difficulties will become easy in the IoT world. To
be specific in agriculture, ingredient suppliers are clear about each farmer by assessing the “things”
status of the farmer. Farmers can obtain credits and loans from suppliers, wholesalers, retailers, and
even consumers just by showing the quality of their agri-products, and can also give reasonable
credits to their partners who make their “things” status accessible to farmers. Meanwhile, it is easy
to implement green standards by the rule that agri-products with lower energy consumption are
more popular at higher prices. As we can see, some existing complicated and various equilibrium
models of agri-products supply chain finance may be invalid or unnecessary in the IoT-based
agriculture.
4.1.4 Agriculture Big Data Financing

Seen from the development of platform-based firms such as Amazon and Alibaba, data
seem to be another important productive force, as well as technology, capital, and labor. Through
agriculture IoT systems, big data on the growth environment and status can be constructed. These
data are not only helpful for farmers to make decisions, but also valuable to other related bodies
such as seed companies, pest control companies, fertilizer companies, agri-product processing

companies, and related research institutes. Seed, pest control, and fertilizer companies can use the
data to observe the performance of their products and improve the production efficiency and
product quality. Agri-product processing companies can easily check the quality of agri-products
and do differentiated processing. Agricultural scientists should be interested in the data for
conducting their research. Thus, agriculture big data can bring about innovative investment and
financing modes.
4.2 Operation Issues

4.2.1 Sensor Distribution Network Design
The distribution of sensors has direct impact on the monitoring and control precision in
agriculture. This issue is more challenging in open field planting, often taking place over wide
spaces. Given specific regional and monitoring requirements, the operation objective is to design an
optimal sensor distribution network under constraints such as sensing ranges and sensor costs. The
optimization criteria may be multiple and conflicting, such as minimum costs and maximum
precision. Moreover, the operation models will be different when sensors are movable. Thus,
besides static sensor network optimization models, multi-objective and dynamic optimization ones
are also needed. The consideration of clean energy sensors such as solar sensors will bring different
operation models and optimal network designs.
4.2.2 Network Nodes Recharging and Repairing

Agriculture IoT systems consist of a large number of nodes with limited battery lifetime,
and most of the nodes in remote areas are not connected to power grids or solar panels. In addition,
network nodes may break down due to unexpected events such as farming activities and severe
weather. Thus, it is necessary to make operation plans for recharging and repairing network nodes
located in agriculture, which is often a complicated operation problem. Node battery lifetimes are
often not balanced due to different loads, battery types, discharge rates, and environments, so
regular recharging plans with long intervals may risk failure of some nodes. However, frequent
plans are cost-prohibitive for massive agriculture IoT nodes. Recharging drones may bring
convenience to the problem, but will face another operation issue: the route planning problem.

4.2.3 Farm-to-Door Delivery Optimization

An ideal way for consumers to get agri-food is to personally pick them at convenient farms,
which is impossible for most people living in urban areas. With the development of ecommerce and
express services, farm-to-door delivery for various agrifood is feasible and attracting more and
more consumers. One difficulty in farm-to-door delivery is to maintain freshness and quality.
Through lifecycle-based IoT systems where all-around information on agri-food is available, it is
possible to optimize the farm-to-door delivery as a whole process. However, farm-to-door delivery
optimization models are very different from classical vehicle routing problems in the last mile. The
former need to consider more constraints such as processing time and truck transport capacity. IoT-
enabled delivery also makes it possible to precisely consider the energy consumption and then
produce the most energy-efficient delivery modes.
4.2.4 IoT-Based Reception Box Layout

The idea of a reception box was reported early in the literature and applied in practice as an
efficient solution to the last mile issue. However, conventional reception boxes are mainly
applicable to common products that are not sensitive to the environment. When agri-food and fresh
produce are delivered to consumers’ doors, a place whose inside environment is controllable is
needed when nobody is at home. IoT-based reception boxes with freezing or cooling functions can
meet the requirement. These intelligent boxes are located at a convenient place in the community.
After delivery persons place the ordered agri-food into the box, a message with the password will
be sent to consumers. When consumers go home, they can pick up the agri-food. It is an operational
issue to optimize the layout of IoT-based reception boxes, where additional constraints such as
energy consumption and agri-food quality should be considered.
4.3 Management Issues

