Mod Prot en Malnut Final PDF

MODULE
Protein Energy
Malnutrition
For the Ethiopian Health Center Team
Tefera Belachew, Challi Jira, Kebede Faris, Girma Mekete,

and Tsegaya Asres
Jimma University
In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter Center,
the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education
2001
Funded under USAID Cooperative Agreement No. 663-A-00-00-0358-00.
Produced in collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter
Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education.
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Limited permission is granted free of charge to print or photocopy all pages of this
publication for educational, not-for-profit use by health care workers, students or
faculty. All copies must retain all author credits and copyright notices included in the
original document. Under no circumstances is it permissible to sell or distribute on a
commercial basis, or to claim authorship of, copies of material reproduced from this
publication.
©2001 by Dereje Abebe, Yayehirad Tassachew, Jemal Adem, Nejmudin

Reshad, and Sintayehu Delelegn
All rights reserved. Except as expressly provided above, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without written permission of the author or authors.
This material is intended for educational use only by practicing health care workers or
students and faculty in a health care field.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPIC PAGE
UNIT 1.0 Introduction

1.1 Purpose and use of the module 2
1.2 Directions for using the module 3
UNIT 2.0 Core Module
2.1 pre and post tests 4
2.2 Significance and brief description of the protein energy
malnutrition 21
2.3 Learning objectives 22
2.4 Case study: learning activities 23
2.5 Definition 27
2.6 Epidemiology 27
2.7 Etiology and pathogenesis 29
2.8 Clinical features (signs and symptoms) 34
2.9 Diagnosis 36
2.10 Case management 37
2.11 Prevention of protein energy malnutrition 43
2.12 Learning activities (case study) continued 47
UNIT 3.0 Satellite Modules

3.1. Health Officer 50
3.2 Public Health Nurse 61
3.3 Medical Laboratory Technician 69
3.4 Sanitarian 90
3.5 Primary health worker/ Community health worker 100
3.6 Take home message for care givers 108
UNIT 4.0 Role and Task Analysis 111
UNIT 5.0 Glossary and Abbreviations 119
UNIT 6.0 Bibliography 123
UNIT 7.0 Annexes

7.1. Answer keys 127
AKNOWLEDGMENTS
The development of this module has gone through series of individual and group works,
meetings, discussions, writings and revisions. We would like to express our deep
appreciation to The Carter Center, Atlanta Georgia, for their financial support of the
activities in the development of this module all the way through. The contribution of
Professor Dennis Carlson, a senior consultant of the Carter center, Atlanta Georgia both in
initiating the development of this module and reviewing the manuscript is immense.
The input of many academicians at home and abroad has contributed a lot to the
development of this module. The following academicians deserve special appreciation for
taking their invaluable time in reviewing the module, namely: Dr. Charles Larson. Professor
Donald Johnson, Professor Nicholas Cuningham, Professor Joyce Murray, Professor Joe
Wray, Professor Maurine Kelly, Dr. Asfaw Desta, Dr. Gimaye Haile, Dr. Ameha Mekasha,
Dr. Teshome Desta, Dr. Asnake Tesfahun, Dr. Ashenafi Negash, Mr. Teklebirhan Tema,
Mr. Esayas Alemayehu and Mr. Zewdineh Salemariam.
We are indebted to the team of Gondar college of Medical Sciences, Addis Ababa
University faculty of Medicine, Southern University-Dilla college of Teachers Education and
Health Sciences and Alemaya University-faculty of Health Sciences for reviewing the
module as a team.
Dr. Damtew Woldemariam, the president of Jimma University has contributed a lot in
facilitating the development of the module by allowing the team to work on the modules.
We also like to extend our thanks to the Faculty of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Public
Health, Community Health Programme, Health Officers Programme, School Of Nursing,
School Of Medical Laboratory Technology, and School Of Environmental Health of Jimma
University for allowing the team to work on the module.
We are also grateful to Mr. Aklilu Mulugeta for logistic support during the process of
development of the module.
UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1 Purpose of the Module
The lack of appropriate and relevant teaching material is one of the bottlenecks
that hinder training of effective, competent task oriented professionals who are well
versed with the knowledge, attitude and skill that would enable them to solve the
problems of the community. Preparation of such a teaching material is an important
milestone in an effort towards achieving these long-term goals.
Therefore, this module is prepared to facilitate the process of equipping trainees

with adequate knowledge, attitude and skill through interactive teaching mainly
focused on protein-energy malnutrition.
This module can be used in the basic training of health center teams in the training
institutions and training of health center teams who are already in the service
sectors, community health workers and care givers. However, it was not meant to
replace standard text Books or reference materials.
2
1.2 Direction for Using the Module
In order to make maximum use of the module the health center team should follow
the following directions:-
1.2.1 Check prerequisite knowledge required to use the module.
1.2.2 Do the pretest pertaining to the core module section 2.1.1.
1.2.3 Read the core module thoroughly.
1.2.4 After going through the core module try to answer the pretest
questions.
1.2.5 Evaluate yourself by referring to the key given in section 7.1 and 7.2.
1.2.6 Read the case study and try to answer questions.
1.2.7 Use the listed references and suggested reading materials to

substantiate and supplement your understanding of the problem.
1.2.8 Look at the satellite module and the task analysis related to your field to
understand your role in the team in managing a case of Protein Energy
Malnutrition (PEM).
3
UNIT TWO
CORE MODULES
3
2.1 Pre-and Post Test
2.1.1 Pre and Post Test for the Health Center Team
(From the Core Module)
Directions: Choose the letter of the choice with the right answer.
1. Which age groups of children are more predisposed to protein energy

malnutrition (kwashiorkor)?
a) Under one year
b) All under five
c) Children 2-3 years old
d) Children 4-5 years
e) None
2. What are the different risk factors involved for the development of
protein energy malnutrition?
a) Low socioeconomic conditions
b) Ignorance of parents about the importance of child nutrition
c) Infections like measles, Pertusis, diarrhea
d) Child abuse (Neglect)
e) All of the above
3. How common is the problem of protein energy malnutrition?

a) Severe forms of malnutrition are frequent in the order of 5-10%
in developing countries
b) The prevalence of mild and moderate forms Protein energy
Malnutrition range from 20-40%
c) Stunting is the more common form of malnutrition than wasting
in most developing countries including Ethiopia
d) Wasting follows seasonal shortage of food
e) All are correct
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4. What are the different types of Protein energy malnutrition (PEM)?
a) .....................................................................................
b) .....................................................................................
c) .....................................................................................
d) .....................................................................................
e) .....................................................................................
5. Why is weaning time usually the period for the syndrome of protein
energy malnutrition to set in?
a) Ceasing or reduction of breast-feeding
b) Improper weaning practices like introduction of supplementary
foods abruptly
c) Use of bottle-feeding with diluted and dirty formula predisposing
the child to infection
d) All
e) None
6. How do you differentiate kwashiorkor from Marasmus clinically? List at

least four specific manifestations for each.
Kwashiorkor
a) ……………………………………………………………………………
b) ……………………………………………………………………………
c) ……………………………………………………………………………
d) ……………………………………………………………………………
Marasmus
a) ………………………..………………………………..….……
b) ………………………………………………………….…….…
c) ………………………….…………………………………..……
d) ………………………….…………………………………………
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7. What other diagnostic methods could you list?
a) .....................................................................................
b) .....................................................................................
c) .....................................................................................
8. What are the different phases of management of cases of PEM?

a) .....................................................................................
b) .....................................................................................
9. What is the danger of administration of high protein and energy in the

first phase of the management of PEM?
...............................................................................................
...............................................................................................
10. What are the basic causes of protein –energy malnutrition?

a) Drought
b) Social inequality
c) War
d) All of the above
e) None
11. Which of the following is a false statement?

a) Protein energy malnutrition is associated with diarrhea
b) Immunization can prevent malnutrition
c) Marasmus is one of the problems of our society
d) Malnutrition is non-preventable communicable disease
e) A and D
12. What sanitary measures should be taken to prevent PEM?

a) Provision of safe and adequate food
b) Sources of water should be protected
c) Personal and environmental hygiene should be maintained
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d) All of the above
e) None of the above
13. In the clinical work up of protein energy malnutrition, what laboratory

investigations can be done in a routine laboratory setup?
a) Hemoglobin determination
b) Stained red blood cell morphology assessment
c) Serum albumin determination
d) Differential leukocyte count
e) All of the above
14. What is the importance of hemoglobin determination in the

assessment of protein energy malnutrition?
a) To diagnose anemia
b) To diagnose polycythemia
c) To assess the presence of abnormal red blood cell morphology
d) None of the above
15. What is the importance of studying stained red cell morphology in the
a) To assess nutritional anemia
b) It enables the classification of anemia
c) To diagnose iron deficiency anemia
d) All of the above
16. What is the importance of serum albumin determination in the

a) To diagnose hypo-albunemia
b) To assess protein malabsorbtion
c) To diagnose hyper-albuminemia
d) A and B
7
17. What is the importance of differential leukocyte count (particularly
lymphocyte count) in the assessment of protein energy malnutrition?
a) To diagnose the presence of infections
b) To determine the relative lymphocyte count as an indicator of
viral infection in protein energy malnutrition
c) To see the presence of atypical lymphocytes
d) All of the above
18. What pathogens contribute indirectly to the development of protein

energy malnutrition?
a) Viruses
b) Bacteria
c) Parasites
d) All of the above
19. The basic objective of managing a child with protein energy

malnutrition is the following except one:
a) Treating superimposed infections
b) Correction of specific nutrient deficiencies
c) Managing complications
d) Provision of immunization (measles)
20. One of the advantages of providing small frequent feeds in the acute
phase of dietary management of PEM is:
a) It increases appetite; therefore, the child could strive to gain
weight at earliest time
b) It reduces the risk of infection
c) It minimizes the risk of vomiting, hypoglycemia and hypothermia
d) None of the above
8
21. The objective of the rehabilitation phase in dietary management of PEM is
a) To decrease the risk of vomiting, diarrhea and hypothermia
b) To increase and promote a rapid rate of catch up growth through

administration of high energy and protein
c) To avoid unnecessarily prolonged hospital stay so as to prevent cross

infection
d) To promote the participation of mothers/care givers in the dietary

management process.
2.1.2 Pre and Posttest for Specific Categories of the

Health Center Team (from the Satellite Module)
2.1.2.1 Health Officers
Directions: Choose the letter of the choice with the right answer.
1. One of the following are nutritional problems of public health

importance in developing countries.
a) Protein energy malnutrition
b) Iron deflciency anemia (IDA)
c) Iodine deficiency diseases (IDD)
d) Vitamin A deficiency
e) Vitamin D deficiency
2. The commonest type of malnutrition in Ethiopian Community is

a) Over weight
b) Under weight
c) Wasting
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d) Stunting
e) Kwashiorkor
3. The most important criteria for admission of a child with protein energy mal-
nutrition coming to a hospital are:
a) Age < 1 year plus severe PEM
b) Severe PEM plus dehydration
c) Severe PEM plus hypothermia
d) Severe PEM plus infection
e) Recurrence of the situation in the same child
4. Which of the following diseases have a very close relationship with protein
a) Tuberculosis
b) Measles
c) Diarrhea
d) Pertusis (whooping cough)
e) Common cold
Abebech brought 3years old male child called Temam to the pediatric
OPD of Jimma Hospital. She told you that the child has diarrhea on and
off type, loss of appetite. Besides she stated that the child is not
interested in his surrounding and sits miserably. On physical
examination you found out that the child is apathetic, hypotensive, has
gray easily pluckable hair, edema, weighs 9kg. While he is expected to
weigh 14kg. Answer questions 5 to10 based on the above scenario.
10
5. What is the type of malnutrition the child is suffering from?
a) Marasmus
b) Kwashiorkor
c) Marasmic-kwashiorkor
d) Underweight
e) Stunting
6. How would you manage this child?
a) Admit him and correct fluid and electrolyte balances first
b) Start him with low protein 1 - 1.5g/kg/d and low energy 100kcal/kg/d
in the stabilization phase and later increase to 5gm of protein/kg/d
and 180kcal/kg/d in the rehabilitation phase
c) The treatment principles are different for the different types of PEM
d) High dose of vitamin A is required
e) Screen him for infection and treat accordingly
7. What will be your approach to the mother to prevent the recurrence of

thesituation?
a) Nutrition education on child feeding and meal planning
b) Counseling her on the importance of mixing different foods (cereals

with legumes) and other food staffs like oil or sugar to enrich the
protein and energy content of weaning food
c) Tell her the importance of gardening in her yard-garden if she has a

land
d) Work with her how to improve the nutritional status of her child
e) Appoint her for follow-up (growth monitoring)
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8. What other history would have been important to ask about this child?
a) About breast feeding
b) About weaning process and type of weaning food
c) Immunization history
d) About who is carrying for the child at home
e) Income of the family, marital status, educational status and family

size
9. The main objectives of treating this child in the rehabilitation phase is

a) To promote catch up growth
b) To promote restoration of the wasted tissue
c) To prevent death because of the complications
d) To correct hypoglycemia
e) To prevent recovery syndrome
10. What will be the consequence if adequate catch up growth does not occur in
this child during this rehabilitation phase?
a) The child will remain stunted and tracks below the standard and ends
up in a small (short) adult
b) Both his physical growth and mental development will be hampered
c) He will have poor physical work output as an adult later in his life
d) There will be difficulty in giving birth if she is a female
e) He will definitely grow up to be as tall as his maximum genetic
potential
11. Which of the following is correct?

a) The limiting factor for a catch-up growth of a child with protein energy
malnutrition is protein
12
b) Small frequent feeds are advisable for children with PEM because of
the alteration of the GI-histology as due to the pathology and due to
the fact that they have small stomach
c) Administration of other micro-nutrients like zinc, magnesium and

potassium in the stabilization and rehabilitation phase is equally
Important
d) Basically all mothers free of HIV/AIDS be advised to exclusively

breast feed their young for the first 4-6 months and for a minimum of
2 years then after
e) Using cup and spoon is by far the most preferred method of child
feeding as compared to bottle feeding
12. The types of classification of PEM so far in clinical use is
a) Gomez classification
b) Waterlow classification
c) Welcome classification
d) Mid upper arm circumference
13. The type of classification that has a relative advantage for community survey
of PEM is
a) Gomez classification
b) Water low classification
c) Well comes classification
d) Not stated here
14. Other micronutrient deficiencies that co-exist with PEM include:
a) Vitamin A deficiency
13
b) Vitamin D deficiency
c) Riboflavin deficiency
d) Iron deficiency
15. If you find stunting and wasting in children of a given community, this
condition indicates that:
a) There is a long standing nutritional problem
b) Wasting indicates that there is still an acute nutritional problem
c) There might be other social and environmental factors hidden in

community
d) All
16. What main dangers do you anticipate in the first phase management of
PEM?
a) Cardiac problem
b) Dehydration
c) Infection
d) Hypothermia
e) All
1.2.1.2 Pre and Posttest to Public Health Nurses
Direction: Respond to the following questions accordingly.
1. List the roles of the public health nurse in a team approach to nutrition
care:
a) .....................................................................................
b) .....................................................................................
c) .....................................................................................
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2. The following are the responsibilities of public health nurse in
managing protein energy malnutrition except:
a) Maintain the child’s body temperature with in normal range
b) Keeping the intake and output accurately
c) Preventing bed sore and infection by keeping the skin clean and
dry.
d) Avoid stimulation since this disturbs sleeping pattern of a child.
3. List at least 3 points to be told to the mother of a child with protein

a) .....................................................................................
b) .....................................................................................
c) .....................................................................................
4. Write seven rules, which can largely improve nutritional status in the
community.
a) .....................................................................................
b) .....................................................................................
c) .....................................................................................
d) .....................................................................................
e) .....................................................................................
f) .....................................................................................
g) .....................................................................................
2.1.2.3 Pre and Post Test for Medical Laboratory Technicians
Direction: Circle on any of the following choices that you think are the best
answer
1. What laboratory investigations can be carried out to determine protein

a) Hemoglobin determination
15
b) Stained red blood cell morphology assessment
c) Serum albumin determination
d) Differential leukocyte count
e) All of the above
2. What are the sources for blood samples for hematological tests to
assess nutritional anemia?
a) Capillaries
b) Venous
c) Arteries
d) A and B
3. What are the morphologic classification of anemia in stained thin blood

film examination in the assessment of protein energy malnutrition
a) Normocytic normochromic
b) Microcytic hypocromic
c) Macrocytic normocromic
d) All of the above
4. What is the normal differential range of lymphocytes in the age groups

of 1-4 years?
a) 38-45%
b) 25-35%
c) 44-55%
d) 50-60%
5. What is the approximate albumin normal range in g/l?
a) 30-45
16
b) 25-35
c) 20
d) 30
6. By what percentage is the level of albumin lowered in infants and when

individuals are lying down?
a) 10%
b) 20%
c) 30%
d) 40%
1.2.1.4 Pre and Post Test on PEM for the Sanitarians
Direction: Circle on any of the following choices which you think is the best
answer.
1. Which of the following are risk factors for the development of protein-
energy malnutrition
a) Poverty
b) Infection
c) Lack of knowledge on food sanitation
d) All could be the possible risk factors
2. How is diarrhea associated with the protein energy malnutrition?

