38 Galliformes PDF

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CHAPTER
38
Management of
Galliformes
GARY D. BUTCHER, BS, MS, DVM, P hD, D ipl ACPV
Members of the order Galliformes are found on every

continent except Antarctica. The red junglefowl, com-
mon turkey and helmeted guinea fowl have been
domesticated for centuries. Their descendants, through
selective breeding, are of considerable economic impor-
tance today. Some varieties are very plentiful in the wild,
while others like the Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica)
and various pheasants are approaching a level of com-
plete domestication.
Many Galliformes are commonly maintained as game

and food (meat and/or eggs) birds. Some are stable in
captivity under variable ambient conditions, easy to
breed and inexpensive. Other species are from niches
with specific environmental requirements and need spe-
Greg J. Harrison
cialized diets, humidity and temperature ranges to sur-

vive. Currently, commercial production of chickens and
turkeys in the USA for food has surpassed that of the
Fig 38.1 | In warm climates, game cocks are housed on “string beef, pork and fish industries. In 1900, per capita con-
walks”. A leg leash, just long enough for the bird to reach a sumption of chicken was 1 pound and had risen to 80
shelter but not to fight with other birds, allows group confine-
pounds by the year 2000!
ment. Fighting of cocks is considered inhumane and illegal in
some countries; however, it is a part of the culture in others.
In this chapter, “domestic fowl” means Gallus gallus,
forma domestica (domestic form of the red junglefowl);
“domestic turkey” is Meleagris gallopavo, forma domes-
tica (domestic form of the common turkey) and “domes-
tic guinea fowl” is Numida meleagris, forma domestica
(domestic form of the helmeted guinea fowl) (Table 38.1).
Maintaining, breeding, treating or commercially dealing

with gallinaceous birds may be regulated by laws that
govern the protection of animals, property rights,
exchange of goods, liability, epornitics, food for human
consumption, hunting and (international) transport of
animals. In the USA, voluntary federal and state pro-
grams such as the National Poultry Improvement Plan
(NPIP) provide testing for specific diseases to facilitate
interstate and international transport of fowl. Laws are
38_Galliforms.qxd 8/24/2005 10:02 AM Page 862
862 C l i n i c a l Av i a n M e d i c i n e - Vo l u m e I I
Table 38.1 | Families and Subfamilies of Gallinaceous Birds Table 38.2 | Respiratory Rate, Heart Rate and Rectal
Family (Subfamilies) No. of No. of Temperature of Selected Gallinaceous Birds
Genera Species Bird Group Respiratory Rate Heart Rate Temperature
Cracidae (cracids) 10 43 (per min) (per min) (°C)
Megapodiidae (megapodes) 7 12 Domestic fowl 12-37 220-360 41.2

Phasianidae (phasianids) 70 203 Domestic turkey 28-49 93-163 40.7
Numidinae (guinea fowl) 4 6 Pheasant 12-37 — —
Pavoninae (peafowl) 2 3 Bobwhite quail — — 44.0
Meleagridinae (turkeys) 1 2 Common quail 40-85 249-494 42.2
Argusianinae (peacock pheasants 3 8
and argus pheasants)
Phasianinae (pheasants) 8 21 (Argusianus argus) have no preen gland. A brush-like
Lophophorinae (monals) 1 3 feather tuft that absorbs secretions from the gland is
Pucrasiinae (koklass) 1 1 present on the uropygial papillae. This feather tuft is
Ithagininae (blood pheasant) 1 1 absent in the megapodes.
Gallinae (junglefowl) 1 4
Tragopaninae (tragopans) 1 5 Some gallinaceous birds have unique skin appendages.
Galloperdicinae (spurfowl) 1 3 Junglefowl possess marked unpaired carneous combs
Ptilopachinae (stone partridge) 1 1 consisting of a wide intermediate layer, which is formed
Perdicinae (partridges, snowcocks, 27 98
francolins, Old World quail)
of a fibrillar network filled with mucus-like substances
Odontophorinae (New World quail) 9 31
that impact elastic stability of the comb. The strongly
Tetraoninae (grouse) 9 16 vascularized corium and the epidermis cover the inter-
mediate layer. Feathers are present on the comb bonnet
in some domestic fowl breeds. The paired wattles of the
presently in place and/or being considered in some
throat are similar in structure to the comb (Fig 38.2).
states that would prevent the interstate or international
Like the comb, the size of the wattles is influenced by
transport of fowl for purposes of fighting (Fig 38.1).
hormones, and both are better developed in cocks than
in hens. Paired cheek or earlobes are located ventral to
the auditory canal and are of varying colors. It has been
Anatomy and Physiology suggested that the color of the earlobe is related to the
color of the eggshell in Gallus gallus.
Considering the large number of birds in the order
Galliformes, there are surprisingly minimal anatomic The structure of the skin appendages on the head and
and physiologic differences as compared to other animal neck of turkeys varies from those described in jungle-
orders. Likely, the strict physical requirements for flight fowl. These appendages have no elastic intermediate
have limited variability. Several peculiarities should be layer but do have superficial, muscular and vascular lay-
discussed. In the circulatory system, for example, most ers. The dewlaps of turkeys are smooth, increase and
gallinaceous birds have right and left internal carotid decrease in size and can change color. Turkeys have a
arteries; however, the megapodes have only the right single snood on the forehead that can readily increase
internal carotid artery. The respiratory rates, heart rates or decrease in length. Numerous red caruncles are
and rectal temperatures of some gallinaceous birds are located on the poorly feathered blue skin of the head. A
listed in Table 38.2 and are highly variable, depending beard consisting of tough, dark bristles is present at the
on the metabolic rate and physiology of the specific bird. border between the neck and chest. Turkey hens have
more poorly developed skin appendages than cocks,
and a beard is found occasionally in older hens, proba-
INTEGUMENT bly as a result of hormonal changes.
Many gallinaceous species develop a durable, vascular-
ized thickening of the corium in the ventral thoracic In New World quail (Odontophoridae), the edge of the
region called a brooding spot. The feathers in this lower bill is serrated or slightly jagged. An osseous
region are temporarily lost and body heat is transferred process, which can be large in some species or sub-
directly from the brooding bird to the eggs. species, exists near the junction of the upper bill and
cranium of helmeted guinea fowl and some cracids
The preen gland in the domestic fowl consists of two (Cracidae). This helmet consists of a cone of spongy
bilaterally symmetric lobes, each with one secretory duct bone covered by the corium and a keratinized epider-
opening into the uropygial papillae. Some breeds of mis. The wattles of the helmeted guinea fowl (Numida
domestic fowl have two uropygial papillae. Tail-less meleagris) are white to light blue and, like the helmet,
breeds of the domestic fowl and the argus pheasants are larger in cocks than in hens. Some other phasianids,
Chapter 38 | M A N A G E M E N T O F G A L L I F O R M E S
863
ambulate and self feed) and hatch with a downy