4.3.1 Agriculture IoT Devices Management
Various sensors, actuators, and other network nodes will exist in agriculture IoT systems, so
device management is basic, mainly consisting of reliability management, security management,
maintenance management, and energy management. Reliability management aims to make sure IoT
devices run normally by remote configuration and online updating. Attacks on IoT devices will be
as common as those on Internet devices, so security management should attract the attention of
managers in charge of agriculture IoT devices. Should failure occur on IoT devices, timely

responses are needed to fix these failures, which is maintenance management. Energy management
is the function to minimize energy consumption by controlling the running status of any agriculture
IoT device.
4.3.2 Agriculture IoT Data Management

As the sensors in agriculture IoT systems collect and send data to storage servers, massive
data will be formulated in limited hard disk space. Thus, the storage problem is a difficult issue in
data management. Cloud storage may provide a technique to collect separate data but is also cost
consuming. The key to solve the difficulty is to determine reasonable data collection intervals that
may minimize the required storage space. Although agriculture IoT data are valuable for farms and
other stakeholders, complete data sharing is impossible due to investment shares and trade secrets.
Thus, access management is another key problem in data management. Similar to other fields, big
data analysis on agriculture IoT data is a necessary task of data management.
4.3.3 Agri-Products Quality Management

The improvement of agri-products quality management using IoT systems mainly consists
of two aspects. One is to maximize the quality in the growth stage, by controlling the growth
environment and status of agriculture products as well as the quality of ingredient supplies. The
other aspect is to minimize the quality loss in the farm-to-door stage, which currently results in
about one third of the loss of fresh food in China. If IoT systems are used in the whole life cycle,
from ingredient supply to growth to final consumption, it will be easy to address, both nationally
and internationally, the agri-food security issue. Thus, the agri-products quality management
heavily depends on the management of life cycle agriculture IoT devices and data.
4.3.4 Agri-Products Traceability Management

The traceability management of agri-products is often more important than that of common
products should failure occur on IoT devices, timely responses are needed to fix these failures,
which is maintenance management. Energy management is the function to minimize energy
consumption by controlling the running status of any agriculture IoT device. Since it involves the
safety and health of consumers. The traceability techniques have developed from bar code to QR
code to RFID smart tag. The application of these traceability techniques in agri-products is helpful
for consumers to recognize the details in the growth and processing stages and buy goods of

expected quality, which in turn prompts farmers to concentrate on agri-products quality. In IoT-
based systems, more information can be recorded using sensors. However, some specific
management issues are not solved well in practice. For example, what information should be
recorded for different kinds of agri-products? Corresponding standards based on the agriculture
categories should be formulated. Another issue is how to realize cross-border traceability among
countries with different quality standards.
Figure 4.1 : Examples of technical and FOM issues in green IoT- based agriculture.

Chapter 5
ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN LIFECYCLE OF IOT
DEVICES
Sensing device act as the backbone for IoT applications. Different sensors are deployed
massively to develop a ubiquitous sensed environment, to offer diverse monitoring and control
services. Indeed to avoid service interruptions of critical applications sensing device must operate
permissibly for a long time. However, as most of the IoT devices are powered by constrained
energy source hence device lifetime longevity is a critical issue. Therefore the device must be
monitored precisely for optimal utilization. In this context, the trend of energy consumption during
different states of the sensor is studied in. There are five modes among which sensor switches-
Mode I: Wake up from Sleep mode, Mode II: After Sleep mode. Mode III: Sensing, Mode IV:
Processing, Mode V: Transmission. Hussain studied different case studies to see the trend of energy
consumption during different modes. As a conclusion of various trends (Fig.5), it was found that
during Processing-Phase energy consumption was least whereas, for Sensing Phase, node consumes
the highest power as compare to Transmission Phase. However, energy consumption during
Transmission phase depends on the application. For example, consider the applications like
Humidity /thermal measurement the power consumption during the wake-up and in getting ready
for sensing phase is more as compare to other applications like temperature sensing which require
less power for the same. Duty Cycle is the other metric that affects the energy consumption in the
sensor node. As the duty cycle increases, energy consumption increases consequently lifetime of the
node decreases. There are various factors that affect the lifetime of an IoT device such as duty
cycle, the amount of data to be communicated, processing time other factors like aging, self-
discharge and temperature.
Figure 5 : Energy consumption during the lifecycle of IoT device