a) During infection there will be increased loss of nutrients due to
diarrhea
b) Their causative agents are the same
c) Both are health problems to children under five years of age
d) None
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3. Which of the following acute infection has a very close relationship
with PEM?
a) Whooping cough
b) Leprosy
c) Malaria
d) All
4. What are the immediate causes of protein-energy malnutrition?

a) Parasitic infection
b) Lack of knowledge about feeding and cleanliness
c) Lack of clean and unadulterated food
d) All of the above
5. The nutrition education to be given to the caregivers should focus on: -

a) The importance of hygienic preparation and storage of food
b) Feeding balanced diet (unadulterated diet) for children
c) Importance of breast feeding
d) All of the above
6. Which of the following is the most important requirement for a child to

be healthy and active?
a) Immunization
b) The child should be fed non-adulterated food
c) Keep the personal hygiene of the child
d) All of the above
7. Why is PEM one of the major health problems for children of the third
world countries?
a) Poor sanitation coverage
b) No safe and adequate water supply
c) Shortage of safe and proper food
d) All of the above
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8. What type of quick sanitary survey could be conducted to identify
sanitary problem in a community.
a) Health walk
b) Computer analysis
c) Observational hygiene analysis
d) “a” and ”c”
Give Short answer for the following questions:
9. Describe the major symptoms of malnourished children in the

community?
10. Explain some of the major interventions that should be conducted by
you to prevent acute and repeated infection?
11. Mention some points that we should focus on to make hygiene/health

education more successful?
2.1.2.5 Pretest for Primary Health Workers (PHWS)/Community

Health Workers (PHWS)
1. The cause of PEM is

a) Germs
b) Evil eye
c) Lack of adequate child feeding practice
d) Tooth extraction
e) None of the above
2. One of the following is not a method of preventing PEM: -

a) Keeping personal hygiene and proper waste disposal
b) Bottle feeding
c) Immunization
d) Food hygiene
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e) Exclusive breast-feeding up to 4-6 months and addition of
supplemental food and then after.
3. Which of the following is not a signal for malnutrition?

a) Loss of appetite
b) Stopping or ceasing of growth
c) Gray and lusterless hair
d) Happy smiling child
e) Swelling of the body
4. Which of the following is a risk factor for the occurrence of PEM?

a) Poor feeding both in quality and quantity
b) Neglect of children in the household by parents or care givers
c) Harmful traditional practices
d) Economic problems
e) All are correct
5. What would you have done to prevent to development of PEM if you

were in Jiren village?
a) .....................................................................................
b) .....................................................................................
c) .....................................................................................
d) .....................................................................................
e) .....................................................................................
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2.2 Significance and Brief Description of the
Problem
The term PEM includes a wide spectrum of malnutrition primarily affecting children
in developing countries (infants, pre-school). It’s severe clinical forms are:
Marasmus, Kwashiorkor and Mixed feature called marasmic-kwashiorkor.
The milder forms of it like stunting (chronic form) and wasting (acute) forms of
malnutrition are highly rampant in developing countries.
In rural Ethiopia, up to 1983, wasting was between 5-10%. By late 1983, it

increased to 15-20% in parts of Wollo, North Shoa and Hararge. In 1984, it further
increased to 30% in Bale and Sidamo. Child malnutrition in Bale, Kaffa, Gojam
region that usually produce food surpluses, was found to be higher than the
national average. At present, within those regions relatively unaffected by drought,
it is estimated that about one third of rural children are chronically malnourished
and nearly one-half are underweight.
The 1992 rural nutrition survey in Ethiopia revealed that stunting affected most of
the northern parts of Ethiopia, namely Gondar, Gojam, Wollo and Tigray and also
Showa, Sidamo and Illubabor located in the southern part of the central plateau.
Tigray and Gondar, in northern Ethiopia, were again most affected by wasting plus
underweight and regions of the western plateau and extreme south (Sidamo, North
Omo, Borena) were also more affected by wasting and underweight.
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2.3 Learning Objectives:-
For effective management of a case of PEM the students at the end of
the training will have the following knowledge, attitude and behavioral
outcomes:-
1. Define and identify the types of PEM
2. Enumerate the causes and factors contributing to PEM
3. Describe the magnitude and contribution of PEM to the overall
child health problems in the country and locally.
4. Identify and describe the clinical manifestations of PEM and its
complications.
5. Demonstrate the process of assessing a child with PEM
6. Identify the degree of PEM in a child
7. List the diagnostic methods and procedures for a case with PEM.
8. Describe the principles and methods of treating PEM
9. Select the appropriate treatment for a case of PEM
10. Describe methods of preparing dietary treatment for a case of PEM
11. Identify and manage or refer timely when needed, a case of sever
PEM
12. Demonstrate the appropriate management of a case of PEM
13. Weigh children regularly and monitor their growth (growth
monitoring) and take action
14. Promote hygienic preparation and storage of weaning foods.
15. Identify methods and targets for health education in the prevention
of PEM
16. Describe proper growth monitoring activities and their importance
in the prevention of PEM
17. Promote breast feeding and proper weaning practice
18. Promote immunization of children
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2.4 Case Study: Learning Activity Health
Professionals in Jiren – a Rural Community
Almaz lives in a rural village of Jiren community. She has many children of
which several have died, but more are still alive. Her children were always
weak, unhealthy, full of parasites, and irritable. They were not playful like
most kids in the neighborhood. Almaz is a believer in God and therefore
accepts every thing as natural.
August 19, 2000 was the first time when a health center team (a nurse, a
sanitarian, a laboratory technician and a health officer) from the Jimma health
center came to their village to do a “health walk”. Together with the village
elders, the team walked all round the village and observed the environmental
sanitation conditions, housing condition, water supplies sanitation facilities,
and the health of children. In their preliminary assessment they registered
many things that needed to be corrected in order to improve the health
condition of the villagers. Some of the health and sanitation problems
observed were:
1. Feces of adults and children in many places; some of the excreta

contained ascaris worms.
2. Wastes such as rubbish, and dung, etc were scattered all over the
place.
3. No clean water supply in the village.
4. No single latrine in the whole village was seen.
5. The eyes of most children were unwashed, infested with flies and
covered with discharge.
6. Many children seen were not playful, & happy, but weak looking, with
big bellies, thin, and gray or cooper hair.
23
7. All the houses, except for a few scattered dwellings were thatched with
asingle room.
8. Almost all dwellings were used as barn & the houses were in general
crowded.
9. Children were playing in highly commentated environment.
Having made all these observations and discussions with the elders, the
health center team (the health officer, the nurse, the laboratory technician and
the sanitarian) reached a consensus that, although almost all people in our
country are leading the same life, this village, in particular, seems even more
deprived of all the necessary health promotion mechanisms. The population
is not that poor, but they have been isolated, uninformed and unexposed to
health care services and mostly illiterate.
The team discussed their observations and agreed to start an intervention

program together with the people. They agreed that the intervention programs
should start from the basics and build up later.
The most important ones were: -

♦ Basic hygiene education.
♦ Teach basic and proper child nutrition.
♦ Protect the water source.
♦ Give basic technical help for all to have access to latrines.
The next day, when the car which brought the health center staff arrived and
parked under a tree, children were running around to tell their mothers about
the guests arrival. Ladies were calling each other to come to the meeting.
On the way, they were asking each other what the meeting would really be
about. They speculated about many things.
24
At the meeting place, children were crying, people were moving here and
there, and the team was unloading things such as kerosene stoves, some
bottles containing oil, some flour and chopping board from the car.
After everyone sat down and the supplies were unloaded, the health officer
clapped his hand for silence. All except some children were quiet. The nurse,
the health officer and the lab technician were dressed in white gowns; the
sanitarian is dressed in neat Khaki trousers and a local cap for the sun.
Once they were quite and relaxed, the health officer began to explain to them
what they do in the health centers and the team will be having in the village in
the future.
The sanitarian then told them how disease is transmitted from one person to
another. He then pointed out the sanitation problems in the villages and
explained that when children play in those areas; they contaminate
themselves and their families. He also discussed how diseases are
transmitted through water or flies. He told them these things in a simplified
way, showing them some posters, which he brought with him.
The health officer and the public health nurse reinforced what the sanitarian
hve just said by asking them simple questions such as, how many of you’ve
children that pass ascaris worms with their stools? Almost every mother
raised her hand. Again they asked; how many of you have children that have
had diarrhea in the last four days including today? Again many mothers
raised their hands.
Then, they stopped asking and started to tell them about children’s health,
cleanliness and nutrition. They added that in order for children to grow, they
have to be kept clean, fed properly (nutritious food as often as five or more
times a day), teach them good habit of hand washing and always monitor
25
their growth, mood, and illness especially from parasitic disease as much as
possible. Children should eat, and drink clean water or milk
If the children are not getting the necessary nutrients, such as body builders
(proteins) energy foods (carbohydrates and fats) and protective nutrients
(vitamins and minerals) they: -
• Grow slowly
• Be weak, unhappy, not playful
• Look like an old person
• Have elastic skin
• Have no resistance to disease
• Have frequent attack of diarrhea
• Have slow mental development
• Eventually may die
She started showing them pictures of a child with different kinds of nutritional
deficiencies. She pointed to the pictures of Marasmus, Kwashiorkor and
Marasmic-kwashiorkor and asked the mothers if they have seen a child such
as the one in the picture before. One mother pointed to her own child and
asked whether it is the same? The nurse told her it was the same. Getting a
living example the nurse started to tell them about what had happened and
they can reverse the condition. She put on her apron and asked the mothers
to make a circle and observe so that they see how to prepare simple foods in
their house in clear and simple manner.
They told mothers how much and how frequently they need to feed their
children with the above nutrients and their locally available food sources. This
shows that we do not have to be necessarily very rich to have our children
grow healthy and strong.
26
The food must be prepared fresh if possible or leftover food must be stored
and covered in clean utensils and in clean place. Leftover food must also be
heated adequately before giving it to a child.
2.5 Definition
Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) is a diagnosis that includes several overlapping
syndromes. The scientific basis for PEM was questioned in the early 20th century
and different terms were introduced to describe it and there were different views as
to its etiology. Controversies raged since 1930 and in 1935 cicely William’s
introduced the Ghanaian diagnosis Kwashiorkor (a disease of child disposed from
breast by birth of the next one).
The term kwashiorkor -remained constant in spite of the criticisms because it

doesn’t describe the cause. Over the next 20 years around 50 different alternative
names have been given to the same syndrome.
In 1959, Jelliffe, proposed the term protein calorie malnutrition (PCM) to include all
syndromes relating to inadequate feeding. This has been largely replaced by protein-
energy malnutrition (PEM) or malnutrition.
2.6 Epidemiology
Protein energy malnutrition is the major nutritional problems of the third world
countries. Its prevalence ranges from 20-40% in Africa and Southeast Asia. In
Ethiopia, according to CSA rural nutrition survey in 1992, the highest prevalence of
stunting was recorded in South Gondar (74.5%) and the lowest prevalence in
South Omo (49.2). Whereas the highest prevalence of wasting was recorded in
Tigray (14.2%), and the lowest in Bale (4.4%). Concerning the prevalence of
underweight, the highest (59.9%) was recorded in Tigray and the lowest in Bale
(29.2%). Generally, the prevalence of moderate and severe forms of stunting and
27
underweight in Ethiopia showed an increasing trend over a decade according to
the report on rural nutrition survey in 1992 (see Figure 1).
PEM is mostly common in children under five years of age. Marasmus is common
in children less than 12 months of age and kwashiorkor is prevalent in children less
than 5 years, commonly in the age groups of 2-3 years.
Many studies show that this problem is associated with different factors like
improper weaning practice (early abrupt weaning with dilute and dirty formula),
infections (diarrhea, measles, tuberculosis, pertusis, etc.), harmful traditional
practices (age bias in feeding, sex bias, in feeding, food prejudices- omission from
family diet), and child neglect. These factors do operate in the Ethiopian context. In
Ethiopia, there is a cyclic occurrence of malnutrition in most rural agrarian
communities following the turn of the seasons. The winter (rainy) season is
therefore called the hunger (lean) season and that of the summer (dry) season is
the harvest season. This seasonality of energy and protein intake is reflected in the
variations in the prevalence of PEM in those two seasons.
70 64.2
60 47.6 1982
42.1
50 38.1
40
1992
Percent
30
11.6
20
8
10
0
Under weght Sunting Wasting
Tyepes of Malnutrition
Figure 1. Trend of protein Energy malnutrition in children 5-59 months in

Ethiopia over 10 years (1982-1992)
Source: CSA report on ruran nutrition surveycor module, 1992
28
2.7 Causes, Etiology and Pathogenesis
2.7.1 Causes
Causes of protein energy malnutrition are multi-factorial having a number of

interwoven factors operating simultaneously. The causes could be categorized as
immediate, underlying and basic.
The following diagram depicts the causes operating at different levels.
Hierarchical Model of the Causes of PEM
Inequality Drought War Basic causes

Level I
Level II
Poverty and social Disadvantage Underlying causes
Level III Lack of food Infections Neglect
Immediate causes
Level IV Anorexia
Level V Malnutrition
29
At the level of the individual child one or more of the following factors may operate:-
Lack of knowledge -People do not understand the nutritional nature of their