plumage. The deck feathers (tectrices), flight feathers
(remiges) and tail feathers (rectrices) form the contour
feathers of the plumage. The number of rectrices varies
among different species: the domestic fowl has 7 pairs;
the Bulwer’s wattled pheasant has 12 to 16 pairs.
Ornamental feathers can originate from different por-
tions of the plumage, including tail coverts (peafowl),
rectrices (many pheasants) and chin feathers (capercail-
lies). Birds that are indigenous to open terrain often
have a patterned plumage that serves as camouflage.
Some species like the golden pheasant show polychro-
matism of the plumage.
Fig 38.2 | Developed comb and wattles in the rooster (fore-
ground) and hen are shown. The comb of the male is typically Dark periorbital feathers hide the eyes of many gallina-
more prominent and brightly colored; in this case, it is cyanotic ceous birds. Attempting to escape from predators by
due to feed impaction of the crop. running or flying in open terrain is a poor defense; thus,
most ground-dwelling gallinaceous birds remain immo-
bile when predators approach, and flee only as a last-
some megapodes (Megapodiidae) and some cracids also
ditch effort to escape.
possess ornamental appendages of the head and neck.
In some species, these appendages are visible only dur-
Gallinaceous birds generally have well-developed after-
ing mating displays. Some breeds of the domestic fowl,
feathers (hypopennae). In some cracids, the vanes of the
some megapodes, some francolins, (Peliperdixidae),
first primaries are curved and narrow, which, when a
some tragopans (Tragopanidae) and some pheasants
bird flies, produce a unique sound that is used to mark
(Phasianidae) have completely featherless heads and
its territory.
necks, or featherless areas of the head or neck. Unfeath-
ered areas of skin frequently are colored. Many grouse Most gallinaceous birds molt naturally once a year, gen-
species (Bonasa spp.) have red-colored supraocular erally after the breeding season. Gallinaceous birds
combs. These unfeathered regions become swollen dur- retain their ability to fly during a molt. The secondaries
ing mating season. are molted in a divergent pattern from an inner starting
point. The rectrices are molted randomly. The willow
The cocks of many gallinaceous birds have spurs, which
ptarmigan lives in a subarctic-type habitat and molts
are osseous eminences originating from the tarsometa-
three times a year in order to adapt to color changes in
tarsus and are covered by keratinized epidermis. If spurs
the environment, with the winter plumage being mainly
occur in hens, they are poorly developed and often have
white. Some grouse (capercaillies and ptarmigans) even
no osseous component. The cocks’ spurs are frequently
molt the horny sheath (rhamphotheca) of the bill (in
sharp and can easily injure rivals, hens, clients or veteri-
small pieces) after the breeding season. Ptarmigans also
narians. Cracids and grouse do not have spurs. In the
replace their nails. Molting of commercial chickens is
common pheasant, annual rings are formed in the epi-
often done on a scheduled basis to improve the level of
dermis at the base of the spurs and can be used to deter-
egg production and quality of the eggshell.
mine the minimum age of the bird.
Some birds (notably grouse [Tetraoninae], pigeons
Adaptations to Low Temperatures [Columbidae]) undergo a stress-induced physiologic
The feet and toes of grouse are feathered. In ptarmigans response when attacked by predators, which results in
(Lagopus spp.), even the plantar surface of the foot is release of the feathers (the shock or fright molt). The
covered with fur-like feathers. Long nails and keratinous predator or handler is left with a collection of feathers
pins on both sides of the digits facilitate locomotion on and the bird escapes.
snow. Dense plumage and a thick layer of subcutaneous
Gallinaceous birds normally fly at a low level, have a
fatty tissue help protect against the cold. Hair-like feath-
high-frequency wing flap and tire quite rapidly. Their
ers cover the nostrils. In ptarmigans, shivering for the
flight is often limited to gliding for short distances. Some
active production of body heat starts only below -12° C.
species lead a nomadic life. Birds that dwell in high
mountainous regions in the summer usually move to
Plumage lower altitudes in the winter. The only true migratory
The chicks of all gallinaceous birds are nidifugous (can gallinaceous birds are the common quail (Coturnix
coturnix) and the Japanese quail. Some gallinaceous capercaillie also have elongated tracheas. Although the
birds move by running, which is assisted by quick flap- function of the loop is not fully understood, it may be
ping of the wings. A normal cruising speed for the com- involved in generating deep sounds.
mon pheasant would be 33 km/h (20.5 mph), while the
common turkey cruises through the forest at 24 km/h (15 The tracheobronchial syrinx of gallinaceous birds is a
mph). The nidifugous chicks of the gallinaceous birds are simple structure. The neopulmo, which is the phyloge-
able to fly shortly after hatching. The chicks of the netically younger portion of the lung, is well developed
phasianids first attempt to fly at the age of 10 to 16 days, in Galliformes. A phylogenetic increase in the size of the
and the cracid chicks start to fly 3 to 4 days after hatch- neopulmo is accompanied by a decrease in the size of
ing. Megapode chicks, which are not tended by their par- the caudal thoracic air sacs. The common turkey has a
ents, are able to fly short distances just after hatching. well-developed neopulmo and has no caudal thoracic air
sacs. Four clavicular air sacs are recognized in gallina-
ceous embryos. In the common turkey, only two of the
LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM four clavicular air sacs merge with the unpaired cervical
The furcula (wishbone) of the domestic fowl is V-shaped air sac, and two clavicular air sacs remain distinct. In
and has a ventral process. In the crested and plumed other birds, all the embryonic clavicular air sacs merge
guinea fowl (Numidinae), an indentation exists at the into one. With these adaptations, the common turkey
junction of the two clavicles. This indentation holds the has only seven air sacs, while most gallinaceous birds
U-shaped loop of the elongated trachea. The medial have nine air sacs: the unpaired clavicular air sac, and
notch of the sternum extends far cranially, and fibrous the paired cervical, cranial thoracic, caudal thoracic and
membranes connect the lateral and medial notches. In abdominal air sacs.
this region, the sternum does not protect the liver, and
injections, abdominocentesis or handling procedures
ALIMENTARY TRACT
must be carefully performed.
Most gallinaceous birds have a pointed bill (rostrum)
The ground-dwelling phasianids generally have a long that is used to pick up food. In grouse, the bill is
femur, tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus to facilitate ambu- stronger and is used for cutting tough vegetable matter.
lation, while the tree-dwelling cracids have shorter tarso- In gallinaceous birds, the cere is usually limited to the
metatarsi. The legs of all gallinaceous birds are well base of the upper bill; however, in cracids, two-thirds of
muscled. Cracids are active climbers, and other gallina- the bill is covered by the cere.
ceous birds need strong feet and legs to scratch the
ground in search of food. The toes of cracids and mega- The tongue of gallinaceous birds is shaped like an acute
podes are on the same plane, whereas the first toe of triangle, is stabilized by a bone and has no intrinsic mus-
the phasianids originates more proximally than the culature. Most gallinaceous birds have a crop. This
other digits. The first digit of the gallinaceous birds is esophageal diverticulum is missing in small cracids and
oriented mediocaudally and the three other digits are snowcocks, and in its place is a slight bulge in the diam-
directed cranially. Some breeds of the domestic fowl eter of the esophagus or only an increased stretchability
have five digits, with the additional digit being located of the esophagus. The sage grouse (Centocercus min-
medial to the first. imus) and some other North American grouse (Artemisia
spp.) use a diverticulum in the middle part of the esoph-
agus for territorial display and not for the storage of
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
food. During display, the “inflatable esophageal air sacs”
Desert-dwelling gallinaceous birds such as sand par- are inflated to expose featherless, brightly colored skin.
tridges (Ammoperdix heyi) possess well-developed salt The organ also may play a part in amplifying the voice.
glands situated in an osseous indentation above the
eyes. This extrarenal excretory organ for salt empties The ventriculus and its associated musculature are well
through a duct into the nasal cavity. developed in most gallinaceous birds. Grouse and snow-
cocks (Tetraogallus himalayensis), which eat extremely
The cocks or both genders of some gallinaceous birds rough food, possess the most heavily muscled ventriculi.
have elongated tracheas. The additional length produces The sage grouse, which feeds on soft food, has a thin-
a U-shaped or circular loop in the trachea that lies walled ventriculus.
between the skin and the muscle layer in the ventral
thoracic or cranial abdominal region. In helmeted curas- The secretory ducts of the liver and the pancreas open
sows, the loop extends to the cloaca, and in some other into the duodenum. Gallinaceous birds have a gall blad-
cracids, it extends to the caudal end of the sternum. der and two bile ducts. In the domestic fowl, the pan-
Crested and plumed guinea fowl and the common creas extends to the apex of the duodenal loop and
865
generally has three secretory ducts. The largest pancreas Table 38.3 | Longevity of
is found in gallinaceous birds that feed on grain. Selected Gallinaceous Birds
Bird Years
All gallinaceous birds have well-developed ceca. Peri- Peafowl Approx. 20
staltic movements of the small intestine and antiperi- Bobwhite quail Approx. 6
staltic movements of the rectum transport fluid and Grouse 8-10
small food particles into the cecal lumen. The contents Common pheasant 10-18
Cracids 20+
of the ceca are dark-colored and have a sticky consis-
tency. The size of the ceca will increase or decrease,
depending on the amount of crude fiber in the diet. In
some species, bacterial digestion of cellulose occurs in
the ceca. Species like grouse and snow cocks, which
feed on foods with high amounts of crude fiber, have
particularly well-developed ceca.
The cecal flora probably plays an important role in the

