Boaor Of:pt - Ilosoptl?: Psychology

IMPACT OF EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE, SELF-ESTEEM
AND SOCIAL SUPPORT ON NEED ACHIEVEMENT OF

VISUALLY AND PHYSICALLY CHALLENGED
STUDENTS
ABSTRACT
THESIS
THESIS SUBJViiTTED FOR THh AWARD OF THE DEGRth OF
Boaor of :pt|ilosoptl?
IN
PSYCHOLOGY
fB>«*
bubinined 6 y
RUSHDA ILLYAS
Under the supervision of

PROF. MAHMOOD S. KHAN
[fi:L±iJ4
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH (INDIA)
2011
ABSTRACT
Disabled persons exist in every society. Disability has never been viewed as a
trivial matter, either by the individual who suffers from it or by those who are
concerned with him. Almost all societies had attached some stigma to handicapped
persons. For society it ha[S meant a perplexing economic and social problem. The
future of the disabled persons in today's competitive world is still not very promising
and bright. These attitudes create barriers which seem to limit educational
opportunities and diminish creativity in addressing the needs of such type of children.
One of the greatest challenges for behavioural scientists is in the advancement of
education of disabled children is to change the public attitudes toward disability. Even
without special education as practiced today, these individuals have made solid
contributions to the fields of science, mathematics, music and literature. These
individuals through their own ceaseless efforts and with assistance of many social
workers, psychologists, counsellors and philanthropist can reach to the pinnacle of
fame. Therefore it is necessary to focus on the need achievement of the differently-
abled group.
The present study aims to study the "impact of emotional competence, self-
esteem and social support on need achievement of visually and physically challenged
students". In order to achieve a better understanding of these groups of students a
control group (viz. normal students) from the similar background was also included in
this study. In this study it was intended to ascertain the need achievement of the three
groups of students in order to compare them in relation to emotional competence and
its 3 dimensions namely (a) perceiving and understanding emotions, (b) expressing
and labeling emotions and (c) managing and regulating emotions; self-esteem; and
social support and its 3 dimensions namely (a) family support, (b) friends support and
(c) significant others support. Emotional competence, self-esteem and social support
have been studied as independent variables and need achievement as dependent
variable.
It is a world wide accepted truth that need for achievement is an important
variable, the performance or achievement of any individual will depend upon his
desire to achieve, though achievement is a learned motive to compete and to strive for
success. The need to achieve influences many kinds of behavior despite it comes in
the category of learned motive, there are wide differences among individuals in their
past experiences and hence in their achievement motivation. Every individual acts and
strive to satisfy his certain needs. A need leads to a drive, and a drive reasonably
satisfies one's need. Every man from cradle to grave is constantly striving to satisfy
his/her various types of needs. Every action is motivated by a purpose or "goal".
Motivation has long been recognized as a primary factor in any performance. So it is a
strong tendency of the individuals to make persistent efforts for goal attainment. The
achievement need is seen most clearly in student who must continually test himself,
who is always ready to take on different task merely because it is difficult. The
individual experiences a desire to be successful. He strives for accomplishing
something difficult and tries to master, manipulate or organize physical objects, or
himian being or even ideas. He wants to do this as rapidly and independently as
possible. He desires to overcome the obstacles and attain a high standard. He
endeavours to excel oneself and surpass others. He wants to increase his self regard
by successful exercise of his talents (Atkinson, 1966).
«H1IS»»
Emotional Competence seems to be very important to prepare the student to
deal with heavy course pressure, peer group competition and adaptation to school
norms and disciplines. It also helps students to focus attention, organize memory, help
them to interpret social situations, and motivate them for relevant behavior which
fiirther enhances their achievement motivation. It can be taught to develop skills
during teaching learning process to gain emotional literacy along with their education.
Emotional competence captures an understanding of the skills needed to adapt to and
cope with one's social environment. In contrast with constructs like intelligence,
which are depicted as an innate ability, emotional competence is construed as a set of
skills that are learned. Emotional competence refers to a person's ability in expressing
or releasing their inner feelings (emotions). Saami (1998) defined emotional
competence in terms of skills consisting of understanding our emotions, discerning
and imderstanding other's emotions using the vocabulary of emotions and
expressions, the capacity for empathetic involvement, the capacity to differentiate
internal subjective emotional experience from external expression, the capacity for
adaptive coping with a aversive emotions and distressing circumstances,
understanding of emotional conmiunication within relationships and the ability for
emotional self-efficacy. The researcher has studied three emotional competencies as
predictors of need achievement. They are namely (a) Perceiving and Understanding
emotions, (b) Expressing and Labeling emotions and (c) Managing and Regulating
emotions.
The perception and outlook of the individual is affected by the meaning he
attaches to himself i.e.. Self-esteem. It refers to the way a person feels about oneself,
including the degree to which he possesses self-respect and self-acceptance. A
dictionary of psychology defines self-esteem as "a term given to the evaluations an