Child’s health problem
Poverty - lack of means to obtain and provide food to their child (as in the
case of war)
Famine and vulnerability- destitution, being orphan (Example HIV taking
away parents Lives)
Infections - there is a reciprocal relationship between malnutrition and

infection. During infection, the requirement for nutrients increases, there will
be increased loss of nutrients due to diarrhea; genesis of fever and other
acute phase reactants is at the expense of nutrients.
Emotional deprivation- In orphan children and in children whose parents

are negligent in giving care to their children, due to different reasons,
children will lose appetite for feeding and hence end up in state of
malnutrition
Cultural factors- Different biases as to who should take the lion’s share of
the family ‘s food (Example, age bias—older children are given more food
than the smaller ones,
Sex bias—male children are more favored in getting nutritious food than
female children in some families, etc.)
Mal-distribution of foodstuffs - within the family, it occurs between the

different ages and sexes due to biases, food prejudices and taboos. It also
occurs between the different regions of a country because of inappropriate
food and nutrition policy, poor marketing and distribution system due to
different reasons like embargo, country under-siege, etc.
30
2.7.2 Etiology of Protein Energy Malnutrition
Protein-energy malnutrition: is a multi- deficiency state and not just a deficiency of

protein and energy. Marasmus is a semi-starvation, which includes the deficiency
of energy, protein and other nutrients. There are several theories for kwashiorkor: -
1. Low Protein Intake: -
Low protein intake, which leads to hypo-albuminemia, which in turn leads to

edema. However, different studies have shown that children can have low
albumin without edema, it was found difficult to produce edema in animals
on protein deficient diet, and edema may go and come unpredictability
regardless of their protein intake.
2. Dys-adaptation
Edema is determined not only by diet but also by intrinsic differences

among children with regard to their protein requirement or hormonal
response. Hence, kwashiorkor develops in children that poorly adapted and
Marasmus develops in children that are well adapted to the states of lower
nutrient intake.
3. Free Radical Damage
The outcome of malnutrition is determined by extrinsic factors (noxae)

leading to free radical formation and intrinsic factors (micronutrient
deficiencies) which may impair body's ability to scavenge free radical
species. This results in membrane damage and leakage of fluid from the
calls. This theory accommodates all other theories.
4. Aflatoxins : -
It was reported from a study in Sudan by Hendricks that children with
Aflatoxins developed edema compared to those with no aflatoxin intake.
31
2.7.3 Pathogenesis
Marasmus and Kwashiorkor in their extreme forms have basically different
pathogenesis.
The initiation of the pathogenesis of both problems can be traced back to the time
of weaning. Kwashiorkor develops following the additional demand levied on the
body’s already marginalized nitrogen balance due to infection of a child that is on
monotonous starchy family diet. As a result of fragile nitrogen balance that the child
has, negative nitrogen balance sets in when the available nitrogen is used to
produce antibodies or other acute phase reactants in the face of infection, this will
lead to kwashiorkor. On the other hand Marasmus develops due to negative
energy balance as a result of “starvation therapy” that follows the bouts of
diarrhea. The following diagram depicts the scenario.
32
Breast-
Urban Rural
feeding
Early abrupt weaning around 5 Late gradual weaning around

months one year
Dilute Dirty
formula feed Monotonous starchy family
diet
Repeated gastro
intestinal infections Acute infections
(Gastroenteritis) like Tuberculosis,
pneumonia, etc.
Diarrhea
Negative nitrogen
Balance
Decreased feeding of the child both in

frequency and quantity (“Starvation therapy”)
leading to Negative energy Balance
Nutritional Marasmus Marasmic -Kwashiorkor Kwashiorkor
Adapted From Maclarane
33
2.8 Clinical Features
The severest clinical forms of PEM are Marasmus, kwashiorkor and features of
both called Marasmic- kwashiorkor. The following symptoms and signs clinically
characterize them: -
Marasmus
Marasmic children have retarded growth with specific clinical manifestations

including:-Wasting of subcutaneous fat and muscles (flabby muscles), Wizened
monkey (old man face), Increased appetite, sunken eye balls, mood change
(always irritable) and mild skin and hair changes.
Figure 2. A child with marasmus manifesting with old man’s face and bone and skin appearance
Kwashiorkor
Children with the kwashiorkor syndrome may have the following clinical
manifestations; -
Growth failure, wasting of muscles and preservation of subcutaneous fat, edema
(pitting type), fatty liver (hepatomegaly), psychomotor retardation (difficulty of
walking), moon face due to hanging cheeks as a result of edema and preserved
34
subcutaneous fat, loss of appetite, lack of interest in the surrounding (apathy) and
miserable, skins changes (ulceration and depigmentation or hyper pigmentation),
and hair changes (de-pigmentation, straightening of hair and presence of different
color bands of the hair indicating periods of malnourishment and well nourishment
(flag sign) Straightening of hair at the bottom and curling on the top giving an
impression of a forest (Forest sign) and easily pluckable hair. Marasmic
kwashiorkor can have the clinical features of both Marasmus and kwashiorkor.
In children with PEM, there are usually deficiencies of micronutrients like: -

riboflavin, vitamin A, Iron and Vitamin D. Therefore, it is advisable to have high
index of suspicion and look for the signs and symptoms of deficiencies of these
nutrients.
Figure 3: Child with kwashiorkor manifesting with edematous swollen legs and apathy
35
2.9 Diagnosis
The diagnosis of PEM rests mainly on meticulous clinical examination for the
symptoms and signs of the syndrome plus anthropometric assessments using
different methods. Additionally one may need laboratory investigation for the
assessment of complications and other health problems associated with
malnutrition. Epidemiological considerations also contribute to the diagnosis of
malnutrition.
The clinical symptoms and signs are presented in section 2.8. The anthropometric
assessments can be done using the following methods.
1. Gomez classification (weight-for-age)
Percentage (%) Level of malnutrition
Of NCHS Reference
90-109 Normal
75-89 Mild (Grade I)
60-74 Moderate (Grade II)
< 60 Severe (Grade III)
The disadvantages of this classification are: - The cut off point 90% may be too
high as many well-nourished children are below this value, edema is ignored and
yet it contributes to weight and age is difficult to know in developing countries
(agrarian society).
36
2. Well-come classification (weight-for-age)
Percentage (%) Level of malnutrition

NCHS Reference
Edema No edema
60-79% Kwashiorkor Under-weight
< 60% Marasmic- kwashiorkor Marasmus
Shortcoming of this method is that it does not differentiate acute from
chronic malnutrition.
3. Waterlow-classification (Height-for age and weight-for height)
Index % of NCHS reference Level of Malnutrition

90-94% Mild
Stunting
Height 85-89% Moderate
(Chronic
For Severe malnutrition)
< 85%
Age
Mild
80-89%
Moderate Wasting
Weight 70-79% (Acute
for
<70% Severe Malnutrition)
Height
Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory investigation for protein energy malnutrition is to determine the level of
serum protein, hemoglobin and co-infections due to pathologic organisms that can
be viral, bacterial or parasitic origin. Besides determination of micronutrient
deficiencies can also be done.
2.10 Case Management

Management of a case of PEM focuses on the correction of specific nutrient
deficiencies (dietary management), treatment of complications and supper imposed
37
infections. The treatment approach is classified into two phases—The acute
stabilization phase in which the main focus is treatment of infection and other
complications like dehydration, hypoglycemia, hypothermia and other electrolyte
imbalances. The rehabilitation phase focuses on the restoration of the lost tissue
and promotion of catch up growth.
Dietary Management
1. Acute Phase
Children are most at risk of dyeing during the acute phase. Dehydration, infection
and severe anemia are the main dangers. In PEM, cardiac and renal functions are
impaired and in particular malnourished children have a reduced capacity to
excrete excess water and a marked inability to excrete Sodium. The amount of
fluid given and the Sodium load must be carefully controlled to avoid cardiac
failure. A cautious approach is required; aiming at administration of about
100kcal/kg/day and 1-1.15g of protein/kg/day. Small frequent feeds (as much as 12
times in 24 hours for the first two days and gradually tapering the number of feeds
to be 6 in 24 hours after a week) are ideal as they reduce the risks of diarrhea,
vomiting, hypoglycemia and hypothermia. The maintenance formula can be made
as follows:
25 g ram of
Dried skimmed 75 Kcal and 0.9
milk (DSM) gram of protein
100 gram of Gives per each 100 ml
Sugar
30 gram of Oil
per 1000ml
38
It is important to give additional Potassium 4mmol/kg/d, Magnesium 2mmol/kg/d,
Zinc 2mg/kg/d), Copper 0.2mg/kg/d and a multivitamin preparation and folic acid.
Do NOT give iron early before infection is controlled. High dose vitamin A should
be given even if there are no eye signs of deficiency.
On this regimen, edema will disappear and the general condition will improve. High
energy or high protein diets should not be introduced too early or too rapidly. Such
action may precipitate the recovery syndrome' which can prove fatal. Return of a
good appetite is a sign that a child is ready to progress to the next phase
(rehabilitation phase).
2. Rehabilitation Phase
The aim of this phase is to restore wasted tissues and promote a rapid rate of
catch-up growth through administration of high energy and protein. A vigorous
approach is required. In this phase there is no danger of recovery syndrome.
The synthesis of new tissue requires protein and other nutrients. Synthesis also
requires a considerable amount of energy. The aim is to provide all necessary
nutrients so that none limits the rate of recovery. Normal rate of growth of children
is such that they gain a weight of 1gram/kg/day by taking 105 kcal/kg/d and
0.78gram of protein /kg/d. To increase this rate of growth by 20 times the normal,
the energy and protein intakes need to be increased to 200kcal/kg/day and
5kcal/kg/day, respectively.
What to give: The choice of ingredients will very with local circumstances. There
are many advantages in using milk as the basic ingredient, since milk can be
modified very effectively and easily, by adding sugar and vegetable oil, to produce
a high-energy formula.
39
Modification of different milks to provide 1 liter of high-energy formula
Milk (g) Sugar (g) Vegetable oil (g)
Dried skimmed milk 80 50 60
Whole dried milk 110 50 30
Liquid cow's milk 900 50 30
Considerable flexibility exists in the ingredients that can be used, provided the
target requirements are met. Where milk is a not available, high-fat legume, nuts
and oilseeds (such as groundnuts, Soya, sesame seeds) provide both energy and
protein in a relatively compact form. The formulas above provide ~ 100kcal and
3g protein/100ml.
How much to give:
The greater the intake of energy and protein intakes the faster the growth. Hence
one should give the high-energy and protein formula of at least 180 ml/kg/day (6
feeds at 30 ml/kg/feed). This amount will provide 180 kcal/kg/day and 5-gram
protein/kg/day.
Assessing Progress:
Patients should be weighed at least weekly, preferably daily, and the weights
plotted. Failure to maintain rapid catch-up may signal an undiagnosed infection
and/or inadequate intake. Keeping a record of the child's food intake helps to
elucidate the cause of poor weight gain.
Almost all malnourished children have diarrhea, but it is rarely due to lactose
intolerance. Chronic diarrhea may result from gut parasites (e.g. Giardia) or
bacterial overgrowth of the small bowel. The introduction of the high-energy
formula may cause mild diarrhea initially, but this is not a cause for concern unless
stool frequency exceeds 8 per 24 hours.
40
Role of the Family Diet:
Transfer to a family-type of diet is important in rehabilitation. Introducing a family-

type diet at an early stage of treatment is unlikely to permit catch-up growth
because the traditional diet usually does not provide enough energy and protein.
There are two options:
1. Feed a high-energy formula until the child reaches his normal weight-for-
height and then transfer to a family-type diet as experienced in Jamaica.
2. Make an early transition to a modified family diet having a high energy and
protein concentration to support catch-up growth as evidenced in
Bangladesh.
Local circumstances will influence which option is chosen. In the first option
weight deficits should be corrected in 4-6 weeks even in the most severe
cases. The second option provides an opportunity for catch-up growth and
for demonstrating improved feeding practices. This has been successful in
India and Bangladesh for the home management of PEM.
Where to Rehabilitate
1. In Hospital: -
In many hospitals, treatment of PEM is unsatisfactory due to cross infection and

frequent relapses. Moreover, it is expensive and does not give a chance for
parental education:
Therefore, not all children with protein energy malnutrition be admitted to hospitals
merely for the purpose of feeding. Admission of children to a hospital be targeted to
those children with severe protein energy malnutrition plus other admission criteria
(see Satellite module for health officers section 2.10).
41
2. At Home: -
As experienced in Bangladesh, even severe cases have been successfully

rehabilitated at home. But, this was successful only after one week of medical
care to treat infections and other complications. This method was also proved to
be the most cost-effective, and parents prefer the method, even though no food
supplements were provided.
3. Day-care Nutrition Rehabilitation Centers (DCNRCs):-
Typically, these centers provide treatment for uncomplicated cases of PEM.

According to Bengoa's original concept, children receive 3 meals for 6 days of each
week, for 3-5 months, i.e. a period sufficiently long to enable parents to understand
'why' and 'how' to improve infants' feeding practices. The primary long-term
objective of DCNRCs is to prevent PEM. In practice, this is often unpopular
because of the time required by the mothers/ caregivers to take the child to the
center. In the Ethiopian context, day-care nutritional rehabilitation centers that are
attached to the health centers are organized in such a way that children with
severe PEM are brought to the center every 1-2 weeks where the mothers/ care
givers are provided nutrition education regarding how to prepare nutritious food
from locally available food stuffs and children are given supplementary feedings.
4. Residential Nutrition Rehabilitation centers (RNRCs): -
These are usually convalescent centers for children treated initially in hospitals.
Mothers may accompany their children, e.g., in Kampala, where an intensive
education programme was provided. In Ethiopia, this approach is used in some
areas under the NGOs. The primary objective of this approach is preventative
rather than curative, but again they may be incompatible with the mother's other
responsibilities.
42
2.11 Prevention of Protein Energy Malnutrition
(Options for Intervention)
Many children attending outpatient clinics are malnourished. Prevalence of mild

forms of malnutrition like stunting and wasting is 40-50% while those severe cases
is 5-10% in most of the developing countries. If these cases of PEM can be
recognized early enough by routine weight and height measurements (growth
monitoring in under five clinics) and relevant action taken, then severe malnutrition
can often be prevented easily.
It is not sufficient to treat only severe cases of malnutrition coming to the health
institution, as those coming to the health institution are the tips of an iceberg.
Therefore, further approaches at the grass root community level are required. The
following are some of the nutritional intervention approaches to be considered in
the community.
2.11.1 Dietary Diversification and Nutrition Education
This approach focuses on educating mothers/care givers on the importance of

having a balanced diet through diversification of food. It also aims at the production
foodstuffs at the backyard garden and intensification of horticultural activities. The
nutrition education should focus on:
Cultural malpractice and beliefs in child feeding and weaning process,
weaning foods, exposure of children to sun light, time of weaning and food
prejudices
Intra household mal-distribution of food (age and sex bias)
43
Fig.4: Mother breast feeding her child
Effects of emotional deprivation and neglect on nutritional status of children

and proper child treatment practices
Importance of breast feeding
Hygiene (personal hygiene, food hygiene, environmental hygiene)
Importance of immunization
Importance of growing fruits and vegetables in the backyard garden and
consumption by the household members regardless of their age and sex.
Importance taking their children to health institutions for growth monitoring
¾ Monitoring of the growth of children is very important for the following
reasons:
¾ Steady growth is the best indicator of child’s health.
¾ Weight gain is the most sensitive measure of growth.
¾ Serial measurement of weight is simple, universally applicable tool for
assessing growth.
¾ Weight gain monitoring is the best method for early detection of health
problems whether from malnutrition or infection.
44
2.11.2 Dietary Modification:-
This approach focuses on modifying the energy, protein and micronutrient content
of the weaning foods. In order to reduce dilution of the energy and protein contents
of the weaning foods and their level of contamination, we need to educate mothers
and demonstrate to them the benefits of sprouting (germination) and fermentation.
Fermentation renders the food less contaminated probably because of acid
formation as result. Using sprouted (germinated) flour otherwise known as “power
flour” or amylase rich flour (ARF) makes the weaning food more liquid but less
dilute. This is an attempt to reduce the problem of bulky low -energy density
weaning foods, which arise from the water holding capacity of cereals, which
makes them swell and become viscous upon cooking. This means that large
volume is required to satisfy their energy needs.
The upper limit of dry matter in a gruel made up of ordinary flour is 20 % (0.7-0.8
kcal/gram), because beyond this level, the gruel would be too thick to stir. When
germinated flour is used or added to an already made thick gruel (up to even 30%
solid concentration), the meal becomes liquefied almost instantly. A meal prepared
in this way with 25 to 30% dry matter would have an energy density above 1
kcal/gram. This is an energy density recommended for the weaning food on the
basis that breast milk has an energy density of 0.7 Kcal/gram.
On top of this, supplementation of micronutrient like vitamin A and iron to children

below five years of age and fortification of salt with iodine could also be considered
based on the local needs.
2.11.3. Economic Approach:
This approach aims at improving the incomes of the target community as a solution
to their nutritional problems. It is considered usually in areas where there are many
poor people and if their purchasing power is low as in the case of urban slums and
45
people displaced because of war and other natural calamities. There are different
methods in this approach: -
Food for work—This involves offering of some work for the poor people and
paying them off in terms of food. It is good in that it offsets seasonality in the
dietary intake, but it is donor dependent
Food subsidy --- This involves subsidizing of either producers or consumers of

food by the government. Structural adjustment policies interfere with the
materialization of this approach
Income generating projects---This method operates in some regions of