synthesis of vitamins and the metabolism of nitrogen.
Uric acid that enters the cloaca is transported into the
ceca by antiperistaltic movements of the rectum and is
used for the synthesis of amino acids produced by bacte-
ria and available to the bird. The ceca are usually emp-
Greg J. Harrison
tied once a day, typically in the morning.
URINARY AND REPRODUCTIVE Fig 38.3 | A pheasant is provided with protection from the ele-
SYSTEMS ments in an enclosure with a simple A-frame shelter at a popu-
The testicles are generally yellowish or white but can be lar zoological garden. Note the bent toes, a form of metabolic
bone disease from malnutrition.
pigmented in some species like the common capercaillie
or in some breeds of the domestic fowl. The testicles
enlarge during the breeding season. Fertile semen is not Many Galliformes prefer to roost in elevated positions,
produced between breeding seasons. The ductus defer- making the height of an aviary important. Shelters
ens and, in some species, an enlarged area of the caudal should be provided to protect birds from sun, wind and
ductus deferens serve as reservoirs for the storage of rain (Fig 38.3). Tropical or subtropical species main-
semen. Gallinaceous cocks have a non-erectile phallus. tained in cold climates require an indoor aviary or, if
kept outdoors in winter, a heated shelter. The mesh size
of netting should be small enough to prevent a bird
Husbandry from placing its head through the mesh, and preventing
a predator from injuring or killing the bird. It also
Most gallinaceous birds are best maintained in combina- should prevent the smallest predators from entering the
tion indoor and outdoor aviaries and can live to 6 to 20 aviary. Some gallinaceous birds, especially the common
years, depending on the species (Table 38.3). In general, pheasant and many quail,23 fly straight up when pan-
the available space should be as large as possible. In icked. For this species, the top netting in an enclosure
some countries, law stipulates the minimum areas. should be loose to provide some give and reduce the
chances of head24 (scalping) and neck injuries. An
A pair of pheasants can be maintained and bred in an opaque barrier can be placed at the back of the aviary,
aviary with a floor space 4 x 6 m with an additional 4-m2 extending up to one-half of the height, to provide extra
shelter. A common pheasant cock with five to six hens visual security for the birds.
needs 30 to 38 m2. An aviary for peafowl should be at
least 3 m wide x 3 m deep x 3 m high. These species are Ground dwellers like some quail, partridges and francol-
best maintained in open-air enclosures or big gardens. ins do not need elevated perches. Perches should be
One pair of bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ridgwagi) or placed far enough from walls or wire netting to prevent
California quail (Callipepla californica) needs a mini- the tail or wing feathers from contacting these surfaces.
mum of 1.5 m x 1.5 m floor space. For grouse, small Peafowl, Reeve’s pheasant (Syrmaticus reevesii), argus
aviaries 4 m deep x 8 m wide are recommended, pheasants and Phoenix fowl (a strain of red junglefowl)
because these birds may injure themselves if they fly into require especially high perches placed 3 to 4 m above
netting at the high speeds attained in larger flights. the ground to accommodate their long tail feathers.
Sharp corners should be avoided in designing the aviary. source as well as cover. Clipping the wings before intro-
Curved corners or dense bushes planted in the corners ducing it to new surroundings should reduce the flight
reduce the possibility of trauma. capacity of a bird.
Shrubs also help to landscape an aviary and provide Losses to predators can occur in open-topped facilities,
shelter for the birds; however, the aviary should not be particularly with respect to chicks. Rare species should
over-planted. Too many plants will make an aviary diffi- not be maintained in an open-topped enclosure. A
cult to clean. Natural turfs are attractive but are not rec- breeder who uses open-topped enclosures should expect
ommended when keeping birds that are highly suscepti- that the loss of a bird to a predator is the responsibility
ble to infectious diseases. An aviary with a concrete floor of the breeder and not the fault of the predator. Some
that is covered with an exchangeable layer of sand meets gallinaceous birds are noisy, especially the Indian peafowl
the needs of sensitive species (like grouse or the cheer and guinea fowl during the breeding season, and should
pheasant) and is better than natural soil. Plants may be be maintained in secluded areas to avoid complaints
grown in containers that are removed when the aviary from neighbors.
needs cleaning.
Snowcocks need large rocks for perching and shaping

their bills. Some species like monals, eared pheasants Nutrition
(Crossoptilon crossoptilon) and the cheer pheasant
(Catreus wallichi) use their upper bill to search the soil Many diseases and problems in captive Galliformes are
for roots and insects. If these birds are maintained on directly or indirectly related to malnutrition. Breeders of
artificial substrate, natural abrasion of the bill will not gallinaceous birds should be aware of the natural foods
occur and manual trimming will be necessary. Gallina- consumed by any species maintained in captivity. Con-
ceous birds do not bathe in water. Most gallinaceous clusive data on the nutritional demands (with respect to
birds like to take dust or sand baths. The placement of maximal egg or meat production and not for longevity
abrasive materials on the plumage may function to and appearance) is available only for the domestic fowl,
lightly abrade and polish the edges of the feathers and domestic turkey and the Japanese quail. Some informa-
may help reduce the number of external parasites as tion is available for the domestic guinea fowl and less has
long as the sand itself is not contaminated. Insect pow- been determined for the common pheasant. All nutri-
ders should be used only if they are known to be non- tional guidelines for other gallinaceous birds are based
toxic for the species concerned and only if the birds do on experience.26 Special care must be exercised when
in fact have parasites. In the winter, willow ptarmigan feeding commercial turkey and/or chicken feeds. Levels
bathe in the snow. of calcium, protein and energy vary considerably among
the starter, grower, layer and finisher rations. As well,
Various bird species should generally not be mixed in many commercial poultry feeds contain antibiotics and
one aviary because of possible interspecific aggression other drugs (anticoccidials) that may be harmful to some
and the potential transmission of infectious agents. If birds or other animals on the premises.
species are combined, it is best to mix birds that do not
compete for the same food or biotope and have origi- Generally, the protein requirement increases at the
nated from the same geographic region.25 Ground- beginning of the mating season because of egg and
dwelling gallinaceous birds can be combined with bush- semen production. After the breeding season, the
or tree-living species like thrushes, babblers, starlings, amount of protein in the feed should be gradually
bulbuls and doves (with the exception of the ground reduced. With any change in the diet, the new food
pigeon); however, mixing of species is not recommended. should be mixed slowly into the daily diet until the
Predatory species, including birds that feed on eggs, conversion is complete.
should not be combined with gallinaceous birds.
Silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera), eared pheasant “EASY” BIRDS