5.1 ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNIQUES FOR GREEN

COMMUNICATION
The energy budget affects the sensor node processing time, quality of measurement and
amount of data it can transmit, thus energy efficiency techniques can a play crucial role to improve
QoE. Rault et al classified the energy efficiency techniques classified into five categories of radio
optimization, data reduction, sleep/wakeup schemes, energy efficient routing and battery repletion.
Where radio optimization techniques would optimize modulation schemes, transmission power, and
antenna direction on the other hand data reduction reduces the data transmitted. Furthermore
Sleep/Wake-up adaptivelyswitches the node to sleep or active mode to save energy. Other two
techniques, energy efficient routing, and battery repletion works on routing efficiency and ways of
harvesting energy or finding ways to charge battery automation, respectively. (Fig. 6).
Figure 5.1 Classification of energy efficiency techniques for IoT.
5.1.1 SLEEP/WAKEUP TECHNIQUES

Khodr et al, enlighten that thought he duty cycling technique could reduce power
consumption but this will reduce network reactivity. Thus authors proposed a design of sensor
based RF wake up technology. This design approach wakes the sensor only when the address
decoder detects that whether a received signal address is of IoT device or not. Thereby omits the
fake call wakeups hence reduced energy consumption. Perles et al. did a case study on cultural
heritage and proposed an architecture to improve the life span of sensor life up to 20 years using

unlicensed LPWAN technologies LoRa & SigFox. In order to keep the energy consumption low,
the proposed architecture wakes up the microcontroller whenever a new packet arrives. Apart from
this, it uses a cluster management system, Elastic Cloud Computing Cluster(EC3) which can deploy
and un-deploy nodes as per demand i.e. nodes will be deployed if load increases and un-deployed if
they are idle.
5.1.2 COGNITIVE RADIO TECHNIQUES

Further, Qureshi et al. discussed cognitive radio approach where unlicensed users opportunistically
access the unused spectrum holes that are not used by the licensed user. Hence to achieve good
throughput, uninterrupted connectivity, and Reliable communication, for both licensed and
unlicensed user the concept of the backup data channel (BDC) was introduced. Where if licensed
user return than unlicensed user resumes its communication using BDC. Hence communication
time between SUs for task completion will be reduced and thereby the energy consumption of
CRAN’s will reduce and throughput will increase. Furthermore, Li et al. proposed a 5G based
framework where the central control unit act as both cloud and central data processor takes the
sensed data from the physical world. In addition to this authors, fractionated there source allocation
into two sub problems of power and channel allotment in industrial Cyber physical IoT.Thesesub-
problems are solved separately. For individual channel allotment, the energy efficiency is achieved
using game theory and Dinkelbach’s algorithm. After this, theHungarian method was used for
channel allocation. Authors analyzed that IHM-VD could perform outstandingly.
5.1.3 ROUTING TECHNIQUES

Further Yi et al. proposed a topology control algorithm in which nodes discover their
neighbors asymmetrically. For time synchronization multiple of two is taken as reference point.
Authors observed that energy consumption got abridged due to curtailment in wakeup calls required
to discover the neighboring node. Further, the utmost drawback of continuous sensing (i.e.
nonselective monitoring) is unfiltered data that results in significant energy consumption of sensors.
Basnayaka and Haas proposed a physical layer modulation scheme RNM(random number
modulation) that operates in two modes energy efficient and low latency. To switch between modes
the constellation order and random bit generated by random generator were considered. Proposed
approach compromise latency for energy efficiency, as the user was allowed to transmit the data
block only when it matches with random sequence generated by a random number generator