Ethiopia and involves development of income generating projects in the
community to make them generate fund for buying food. It includes organizing
the community and using their potentials in the running of the project. The
projects could be weaving, pottery, Bee keeping, etc. This approach needs a
good feasibility study on how the income generated is used, the sustainability of
the programme, etc.
The above approaches could be used either simultaneously where it applies or
independently. This should be determined by doing a thorough Strength,
weakness, opportunities and constraints (SWOC) analysis.
Surveillance
Targets for surveillance:- Infants & child growth monitoring(GM) activities need to
carried out in an integrated manner with other PHC services. Missed opportunities
for GM should be fully utilized in such a way that children coming to the health
institutions for other purposes are covered in the growth monitoring (GM) activities.
Besides, every child should be regularly monitored for growth performance (growth
take up) every month. Triple A cycle (assessment, analysis and action) be
employed in effecting GM activities.
Assessment includes regular measurement of weight &heights of < 5 children
46
Analysis includes comparison of the growth performances of children with
nutritional Status.
Action involves nutritional intervention to curb the problems.
The action may include rehabilitation of severely malnourished children and

following them up and micronutrient supplementation, Nutrition education on
importance of backyard gardening & horticultural activity, dietary diversification,
breast feeding and proper child feeding practices.
Preparation Nutritious Food from Locally Available Food Staffs
Balanced diet can be prepared by mixing different locally available foodstuffs. For
Example the protein and energy requirements of children can be met by preparing
the following diets: -
1. Quadri mix---staple+ animal protein + plant protein + leafy vegetable
2. Triple Mix---Staple +animal protein + plant protein or leafy vegetables
3. Double mix--- staple + animal protein or plant protein or leafy vegetable
Parents / car givers need to be instructed how to modify the protein, energy and
other nutrient contents of the locally available foodstuffs used in weaning and child
feeding (See Dietary modifications, in part 2.11.2).
Nutritional Surveys
Community based nutritional surveys including anthropocentric measurements and

dietary consumption surveys need to be carried out among under five children in
order to early detect the occurrence of nutritional problems in the community.
2.12 Learning Activities (Case Study) Continued
Base on the story of health workers in Jiren community, different points of

discussion have been incorporated in the respective satellite modules. Therefore,
47
the students are advised to refer to the questions in satellite modules for each
professional category and discuss them in the class under the coordination of their
facilitator.
48
UNIT THREE
SATELLITE MODULES
49
UNIT 3.1
SATELLITE MODULE FOR
HEALTH OFFICERS
50
UNIT:1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose and Use of the Module

The ultimate purpose of this training module is to produce Competent Health
Officers who can effectively manage and provide care for cases of PEM both in
clinical and community settings.
1.2 Direction for Using the Satellite Module

This satellite module can be used in the basic training of Health Center team
particularly health officers who are either already in the service or in the training
programs. In order to make maximum use of the satellite module, the health officer
should follow the following directions
Evaluate your self by doing the pre-test pertinent to your category under
section 2.1.2.1 before going through the satellite module and evaluate your
self by referring to the answer keys given in the unit 7 section 7.1.1
Check or read the core module very thoroughly
Read the case study and try to answer questions pertinent to it
Use listed references and suggested reading materials to supplement your
understanding of the problem.
For total and comprehensive understanding of the causes, etiology,
pathogenesis, Epidemiology and prevention of PEM, the health officer
students are advised to refer to the core module.
After going through this module evaluate yourself by doing post-test and
comparing your score with the key given in unit 7 section 7.2.1
51
UNIT:2 SATELLITE MODULE FOR HEALTH
OFFICER
2.1 Pre and Post Test for the Satellite Module Of

Health Officers
See the pre and posttests for the health officers in the core module under unit 2,
section 2.1.2.1

Problem
See the part under unit 2 section 2.2 in the core module
2.3 Learning Objectives

For effective case management of PEM, the health officer student
will be able to do the following at the end of the training
1. Demonstrate the process of assessing a child with PEM
2. Identify and describe the clinical manifestations/complications
in a child with PEM
3. List the diagnostic methods and procedures for a case with
PEM
4. Describe the principles and methods of treatment of PEM
5. List the indications for admission of a case of PEM for
inpatient
management
6. Identify and manage or refer timely when needed, a case of
PEM
7. Demonstrate the appropriate management of case of PEM
8. Describe proper follow up of a case of PEM
52
Case Study: Learning Activity
Read the story of health professionals in Jiren again in the core module very
thoroughly so that you will be able to answer questions pertaining to it in
section 2.12 of this module.
2.5 Definition
Refer to the core module unit 2 sections 2.5
2.6 Epidemiology
Refer to the core module unit 2 sections 2.6
2.7 Cause, Etiology and Pathogenesis
Refer to unit 2 section 2.7 of the core module
2.8 Clinical features (Symptoms and Signs)
The clinical features of protein-energy malnutrition vary depending on its severity.

The severest clinical forms are Marasmus, kwashiorkor and features of both called
marasmic- kwashiorkor. The following clinical symptoms and signs characterize
them:
53
Marasmus
Kwashiorkor
• Growth retardation
Growth failure
• Wasting of subcutaneous fat and
Wasting of muscles and preservation of
muscles (flabby muscles)
subcutaneous fat
Edema (pitting type) • Weight is more effected than Height
Fatty liver (hepatomegaly) • Wizened monkey (old man face)

Psychomotor retardation (difficulty of walking) • Sunken eye balls
Moon face due to hanging cheeks as a result of • Increased appetite
edema and preserved subcutaneous fat. • Mood change (always irritable)
• Mild skin and hair changes
Anorexia
Apathetic, miserable and have poor interest
in the surrounding
Skin changes
• Desquamation, De-pigmentation, Hypo-pigmentation
Flaky paint dermatosis especially on pressure areas,
Hyper pigmentation (mosaic or cracked skin)
especially on the head
Hair changes
• De-pigmentation, straightening of hair and presence
of different color bands of the hair indicating periods
of malnourishment and well nourishment (flag sign)
• Persistent lanugo hair, Long eye lashes,
Gray and easily pluckable hair
• Straightening of hair at the bottom and curling on the
giving an impression of a forest (Forest sign)
In children with PEM there are usually deficiencies of: - Riboflavin, vitamin A, Iron
and Vitamin D. Therefore, it is advisable to have high index of suspicion and look
for the signs and symptoms of deficiencies of these nutrients.
54
Complications of Protein-Energy Malnutrition
Acute Chronic
• Electrolyte imbalance • Insult to the brain development leading to

low school performance
• Diarrhea, dehydration and shock
• Stunting and ending up in short adult
• Hypoglycemia
with low fitness for physical activity
• Hypothermia
• Sepsis
2.9 Diagnosis of Protein-Energy Malnutrition
The clinical work up of cases of PEM mainly focuses on four factors, which do
contribute to accurate diagnosis and management. These are:-
1. Detailed history--pertinent to child feeding practices, weaning conditions,
staple diet and other relevant history on the socio-cultural, environmental
and other predisposing factors
2. Meticulous physical examination--of all systems of the body
3. Anthropometric assessment--Measurement of weight and height of
children and comparing it with the standard according to Gomez and
Welcome classifications)
4. Epidemiological considerations--information regarding the age, sex, birth
weight, height, season, existence of epidemics, drought and other natural
and man made calamities will have to be assessed critically.
5. Laboratory findings--determination of albumin level or pre-albumins like
retinal binding proteins, etc. in the plasma may give some clues, but the
diagnosis can be done without laboratory investigations. Laboratory
investigations for the diagnosis of concurrent infections, micronutrient
deficiencies like anemia are important to consider.
55
Management of a case of PEM focuses on the correction of specific nutrient
deficiencies (dietary management), treatment of complications and superimposed
infections. The treatment approach is classified into two phases—The acute
stabilization phase in which the main focus is treatment of infection and other
complications like dehydration, hypoglycemia, hypothermia and other electrolyte
imbalances. The stabilization phase focuses on the restoration of the lost tissue
and promotion of catch up growth.
The ten steps in the treatment of a child with PEM developed by Ashworth and
Feachem are depicted in the following table.
PHASE REHABILITATION
NITIAL (Stabilization)
Duration over which the interventions be started and continued
Complications to
be treated Day 1-2 Day 2-7+ Week 2-6
1. Hypoglycemia ----------->
2. Hypothermia ----------->
3. Dehydration ----------->
4. Electrolytes -------------------------------------->
5. Infection -------------------------------------->
6. Micronutrients ------ no iron-----with iron----->
7. Initiate feeding -------------------------------------->
8. Catch-up growth -------------------------------------->
9. Sensory stimulation -------------------------------------->
10. Prepare for follow-up --------------------->
The treatment procedures are the same for Marasmus and kwashiorkor.
56
Dietary Management
1. Acute Phase
Children are most at risk of dying during the acute phase. Dehydration, infection
and severe anemia are the main dangers. In PEM, cardiac and renal functions are
impaired and in particular malnourished children have a reduced capacity to
excrete excess water and a marked inability to excrete Sodium. The amount of
fluid given and the Sodium load must be, carefully controlled to avoid cardiac
failure. A cautious approach is required, aiming at about 100kcal/kg/d and 1.15g of
protein/kg/d.
Schedule for Oral Feeding in the First Week
Day Number of Volume Energy Protein

Feeds/per day per feed Kcal/kg/day Gram/kg/Day
(Ml/Kg)
1-2 12 11
3-5 8 16 100 1.0
6-7 6 22
Small frequent feeds are ideal as they reduce the risks of diarrhea, vomiting,
hypoglycemia and hypothermia. Refer to the core module section 2.10 for the
preparation of the maintenance formula.
It is important to give additional Potassium 4mmol/kg/d, Magnesium 2mmol/kg/d,

and Zinc 2mg/kg/d), Copper 0.2mg/kg/d and a multivitamin preparation and folic
acid.
2. Rehabilitation Phase
Refer to the core module section 2.10
57
Inpatient Management of PEM: -
In many hospitals and health centers, treatment of PEM as inpatient is

unsatisfactory and relapses are frequent. Attention needs to be given to: -
a) Reducing mortality through: rehydration, treatment of infection, and small
frequent feeds.
b) Reducing length of stay: through administration of high-energy feeds in the
rehabilitation phase.
c) Reducing relapses through: parental education, follow up, improvement of
family resources.
• Not all children with protein energy malnutrition be admitted to hospitals
merely for the purpose of feeding. Admission of children to a hospital be
targeted to those children with sever protein energy malnutrition plus other
conditions stipulated below. A child with severe protein energy malnutrition
(weight for height < 60%) and the following conditions should be admitted to
a hospital or health center for inpatient management:
Infection
Age < 1 year
Sever dehydration
Intractable vomiting
Sever diarrhea
Sever loss of appetite
Hypoglycemia
2.11 Prevention of Protein Energy Malnutrition

(Options for Intervention)
Parental education on child feeding practice, importance of bringing their under five
children to the nearby health institutions every month in the first 1 year, every 2
58
months in the second year 3 month then after for growth monitoring and follow
up, the importance of immunization and personal, food and environmental hygiene
are critically important in averting the occurrence and recurrence of protein energy
mal nutrition. For further details refer to the core module unit 2, section 2.11.
Refer to story of health professionals in the core module and discuss on the
following questions in the class. The instructor can assist you.
1. What pertinent history do you ask parents of children in the Jiren
community?
2. What pertinent physical signs would you look for?
3. What laboratory investigations would you order in order?
4. What other assessments do you carry out in order to determine the type of
malnutrition? What is your diagnosis from the story?
5. What other causes do you consider for the differential diagnosis?
6. What complications do you expect from malnutrition of such kind?
7. What are the risk factors for the development of PEM?
8. How would you manage the problem of Almaz?
9. What are the preventive measures for PEM?
2.13 Post Test

See the pre and posttest in the core module pertaining to health officers unit 2
section 2.1.2.1
2.14 Role and Task Analysis

Refer to unit 4 of the core module for the tasks expected of you.
59
2.15 Glossary and Abbreviations
Refer to unit 5 of the core module
2.16 References
Refer to unit 6 of the core module
2.17 Annexes
Refer to unit 7 of the core module for answer keys and other materials
60
UNIT 3.2
PUBLIC HEALTH NURSES
61
UNIT: 1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this satellite module is to equip students (trainees) with

knowledge and skills required to identify and manage effectively cases of
protein and energy malnutrition. The public health nurses can use this
satellite module in their pre-service or in-service training programs.
For a better understanding of this module, the public health nurses are
advised to follow the following directions.
• Do the pretest pertinent to your field in unit 2 section 2.1.2.2 of the
core module
• Read or refer the core module thoroughly
• Read the story of health workers in Jiren community and try to address
the question relevant to you.
• Evaluate yourself by doing posttests and comparing your score by
referring to the key given unit 7 section 7.2.2.
62
UNIT: 2 SATALLITE MODULE FOR PUBLIC
HEALTH NURSES
2.1 Pre and Posttest
See the core module unit 2, section 2.1.
2.2 Significance and Brief Description of the Problem
See the core module unit 2, section 2.2
The main objectives of this satellite module is to equip the

students or trainees with the appropriate knowledge, and skills
required to effectively identify and manage cases as well as
prevent and control protein energy malnutrition.
2.4 Case Study: Learning Activities
Read the story of health workers in Jiren community so that you will be able
discusses questions in section 2.12 of this module.
2.5 Definition
Refer to the core module unit 2, section 2.5
63
2.6 Epidemiology
2.7 Etiology and Pathogenesis
2.8 Clinical Features (Symptoms and Signs)
2.9 Diagnosis
The nurse in the nutrition support team plays a central role in client care,
management and client relationship. As a team member, the public health
nurse also coordinates client care when discharged home on special support,
teaches them how to follow their feeding programs and provide them all the
supplies and equipment needed. The nurse makes arrangements for follow
up care if necessary and is usually available to answer questions of clients
receiving home nutrition support.
2.10.1 Role of a Nurse in Helping the Sick Child to Eat
Sick children often require special care. Therefore, those who care for
children must be sensitive to their needs and feelings.
64
1) Notice the child’s body posture. The body language will tell a child’s
feeling of pain or discomfort.
2) Touch the child often and lovingly. Your touch communicates more
than your words.
3) As adults, let the child choose what to eats as much as possible
4) Notice whether the child eats the food. Putting a tray of food in front of
a child is not enough.
5) Stay with the child during the meal or make sure a loved person is
there. The child will eat and assimilate food better if a caring person
soothes anxiety and loneliness away.
6) Encourage the child to eat the most nutritious foods first before they
become too full to complete the meal.
7) Let the child eat with other children if possible. They will enjoy meal
times more, accept more food and eat for longer periods.
2.10.2 Responsibilities of Public Health Nurse in

Managing PEM
The nursing management of PEM consists of providing nutrition rich in the

essential nutrients to correct the dietary insufficiency and to promote normal
growth and development. The digestive capacity of malnourished child is
nitially poor. As a result oral feedings are given in small frequent amounts,
limited in proteins and carbohydrates especially fats that are hard to digest.
In addition, the nurse is responsible for:
1. Maintaining the child’s body temperature within a normal range.
2. Providing periods of rest and appropriate activity.
3. Providing stimulation
4. Recording intake, out put and daily weight
5. Turning position in bed frequently.
6. Preventing bedsore and infection by keeping the skin clean and dry.
65
7. Providing appropriate treatment of bedsore and oral trash if any.
8. Administering iron and folic acid to correct the accompanying anemia.
9. Diluting liquid iron preparations and giving through a straw to prevent
staining of tooth enamel
2.10.3 The PHN is Responsible for Advising the Mother to:
• Provide sufficient iron containing foods such as liver, read meat, fish
and legumes.
• Prevent non-compliance with iron therapy by reminding that stools will
change in color when taking iron preparations.
• Provide the child the type and amount of food recommended for his
age as often as recommended even if the child does not eat much.
• Offer the child’s favorite foods, if possible to encourage eating.
• Avoid bottle-feeding if used and replace by cup and spoon-feeding.
• Return for follow up visit after 30 days or earlier if there is feeding
problem.
2.11 Prevention and Interventions
The public health nurses should advise the mothers/care givers of

malnourished children to come for regular check up (growth monitoring) and
vaccination to prevent the occurrence and recurrence of mal nutrition. They
should be advised about proper child feeding practices. During the follow up
visit, if the recommended changes in child’s feeding are helping, encourage
the mother to continue accordingly, but if the child is continuing to loss weight
and no change in feeding seems likely, discuss with the other team members
mainly the health officers for further management.
66
2.11.1 Education to Improve Nutrition
This involves teaching all sections of the community, especially fathers and
mothers, to make the best use of the foods available (including breast-
feeding), to make use of available primary health care services, and to grow
local foods in their own gardens.
2.11.2 Practical Nursing for Improving Nutrition
There are seven rules, which, if kept, can largely improve nutritional status in
the community.
1) Identify the local sources of foodstuffs
2) Recognize the causes of improper feeding in the community
3) Explain the effects of improper feeding on different age groups.
4) Teach nutritional values of local foodstuffs.
5) Demonstrate how to cook balanced meals using locally available
foodstuffs
6) Teach food hygiene in the home
7) Evaluate what the community members have learnt about improved
nutrition
2.11.3 Practical Nursing for Infant Feeding
There are five rules that can largely prevent protein-energy malnutrition in
educating mothers or other caregivers in-group or individually
1. Breast-feed at least until 1-2 years
2. Start thick porridge, paste or gruel at 4 months and continued breast-
feeding
3. Use all available animal food sources
4. Use vegetable (cereals & legumes) mixture.
5. Give children four good meals a day
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2.12 Learning Activities (Case Study)
Continued
Refer to the story of health workers in Jiren community in the core module
and discuss on the following questions in the classroom. The instructor will
help you.
1) What types of major health problems did the health center team
identify in that particular community?
2) What fundamental intervention programmes need to be planned by
the health workers in general?
3) Who should be involved in identifying and prioritizing the health
problems for better intervention and good outcome?
4) What is expected from the health workers to do in similar
circumstances?
5) What hygienic behaviors and practices would bring changes and
improve the health of the community?
6) What type of worm is common to all children in the community?
7) What basic things were thought by the nurse in-order to help children
to grow healthier and to prevent parasitic diseases as much as
possible?
8) What will happen to children if they do not get the necessary nutrients?
9) What could be the role of public health nurse in promotion of health
and prevention of diseases in the community?
68
UNIT 3.3

MEDICAL LABORATORY TECHNICIANS
69
UNIT: 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose of the Module

This module helps laboratory technicians to participate in the team
management of protein energy malnutrition, with a particular emphasis on
the laboratory investigations of protein energy malnutrition, associated
infections and other complications.