(Crossoptilon auritum), golden pheasant (Chrysolophus Many gallinaceous birds are omnivorous. The nutritional
pictus), Lady Amherst’s pheasant (Chrysolophus amhers- requirements of common pheasant, golden pheasant,
tiae), Elliot’s pheasant (Syrmaticus ellioti), and Indian peafowl, guinea fowl, turkeys, partridges and New World
peafowl can be maintained in open-air enclosures that quail are relatively easy to provide. Commercial diets for
are fenced but not covered. Birds in open-air enclosures domestic fowl, domestic turkey, common pheasant and
must have sufficient hedges, bushes or trees for protec- Japanese quail are available in many countries. Pellets
tion. Higher trees should be available for roosting. Fruit designed for turkeys can be used in species without spe-
trees or oaks (some are poisonous) provide a food cial requirements. Adding fresh green plants to the diet
867
provides the birds with nutritional diversity. Grass or be substituted in the winter months. Free-ranging blood
corn silage also can be offered in small quantities. During pheasants feed on mosses, lichen, ferns, grass tips and
the breeding season, the diet should contain 20 to 25% conifer needle-buds. They browse constantly in planted
crude protein. Outside the breeding season, a mainte- aviaries. Their chicks feed on these plants immediately
nance diet containing less than 20% crude protein is after hatching.
best. Commercial diets for the domestic turkey are usu-
ally better suited for pheasants than diets developed for Tragopans consume oak trees, bamboo sprouts, grasses,
domestic fowl. Feeding is best accomplished by provid- mosses, oak nuts, berries and a few insects. In captivity,
ing small portions of the diet several times a day in the tragopans can be fed lucerne, grasses, cucumbers,
non-breeding season and offering food ad libitum dur- apples and different kinds of berries. In the spring, sum-
ing the breeding season. mer and autumn, grouse feed on a variety of plants. In
the winter, most grouse species are restricted to con-
Most New World quail are primarily seed eaters and are suming one or a few plant species. During the winter
easy to feed. Forest-adapted species may be largely season, the spruce grouse, capercaillies and other grouse
insectivorous and have higher and more specific protein species feed almost exclusively on conifer needles, the
requirements in comparison to other gallinaceous birds. black grouse on birch buds, and ptarmigans on buds
Cracids are mainly, but not exclusively, vegetarians. They from different deciduous trees (birch, alder, willow).
can be sustained on pellets containing 21% crude pro-
tein supplemented with fruits but no grains. During the Captive grouse should receive natural foods or at least
breeding season, they are fed soybean paste, chopped large amounts of leaves, grass and berries supplemented
hard-cooked eggs, chopped meat or mealworms (larvae with a limited quantity of pellets and grain. Capercaillies
of the meal beetle) with calcium as a supplement. The and ptarmigans require a diet high in crude fiber. Even
primarily meat diet of these birds results in odiferous with strict attention to the diet, the bacterial fecal flora
feces. Megapodes can be fed a commercial poultry diet. in capercaillies in captivity is similar to the fecal flora of
the domestic fowl and differs substantially from the fecal
Birds with a High Protein Requirement flora of free-ranging capercaillies. The tannin and essen-
tial oil content of natural food plants may support the
Some gallinaceous birds like peacock pheasants (Poly-
growth of autochthonous intestinal flora in free-ranging
plectron bialcaratum), argus pheasants and the roulroul
grouse. In the sage grouse, leaves and sprouts of the
(crested wood partridge) do best with high-protein diets.
North American big sagebrush are the sole winter food
In addition to high-protein turkey or pheasant diets,
and the main portion of food in the summer.
adult peacock pheasants should be fed mealworms,
chopped meat, fruits and a small quantity of grain. Green Some commercial poultry diets contain coccidiostatic
plants are rarely consumed by these species. The roul- agents. Halofuginone is toxic for the common pheasant,
roul is fed a commercial soft feed for insectivorous birds, guinea fowl and the common partridge. Monensin is
mixed with live insects, chopped hard-cooked eggs and toxic for guineafowl. The presence of antimicrobial
chopped meat with calcium as a supplement. agents can be life-threatening in species that depend on
a functional cecal flora and fauna (eg, grouse) for proper
“DIFFICULT” BIRDS digestion. In general, the effects of coccidiostats and
other medical feed supplements on gallinaceous birds
Some gallinaceous birds consume almost exclusively veg-
have not been sufficiently studied. It is safer to provide
etable material. The koklass (Pucrasia marolapha), the
food without these potentially toxic supplements.
blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus), snowcocks, trago-
pans and grouse are examples. Feeding these species with All gallinaceous birds should have access to grit, when
game bird pellets or, even worse, with commercial diets not fed strictly an artificial diet. The grit container
for domestic fowl and turkeys results in obesity, reduced should be emptied and refilled regularly because birds
fertility and imbalances in the intestinal microflora. These select only stones that are suitable for their body mass.
species should be maintained only where natural-type Pellets or complete rations have an adequate supply of
foods are available year-round. These gallinaceous birds calcium and should not be supplemented with lime or
should be fed large amounts of fresh vegetables. Pellets crushed shell. Fresh, clean water must be available at all
should be provided only in small quantities, if at all. times for all species.
Koklass naturally feed on ferns, grasses, leaves, mosses,
buds and berries. In captivity they should be provided
soft green plants, fruits and berries, and no grains. In the CHICKS
summer, grasses and lucerne (alfalfa) can be provided. During their first few weeks of life, free-ranging gallina-
Spinach, romaine lettuce and fresh, frozen vegetables can ceous chicks feed mainly on live invertebrates like insects,
larvae of insects, worms and snails in order to obtain the ment or there may be medical problems with the individ-
protein levels needed to sustain rapid growth. Starting at ual birds.30 Some pheasant and quail species are approach-
5 to 6 weeks of age, the protein requirements begin to ing a level of domestication that is advantageous for both
decrease and the intake of carbohydrates increases to the captive animal and the breeder. Comparatively, “semi-
meet energy requirements. By 6 months of age, most domesticated” animals are of no value if offspring are to
young gallinaceous birds have reached a mass equivalent be released to the wild with the intent of reintroducing
to that of adults. The quantity of carbohydrates in the genetic diversity into dwindling populations. Genetic
diet must then be reduced to prevent obesity. selection and breeding to achieve color variants increase
the expression of genetic abnormalities, semi-lethal fac-
Feed should be provided to newly hatched chicks on a
tors and susceptibility to disease. The clutch size and
large, flat plate on which they can move around and
incubation times for commonly maintained gallinaceous
practice pecking. By 5 to 7 days of age, food can be
birds are listed in Table 38.4. Parameters for artificial
offered in larger containers. The change from the plate
incubation are listed in Table 38.5.
to larger containers should occur by offering feed in
both containers at the same time. Small chicks may
drown in large water containers.28 Reducing the drinker GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
depth by placing stones or glass marbles in the con- Gallinaceous birds to be used for breeding purposes
tainer will reduce losses. should be introduced to each other before the breeding
season in surroundings that are novel to both the males
Chicks of unpretentious species (common pheasant,
and females. The female should be introduced to the
peafowl, guinea fowl) are initially fed a starter diet like
enclosure a few hours prior to the male. In some
turkey starter (28% crude protein) and are transferred to
species, it is possible to keep several males together if
a lower protein diet like turkey grower (18-20% crude
there are no females present. If females are present,
protein) from the eighth to eighteenth week of age.29
only one male should be housed in an aviary or in one
Chicks of the vegetarian species are difficult to feed. It is compartment. In monogamous species, only a single
best to provide these birds with foods that are similar to pair should be housed together.28
those eaten by their free-ranging counterparts. A diet
composed of turkey starter mixed with mealworms, ant Males of some species are very aggressive. During the
cocoons, chopped hard-cooked eggs, diced romaine let- breeding season, they may attack other males, other bird
tuce, spinach, dandelion and other green plants is a species or even the keeper. Pursuit by the male and
viable substitute. In several species (some grouse), chicks mock escape by the female is normal behavior in some
obtain food by pecking at the ground and by cutting off species like eared pheasants and francolins. If there is
parts of plants with the bill. In these species, it is impor- insufficient space for the hen to escape, she may be
tant that chicks be provided intact plants that are placed injured or killed by the cock. Beak trimming or restrict-
in the ground or tied in bundles to facilitate natural ing the flight capabilities of the male can prevent injuries
food-gathering behavior. Chicks that are to be released to the hen, but are inferior procedures to providing ade-
into the wild must be introduced to their natural foods quate space for a pair of birds to behave normally.
to prevent starvation. Perhaps chicks are imprinted with Densely planted aviaries that provide a hen with areas to
food shapes and colors, or at the least they learn what hide still may have inherent problems. Fiberglass panels
foods to consume from the hen. leaned against the wall or concrete tubes provide similar
protection and are easy to clean.
The chicks of some gallinaceous birds will not pick
downward in the first days of life. This is because pea- For species in which there are substantial differences in
cock pheasants, crested argus, great argus and some body size between the genders, aviaries can be designed
other gallinaceous hens feed their chicks for several days to allow the hen to visit the cock when she wishes. Small
after hatching. Argus pheasant chicks can be enticed to holes just big enough for the hen are used to connect
peck by offering live food (mealworms). Monal chicks adjacent enclosures. This allows the hen to enter the
fed mealworms will pick at their siblings’ toes. cock’s enclosure while preventing the cock from enter-
ing the hen’s area. This is an effective method for breed-
ing birds like the common capercaillie. In some species,
Reproduction the hen chooses the most attractive of several cocks and
if only one cock is available, breeding may not occur if
Some gallinaceous birds breed easily in captivity, while the hen does not like the cock. In some species, the
others rarely reproduce. Breeding failures are an indica- visual or acoustic presence of other males is necessary to
tion that the birds are not provided a suitable environ- stimulate display and mating behavior.
869
Table 38.4 | Clutch Sizes and Incubation Times of Gallinaceous Birds