otherwise the user could not transmit the data. Shen et al. proposed a clustering based protocol
EECRP for IoT assisted by WSN to enhance the performance of the network. Firstly a cluster head
is opted by comparing the energy of each node with pre-specified energy (threshold value)after this
taking the distance from the centroid(energy based) of the network to the node is considered. This
leads to uniform energy consumption in the network. After this for optimal result, the max distance
value is broadcasted by BS to all the nodes, inorder to avoid long distance communication. As a
result, it has been found that overall energy consumption of the network is reduced in comparison to
proprietary protocols. In extension to this, Tian et al. have discussed, when to use network coding
concept to reduce the energy consumption. Authors have proposed a network coding and power
control based routing (NCPCR) protocol. Using this protocol intermediate node drops the duplicate
packets and keep the relevant information in its buffer. Source node selects the path with the
minimum distance to transmit the data packets. As a result the energy consumption is reduced as no
of packets to be retransmitted is reduced and moreover, it opts for the shortest path also and in
addition to this, it can handle scalability.
5.1.4 DATA REDUCTION TECHNIQUE

Perera et al. proposed a platform C-MOSDEN that performs sensing tasks collaboratively
and in a selective manner i.e. adaptive sensing to reduce energy consumption. As sensing would
require less computational efforts to drive knowledge from data generated. In addition to this, the
storage cost will also be reduced.
5.1.5 BATTERY REPLETION TECHNIQUE

Nan et al. enlighten that offloading the traffic at fog layer or edge layer has led to increased carbon
footprints, thus they have proposed an online algorithm LOTEC (Lyapunov optimization on time
and energy cost). The proposed technique suggested using green power source i.e. solar energy and
grid power as a standby power source. In this paper, two novel application based energy efficient
approaches are proposed. For smart agriculture and Smart Healthcare. Where ‘‘ZTPA’’ –a hybrid
approach, centere don’t wo techniques ‘‘Sleep/wake up’’ and ‘‘Energy efficient routing’’ is
proposed. E2AHMS is proposed for smart healthcare, which is a radio based approach.

5.2 PROPOSED TECHNIQUE FOR SMART AGRICULTURE:

ZPTA
5.2.1 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT SMART

AGRICULTURE
Sensor nodes SN1,SN2,SN3,.......,SNn are deployed in the field and as per proposed model,
it is assumed CH of disjoint sets of sensors (CH1, CH2, and CH3) will communicate with the
processing unit (PU). Further, this PU would communicate with BS. Assume that using NBIoT
technology k PRB’s(physical resource blocks) are required.As the signal propagates from SNi to
NBIoT node path loss (PL) will occur. PL will depend on the position of sensor.
 If the sensor is placed under the soil or underground, then soil would absorb the signal and
hence leads to path loss which can be evaluated as follows
Here specifies the complex-permittivity(cp), denotes the real part of cp, is due to
Relaxation and specifies the relative dielectric-permittivity.

The permittivity of soil can be affected importantly by parameters like water content, frequency of
signal, soil compositionandsoilconductivity.Henceitisdifficulttomeasure the soil permittivity
accurately.
Path loss can be calculated using equation below where Tp is Transmission power, Tg
Transmission gain, Rg receiver gain, PLfs is path loss due to free space propagation of signal and
PLM is path loss due to medium, α is path loss between NBIoT node and eNB.
PL =Tp+Tg+Rg+PLfs−PLM +α
Further path loss due to medium can be evaluated as follows:
PLM =WDs+TLs
Where WDs is path loss due to difference in wavelength of signal in soil in comparison of free
space and TLs is transmission loss.

If the sensor is placed above the surface(ofground), then plants would act as scatterers and there by
the path loss can be evaluated using equation:
Here OHTi represent the obstacle height at time iε{1, 2, 3}, where i =1 specifies the phase,
when seeds are just sawn, so no plant would be there at that time so no obstacle.
Likewisefori=2,specifies that plant has started budding up so it will have certain height. Similarly
for i =3 specifies, plant has fully grown to its full height.Thus correspond ingto height of plant,
obstacle path loss parameter would increase. Here d0 specifies the reference distance between
sensing node and NBIoT node. Here α specifies the path loss between NBIoT node and eNB.
Hence the SINR of the sensing node can be expressed as
Where N is thermal noise,IT totalinterference, ST represents the transmitted signal power

and Gk is the channel gain between sensor node k and NBIoT node. We then express the total
interference as
Interference that occurs within zone, between zones and also due to soil reflectivity.
Further channel capacity (C) can be evaluated based on Shannon theorem as follows:
Based on these above formulations we conclude that capacity of a sensor deployed in the
agricultural area will be adversely affected by the interference generated by the adjacent sensor
nodes, scatterers, etc.
5.2.2 ENERGY CONSUMPTION EVALUATION
For electing cluster head out of n sensor node for each disjoint set of sensing nodes. Each node
power level is to be determined and one with highest power level is selected. Power level get
deteriorates due to energy dissipation. Hence we first evaluate the total energy consumed due to
various factors for each node.