Therefore, for a better understanding of this module the laboratory
technicians are advised to follow the following directions.
• Do the pretest in your profession in unit 2, section 2.1.2.3 of the core
module
• Read the core module thoroughly
• Use listed references and suggested reading materials to substantiate
your understanding of the problem
• Evaluate yourself by doing the post test and referring to the keys given
in unit 7 section 7.1.2.3
2.1 Pretest
Refer to the pre and post test in the core module unit 2 section 2.1.2.3

Problem
See the core module unit 2 section 2.2.
70
After completion of this module students will able to:
Describe how to collect, handle and label blood specimens
Describe routine concept of laboratory diagnosis of protein
energy malnutrition
Describe and demonstrate the laboratory procedures for
hemoglobin determination using Sahli-Hellige method
Describe and demonstrate how to prepare and stain thin blood
film for red blood cell morphology
Demonstrate how to assess stained thin blood films including
elements of the blood films other than red cell morphology (e.g.
haemoparasites)
Classify anemia based on red blood cell morphology and
measured hemoglobin
2.4 Learning Activities: Case Study

Read the story of health professionals in Jiren the core module very
thoroughly so that you will be able to answer questions pertaining to it in
section 2.12 of this module.
71
2.5 Definition
Refer to the core module unit 2 sections 2.5.
2.6 Epidemiology
2.7 Cause, Etiology and Pathogenesis


2.9 Diagnosis
2.9.1 Blood Collection
The proper collection and reliable processing of blood specimens is a vital

part of the laboratory diagnostic process in hemoglobin determination. This
helps to assess the morphology of red blood cells in thin blood film and to
know the level and type of anemia in relation to protein energy malnutrition.
Unless an appropriately designed procedure is observed and strictly followed,
reliability cannot be ensured on subsequent laboratory results even if the test
itself is performed carefully.
72
2.9.2 Biohazard Safety
All material of human origin should be regarded as capable of transmitting

infection. Specimens from patients suffering from, or at risk of, hepatitis or
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection require particular care. When
collecting blood sample, the operator should wear disposable rubber gloves.
The operator is also strongly advised to cover any cuts, abrasions or skin
breaks on the hand with adhesive tape and wear gloves. Care must be taken
when handling especially, syringes and needles as needle-stick injuries are
the most commonly encountered accidents. Do not recap used needles by
hand. Should a needle-stick injury occur, immediately remove gloves and
vigorously squeeze the wound while flushing the bleeding with running tap
water and then thoroughly scrub the wound with cotton balls soaked in 0.1%
hypochlorite solution.
Used disposable syringes and needles and other sharp items such as lancets
must be placed in puncture-resistant container for subsequent
decontamination or disposal.
Blood sources for hematological tests are:

• Capillary/peripheral blood
• Venous blood
2.9.3 Blood Collection
2.9.3.1 Capillary/Peripheral Blood or Micro Blood Samples
This is frequently used when only small quantities of blood are inquired, e.g.,
for Hemoglobin quantitation, and for blood smear preparation. It can be
collected from palmar surface of the tip of the ring or middle finger or free
margin of the ear lobe in adults and plantar surface of the big toe or the heel
in infants and small children.
73
Notes: -
• Edematous, congested and cyanotic sites should not be punctured.
• Cold sites should not be punctured as samples collected from cold
sites give falsely high results of hemoglobin and cell counts. Site
should be massaged until it is warm and pink.
Materials:
- Gauze pads or cotton,

- 70% alcohol,
- Sterile disposable lancet
Technique:
Rub the site vigorously with a gauze pad or cotton moistened with 70%
alcohol to remove dirt and epithelial debris and to increase blood circulation in
the area. If the heel is to be punctured, it should first be warmed by
immersion in warm water or applying a hot towel compress. Otherwise values
significantly higher than those in venous blood may be obtained.
After the skin has dried, make a puncture 2-3mm deep with a sterile lancet. A
rapid and firm puncture should be made with control of the depth. A deep
puncture is no more painful than a superficial one and makes repeated
punctures unnecessary. The first drop of blood, which contains tissue juices,
should be wiped away. The site should not be squeeze or pressed to get
blood since this dilutes it with fluid from the tissues. Rather, a freely flowing
blood should be taken or a moderate pressure some distance above the
puncture site is allowable.
Stop the blood flow by applying slight pressure with a gauze pad or cotton at
the site.
74
2.9.3.2 Venous Blood Collection
It is used when larger quantity of blood is required. E.g. serum albumin. It can
be collected from forearm, wrist or ankle. In infants and children, venipuncture
presents special problems because of the small size of the veins and difficulty
controlling the patient. Puncture of the external jugular vein in the neck region
and the femoral vein in the inguinal area is the procedure of choice for
obtaining blood.
Materials:
- Sterile syringe and needle,

- Tourniquet,
- Gauze pads or cotton,
- 70% alcohol,
- Test tubes without anticoagulant.
Technique:
1. Assemble the necessary materials and equipment. Remove the

syringe from its protective wrapper and the needle from the cap and
assemble them allowing the cap to remain covering the needle until
use. Attach the needle so that the bevel faces in the direction as the
graduation mark on the syringe. Check to make sure the needle is
sharp, the syringe moves smoothly and there is no air left in the barrel.
The gauge and the length of the needle used depend on the size and
depth of the vein to be punctured. The gauge number varies inversely
with the diameter of the needle. A 20 or 21 gauge needle should be
used in children and infants whose veins are not well developed.
2. Identify the patient and allow him/her to sit comfortably preferably in an
armchair stretching his/her arm.
75
3. Prepare the arm by swabbing the antecubital fossa with a gauze pad
or cotton moistened with 70% alcohol. Allow it to dry in the air or use a
dry pad or cotton. The area should not be touched once cleaned.
4. Apply a tourniquet at a point about 6-8cm above the bend of the elbow
making a loop in such a way that a gentle tug on the protruding end
will release it. It should be just tight enough to reduce venous blood
flow in the area and enlarge the veins and make them prominent and
palpable. The patient should also be instructed to grasp and open
his/her fist to aid in the build up of pressure in the area of the puncture.
Alternatively, gently tapping the antecubital fossa or applying a warm
towel compress can visualize the veins.
5. Grasp the back of the patient’s arm at the elbow and anchor the
selected vein by drawing the skin slightly taut over the vein.
6. Using the assembled syringe and needle, enter the skin first and then
the vein. To insert the needle properly into the vein, the index finger is
placed along side the hub of the needle with the bevel facing up. The
needle should be pointing in the same direction as the vein. The point
of the needle is then advanced 0.5-1.0cm into the subcutaneous tissue
(at an angle of 450) and is pushed forward at a lesser angle to pierce
the vein wall. If the needle is properly in the vein, blood will begin to
enter the syringe spontaneously. If not, the piston is gently withdrawn
at a rate equal to the flow of blood. The tourniquet should be released
the moment blood starts entering the syringe/vacuum tube since some
hemoconcentration will develop after one minute of venous stasis.
7. Apply a ball of cotton to the puncture site and gently withdraw the
needle. Instruct the patient to press on the cotton.
8. With the syringe and needle system, first cover the needle with its cap,
remove it from the nozzle of the syringe and gently expel the blood into
a tube without anticoagulant and Stopper the tube. Label the tubes
76
with patient’s name, hospital number and other information required by
the hospital.
9. Reinspect the venipuncture site to ascertain that the bleeding has
stopped. Do not let the patient go until the bleeding stops
2.9.4 Estimation of hemoglobin by the Acid Hematin

Method of Sahli-Hellige
Principle: -
Hemoglobin in a sample of blood is converted to a brown colored acid

hematin by treatment with 0.1 N HCl and after allowing the diluted sample to
stand for 5 minute to ensure complete conversion to acid hematin it is diluted
with distilled water until its color match as with the color of an artificial
standard (tinted glass).
Materials:-
Sahli Hemoglobinometer
10. Sahli pipettes that measures 20μl (0.02ml)

11. Stirring glass rod
12. Absorbent cotton
13. 0.1N HCl
14. Dropping pipette
Technique:
Fill the graduated Sahli tube to the 20 mark of the red graduation/or 39% mark of
the yellow grad with 0.1 N HCl using the dropper provided. Take a well-mixed
venous blood or capillary blood from a freely flowing skin puncture to the “20”
mark of the Sahli pipette. Wipe the outside of the pipette with a piece of cotton.
77
Check that the blood is still on the mark. Blow the blood from the pipette into the
tube of acid sol. Rinse the pipette by drawing in and blowing out the acid sol. 3
times. Avoid the formation of bubbles. The mixture of blood and acid gives a
brownish, color. Allow standing for 5 minutes. Place the graduated tube in the
hemoglobinometer. Stand facing a window. Compare the color of the tube
containing diluted blood with the color of the standard glasses. If the color of the
sample is darker than that of the standard glasses, continue to dilute by adding
0.1NHCl or distilled water drop by drop. Stir with the glass rod with adding each
drop. Remove the rod and compare the colors of the sample and standard stop
when the colors match. Note the mark reached. Depending on the type of
hemoglobinometer, this gives the hemoglobin consternation either in g/dl or as a
percentage of normal. To convert the percentage to g/l, multiply by 1.46.
Normal Range of Hemoglobin at Different age Groups

Emoglobin in Mg/DL
Children at birth 13.6-19.6

Children at 1 year 11.3-13.0
Children, 10-12 years 11.5-14.8
Women 11.5-16.5
Men 13.0-18.0
2.9.5 Preparation, Staining and Examination of Peripheral

Blood Film
2.9.5.1 Preparation of Thin Blood Film
Examination of the blood film is an important part of the hematological

evaluation and the validity or reliability of the information obtained from blood
film evaluation, the differential leukocyte count in particular depends heavily
on well-made and well-stained films.
78
If not made from skin puncture, films should be prepared within 1 hour of
blood collection into EDTA. Adequate mixing is necessary prior to film
preparation if the blood has been standing for any appreciable period of time.
A thin blood films can be prepared on glass slides or cover glasses. The latter
has the single most important advantage of more even distribution of
leucocytes.
Preparation of blood films on glass slides has the following advantages:

• Slides are not easily broken
• Slides are easier to label
• When large numbers of films are to be dealt with, slides will be found
much easier to handle.
Technique: The Two-Slide or Wedge Method
A small drop of blood is placed in the centerline of a slide about 1-2cm from
one end. Another slide, the spreading slide placed in front of the drop of blood
at an angle of 300 to the slide and then is moved back to make contact with
the drop. The drop will spread out quickly along the line of contact of the
spreader with the slide. Once the blood has spread completely, the spreader
is moved forward smoothly and with a moderate speed. The drop should be
of such size that the film is 3-4cm in length (approx. 3/4th of the length of the
slide). It is essential that the slide used as a spreader have a smooth edge
and should be narrower in breadth than the slide on which the film is
prepared so that the edges of the film can be readily examined. It can be
prepared in the laboratory by breaking off 2mm from both corners so that its
breadth is 4mm less than the total slide breadth.
If the edges of the spreader are rough, films with ragged tails will result and
gross qualitative irregularity in the distribution of cells will be the rule. The
79
bigger leucocytes (neutrophils and monocytes) will accumulate in the margins
and tail while lymphocytes will predominate in the body of the film.
The ideal thickness of the film is such that there is some overlap of the red
cells through out much of the film’s length and separation and lack of
distortion towards the tail of the film.
Thickness and length of the film are affected by speed of spreading and the
angle at which the spreader slide is held. The faster the film is spread the
thicker and shorter it will be. The bigger the angle of spreading the thicker will
be the film.
Once the slide is dry, the name of the patient and date or a reference number
is written on the head of the film using a lead pencil or graphite. If these are
not available, writing can be done by scratching with the edge of a slide. A
paper label should be affixed to the slide after staining.
2.9.5.2 Staining of Thin Blood film with Romanowsky Dyes
Modern Romanowsky stains is common (e.g., Wright’s) containing an acidic

component (eosin B) and a basic component (methylene blue).
Wright’s Stain
It is purchased as a solution ready to use or as a powder 1gm of which is

carefully dissolved in 600ml of methyl alcohol and then filtered before use.
Staining Method
1. Place the air-dried smear film side up on a staining rack (two parallel
glasses rods kept 5cm apart).
2. Cover the smear with undiluted stain and leave for 1 minute. The
methyl alcohol fixes the smear. When it is planned to use an aqueous
or diluted stain, the air dried smear must first be fixed by flooding for 3-
80
5 minutes with absolute methanol. if films are left unfixed for a day or
more, it will be found that the background of dried plasma stains pale
blue and this is impossible to remove Without spoiling the staining of
the blood cells.
3. Dilute with distilled water (approximately equal volume) until a metallic
scum appears. Mix by blowing. Allow this diluted stain to act for 3-5
minutes.
4. Without disturbing the slide, flood with distilled water and wash until
the thinner parts of the film are pinkish red.
5. Place the slide on end to dry.
Appearance of cells and cell components in Romanowsky-

stained blood films
Films stained with Wright’s stain are pinkish in color when viewed with the
naked eye. Microscopically,
• Red cells - pink with a central pale area
• Nuclei of leukocytes - blue to purple
• Cytoplasmic neutrophilic granules - tan
• Eosinophilic granules - red orange each distinctly discernible
• Basophilic granules - dark blue
• Cytoplasm of monocytes - faint blue gray
• Platelets - violet granules
• Malaria parasites - sky blue cytoplasm and red purple chromatin
81
2.9.5.3 Examination of Stained Thin Blood Films
Examination of stained thin blood film helps for Morphologic classification of

anemia and is considered to be the most appropriate and practical way for the
correct appraisal of red cell morphology.
1. Normocytic Normochromic Anemia
There is normal sized RBC with normal hemoglobinization. Mean cell volume
(MCV), Mean cell hemoglobin (MCH) and Mean cell hemoglobin
concentration (MCHC) are normal. This is caused by increased red cell loss,
blood loss, blood loss anemia, and hemolytic anemia
2. Microcytic Hypochromic Anemia
These are small, incompletely hemoglobinized red cells. MCV, MCH and
MCHC are decreased. It is caused by iron deficiency anemia
3. Macrocytic Normochromic Anemia
There are large red cells with MCV, MCH increased. It is caused by folic acid
and/or vitamin B12 deficiency.
2.9.6. The Differential Leukocyte Count
It is the enumeration of the relative proportions (percentages) of the various

types of white cells as seen on stained films of peripheral blood. The count is
usually performed by visual examination of blood films, which are prepared
on slides by the wedge technique. For a reliable differential count the film
must not be too thin and the tail of the film should be smooth. To achieve this
the film should be made using a smooth glass spreader. This should result in
a film in which there is some overlap of the red cells diminishing to separation
near the tail and in which the white cells on the body of the film are not too
82
badly shrunken. If the film is too thin or if a rough-edged spreader is used,
50% of the white cells accumulate at the edges and in the tail and gross
qualitative irregularity in distribution will be the rule. The polymorphonuclear
leucocytes and monocytes predominate at the edges while much of smaller
lymphocytes are found in the middle.
2.9.6.1 Methods of Counting
Various systems of performing the differential count have been advocated.