Species Clutch Incubation Species Clutch Incubation
Sizes Time (days) Sizes Time (days)
Megapodiidae Phasianidae (Continued)
Alectura lathami 25-30 46-54 Lophophorinae Lophophorus spp. 4-5 27
Cracidae Pucrasiinae Pucrasia spp. 5-7 20-21
Ortalis spp. 3 26-28 Ithagininae Ithaginis spp. 5-12 27
Penelope spp. 2-3 27-29 Gallinae Gallus spp. 5-8 19-21
Aburria spp. 2-3 unknown Tragopaninae Tragopan spp. 4-10 28-31
Penelopina spp. 2 unknown Ptilopachinae Philopachus spp. 4-6 unknown
Oreophasis spp. 2 unknown Peliperdix spp. 2-6 unknown
Nothocrax spp. 2 28 Ortygornis spp. 4-8 18-19
Mitu spp. 2 29-30 Perdicula spp. 4-8 22
Pauxi spp. 2 30 Cryptoplectron spp. 4-7 16-18
Crax spp. 2 29 Ammoperdix spp. 8-14 22-24
Phasianidae Synoicus spp. 4-12 20-22
Perdicinae Lerwa spp. 5-7 unknown Coturnix spp. 7-14 16-20

Tetraogallus spp. 5-8 26 Margaroperdix spp. 5 unknown
Tetraophasis spp. 4 unknown Caloperdix spp. 8-10 18-20
Arborophila spp. 3-5 20-21 Melanoperdix spp. 5 unknown
Perdix spp. 8-20 24-25 Rollulus spp. 4 18-20
Alectoris spp. 8-14 24-26 Haematortyx spp. 8-9 unknown
Bambusicola spp. 4-6 18-20 Rhizothera spp. 5 unknown
Francolinus spp. 4-8 19-21 Odontophorinae Colinus spp. 7-28 22-23
Pternistis spp. 3-9 18-20 Callipepla spp. 9-17 22-23
Scleroptila spp. 3-6 22 Oreotyx spp. 6-15 24-25
Dendroperdix spp. 4-9 19 Philortyx spp. 8-12 22-23
Numidinae Guttera spp. 8-10 unknown Dendrortyx spp. 4-7 28-30
Numida spp. 8-12 27 Odontophorus spp. 4-5 26-27
Acryllium spp. 10-14 23-24 Dactylortyx spp. 5 unknown
Agelastes spp. 12 unknown Cyrtonyx spp. 6-16 24-25
Pavoninae Afropavo sp. 3-4 26-27 Tetraoninae Tympanuchus spp. 5-17 24-25
Pavo spp. 3-5 28-30 Bonasa spp. 11 24
Meleagridinae Meleagris spp. 8-15 28 Tetrastes spp. 7-11 23-25
Argusianinae Polyplectron spp. 2 18-23 Centrocercus spp. 7-13 25-27
Rheinardia spp. 2 25 Dendragapus spp. 7-10 24-25
Argus spp. 2 24-25 Falcipennis spp. 4-10 21-22
Phasianinae Chrysolophus spp. 5-12 22-23 Lagopus spp. 6-9 20-23
Phasianus spp. 8-12 22-24 Lyrurus spp. 7-10 26-27
Graphephasianus spp. 6-12 24 Tetrao spp. 5-12 26
Syrmaticus spp. 7-15 24-25
Colophasis spp. 6-8 25-28
Lophura spp. 5-15 22-25
Crossoptilan spp. 4-14 24-28
Catreus spp. 9-14 26
Most gallinaceous birds incubate eggs on the ground tree-nesting birds should be inconspicuous to provide
and should be provided with flat trays containing moss, the pair with visual security, but should be placed such
foliage or hay for nesting material. Tragopans, the that the birds can easily look out.
Congo peafowl (Afropavo congosis), the bronze-tailed
Most gallinaceous birds are non-determinant layers and
peacock pheasant (Pavo cristatus), the crested argus
if the first clutch of eggs is removed, the hen will lay a
pheasant, the mikado pheasant (Syrmaticus mikado),
second and sometimes a third clutch. Hatching is geneti-
the Salvadori’s pheasant (Lophura inornata) and the cally determined and should not normally be assisted.
cracids nest in trees. A box placed approximately 150 cm Because gallinaceous chicks are nidifugous, the family
from the ground and filled with hay and foliage can be can stay together only if all the chicks hatch at the same
used as an artificial nest. A slanted limb should be pro- time. Synchronization of the hatch dates can occur by
vided for easy access to the nest. Nests of ground- and two mechanisms: 1) The hen does not incubate the
Table 38.5 | Parameters for Artificial Incubation of Some