Where energy consumption during sensing could be evaluated using equation
Here ECSample specifies the energy consumption during sampling of each sample, n represents the
no of samples.
Similarly, energy consumption during transmission (ECTransmission) depends on supply voltage
Sv, current I and time T required for transmission
Energy consumed during switching from active to sleep state
Hence total energy consumption can be evaluated and using Relation E= P∗T, power levels can be
evaluated for each node,where T will include time for switching, sleeping, active, sensing, and
processing. Hence CH can be selected for by comparing the power of all the nodes. Here another
aspect must also be included that is if the node has acted as CH earlier also then. Hence we evaluate
the energy consumption when node act as CH,(ECCH). This will depend on length of message
LMSG and energy consumed by transmitter if sending the message to processing point (PP) or
energy consumed when receiver receives data by PP.
Hence total energy consumption equation if node acted as CH could be rewritten as
Finally energy efficiency EE can be evaluated as ratio of total energy consumed ,ECTOTAL and
energy of sensor at time of deployment ,ETOTAL
Hence using the proposed approach energy efficiency can be improved as ECTOTAL will be
reduced by exploiting the eDRX of sensing nodes.

5.3 PROPOSED DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM
The proposed system collects soil and environmental parameters through its deployed WSN.
Initially, the collected data are examined by the concerned board to minimize redundant packets via
aggregation, and the data are transferred to the destination via a gateway.The data sensed by four
different sensors are merged into one packet to increase the efficiency of the proposed system in
terms of energy consumption. These packets are forwarded to the outlier detection module where
their accuracy is checked and sent to DSS for onward processing if found correct. DSS thoroughly
examines these packets by comparing different parameters with their defined threshold values,
particularly soil moisture (250 Hz).The threshold values such as soil moisture (250Hz), are
determined through deploying the sensors in dry soil; and collecting their readings over a
periodofthree days.If the data are in the defined range,then they are stored in a database;
otherwise,the alarm unit is activated, and alert messages are forwarded to the LAN or mobile phone.
The GUI of the proposed system shows collected data in graphical and textual formats.
Figure 5.3 : Working of the proposed system.