The problem is to overcome the differences in distribution of the various
classes of white cells, which are probably always present to a small extent
even in well-made films.
The lateral strip (“crenellation”) pattern of differential counting is the most

routinely used pattern and in this method the field of view is moved from side
to side across the width of the slide in the counting area just behind the
featheredge where the cells are separated from one another and are free
from artifacts. Multiple manual registers or electronic counters are used for
the count.
N.B: The following elements of the blood film must be observed while performing
the differential count.
• Erythrocytes: size, shape, degree of hemoglobinization presence of

inclusion bodies
• The presence of atypical lymphocytes
• Haemoparasites: malaria, borrelia, babesia, microfilariae,
trypanosoma, etc.
83
2.9.6.2 Reporting the Differential Leukocyte Count
The differential leukocyte count could be expressed as the percentage of
each type of cell or it could be related to the total leukocyte count and the
results reported in absolute numbers.
2.9.6.3 Normal Differential Ranges:
1-4 years 10 years Adults

Neutrophils 36-48% 45-55% 55-65%
Eosinophils 2-5% 2-5% 2-4%
Basophils 0-1% 0-1% 0-1%
Lymphocytes 44-54% 38-45% 25-35%
Monocytes 3-6% 3-6% 3-6%
2.9.6.4 Interpretation: -
The relative lymphocyte count is increased above 8.0 x 109/l in children in

viral causes of infections in protein energy malnutrition (e.g., measles), in
chronic infections (e.g., Tuberculosis, malaria).
2.9.7 Measurement of Serum or Plasma Albumin
Serum or plasma albumin levels are mainly measured to investigate liver

diseases, protein energy malnutrition, and disorders of water balance,
nephrotic syndrome, and protein-losing gastrointestinal diseases.
Method
The bromocresol (BCG) binding method is recommended as a manual

colorimetric technique for measuring serum or plasma albumin.
84
Principle of the BCG Albumin Method
Bromocresol green is an indicator, which is yellow between pH 3.5-4.2.

When it binds to albumin the color of the indicator changes form yellow to
blue-green. The absorbance of the color produced is measured in a
colorimeter using an orange filter or in a spectrophotometer at 632 nm
wavelengths. Turbidity in the solutions is avoided by the addition of Brij-35.
Albumin + BCG PH4.2 --Æ Albumin-BCG complex Reagent
1. Bromocresol green (BCG), when stored at 2-80 C the BCG reagent is

stable for several months. It should be allowed to warm to room
temperature (20-280C) before use.
2. Albumin standard, 30 g/l
Technique:
Specimen: The method requires 20μl (0.02 ml) of patient’s serum or plasma.
The blood must be collected with the minimum of venous stasis and
haemolysis should be avoided.
1. Take four or more tubes (depending on the number of tests) and label
as follows.
B - Reagent b lank
S - Standard, 30 g/l
1.2 etc. - Patients’ Tests
2. Pipette 4 ml of BCG reagent (Warmed to room temperature) into each
tube.
3. Add to each tube as follows;
Tube
B…………... 20μl (0.02 ml) distilled water
S………….. 20μl standard, 30 g/l
1,2, etc…… 20μl patient’s serum or plasma
85
Note: If a patient’s sample appears turbid, prepare a serum blank by mixing 20 of
patient’s Serum or plasma in 4 ml of succinate buffer
4. Mix well but avoid frothing of the solutions. If air bubbles are present
the absorbance readings will be incorrect.
5. Read immediately the absorbance of the solution in a colorimeter
using an orange filter (e.g. Ilford No. 607) or in a spectrophotometer
set at 632 nm. Zero the instrument with the reagent blank solution in
tube B.
Note: - If using a serum blank, read its absorbance after zeroing the instrument with
distilled water. Subtract this reading from the reading of the patient’s BCG
sample (Read against the reagent blank solution).
6. Calculate the concentration of albumin in the patient’s samples by:
-Using the following formula: -
AT
Albumin g/l = AS = x 30
Where: - AT = Absorbance of test(s)

As = Absorbance of 30 g/l standard
7. Report the patient’s results in g/l
Approximate albumin Normal range is 30-45 g/l

To convert from g/l to g%, divide by 10.
To convert form g% to g/1, multiply by 10.
Note:- Albumin levels are lower in infants and when individuals are lying
down (by 10%)
86
Interpretation of Serum or Plasma Albumin Results Increase
Increases:
Serum or plasma albumin levels are rarely raised, except artefactually by

prolonged venous stasis.
Decreases:
Many of the causes of low total protein levels are the result of
hypoalbuminaemia, especially the nephrotic syndrome. The pathogenesis
and management of nephrotic syndrome have been described in the paper of
Chosen. Several parasitic infections cause a reduction in the synthesis of
albumin.
Summary of Albumin Method
1. Pipette into tubes as follows:
Blank Standard Test 1,2, etc

Bromocresol green (BCG) 4ml 4ml 4ml
reagent
Distilled water 20μl - -
Standard, 30g/l - 20μl -
Patient’s serum or plasma - - 20μl
1. Mix well but avoid frothing

2. Read absorbance immediately
Colorimeter: Orange filter. E.g. Ilford No.607
Spectrophotometer: 632
Zero instrument with blank solution in tube B
87
3. Calculate the results as follows:
Albumin g/l = Absorbance of test X 30
Absorbance of 30g/l standard
4. Report patient’s result in g/l
2.11 Prevention and Intervention
Refer to story of health professionals in the core module and discuss on the
following questions in the class. The instructor can assist you.
How is blood specimen collected, stained and examined for blood
morphology examination?
What could be the etiology of protein energy malnutrition?
What laboratory investigations could be done at the health station or
health center level?
What materials are required to carry out the investigations?
What should be reported in the laboratory request form in the
determination of hematological tests for the assessment of protein
2.13 Roles and Task Analysis
Refer to the core module unit 4.
88
2.14 Glossary and abbreviations
2.15 Bibliography
2.16 Annexes
89
UNIT 3.4
SANITARIAN
90
UNIT:1 INTRODUCTION
The role of the sanitarian in the prevention of PEM is mostly on awareness

creation, environmental sanitation improvement and behavior change in
nutritional improvement and hygiene practices.
1.1 Purpose and use of the Module

The main purpose of this module is equip sanitarians with adequate
knowledge and skill for the prevention and management of cases of protein
energy malnutrition together with the other team members.
1.2 Directions for using the Module

For a better understanding of this module, the sanitarians are advised to
follow the following directions.
• Do the pretest pertinent to your field in unit 2 section 2.1.2.4 of the
core module. The sanitarians should also read the core module
thoroughly at first and when referred in this module.
• The sanitarians could be successful in using this module if he works
with other team members and inter-sectoraly with other development
workers (agriculture extension agents, development workers, home
economists etc.)
• Since PEM and diarrhea are directly associated the sanitarians should
use the module on diarrhea (core, satellite) in conjunction with this
module.
• Read the story of health workers in Jiren community and try to address
the question relevant to you.
• Evaluate yourself by doing posttests and comparing your score by
referring to the key given unit 7 section 7.1.2.4.
91
2.1 Pretest and Post Test:
Please refer to section 2.1.2.1 in the core module

Problem:
Please refer to section 2.2 in the core module
2.3. Learning Objectives

The objective of this module is to equip the sanitarian with the
appropriate knowledge, attitude and skills required to effectively
prevent PEM and conduct health and nutrition education to targets
for sustainable behavioral change. Therefore, at the end of this
module, the sanitarians will be able to: -
1) Describe the prevention methods protein energy malnutrition

2) Identify appropriate methods and the primary targets for
nutrition and health education program in the prevention of
PEM
3) Describe why personal hygiene, nutrition education and
environmental sanitation practice prevents those risk factors
which are associated with PEM
4) Describe the whole mechanism of different factors that are
associated with the problem of PEM
92
2.4 Learning Activities: Case Study
Read the story of health workers in Jiren community so that you will be able
to discuss question in section 2.12 of this module.
2.5 Definition
Please refer to the core module unit 2 sections 2.5
2.6 Epidemiology:
2.7 Etiology and pathogenesis
2.8 Prevention and Intervention
There are five important areas for the sanitarian to concentrate on in order to
prevent PEM. These are:
1. Prevent Infection (Acute and Repeated)
Many studies have shown that PEM is associated with acute infection
(Tuberculosis, Pneumonia, measles, pertusis etc) as well as repeated
infection (diarrhea, helmenthiasis). Almost all malnourished children have
diarrhea. Therefore, to prevent this problem the following are major
interventions that has to be conducted by the sanitarian together with other
team members and the community.
• Proper disposal of human feces. Please refer to the module on
diarrhoeal diseases for the sanitarian, section 2.8. No 1.
93
• Water protection at the source and use at home, please refer to the
module on diarrhoeal disease for the sanitarian, section 2.8 no.2
• Food hygiene, please refer to the module on diarrhoeal disease
section 2.8
• Domestic and environmental sanitation, please refer to the module
on diarrhoeal disease for the sanitarian section 2.8 No. 5
2. Nutrition Education
Nutrition education should be given to the target group (mothers and

caregivers) on the importance of:
1) Feeding balanced diet through the use of locally available food
resources
2) Proper and hygienic preparation and storage of food.
3) Proper preparing and feeding of unadulterated and uncontaminated
fresh food
3. Health and Hygiene Education
It has to be understood that one of the problems for the spread of malnutrition
in children is lack of knowledge or information on simple preventive measures
such as proper food preparation, storage and cleanliness.
Hygiene or health education program should therefore be planned to help
community members understand the importance of hygienic practices in
weaning food preparation, in the prevention of diarrhoeal and helminthic
infections and general health promotion. To be successful in hygiene /health
education program we should focus on the following facts.
• Health/Hygiene education should be targeted
• Health/Hygiene education should be simple (short and to the point
facts has to be given to the targets)
• Health/ hygiene education program should be Convincing (target
should be able to get the point and demonstrate it)
94
• Health/ Hygiene education program should be programmed to be
given at appropriate time, place, and condition.
In addition, preparation for health/hygiene education should start from the

behavior analysis. Behavior is culture bound and hence each culture will
have to be analyzed critically so that proper strategy could be formulated to
change or modify existing behavior.
3.1. Behavioral Analysis: -
This means understanding what the current or existing behaviors of people in

the communities are with regard to:
• Type of food prepared for children
• The care or practices of food hygiene during preparation and storage
• Having latrine or latrine use
• Water hygiene
3.2. Select Target Behavior
There are many ideal or feasible behaviors that health professionals wants to
see people practicing, but, it may not be practical to achieve all. It is
therefore necessary to select target behaviors from among many ideal ones
to act upon.
• What target behavior do you want to change?
For example in the case of protein energy malnutrition prevention the
ideal behaviors among many which the sanitarian may have to
concentrate will be focused on the prevention of diarrhea and
helminthic infection.
3.3 Are their Approximation that you want to build on?
Building on local knowledge and practices is much better and short cut than
to introduce new behaviors or practices. For example,
95
i. People wash hands with soap after eating but not before eating
ii. Other people wash hands before eating but not after latrine use
3.4. Types of Communication
In the arts of communication, messages are transmitted in many different

ways. Examples are:
• Interpersonal Communication
• Person To Person Or What Is Called Interpersonal Communication
• Group Communication
• Mass Communicatio
3.5. Channels of Communication
Channels are tools and means by which message is communicated to the

intended audience. The hygiene educator should prepare not only the
messages but also the channels so that messages will be effectively
delivered and understood by the target audiences. Channels are different for
each method of communication. For example for mass communication we
may have to use radio, TV or newspaper, but for person-to-person
communication we should use posters, or flip charts. Some of the channels
used for hygiene education are:
• Posters • Radio
• Tape recorders • Newspaper
• Flip charts • Drama
• TV • Songs
• Folk tales etc
96
3.6 Selecting Targets for Hygiene Education
Selecting targets for health/hygiene education is the other important thing that
has to be considered when organizing health/hygiene education. Targets are
selected by asking the following questions.
• To who is this message appropriate?
• When and where should it be given?
Past effort in disease prevention taught us that PEM problems associated
factors such as diarrhea and helminthic are transmitted because of sanitary
defects and practices in the living environment. Unsanitary conditions and
practices are performed in the house by those who are actively engaged in
cleaning work, food preparation, water vending, child feeding etc. These
members of the household (Mothers, caretakers) are the primary targets?
Usually the right time and place for addressing is to conduct hygiene using a
person-to-person approach and at times when the primary targets are actively
engaged in child feeding or any households chores. This way, examples
could be used from the actual performance of the primary audiences or the
targets.
The right person for this task is a person that could speak the language,
share the culture and is trained in hygiene education methods and principles.
1. Importance of Immunization
Since immunized children will have better immunity to disease or infection the
sanitarian should work together with the rest of the team in the promotion of
immunization.
2. Promote Backyard Farming
The sanitarians should promote Backyard farming for two important

purposes.
97
• Waste matters such as garbage and refuse which are health hazards if
left in the open could be used for compost that can be used to
condition the soil of the household garden. Motivated households that
are using compost will therefore eliminate the waste and boost his
harvest.
• Secondly, because of the backyard farming practice the household will
get enough green vegetables, carrots and other carbohydrate sources.
• The fact that the backyard is used for vegetable garden the chance is
that it will be kept clean.
3. Learning Activities (Case Study) Continued
Read the story of health workers in Jiren community and answer the following
questions.
1. Why is malnutrition more prevalent in Jiren village?
(Check your response with the following key answers)
a) Because there is no clean water
b) No sanitary latrine
c) Children and adults are infested with parasites
d) Because the communities are not aware of the problem
2. What are some of the methods where quick sanitary survey could be
conducted to identify sanitary defects in a community (Check your
response with the following key answers)
a) Do health walk with elders in the community
b) Observation of people or children's’ hygiene condition
c) Observation of hygiene practices at home level
d) Observation of children playing habits and environment
98
3. What are the necessary things required for a child to grow healthy and
strong?
(Check your response with the following key answers)
a) The child should be kept clean
b) The child should be fed at least five times a day
c) The child should be taught about cleanliness of especially the
hand as early as possible.
d) Monitoring the child on his mood, illness, growth etc.
e) Immunization
4. What are some of the symptoms you can see on a malnourished child?
(Check your response with the following key answers.)
a) Weak looking, unhappy and not playful

b) Look like an old person
c) Have elastic skin
d) Have no quick mental response
99
UNIT 3.5

PRIMARY HEALTH WORKERS (PHWs)
COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKERS (CHWs)
100
Materialization of the Community based management of PEM is made possible
through training of PHWs/CHWs that are well equipped with the basic knowledge
attitude and skill of diagnosing, treating, timely referring, preventing and controlling
PEM. Therefore, this satellite module will be utilized in the training or refreshment
of PHWs/CHWs by the health center team, NGOS and other like organizations.
1.2 Direction
• Administer the pretest before starting the actual training
• Read the core module thoroughly before using this satellite module for the
training of PHWs/CHWS
• Read the story of health workers in Jiren community to pose practical
questions to the PHWs/CHWs
• If possible interpret it into the main local loanguage
• Use more participatory and simple methods of training for this group.
• Administer the post-test at the end of the training and compare their results
by referring to the keys given n unit 7, section 7.5.
UNIT: 2 SATELLITE MODULE FOR PRIMARY

HEALTH WORKERS (PHW) COMMUNITY
HEALTH WORKERS (CHW)
2.1 Pre and Post-test
See the pre and post test for primary health workers PHWs)/Community health
workers (CHWs) in the core module section 2.1.2.5
101
2.2 Significance and Brief Descriptions of the Problem
The user of this module for training PHWs/CHWs is highly advised to refer to the
core module sections 2.2.
2.3. Learning Objectives