Gallinaceous Birds
Incubation Chamber Hatching Chamber
Species Temp. Humidity Temp. Humidity
(°C) (%) (°C) (%)
Common pheasant 37.5 60 37 85
(Phasianus colchicus)
California quail 38.5-39.0 50-60 — 80
(Callipepla californica)
Common capercaillie 37.5 60-70 36.5-37.0 80-90
(Tetrao urogallus)
Greg J. Harrison
Black grouse 37.4 55-60 — 85-90
(Tetrao tetrix)
Ruffed grouse 37.5 60-65 — 70-75
(Bonasa umbellus)
Chukar partridge 37.5 65 37 85
(Alectoris chukar) Fig 38.4 | The red junglefowl hen is commonly used by avicul-
turists to incubate the eggs of species that commonly abandon
their eggs.
clutch until the last egg has been laid, allowing the eggs tion period of the foster hen is shorter than the
to cool (which slows the process of embryogenesis); or fostered eggs
2) The chicks in a clutch synchronize hatching through • Trauma or death of the chicks if the hen recognizes
audible signals. This latter process occurs in species like them to be strange (this is a particular problem when
the Japanese quail. When sounds are heard from other behavioral incompatibilities exist between the hen and
eggs, the chicks increase the speed of hatching. When chicks)
no sounds are heard from other eggs, the most devel- • Transmission of infectious agents between hen
oped chicks reduce their speed of hatching. Most galli- and chicks
naceous chicks are independent by 3 months of age. The • Inappropriate imprinting
exception is the megapode chick, which is independent
immediately after hatching. Placing the eggs in an incubator for the last third of the
incubation period can reduce infanticide and disease
transmission (this method is often used for grouse). A
Foster Breeding
hen of the same species should rear chicks that are to be
The hens of some gallinaceous birds are unreliable released into the wild.
brooders in captivity. Cracid, common pheasant and
nearly all species of New World quail hens are not reli- For many pheasants, the percentage of carbon dioxide in
able brooders in captivity. These hens can be encour- the incubator must be increased up to approximately 1%
aged to produce two or three clutches per year instead (verified with a gas detector) during the last 2 days of
of one by using foster parents or an incubator for hatch- incubation. This is achieved by reducing the intake of
ing eggs. Chinese silk fowl (Bambusicola thoracica) fresh air and serves to stimulate the hatching process.
and bantams make excellent foster parents (Fig 38.4). Chicks should be taken out of the incubator immediately
Domestic turkey hens can be used to incubate the eggs after hatching.
of larger gallinaceous birds. Small and fragile eggs
should be placed under golden pheasant hens, which SPECIFIC REPRODUCTIVE
are cautious brooders and excellent care providers. CHARACTERISTICS
During the last week of incubation, the eggs of tropical
birds being raised in dry climates should be moistened Megapodes
with a clean mister once a day. After hatching, the hens Megapode eggs differ from those of other gallinaceous
and chicks can be placed in a small enclosure that is birds, owing to their uncommon brooding biology. The
moveable and can be placed on fresh grassy areas on a eggs are not incubated by the parents but by solar heat,
daily basis. Chicks are prone to chilling the first few days fermentation heat or geothermal energy. One egg can
posthatch and must have supplemental body heat from reach a size of up to 17% of the hen’s body mass. The
the attending hen or a heat lamp where appropriate. eggs are thin shelled and contain a large yolk that is rich
in lipids. Cocks or both sexes begin constructing an
The disadvantages of foster parenting are as follows: induction mound out of foliage and earth when the air
• Crushing of small, fragile eggs by heavy or clumsy temperature and atmospheric humidity reach a certain
adults level. The hens lay their eggs every 2 to 3 days in previ-
• Premature cessation of brooding if the natural incuba- ously prepared holes, which are quickly covered after ovi-
871
position. Eggs are deposited in a mound, with the point- gregarious New World quail live together in large family
ed pole downward, and they are not turned during incu- groups (coveys). At the beginning of the breeding sea-
bation. They do not have a fixed air chamber or chalaza. son, the older cocks become very aggressive toward
young cocks. Captive bobwhite quail have become
The birds may determine the temperature of the mound, polygamous and it is possible to keep one cock with two
and perhaps other parameters, with the bill or tongue. hens, indicating the effects of domestication.
The mean temperature in the incubation mound is
around 34° C. The incubation mound is cooled when
Grouse
needed by scratching holes. This allows carbon dioxide
Some grouse species like ptarmigan, ruffed grouse, hazel
to escape and oxygen to enter. The incubation period
hen (Tetrastes bonasia), spruce grouse (Falcipennis
varies from 45 to 90 days, depending on the tempera-
canadensis) and blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus)
ture in the mound. Brush turkey chicks leave the mound
are monogamous. In these species, cocks should not be
24 to 30 hours after hatching. Normally, megapode
allowed to see or hear other cocks. Hazel hen males may
chicks do not come into contact with their parents,
attack the female if a rival can be heard but not seen.
which function only to care for the incubation mound.
Other grouse species are polygamous. In these species,
The chicks join their siblings that have hatched at
the hen chooses one cock from a group of displaying
around the same time. Megapodes are sexually mature
males. One cock may be chosen to mate with several
by 1 year of age.
hens. Hens in captivity breed best when allowed to
The Australian brush turkey (Alectura lathami) is easy choose between two or more cocks. The cocks, which
to maintain and breed in captivity, and is the most com- are housed in different compartments of an aviary, may
mon captive representative of the megapodes. This see and hear each other if there are enough hiding places
species is monogamous. In one breeding season, an for the hens. In most grouse only the hen provides chick
Australian brush turkey hen lays about 25 to 30 eggs. care. The chicks of different species can be distinguished
by the varying color patterns on the head and back
Cracids plumage. Most grouse are sexually mature at 1 year of
Cracids are Central and South American species that are age. Crossbreeding between different genera and species
considered monogamous. The breeding season lasts occurs in free-ranging birds. Similarities in the appear-
from March until July. Most nests are well hidden in a ance and display behavior of hens seem to induce cocks
fork or branch of a tree, but some species are ground- to crossbreed. Hens will choose cocks of another species
nesters. Only the hen incubates the eggs. A clutch con- if a representative of their own species is not available.
sists of two to three eggs, which are rough shelled with
wide pores and a uniform white color. Newly hatched Peafowl
chicks are immediately able to climb trees. The family The Congo peafowl is monogamous. The nest is always
stays together until the next breeding season. Sexual built in a tree. Both parents care for the chicks. The
maturity occurs by 2 years of age. Indian (Pavo cristatus) and the green peafowl (Pavo
muticus) are polygamous. In captivity, it is possible to
Turkeys keep one cock with four to five hens. The hens care for
The common turkey is polygamous. Behavior of free- the clutch and the chicks, which mature slowly. Hens
ranging birds is dramatically different from that of reach sexual maturity in the second year and cocks in the
domesticated breeds. The brain volume of domesticated third year of life. The green peafowl is more aggressive
turkeys is 3% smaller (brain:body weight ratio) than that than the Indian peafowl, but has a more pleasant call.
of their wild-type conspecifics. The nest is formed of a
flat depression in the soil and may be padded with Pheasant
leaves, grass or twigs. The chicks are able to fly at 2 Most pheasant species are polygamous. One common
weeks of age. Several hens, together with their offspring, pheasant cock can be kept with five to six hens (Fig
typically associate in a flock in the winter. The young 38.5). The hens make poor care providers in captivity.
birds leave their mother before the next breeding sea- They tend to be indiscriminate in the placement of eggs
son. Young turkeys are sexually mature at 2 years of age. and will not incubate the eggs. Young common pheas-
ants are sexually mature at 1 year of age. Free-ranging
New World Quail golden pheasants are monogamous, but in captivity one
New World quail are monogamous. Both parents partici- cock can be kept with three to four hens. The hens are
pate in building the nest and brooding the chicks. Young exceptional care providers and defend their chicks.
birds are sexually mature by 1 year of age, in some Young golden pheasant hens are sexually mature within
species even earlier. Outside the breeding season, the 1 year, cocks within 2 years. Lady Amherst’s pheasant
Table 38.6 | Gender Determination of Selected Species of

Gallinaceous Birds Without Marked Sexual Dimorphism28
Genus Plumage Plumage Differences
Identical Similar
Megapodiidae
Alectura spp. X Cocks have neck
appendages
Cracidae
Ortalis spp. X Voice of cock is deeper
Penelope spp. X In some species, iris
colors differ
Nothocrax spp. X In cocks, the tracheal loop
is palpable
Greg J. Harrison
Pauxi spp. X In hens, plumage is some-
times a red phase
Phasianidae
Numidinae
Fig 38.5 | A male Reeves pheasant has worn a path in its All genera X Cock’s call has 3 syllables;
aviary in an attempt to find mates or compete with other males. hen’s call has 2 syllables
Argusianinae
Polyplectron spp. X Hen’s plumage is dull;
cocks and hens can be aggressive during the breeding cocks have spurs
season. Only a few of the birds found in captivity are Phasianinae

Crossoptilon spp. X In general, cocks have
purebred. Both male and female argus pheasants, pea- spurs
cock pheasants and the copper pheasant establish and Catreus spp. X Cocks have long,
defend their own territories. Males should be introduced sharp spurs
to females for only a short time during the breeding sea- Ptilopachinae
son to prevent aggressive behavior and traumatic injuries Ptilopachus spp. X

Perdicinae
to both genders.
Tetraogallus spp. X* In some species, cocks
have short spurs
Junglefowl and Domestic Fowl Arborophila spp. X* In some species, cocks
have short spurs
Junglefowl can either be monogamous or polygamous. Bambusicola spp. X*
The hens can breed year-round, but the main breeding Francolinus spp. X
season is from February to May in the northern hemi- Pternistis spp. X In some species, cocks
have spurs
sphere. A red junglefowl cock can be maintained with
Scleroptila spp. X Cocks have spurs
three to four hens. The young birds are independent at an
Ortygornis spp. X Cocks have spurs
age of 4 months and sexually mature after the first year.
Coturnix spp. X
Many domestic fowl breeds have lost much of their brood-
Odontophorinae
ing behavior, and eggs must be artificially incubated.32 Odontophorus spp. X*
Tetraoninae
Tympanuchus spp. X
GENDER DETERMINATION
Bonasa spp. X
Many gallinaceous birds show a marked sexual dimor- Tetrastes spp. X
phism. The size (height and width), the body mass Lagopus spp. X Only in winter
(weight), the color of the plumage, the shape of certain *Some species of the genus are very similar, but not identical
feathers, the presence of spurs, and the length and
color of the tail feathers assist in gender determination
between adults of some species (Table 38.6). In some stimulate defecation. The procedure is then similar to that
breeds of domestic fowl, fertile cocks may have plumage described for Anseriformes (see Chapter 36, Management
that resembles that of hens. of Waterfowl).
Highly skilled individuals can determine gender by Behavioral clues like dominance and certain mating ritu-
examining the cloaca in 1-day-old chicks or adults. The als may suggest a gender but are not always indicative.
cloacal examination in newly hatched chicks of small Under certain conditions, the hens of some gallinaceous
bird species must be carefully done. Holding a chick too birds behave like and can have plumage like the males.
tightly can cause asphyxiation. Restraint of a chick for DNA analysis or endoscopic examination of the gonads
gender determination should start by gently pressing on provides definitive determination of gender in species
the abdomen from both sides distal to the keel bone to with similar morphologic characteristics.
873
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION ettsial and fungal agents (Table 38.7). Information on