5.3.1 PROPOSED OUTLIERS DETECTION ALGORITHM

Outliers are data packets generated by a malfunctioning sensor or via interference and
collision. WSNs are highly susceptible to outliers due to various restrictions on their size,
processing, and transceivers. The literature on outlier/noise detection is bulky, but most of the
approaches were presented and validated based on static datasets, and their implementation in a
real-time system is difficult or impractical. These algorithms improve dataset accuracy but equally
degrade the overall performance of a real-time system because for every packet, the mechanism
repeatedly searches the entire dataset.Moreover,the accuracy of these algorithms is directly
proportional to dataset size and computation time.
Their accuracy for large datasets is extremely high, but the computation time is also high
and results in low performance of DSS, particularly in a real-time system. Therefore, a simplified
outlier detection algorithm was developed to overcome these issues and improve the performance of
real-time DSS and dataset accuracy. The performance of a real-time system based on the proposed
outlier detection algorithm isunaffected bydataset sizebecause thealgorithm does not scan the
overall dataset and considers the most recent packets only. Its computation time and performance
are exceptionally good in real-time datasets, and it is equally applicable to static datasets.
Algorithm starts by matching the currently received packet with the previously stored one,
which is the last accurate packet, that is, the packet received at time Ti and Ti−1. If their difference
is less than the defined threshold value (10Hz for the soil moisture sensor),then it is forwarded to
the DSS for further analysis.However,if their difference crosses the defined limit, then it is either an
outlier or an abrupt change scenario that occurs because of direct connection of water with soil
moisture sensors. In this case, data are stored temporarily, and further processing is delayed until
the next packet from that particular node arrives.
Then, the recently received packet is compared with two packets, namely, the one that is
temporarily stored and the last packet stored in the database. For example, data collected at time T3
are matched with data received at time T2 and stored temporarily, and data gathered at time T1 is
successfully stored. If the difference between packets received at T3 and T1 is less than the defined
threshold value, then the data packet received at T2 is an outlier and replaced with the average value
of data packets T1 and T3. However, if the difference between data packets T2 and T3 is less than
the threshold value, then it is an abrupt change scenario, and both values are stored in the database.
Figure 5.3.1 : A scenario of both outliers and abrupt change.
We consider Fig. 8 in which the soil moisture value received at time 13:00 is 0 Hz,
representing the most recent packet. The packet collected at time 12:30, 850 Hz, is the last accurate
value stored in the database. These two values are matched, and their difference is much larger than
the threshold value, which is 10 Hz in our case. Therefore, this packet is temporarily stored, and the
decision is delayed until the next packet from the same node,Node1,arrives.When the next packet at
time 13:30 is received, it is matched with the packet collected at time 12:30 or with most recently
stored packet. The difference between these packets is below the threshold value, 1 Hz, indicating
that the temporarily stored packet is an outlier and must be replaced with the average value of data
packets that arrived at times 12:30 and 13:30 (840 Hz).
Then, both values are stored in the database, and the data are as shown in Fig. 9. In this
scenario, a realtime DSS that does not use the outlier detection mechanism activates the alarm unit
for the water deficit condition and sends a text message over LAN because the soil moisture value is
less than the threshold value. However, smart DSS, which possesses outlier detection facility, easily
handles this situation. Another debatable scenario for realtime DSS in the agricultural environment
is the separation of the abrupt change that occurs because of the direct connection of water with a
soil moisture sensor, as shown in Fig. 8 at time 15:30. The proposed algorithm handles this situation
through a similar mechanism described for the detection of outliers. However, in this case, the
temporarily stored value and the currently received value are identical or approximate each other.
Both values are stored in the database without modification.

Figure 5.3.2 : Outliers free scenario

Chapter 6
RESULTS
In the case of real-time data, the worst case complexity of the proposed outlier detection
algorithm is O(1), whereas pattern anomaly value (PAV), MPAV, and rare pattern drift detector
(RPDD) algorithms [37], [38] have complexities of O(n2), O(n) and O(n2+n) respectively. Hence,
the proposed algorithm is the best solution among these algorithms for real time DSS because it
does not affect the functionality of DSS. Similarly,the proposed algorithm‘s worst case complexity
for a static data set is O(n),where n represents size of the dataset.
Figure 6.1 : Computational time comparison on real time data set.
These algorithms were tested on real-time data obtained. The performance of the algorithms
in terms of computational time is presented in Fig.10, which shows that the proposed algorithm
outperformed contemporary schemes. Moreover, the performance of these algorithms was
examined thoroughly by continuously increasing the data set size. Unlike the proposed algorithm,
the other schemes were inconsistent with the dynamically changing dataset. In the case of the real-
time dataset, the computational time of the other algorithms was directly proportional to the size of
the dataset, whereas the proposed algorithm was not affected. Moreover, the proposed algorithm‘s
memory requirements were fewer than those of the other algorithms. The implementation of these
complex algorithms in real-time DSS required highly sophisticated and demanding technology,
which is expensive, whereas the proposed algorithm worked well with existing technology. The
algorithms were also tested on a static dataset, and their computation time is depicted in Fig. 11.
Our algorithm‘s performance was better than that of the other algorithms, particularly in terms of
execution time.

Figure 6.2 : Computational time comparison on static data set.
The complexity of an algorithm is vital to its development, implementation, and execution

in real-time systems. Complexity is directly proportional to algorithm accuracy and computation
time. In real-time DSS specifically for the agriculture sector, an algorithm must be as accurate and
simple as possibles othe overall performance of DSS is unaffected. If the algorithm is accurate and
precise but degrades the overall performance of the system, then it is useless.