At the end of completing these modules the PHWs/ CHWS will be
able to:
• Define and identify types of protein energy malnutrition.
• Identify symptoms and signs of protein energy malnutrition.
• Demonstrate preparation of high energy and protein foods to the
mothers and care givers.
• Refer children with severe malnutrition (weight for age < 60% of
the standard) to the to the next health institution.
• Give health education on the preventive methods of protein energy
malnutrition and importance of child nutrition for proper growth and
development.
• Advice mothers/care givers on the importance of exclusive feeding
during the first 4-6 months and supplementary feeding with breast
milk there after.
• Educate mothers/care givers/or other members of the family about
the importance of horticulture and backyard gardening,
immunization, importance of continued feeding during diarrhea.
102
Read the story of health workers in Jiren community for the class or make them
read it thoroughly so that they will be able discuss the questions related to the story
in unit 2, section 2.12
2.5 Definition
Protein energy malnutrition is the manifestation of deficient intake of dietary
energy, protein and other nutrients mainly in children under five years of age.
2.6 Epidemiology
It affects toddlers and infants in developing countries. The severe forms of PEM
affect 5-10% and mild to moderate forms account affects 20-40 % of children in
Africa and Southeast Asia. In Ethiopia, the chronic forms of PEM (stunting) is a
common problem, it affects about 64% of children under five years of age. Acute
form of protein energy malnutrition (wasting) affects about 8% of Ethiopian children
< years.
2.7 Causes
Different factors contribute to the occurrence of PEM. These include: Lack of
knowledge about child feeding and child handling, infection, cultural malpractices,
poverty, manmade and natural calamities, social unrest (war), poor food
production, uncontrolled population growth and poor marketing, storage and
distribution systems.
103
Children with protein energy malnutrition are shorter and lighter that their
healthy counterparts of the same age and sex. Children with kwashiorkor
have swollelling of the body and graying of hair regardless of the nutritional
deficiency they are suffering. They are not interested in their surrounding and
have poor appetite. Whereas, marasmic children are so skinny and have “old
man” appearance. They are always irritable, cry frequently, have good
appetite and no marked change on their hair. (see figures 2 % 3 on pages 35
& 36)
Refer to core module, unit 2, and section 2.8
2.9 Diagnosis
In diagnosing the protein energy malnutrition and identifying the clinical forms,
proper history, physical examination and Anthropometric assessments are
essential.
History- the following information needs to be asked by the CHW/PHW in
order to identify malnutrition in children and specific risk factors pertaining to
the index child.
- Dietary history- Weaning practices
- Food taboos
- History of diarrhea or other infection
- History of immunization
- Birth interval in the family
- Child care practices
Physical Examination
- Vital signs –Pulse rate, Respiratory rate, Weight and height
104
- Irritability
- Graying of hair and easy pluckability
- Skin changes
- Edema (swelling of the body)
- Emaciation and old man’s appearance, loss of muscle and
subcutaneous fat

Upon regular growth monitoring care givers of those children with lower
nutritional status should be educated to improve their child feeding practices
by preparing high energy and high protein diet from locally available
foodstuffs. Children in the state of severe malnutrition and those who fail to
improve in their nutritional status in the subsequent measurements (follow up)
be referred to the next health institution for better management. For further
details refer to the core module unit 2, section 2.10
2.11 Prevention & Intervention

Give nutrition education to mothers or care givers on:-
Proper child feeding practices like:

• Exclusive breast feeding during the first 4-6 months
• Avoidance of bottle feeding and use of cup and spoon instead
• Giving supplementary foods after 6 months and continue breast feeding up
to 2 years
• Importance of continued feeding during diarrhoeal attack
• Weaning of children gradually and step by step with liquid through semi-
solid diet to solid diet
105
Avoidance of unhygienic practices that contribute to the development of PEM
(Food and water hygiene, personal hygiene, environment hygiene & proper waste
and excreta disposal)
• Importance of immunization on prevention of PEM
• Report to next level health facility (health center team) in the face of
unusually increased number of cases of PEM in your village.
• Measure the weights and heights of under five children in your village
regularly every month in the first 1years, and every two months in the
second year and 3 months afterwards (Growth monitoring) and refer those
who have weight for height < 60% to the next health institution.
Continued:
Read story of health workers in Jiren community to the class (make them read) and
discuss the following questions.
1) What should parents of children in the Jiren community do to prevent
malnutrition?
2) If parents of these children come to see you first what do you do to address
their problem?
3) What other factors contribute to development of PEM?
4) What do you think are the preventive measures of PEM?
106
UNIT:4 ROLE AND TASK ANALYSIS
See unit four of the core module for the expected role and tasks of PHW/CHW
UNIT: 5 GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS

See unit five of the core module
UNIT: 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Se unit six of the core module
UNIT: 7 ANNEXES
See unit seven of the core module
107
UNIT 3.6
TAKE HOME MESSAGE FOR
THE MOTHER / CAREGIVER
108
) TAKE HOME MESSAGE FOR THE MOTHER/ CAREGIVER
Protein Energy Malnutrion is a general poor state of health of children that
arises from poor (improper) child feeding practices such as early abrupt
weaning, bottle feeding, poor food hygiene, avoidance of breast feeding and
poor nutritional quality of the weaning foods. The mothers or caregivers should
be instructed to do the following for prevention of malnutrition: -
, Exclusive breast-feeding during the first 4-6 months
, Avoidance of bottle feeding and use of cup and spoon instead
, Giving supplementary food after 6 months and continue breast feeding
up to 2 years
, Weaning of children gradually and step by step with liquid diet through
semi-solid diet to solid diet.
, Understand the importance of continued feeding during diarrhoeal
attack
, Get your child weighed in the nearby health institution/health post
(PHCU) at least every month in the first one years,every two
months in the second year and every 3 months thereafter for proper
growth monitoring
, Understand the importance of small frequent feeds for young children
, Avoid unhygienic practices contributing to development of PEM (food
and water Hygiene, personal hygiene, environment hygiene & proper
waste and excreta disposal)
, Understand the importance of immunization on prevention of PEM
, Visit the primary health care unit (PHCU) when your child gets sick or
fails to grow as expeced.
109
Figure 9. Proper child feeding practices (breast-feeding and using spoon than bottles
Breast-feeding
Spoon feeding
Figure 10. Sources of vitamins and minerals for good health
110
UNIT FOUR
TASK AND ROLE ANALYSIS
111
Table 4.1 Knowledge Objective And Essential Tasks Of The Health Center Team (Health Officer, Public Health Nurse, Medical
Laboratory Technician and Sanitarians)
Learning objective HO PHN EH MLT Activity

(expected out Come)
Define and describe Define and describe Define and describe Define and describe Define & describe Define &
types of protein energy types of protein types of protein types of protein energy types of proteinenergy Characterize
malnutrition. energy malnutrition. energy malnutrition malnutrition. malnutrition types of protein
energy malnutrition
List causes and risk List different causes List different causes List different causes List different List the different
factor of protein of protein energy of protein energy of protein energy malnutr causes of protein causes of protein
malnutrition and their malnutrition & their their association with the energy
energy malnutrition energy malnutrition
Knowledge association with the association with the different risk factors.
different risk factors. different risk factors malnutrition & associated risk
factors.
Describe the Magnitude Pin point the Pin point prevalence Pin point prevalence Pinpoint the * Explain the burden
and contribution of prevalence of of malnutrition on & of malnutrition and its prevalence of PEM of malnutrition
malnutrition and its
protein energy malnutrition contribution to its contribution to mortacontribution to mortality and its condition to morbidity & mortality
mortality & morbidity & Morbidity and Morbidity in children
to over all childhood morbidity and in children
health problems locally & in children locally and in children locally locally & nationally. mortality in children * Describe the
ationally nationally and nationally. commonest
locally and nationally
Causes of PEM
112
Table 4.2. Knowledge Objective and Essential Tasks of The Health Center Team (Health Officer, Public Health Nurse,
Medical Laboratory Technician and Sanitarians)
Learning Objective HO PHN EH MLT Activities

(Expected Outcome)
Describe the assessment Enumerate the clinical Describe the Describe the . Perform SOAP
of protein energy Manifestations and complication & their manifes different methods (subjective objective,
of malnutrition.
malnutrition and its complications of malnutrition of laboratory Assessment plan) of
investigation investigation patients and
for malnutrition . Investigate causes
of malnutrition;
record and report the result.
Describe the principle Explain how to treat Describe how to List the different methods of
Knowledge
& treatment methods malnutrition and their administer the protein energy malnutrition
of malnutrition. principle under laying it treatment and treatment
----
advising the mother Describe what advice
or care givers. should
be given to the caregiver.
Describe the pathogenesis -Elaborate the mechanism Indicate the different steps
of protein energy or development of different existing in the development of
--- --- ---
malnutrition. types of protein energy different types of protein
malnutrition energy malnutrition
Elaborate methods of Elaborate methods of Elaborate Describe the different
preparing dietary treatment preparing dietary treatment methods of preparing ingredients in the preparation
for the case of protein for the case of protein energy malnutrit dietary treatment of prot----- ------ of dietary therapy
energy
energy malnutrition
malnutrition.
113
Table 4.3. Attitude Objective and Essential Tasks of The Health Center Team (Health Officer, Public Health Nurse,
Medical Laboratory Technician and Sanitarians)
Learning Objective HO PHN EH MLY Activities
(Expected out come)
-Believe in the importance of breast -Instruct CHW (community -Instruct CHW (Community health -Instruct CHW Advise CHW, mothers and care givers for
feeding and health workers) mothers workers) mothers, & care gives in -Instruct CHW (community health workers) (community health workers the utility of feeding high energy and
weaning practices in reducing and care gives in reducing reducing mortality due to protein mothers and care givers in reducing mothers & care givers. In protein diet in facilitating recovery from
mortality due to protein energy mortality due to protein energy malnutrition mortality due to protein energy malnutrition reducing mortality due to protein energy malnutrition.
malnutrition. energy malnutrition protein energy malnutrition
-Believe in promoting -Advocate continued -dvocate continued feeding of a Advocate continued feeding of a child -Advocate continued -Educate mothers care giver and community
proper Feeding of feeding of a child child regardless of m regardless of malnutrition. feeding of a child health agent, about the importance of
infants (children) with required less alnutrition. regardless of proper feeding of a child with protein
Attitude
case of protein energy malnutrition. malnutrition energy malnutrition
malnutrition
-Believe in utilization of health -Advice mothers care giver, -Advice mothers care -Advice mothers, care gives and CHW to -Advice mothers and care givers -Teach about the importance of taking
service to acilitate the treatment and CHW to promote utilization of givers and CHW to promote promote utilization of health services for and CHW to promote utilization children to health service setting for
of health services for protein
of protein energy malnutrition in health services for cases of protein utilization of health services for protein energy malnutrition in children management of malnutrition
energy malnutrition in children
children. energy malnutrition . cases of protein energy malnutrition
-Up hold the idea that -Educate mothers, care givers and CHW that -Educate mothers or care givers and -Educate care givers and CHW that protein -Educate care gives and CHW -Educate the mothers, care givers and
protein energy protein energy malnutrition is caused by CHW that protein energy malnutrition energy malnutrition is caused by is caused that protein energy malnutrition CHWs that protein energy malnutrition is
malnutrition is caused by deficiency of nutrients is caused by deficiency of nutrient by deficiency of nutrients is caused by is caused by caused by is caused by deficiency of
deficiency of nutrients deficiency of nutrients nutrients
114
Table. 4.4 Practice Objective And Essential Tasks of the Health Center Team (Health Officer, Public Health Nurse, Medical
Laboratory Technician and Sanitarians)
Learning Objective HO PHN EH MLY Activities
(Expected out come)
-Demonstrate the process of assessing a -Take appropriate history and perform proper -Assess vital signs and ----- ------ -Ask relevant symptoms
child with protein energy malnutrition and physical examination. determine existence or note - Look, at relevant signs and decide the
identify its complications. of malnutrition and degree of protein energy malnutrition
complications like infection, etc - Determine if lab Investigation is needed.
-Demonstrate how to do laboratory tests -Carry out laboratory investigation protein ----- -------- -Carry out laboratory - Make a laboratory investigation
protein energy malnutrition energy malnutrition investigation protein on protein energy malnutrition
energy malnutrition
-Demonstrate the preparation of dietary -Demonstrate and explain the preparation of -Demonstrate and explain the -Demonstrate the importance -Show materials and ingredients to be used
formula for the treatment of protein energy high energy and protein foods and their preparation of their proper of clean water and utensils in the in the preparation and utilization of feeding
malnutrition to the caregivers. administration in the treatment of protein use in the treatment of protein energy preparation of food in feeding a --- formula in the treatment of protein energymalnutrition.
energy malnutrition malnutrition child with protein energy

Practice
malnutrition
-Identify a case of protein energy malnutrition -Demonstrate the management principle, identify -Demonstrate appropriate -Identify the case and its complication
demonstrate its appropriate management. the complication and manage accordingly feeding and rehydration and Mange the case by selecting appropriate
drug administration and also ------ ------ treatment plan Refer PRN
provide proper nursing care
to the clients.
Demonstrate proper communication to the Display Effective communication skills with Display effective Display effective communication skills Identity practical ways of educating mothers
mother or care givers for health education mothers care givers and CHW in treatment communication skills with with mothers, care givers and care givers or CHW on treatment prevention and
pertinent to protein energy malnutrition prevention and control of protein energy mothers care givers and community health workers control of protein energy malnutrition
malnutrition community health workers on on prevention and control of ------
treatment prevention and protein energy malnutrition
management of protein energy
malnutrition
115
Table 4.5. Knowledge Objective and Essential Tasks of Community Health Worker/ Primary Health Worker and Car Givers
Learning Objective Community Health Workers Care Giver Workers Activity
(Expected out come)
-Describe the principle and - Describe how to prepare dietary - Describe how to prepare food - Explain methods of preparation of
treatment methods of protein feeding formula and its administration in for treating the child with protein feeding formula in the treatment of
energy malnutrition treatment of protein energy malnutrition energy malnutrition based on family diet protein energy malnutrition to the care
workers CHW
- Explain what type of food to give and
how much to give in the treatment of
case with protein energy malnutrition