Artificial insemination is of economic importance in the these diseases may be found in other literature.
domestic turkey and domestic guinea fowl. Domestic
turkey cocks, like domestic fowl cocks, are fertile year- NUTRITIONAL DISEASES
round, except during periods of extreme heat or during Vitamin C deficiency does not occur in most birds; how-
the molt period. Domestic guinea fowl cocks are not fer- ever, it has been reported in willow ptarmigan chicks and
tile all year and artificial insemination is used to induce may occur in other grouse chicks. Though the chicks are
year-round production. able to produce endogenous vitamin C (as all gallina-
ceous birds probably can), the internal production is not
The semen is collected by massaging the caudal region
sufficient in the first weeks of life, and has to be aug-
of the back or the abdomen, followed by stimulation of
mented by the intake of vitamin C from natural food
the cloaca. Fecal contamination of the semen may occur.
plants (eg, blueberries). Clinical signs of vitamin C defi-
It is best to collect the semen directly from the sper-
ciency are abnormal behavior, enteritis, ruffled plumage,
matic duct with a syringe and a blunted hypodermic
weakness of the wings and legs, bone fractures, retarded
needle. The semen may be diluted with Ringer’s or
growth and death before the age of 4 weeks. Characteris-
Tyrode’s solution by up to a factor of three.
tic necropsy findings include weight loss, pale and edema-
Avian semen has a short half-life and must be used as tous skeletal muscles, petechial hemorrhage in the mus-
quickly as possible. The semen is introduced with a cles and mild subcutaneous edema. Fractures in the dia-
syringe and a blunted hypodermic needle into the hen’s physis of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur and tibiotarsus
oviduct. It is best to inseminate the hen just after she with massive callus formation and lateral twisting of the
has laid an egg. This ensures that the oviduct is open, tibia also may occur. Feeding chicks natural foodstuffs
providing the semen with unrestricted access to the high in vitamin C will prevent deficiency. Birds with poor
infundibulum. quality diets often develop pododermatitis (Fig 38.6).
INTEGUMENT CONCERNS
Restraint Amputation of the comb or the wattles may be indicated
following extensive injury, infection or frostbite. Ade-
Cocks with spurs can injure handlers, especially when quate hemostasis is necessary to prevent fatal hemor-
they become increasingly aggressive during the mating rhage. Occasional trimming of the keratinous tip of the
season. The beak also can serve as a weapon. Although bill is necessary if the horny layer grows too fast, or if
serious injuries are rare, the face and the eyes of han- insufficient abrasive materials are available to facilitate
dlers should always be protected from a bird’s beak,
even in small species. The legs of a gallinaceous bird
should be the initial focus for restraint.
Catching gallinaceous birds in an aviary can be done gen-

tly with a long, hooked stick. The birds should never be
restrained by the feathers alone. The whole body must be
secured to prevent a shock molt. Shock molt is most com-
mon in tail feathers but other feathers can be involved.
Birds can be nearly “bald” after several failed restraint
attempts. In larger species, the base of the wing is fixed
along side the body with one hand and the legs are con-
trolled with the other hand. The abdomen should be sup-
ported from below. If assistance is not available, a large
bird can be restrained against one’s body. Birds can usu-
ally be calmed by placing a loose-fitting, lightweight cot-
ton sock over the head to reduce vision.
Disease Considerations Fig 38.6 | Chickens on poor-quality diets often

develop bumblefoot. The pain from the bumblefoot
Gallinaceous birds are susceptible to a wide variety of
causes chickens to lay down frequently, which may
viral, bacterial, mycoplasmal, parasitic, chlamydial, rick- lead to sternal ulcers.
Table 38.7 | Checklist of Infectious Diseases in Gallinaceous Birds
Viruses Bacteria Mycotoxicoses

Poxviridae Staphylococcus spp. Toxins of Aspergillus spp., Penicillium
• Avian pox • Staphylococcosis spp., Fusarium spp. and others
Herpesviridae Streptococcus spp. Parasites
• Infectious laryngotracheitis • Streptococcosis Protozoal Parasites
• Marek’s disease Mycobacterium avium • Trypanosoma avium
• Quail Herpesvirus • Tuberculosis • Spironucleus meleagridis
• Turkey Herpesvirus Eryspelothrix rhusiopathiae • Histomonas meleagridis
Adenoviridae • Erysipelas (Blackhead disease)
• Quail bronchitis Listeria monocytogenes • Trichomonas spp.
• Quail necrotizing hepatitis • Listeriosis • Chilomastix gallinarum
• Inclusion body hepatitis Clostridium spp. • Entamoeba spp.
• Egg drop syndrome • Ulcerative and necrotic enteritis • Endolimas spp.
(infectious salpingitis) (Cl. colinum and Cl. perfringens) • Eimeria spp.
• Marble spleen disease • Botulism (toxin of Cl. botulinum) • Toxoplasma gondii
• Hemorrhagic enteritis of turkeys Escherichia coli • Sarcocystis spp.
• Chicken splenomegaly • Colibacillosis • Cryptosporidium spp.
• Adenovirus infection of the blue • Coligranulomatosis • Haemoproteus spp.
grouse, Guinea Fowl Salmonella spp. • Leucocytozoon spp.
Parvoviridae • Salmonellosis • Plasmodium spp.
• Parvovirus infection of chickens Klebsiella spp. Metazoal Parasites
• Parvovirus-like infection • Klebsiella infection Trematodes
of turkeys Yersinia pseudotuberculosis • Prosthogonimus spp.
Circoviridae • Pseudotuberculosis Cestodes
• Infectious anemia Pseudomonas spp. • Davainea proglottina
Reoviridae • Pseudomonas infection • Raillietina spp.
• Viral arthritis Aeromonas hydrophila • Amoebotaenia cuneata
• Other reovirus infections • Aeromonas infection • Choanotaenia infundibulum
• Rotavirus infections Bordetella avium • Hymenolepis spp.
Birnaviridae • Bordetellosis (turkey coryza) • Metroliasthes lucida
• Infectious bursal disease Campylobacter spp. • Fimbriaria fasciolaris
Togaviridae • Avian hepatitis Nematodes (in digestive tract)
• Eastern and St. Louis encephalitis Borrelia anserina • Capillaria spp.
• Avian serositis • Spirochetosis • Trichostrongylus tenuis
• Louping-ill Treponema spp. • Heterakis spp.
• Israel turkey meningoencephalitis • Infectious typhlitis in chickens • Ascaridia spp.
Coronaviridae Pasteurella spp. • Gongylonema ingluvicola
• Coronaviral enteritis of turkeys • Fowl cholera • Cheilospiruro spp.
(bluecomb disease) Actinobacillus salpingitidis • Dispharynx nasuta
• Infectious bronchitis • Actinobacillosis • Tetrameres spp.
Rhabdoviridae Haemophilus spp. • Subulura spp.
• Rabies • Haemophilus infection Nematodes (in respiratory tract)
Paramyxoviridae Francisella tularensis • Syngamus trachea
• Newcastle disease Tularemia Nematodes (in the eye)
• PMV-2 infection Mycoplasma • Oxyspirura spp.
• PMV-3 infection Mycoplasma spp. Nematodes (in other locations)
• Turkey rhinotracheitis • Ureaplasma sp. • Aproctella stoddardi
• Swollen head syndrome Chlamydia • Singhfilaria hayesi
Orthomyxoviridae Chlamydophila psittaci Acanthocephalans
• Avian influenza, fowl plague Chlamydiosis • Mediorhynchus papillosus
Retroviridae Rickettsia Arthropods
• Leukosis Coxiella burnetii • External parasites like lice, fleas,
• Reticuloendotheliosis • Query (Q) fever flies, mosquitoes, midges and
• Lymphoproliferative disease Aegyptianella pullorum ticks occur in most gallinaceous
of turkeys • Aegyptianellosis birds. Mites occur above all in
Picornaviridae Mycoses intensively reared gallinaceous
• Avian encephalomyelitis Aspergillus spp. birds, predacious bugs in some
• Turkey viral hepatitis • Aspergillosis gallinaceous birds.
• Infectious nephritis Candida albicans
• Candidiasis
Dactylaria gallopavo
• Dactyloriosis
Trichophyton spp.
• Favus
875
normal wear. The excessive horn is pared off prudently