Chapter 7
CONCLUSION
The full application of IoT in agriculture will truly achieve precision agriculture, and
notably contribute to solving the world’s food problem with an increasing population.
Technological advances providing cheaper sensors and safer networks will boost further
application, but the drive must be hastened by overcoming the challenges faced in order to match
the pace of population growth. One obvious challenge is how to make farmers as interested in
implementing IoT systems as much as they are keen on high-yielding seeds and high-efficiency
machines. Life cycle IoT-based agriculture is necessary to solve the challenge by helping farmers
recognize the quality of agriculture ingredients, improve the yields as well as the quality, and
produce creditable agri-products for the market. Besides technical issues, emerging finance,
operation, and management issues are gradually observed in the digitization of agriculture using
IoT techniques. Innovative farm production modes and new types of agribusiness enterprises will
arise to solve these issues. Meanwhile, this study calls for more attention in academia to provide
corresponding theoretical and methodological support for these emerging FOM issues.

REFERENCES
[1] FAO, “Global Agriculture Towards 2050,”, Oct. 2009;

http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/Issues_papers/
HLEF2050_Global_Agriculture.pdf, accessed Apr. 1, 2018.
[2] Microsoft Research, “FarmBeats: AI & IoT for Agriculture,” May, 2015;
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/ project/farmbeats-iot-agriculture/, accessed Apr. 10,
2018.
[3] Sakshi Popli, “A Survey on Energy Efficient Narrowband Internet of Things (NBIoT):
Architecture, Application and Challenges”, Digital Object Identifier
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2881533
[4] Rahim Khan, “Technology-Assisted Decision Support System for Efficient Water Utilization:
A Real-Time Testbed for Irrigation Using Wireless Sensor Networks”, Digital Object Identifier
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2836185


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A lifecycle framework of green iot-based agriculture And Its Finance, Operation, And Management Issues

Suma N G – 1CR18SCS04 Dept. of CSE – March – June 2019 Page 1

Meanwhile, the energy concern should be considered in the implementation of agriculture

Suma N G – 1CR18SCS04 Dept. of CSE – March – June 2019 Page 2

TOWARD A LIFE CYCLE FRAMEWORK OF GREEN

2.1 Categories of IoT-Based Agriculture

Figure 2.1 : A basic framework of IoT-based agriculture.

Suma N G – 1CR18SCS04 Dept. of CSE – March – June 2019 Page 3

Table 1 : The application of IoT techniques in the agriculture growth cycle.

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2.1.1 Controlled Environment Planting

2.1.2 Open Field Planting

2.1.3 Livestock Breeding

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2.1.4 Aquaculture and Aquaponics

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Figure 3.1 : A growth cycle framework of IoT-based agriculture.

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Figure 3.2 : A life cycle framework of green IoT based agriculture.

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3.1 Typical applications of IoT techniques

3.1.2 Processing and Packaging

3.1.3 Distribution and Storage

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4.1 Finance Issues

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4.1.2 IoT Finance in Agriculture

4.1.3 Supply Chain Financing in IoT-Based Agriculture

4.1.4 Agriculture Big Data Financing

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4.2 Operation Issues

4.2.2 Network Nodes Recharging and Repairing

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4.2.3 Farm-to-Door Delivery Optimization

4.2.4 IoT-Based Reception Box Layout

4.3 Management Issues

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4.3.2 Agriculture IoT Data Management

4.3.3 Agri-Products Quality Management

4.3.4 Agri-Products Traceability Management

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Figure 5 : Energy consumption during the lifecycle of IoT device

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5.1 ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNIQUES FOR GREEN

Figure 5.1 Classification of energy efficiency techniques for IoT.

5.1.1 SLEEP/WAKEUP TECHNIQUES

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5.1.2 COGNITIVE RADIO TECHNIQUES

5.1.3 ROUTING TECHNIQUES

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5.1.4 DATA REDUCTION TECHNIQUE

5.1.5 BATTERY REPLETION TECHNIQUE

Suma N G – 1CR18SCS04 Dept. of CSE – March – June 2019 Page 20

5.2 PROPOSED TECHNIQUE FOR SMART AGRICULTURE:

5.2.1 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT SMART

Relaxation and speciﬁes the relative dielectric-permittivity.

Suma N G – 1CR18SCS04 Dept. of CSE – March – June 2019 Page 21