Knowledge
-List the major information, -Describe methods of giving health - Explain major points the care - List main methods used to communicate information on
energy malnutrition
methods & targets for health education on protein energy malnutrition giver/ mother need to tell to the
for the different targets (CHW )
education in protein energy and identify target groups & areas of family members regarding
- Enumerate main points that the care
malnutrition focus (mothers /care givers patients,) treatment and prevention of
giver needs to instruct the family and the parent/care giv
protein energy malnutrition
-List causes and risk factors for -List the different causes of protein - Explain the cause of protein - Explain the relationship between the
protein energy malnutrition energy malnutrition and their energy malnutrition in general risk factors and development of protein
association with risk factors. and what risk behaviors are energy malnutrition (CHW )
associated to it. - Describe that protein energy malnutrition is caused by i

feeding, infection, diarrhea etc .
116
Table 4.6 Attitude Objectives and Essential Tasks of Community Health Worker/ Primary Health Worker and Car Givers
Learning Objective CHW Care giver Activity
( Expected out come)
-Promote utilization of health service facilities -Advice care givers to bring - Advice friends and families to visit - Educate care givers the importance of taking
for the treatment of protein energy a child with protein energy health worker the health service children with protein energy malnutrition to health
malnutrition to the health
malnutrition units in case of protein energy service institution
service units to consult
malnutrition - Encourage visits health service unit the case of protein
health worker energy malnutrition
-Advocate the importance of exclusive breast - Instruct mothers or care - Advise family friends and neighbors -Advocate / Promote breast feeding practices in
Attitude
feeding in the first 4-6 months and continued givers the importance of to continue breast feeding in a child prevention of protein energy malnutrition (CHW)
feeding then after in reducing mortality and breast feeding in reducing with protein energy malnutrition Encourage breast feeding practices of , family, in
morbidity due to protein energy malnutrition morbidity and mortality from
the prevention of protein energy malnutrition
protein energy malnutrition.
-Promote continued feeding of children with -Advocate and encourage - Feed the child with diarrhea properly - Emphasize on importance of feeding
encourage friends peers to do so.
diarrhea proper feeding of children of a child with diarrhea (CHW)
with diarrhea by mothers -Feed the child with diarrhea and advise
or caregivers. friends or relatives to do so.
117
Table 4.7 Practice Objective and Essential Tasks of Community Health Worker/ Primary Health Worker and Care Givers
Learning Objective (Expected out come) CHW Care giver Activities
Demonstrate preparation of feeding Demonstrate preparation of Demonstrate properly Show materials and ingredients
formula for the treatment of protein energy malnutrition feeding formulas their how and what to prepare to be used in the preparation of
and its proper use. administration to the case of and administer to a child feeding formulas
protein energy malnutrition for caretakers. with protein energy
malnutrition.
Identify a case of protein energy malnutrition and Identify complications of Identify signs of Identify sings and symptoms of
demonstrate its appropriate management
Protein energy malnutrition and its symptoms of protein protein energy malnutrition and
degrees and advise the energy malnutrition and administer proper feeding
caregiver to feed the patient its complications and practices (see the core module).
properly. decide whether there is
a need for admission or
referral
Practice Demonstrate proper communication to mothers or Display Effective Identify ways of educating
care givers pertaining to protein energy malnutrition. communication skill with ------- mothers/ care gives about protein
mothers or care givers on
treatment and prevention of energy malnutrition
protein-energy malnutrition
118
UNIT FIVE
GLOSSARY & ABBREVIATIONS
119
Antioxidant:- Micronutrients like vitamins A, C, E, & minerals, selenium which detoxify
(scavenge) free radical species formed in the body and protect body cells from oxidative
damage.
Anthropometric Assessment:- Measurement of different body dimensions and

proportions at different nutritional states and interpretation of the result by comparing to the
standard to determine whether a person is malnourished or well nourished.
Catch Up Growth:- Rapid increase in weight and height of children after a period of
nutritional deprivation in response to corrective dietary intervention.
Day Care Nutrition Rehabilitation Centers (DCNRC): Feeding and nutrition

demonstration centers attached to health units where mothers/care givers bring their
malnourished children and get them fed and see how to prepare balanced diet from locally
available foodstuffs.
Dehydration: - Excessive loss of fluid and electrolyte from the body that impairs cellular
function if not corrected timely.
Emotional Deprivation: - State of mood change in a child that occurs following neglect
of child (poor care given to the child by the mother or care giver).
Exclusive Breast-feeding: - Breast-feeding of infants with no additional

(supplementary) food administration.
Flag Sign: -Different color bands (gray versus black) on a long curly hair of malnourished
child as a mark of seasonal variation in the nutritional status (Black = period of good
nutrition, Gray = period of nutritional deprivation).
Forest Sign: - Appearance of body hair of a malnourished child in which the hair is
straight and lusterless at the bottom and curled at the top giving an impression of a forest.
120
Free Radicals: - Highly-active reduced species produced in the body as a result of
normal body chemical reactions and these result in oxidative death of cells of the body.
E.g. Super oxide, Hydroxyl radical
Gomez Classification: - A classification of malnourished children by comparing their

weight with the weight of reference child of the same age.
Hypoglycemia: - Reduction of fasting blood glucose level below 50 gm/dl in older infants
and children.
Hypothermia: - Reduction of the Core body temperature less than 350C as measured
rectally.
Kwashiorkor: - A form of severe protein energy malnutrition characterized by wasting of

muscles, edema, gray easily pluckable hair, apathy and dermatotic skin changes and
weight for age between 60-79% of the NCHS reference pursuant of nutritional deprivation.
Marasmus: - A form of severe protein energy malnutrition in which there is severe loss of
weight due to wasting of both muscles & subcutaneous(weight for age < 60% of the NCHS
reference), irritability, growth retardation, increased appetite and minimal hair changes
following restriction energy intake.
Negative Energy Balance: - A situation in which energy intake is less than energy
expenditure resulting in mobilization of body fat & muscle protein for energy production.
Negative Nitrogen Balance: - A state of affairs in which nitrogen intake is less than
nitrogen excretion secondary to a diet poor in protein content.
PEM: - Protein Energy Malnutrition
121
Recovery Syndrome: - Fluid over load, congestive heart failure and death due
administration of high protein and high calorie to a malnourished child during the acute
(stabilization) phase of the management of protein energy malnutrition.
Residential Nutrition Rehabilitation Centers (RNRCS): - These are usually

convalescent centers for children treated initially in hospitals where mothers may
accompany their children. Nutrition education and demonstrations of food preparation and
child feeding will be done to prevent the recurrence of the situation in the family.
Sensory Stimulation: - Stimulation of malnourished children using different toys, stories

etc… in order to reverse the mood changes that followed the state of malnutrition in order
to revive their appetite and facilitate the process of cure.
Starvation Therapy: - A harmful traditional practice in which mothers/ care givers

deprive their child with diarrhea of food & fluid intake due to the wrong belief that giving
food and fluid may increase the volume & attack of diarrhea.
Stunting: - A state of chronic malnutrition characterized by normal weight for height

(>80%) & low height for age (<80%) according to Waterlow’s classification
Wasting: - Is a state of acute malnutrition characterized by normal height for age (>80%)
& low (< 80%) weight for height according to water low classification.
Water Low Classification: - Classification of malnourished children that uses two

indices: weight for height and height for age for detection of acute and chronic states of
malnutrition in the community.
Weaning: - Administration of food (solid or liquid including formula or cows milk) in

addition to breast milk or without breast milk.
Welcome Classification: - Classification of malnourished children based on their

weight, age & presence of edema. This classification is used to distinguish the clinical
form of PEM.
122
UNIT SIX
BIBILIOGRAPHY
123
Ashworth, A et al. Ten steps to recovery (report), Child health dialogue, second and
third quarter, 1996.
Brown. L.V, et al. Evaluation of the impact of weaning food messages on infant feeding
practices and child growth in rural Bangladesh. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 1992. 56: 994-1003.
Cohen, R., et al, Effects of Age of introduction of complimentary foods on infant breast
milk intake, total energy intake, and growth: a randomized intervention study in
Central Statistics Authority. The transitional government of Ethiopia. Report on the

national Rural Nutrition Survey, Core module, March, 1992.
Dewey, K.G., et al, Growth Pattern of breast fed infants in affluent (United States) and
poor (Peru) communities, implications for timing of complimentary feeding, A.M.J.Clin.Nutr.
1992; 56: 1012-1018.
Ethiopian Public Health Association, Food and Nutrition Strategy and Policy issue,
Honduras. The lancet, 1994; 344: 288-293.
Husaini, M.A., et al., Developmental effect of short term supplementary feeding
in nutritionally at risk Indonesian infants. Am.J.Clin.Nutr, 1991: 54: 799-804
Latham, M.C., Human nutrition in the Developing World, Rome: F.A.O; 1997.
Latham, M.C., Human nutrition in tropical Africa. Second edition, F.A.O, Rome; 1979
Lofti, M., Weaning foods-new uses of traditional methods. SCN news No.6 Addis Ababa,
Nov. 1997
Lorri,W, and Svanberg, U., Lower Prevalence of diarrhea in Young Children fed lactic
Acid fermented cereal gruels, food and nutrition bulletin, 1994: 15 (1): 57-63
124
Mahan LK, Stump SE. Kruse’s food, Nutrition and diet therapy, 9th ed., USA: Saunders,
1996.
Rahway, M.I., Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM), Merck manual, 16th. Edition 1992.
Tshikuka, J.G., et al. The relationship of childhood protein energy, malnutrition and
parasite infections in an urban African setting. Trop. Med. Int. Health. 1997; 2 (4): 374- 382
Walker, A., The contribution of Weaning Foods to Protein-Energy malnutrition. Nutrition

research reviews, 1990; 3: 25-47.
Walker, S.P., et al, Nutritional supplementation, psychosocial stimulation, and growth of stunted
children: the Jamaican study. Am. J.Clin.Nutr. 1991, 54: 642-648.
Waterlow, J.C. et al, Protein Energy malnutrition, Edmund bury press, London, 1992.
Weaver, L.T., Feeding the weanling in the developing world: problem and solution.
International journal of food sciences and nutrition, 1994; 45: 127-134.
125
UNIT SEVEN
ANNEXES
126
7.1 Answer Keys
7.1.1 Keys for the Core Module (all categories)

Q.No.1. C
Q.No.2. E
Q.No.3. E
Q.No.4. A Marasmus
a. Kwashiorkor
b. Marasmic –kwashiorkor
c. Underweight
d. Stunting and wasting
Q.No.5. D
Q.No.6. Kwashiorkor
a. Pitting edema
b. Gray and easily pluckable hair
c. Miserable and apathetic
d. Loss of muscle & preservation of subcutaneous fat
Marasmus
A. Loss of both subcutaneous fat and muscle (skin and
bone appearance)
B. Irritability and moodiness
C. Wizened monkey faces (old man appearance)
D. Absence of edema
Q.No.7.
a. Anthropometric assessment
b. Biochemical or laboratory, assessment
c. Epidemiological (dietary assessment)
Q.No.8. a. Acute (stabilization) phase

b. Rehabilitation phase
127
Q.No.9. Because it causes fluid overload and death from heart
failure (a condition called recovery syndrome)
Q.No.10. D
Q.No.11. D
Q.No.12. D
Q.No.13. E
Q.No.14. A
Q.No.15. D
Q.No.16. D
Q.No.17. D
Q.No.18. D
Q.No.19. D
Q.No.20. C
Q.No.21. B
Q.No.22. D
Q.No.23. D
Q.No.24. D
Q.No.25. E
7.1.2. KEYS FOR SATELLITE MODULES (SPECIFIC

PROFESSIONAL CATEGORIES)
7.1.2.1. HEALTH OFFICERS

Q.No. 1. A to E
Q.No. 2. B to E
Q.No. 3. A to D
Q.No. 4. A to D
Q.No. 5. C
Q.No. 6. A, B, D and E
Q.No. 7. A to E
Q.No. 8 A to E
Q.No. 9. A and B
Q.No. 10. A, B, C and D
128
Q.No. 11. B, C, D and E
Q.No. 12. A and B
Q.No. 13. B
Q.No. 14. A to D
Q.No. 15. D
Q.No. 16. D
7.1.2.2. PUBLIC HEALTH NURSE
Q.NO. 1 A. Coordinate client care when discharged home

B. Teach them how to follow the feeding program.
C. Provide the necessary supplies and equipment
Q.NO. 2 . D
Q.NO. 3 A. Provide iron rich foods, after the first 7days
B. Prevent non compliance by giving appropriate and
adequate information
C. Offer the child favorite food.
D. Avoid bottle feeding
E. Return to clinic after a month or so.
Q. NO. 4. A. Identify the local sources of foods stuffs.

B. Recognize the cause of improper feeding in a given
community.
C. Provide information regarding the effect of improper
feeding.
D. Teach nutritional values of local foodstuffs.
E. Support the information with appropriate
demonstrations.
F. Teach the food hygiene at home.
G. Evaluate the feeding programme.
129
7.1.2.3. MEDICAL LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY
Q.No. 1. E
Q.No. 2. D
Q.No. 3. D
Q.No. 4. C
Q.No. 5. A
Q.No. 6. A
7.1.2.4. SANITARIANS
Q.No. 1. A
Q.No. 2. A
Q.No. 3. B
Q.No. 4. D
Q.No. 5. D
Q.No. 6. D
Q.No. 7. D
Q.No. 8. D
7.1.2.4. PRIMARY HEALTH WORKER (PHW)/COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKER

(CHW)
Q.No.1. C
Q.No.2. A, B, C, D
Q.No.3. A, B, C, D, E
Q.No.4. E
Q.No.5. Education of parents of children on:-

A. Proper child feeding practices like exclusive breast feeding for
the first 4-6 months, gradual weaning, using cup and spoon
than bottle, continue feeding during diarrhea,
B. Personal, environmental and food hygiene
C. Importance of taking their children to the health institutions for
Growth monitoring
D. Importance of getting their children immunized
E. Stimulation and proper treatment of children
130
THE AUTHORS
TEFERA BELACHEW (MD, MSc, DLSHTM), Assistant professor and head

Community Health Programme of Jimma University. He obtained his MD
degree from the former Jimma Institute of Health Sciences and his MSc from
University of London, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, UK.
CHALLI JIRA (BSc, MPH, CHMPP), Associate professor in the Community Health
Programme of Jimma University. Head, Health Planning and Health Services
Management Department In the Community Health Program and head, External Relations
Office Of Jimma University. He obtained his BSc in public health from the former Gondar
college of Public Health and his MPH from Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, the
Netherlands.
KEBEDE FARIS Assistant professor in school of Environmental Health, Jimma

University. He obtained his diploma in Sanitary Science from the former Gondar
College of Public Health and his BSc and MSc in Environmental Health from
University of Tennessee State University, USA.
GIRMA MEKETE Lecturer in the school of Medical Laboratory Technology, Jimma

University. He obtained his BSc in Biology From Addis Ababa University.
TSEGAYE ASRE (BSc,MSc), Lecturer in the School of Nursing and head of the school,
Jimma University. He obtained his BSc in nursing from the former Jimma Institute of
Health Sciences and His MSc from University of London, London school of Hygiene and
tropical Medicine, UK.
131

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MODULE

Tefera Belachew, Challi Jira, Kebede Faris, Girma Mekete,

Important Guidelines for Printing and Photocopying

©2001 by Dereje Abebe, Yayehirad Tassachew, Jemal Adem, Nejmudin

UNIT 1.0 Introduction

UNIT 3.0 Satellite Modules

UNIT 4.0 Role and Task Analysis 111

UNIT 5.0 Glossary and Abbreviations 119

UNIT 6.0 Bibliography 123

UNIT 7.0 Annexes

Therefore, this module is prepared to facilitate the process of equipping trainees

1.2.1 Check prerequisite knowledge required to use the module.

1.2.2 Do the pretest pertaining to the core module section 2.1.1.

1.2.3 Read the core module thoroughly.

1.2.6 Read the case study and try to answer questions.

1.2.7 Use the listed references and suggested reading materials to

(From the Core Module)

1. Which age groups of children are more predisposed to protein energy

3. How common is the problem of protein energy malnutrition?

6. How do you differentiate kwashiorkor from Marasmus clinically? List at

8. What are the different phases of management of cases of PEM?

9. What is the danger of administration of high protein and energy in the

10. What are the basic causes of protein –energy malnutrition?

11. Which of the following is a false statement?

12. What sanitary measures should be taken to prevent PEM?

13. In the clinical work up of protein energy malnutrition, what laboratory

14. What is the importance of hemoglobin determination in the

16. What is the importance of serum albumin determination in the

18. What pathogens contribute indirectly to the development of protein

19. The basic objective of managing a child with protein energy

a) To decrease the risk of vomiting, diarrhea and hypothermia

b) To increase and promote a rapid rate of catch up growth through

c) To avoid unnecessarily prolonged hospital stay so as to prevent cross

d) To promote the participation of mothers/care givers in the dietary

2.1.2 Pre and Posttest for Specific Categories of the

2.1.2.1 Health Officers

1. One of the following are nutritional problems of public health

2. The commonest type of malnutrition in Ethiopian Community is

d) Pertusis (whooping cough)

6. How would you manage this child?

a) Admit him and correct fluid and electrolyte balances first

d) High dose of vitamin A is required

e) Screen him for infection and treat accordingly

7. What will be your approach to the mother to prevent the recurrence of

a) Nutrition education on child feeding and meal planning

b) Counseling her on the importance of mixing different foods (cereals

c) Tell her the importance of gardening in her yard-garden if she has a

e) Appoint her for follow-up (growth monitoring)

a) About breast feeding

b) About weaning process and type of weaning food

d) About who is carrying for the child at home

e) Income of the family, marital status, educational status and family

9. The main objectives of treating this child in the rehabilitation phase is

11. Which of the following is correct?

c) Administration of other micro-nutrients like zinc, magnesium and

d) Basically all mothers free of HIV/AIDS be advised to exclusively

12. The types of classification of PEM so far in clinical use is

d) Mid upper arm circumference

b) Water low classification

Lack of knowledge -People do not understand the nutritional nature of their

Famine and vulnerability- destitution, being orphan (Example HIV taking

Infections - there is a reciprocal relationship between malnutrition and

Emotional deprivation- In orphan children and in children whose parents

Mal-distribution of foodstuffs - within the family, it occurs between the