with a sharp knife without cutting into the viable parts
of the bill.
Cannibalism may occur in some Galliformes and is char-

acterized by vent picking, feather pulling, toe picking,
head picking and egg eating. Overcrowding, incorrect
feeding, an inappropriate daylight cycle, high light inten-
sity, poor housing conditions (eg, high proportion of
toxic gases in the air), genetic predisposition and other
factors may all promote cannibalism.
Beak trimming has been successful in commercial poul-

try production facilities, when performed by experi- Fig 38.7 | Anti-picking lotion
enced personnel, to reduce the incidence of cannibalism may help reduce cannibalism.
and resulting injury. Removal of the comb and wattles is
sometimes performed by commercial poultry breeders and complex. These enterprises often have large num-
to reduce losses associated with aggressive behavior, bers of birds, 1 million or more in many cases, on a sin-
especially associated with males. These procedures may gle premises. Thus, disease prevention rather than treat-
not be suggested in gallinaceous birds raised for hobby. ment is the goal. Disease prevention is achieved through
When performed improperly, these procedures may strict programs whereby disease organisms are pre-
interfere with the bird’s ability to eat, may result in vented entry onto the premises by using biosecurity and
infection and even affect the bird’s social ranking in the by vaccination. Vaccination programs for each farm unit
flock. The bill is not only important for the uptake of are designed specifically to provide maximum protection
food but also has sensory functions and is necessary for to the birds, while being economic and causing mini-
preening. Damage to the beak should be considered a mum stress to the flocks. Disease challenge risk in an
substantial handicap. In most cases, cannibalism can suc- area also must be considered in the program design.
cessfully be prevented by correcting the deficiencies in
the birds’ environment; however, once feather picking is In collections where gallinaceous birds are maintained,
started, beak trimming or other management changes the goal likewise should be disease prevention by pre-
such as separating the birds or use of an anti-picking venting entry of disease organisms onto the premises.
ointmenta may be necessary to break the cycle (Fig 38.7). Vaccination, as the second line of defense, is important in
reducing losses in high-risk areas where disease challenge
Trimming of the flight feathers in one wing can be used occurs. The primary obstacle in vaccinating collections of
to prevent birds from escaping from open aviaries or to gallinaceous birds is availability of quality commercial vac-
reduce the mobility of an aggressive cock during the cines. Vaccines for fowl are readily available for commer-
breeding period. Usually all but the outermost two pri- cial use, but not for smaller collections. Due to market
maries and the innermost three secondaries are tran- considerations, poultry vaccines are produced in vials
sected, creating an effective and cosmetic wing trim. With containing 3000 or more doses per vial. Once vaccines
one wing trimmed, the bird is unbalanced and cannot are reconstituted, in the case of lyophilized products such
gain speed during flight. Because the feathers will be as pox, infectious bronchitis, Newcastle, infectious bursal
replaced during the next molt, trimming must be disease and infectious laryngotracheitis, they must be
repeated annually in adults. Under certain circumstances, administered promptly (within 2 hours). As only small
it may be necessary to trim both wings. Other methods numbers of birds may be vaccinated at a time, vaccination
like pinioning or cutting the short tendon of the extensor may not be feasible. Other vaccines such as Marek’s
carpi radialis make birds permanently unable to fly. The require storage in liquid nitrogen and must be adminis-
client should be made aware of the consequences of tered to chicks promptly after hatching to be effective.
these procedures. Birds unable to fly or ambulate nor- These vaccines also must be used within 1 hour after care-
mally would be more susceptible to attack by pets and ful thawing and mixing of the vaccine, as they are very
wild animals such as raccoons. In many countries, such fragile, cell-associated products. In the case of Marek’s dis-
practices are outlawed for humane reasons. ease, birds will be exposed to this ubiquitous field virus
soon after hatch in most instances, thus prompt vaccina-
tion is essential if it is to be efficacious (Fig 38.8).
VACCINATION CONSIDERATIONS
Vaccination programs used in the commercial broiler, Vaccination programs for gallinaceous birds in smaller col-
turkey and layer industries may be very comprehensive lections are therefore limited to diseases that are more
Fig 38.8 | Vaccination of recently hatched chicks against

Marek’s disease. b
virulent in nature and are high risk in a particular region.

A disease such as infectious bronchitis, which causes only
a mild and transitory respiratory condition in some galli-
naceous birds and in which multiple serotypes are circu-
lating, often is not considered for vaccination.
Diseases commonly considered for vaccination if

endemic or if virulent strains are of concern in the area
include Marek’s disease, infectious laryngotracheitis, pox,
Newcastle and infectious bursal disease (Figs 38.9a,b).
Although live-type vaccines are labile and must be stored

Figs 38.9a,b | A chicken is presented with respiratory dis-
under refrigerated conditions in the dark, have expiration
ease. Note exudates around the eye and sinuses. Infectious
dates, are sold in doses of 5000 or more per vial, and the bronchitis is mild and transitory and is not usually considered
contents of the vaccine must be used promptly following for vaccination.
reconstitution, vaccination would often be indicated for
valuable collections. Veterinarians, often working with
clients from a number of collections, may divide the
lyophilized vaccine pellet prior to reconstitution, using
aseptic technique, to reduce vaccine waste and cost.
Vaccinations are often used in response to post mortem

diagnosis. This is not always possible (Fig 38.10).
Product Mentioned in the Text

a. Anti-Pick Lotion, Vineland Laboratories, 1-800-846-3547,
www.vinelandlabs.com
Greg J. Harrison
Fig 38.10 | Two coincidental findings in a

dead rooster: an eye worm and a fly “strike”.
Fly eggs will hatch into maggots. The cause
of death was not determined.
877
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6. Barnes EM, Impey CS: The occur- Nebraska Press, 1983. Gefangenschaft gehaltenen 1992, pp 176-221.
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decomposing anaerobic bacteria Partridges, and Francolins of the 1758) in vitro. Diss Med Vet, Geschlechtsapparat. In Nickel R,
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Anatomica Avium. London, bei Vögeln. Hannover, Verlag M & perfringens im Kot von freileben- 1992, pp 224-264.
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What are some of the anatomical and physiological differences between gallinaceous birds?

What are some of the anatomical and physiological differences between gallinaceous birds?

What are some examples of gallinaceous birds that have been domesticated?

What are some examples of gallinaceous birds that have been domesticated?

38_Galliforms.

qxd 8/24/2005 10:02 AM Page 861

Members of the order Galliformes are found on every

Many Galliformes are commonly maintained as game

cialized diets, humidity and temperature ranges to sur-

Maintaining, breeding, treating or commercially dealing

Megapodiidae (megapodes) 7 12 Domestic fowl 12-37 220-360 41.2

ambulate and self feed) and hatch with a downy

The cecal flora probably plays an important role in the

Snowcocks need large rocks for perching and shaping

Silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera), eared pheasant “EASY” BIRDS

Table 38.4 | Clutch Sizes and Incubation Times of Gallinaceous Birds

Perdicinae Lerwa spp. 5-7 unknown Coturnix spp. 7-14 16-20

Table 38.5 | Parameters for Artificial Incubation of Some

Table 38.6 | Gender Determination of Selected Species of

season. Only a few of the birds found in captivity are Phasianinae

son to prevent aggressive behavior and traumatic injuries Ptilopachus spp. X

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION ettsial and fungal agents (Table 38.7). Information on

Catching gallinaceous birds in an aviary can be done gen-

Disease Considerations Fig 38.6 | Chickens on poor-quality diets often

Table 38.7 | Checklist of Infectious Diseases in Gallinaceous Birds

Viruses Bacteria Mycotoxicoses

normal wear. The excessive horn is pared off prudently

Cannibalism may occur in some Galliformes and is char-

Beak trimming has been successful in commercial poul-

Fig 38.8 | Vaccination of recently hatched chicks against

virulent in nature and are high risk in a particular region.

Diseases commonly considered for vaccination if

Although live-type vaccines are labile and must be stored

Vaccinations are often used in response to post mortem

Product Mentioned in the Text

Fig 38.10 | Two coincidental findings in a

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