individual makes of and applies to himself. It can express positive or negative feelings
and indicates the extent to which the individual believes himself or herself to be
significant, capable and worthy". It may be briefly referred to as the degree to which
the self is perceived positively or negatively i.e. one's overall attitude towards the
self.
Together with self-esteem another crucial factor likely to contribute to need
achievement of students is social supportfromfamily, friends and significant others.
Social concern is a central issue in the life of every human being. In case if an
individual is given prolonged isolation will be the severest pimishment for him. We
live in the midst of people which constitute man's created social world, so everyone
of us often rely on others for support, to bolster our own resources, particularly at
times when our resources are depleted or inadequate. Cobb (1976) defined social
support as the individual belief that one is cared for and loved, esteemed and valued
and belongs to a social network that provides goods, services and mutual defense at
times of need or danger. Social support may be perceived as emanating from different
social agencies, family, friends and significant others (Zimet et al., 1988). Social
interaction with family, friends or society seems to be an integral element of an
individual's mental, physical and social health.
The research design used by the researcher was therefore correlational in
nature and multiple comparison group design. For prediction of need achievement by
the 7 variables, stepwise multiple regression was used by the researcher. One way
ANOVA and post hoc was used for the multiple comparisons between the groups.
Research Questions: Attempt was made to answer the foUov^ng research questions.
1. Do emotional competence and its dimensions predict need achievement of
visually challenged students?
2. Does self-esteem predict need achievement of visually challenged students?
3. Do social support and its dimensions predict need achievement of visually
' challenged students?
physically challenged students?
5. Does self-esteem predict need achievement of physically challenged students?
6. Do social support and its dimensions predict need achievement of physically
challenged students?
Keeping in view the objectives of this study in mind it was desirable to
have an explicit picture of the phenomenon in the non-disabled i.e. normal
group of students of almost similar socioeconomic backgroimd and
educational qualification for a better imderstanding of the disabled groups, the
following research questions were also formulated and verified.
non-disabled i.e. normal students?
8. Does self-esteem predict need achievement of non-disabled i.e. normal
students?
9. Do social support and its dimensions predict need achievement of non-
disabled i.e. normal students?

To identify the predictors the research questions were taken into
consideration. Further it was feh necessary to compare these three groups. For
this purpose certain research hypotheses were formulated and tested:
1. Whether the visually challenged, physically challenged and non-disabled i.e.
normal students differ in terms of emotional competence and its dimensions.
normal students differ in terms of self-esteem.
normal students differ in terms of social support and its dimensions.
The total sample comprised of 300 subjects (100 visually challenged
students, 100 physically challenged students and 100 normal students). The
respondents were drawn by the means of purposive sampling technique. The data was
collected from various secondary and senior secondary schools and also from students
pursuing for graduation degree from the University campus and also from some
schools located in Aligarh city. Physically challenged students were selected from
Orthopaedic OPD of JNMCH and also from various halls of residence including
various secondary as well as senior secondary schools of A.M.U. Due to lesser
number of availability of visually challenged students we have included those
students residing in the hostel of a Blind School of A.M.U. Where as sample of
normal students comprised of students studying in schools as well as in the University
upto âduation level were included in this group. To equate the characteristics the
sample of normal students with that of visually challenged and physically challenged
students was selected from abnost the same socio-economic background and
educational qualification. The age range of the normal students was 14-19 and the age
6
range of the disabled students was 15-22. Most of the cases in the physically
challenged group were polio affected where as among visually challenged most of the
cases were acquired at certain age due to infection and some of them were congenital
too.
Achievement Motivation (n-ach) Scale was used to assess need
achievement. It is a self-rating questiormaire developed by Pratibha Deo and Asha
Mohan (1985) having both positive and negative items. It consists of 50 items, 13 are
negative and 37 are positive items. Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire
developed by Taksic (2000) was used to assess emotional competence. It is a self
reported scale consisting of 45 items divided into three subscales: (a) Perception and
Understanding emotions scale has 15 items, (b) the Expression and Labeling emotions
scale has 14 items and (c) the Managing and Regulating emotions scale has 16 items.
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) developed by Rosenberg (1965) a 10 item self
report measure was used to assess Self-esteem. Social support was assessed through
Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) developed by Zimet,
Dahlem, Zimet and Farley, 1988. It contains 12 items measure of subjectively
assessed social support. It measures three different sources of support with three
subscales: (a) Significant Others, (b) Family and (c) Friends. For visually challenged
students the questioimaires were transformed into Braille.
Since the major purpose of the study was to find out the predictor variables for
need achievement. Thus the analysis of data using Stepwise Multiple Regression
through SPSS has given the entire picture of analysis concerning to variables studied
in different steps. As self-esteem has no dimensions it was studied as a whole. Thus
instead of applying Stepwise Multiple Regression, Simple Linear Regression was
applied to see the impact of self-esteem on need achievement of all the three groups
7
of students. Before applying Simple Linear Regression scatter plot was computed, to
check the assumptions of regression, to make sure that the model can be generalized
beyond the sample. This technique was applied in all the three groups. Further
additional statistical analysis was done by applying One Way ANOVA for the
purpose of comparing the three groups. Q-Q plot was plotted for the dependent
variable to fulfill the assumption of normality for ANOVA. In the end, to answer the
questions raised earlier to interpret the results and observe the significance of
difference the post hoc test was also applied.
The results showed that managing and regulating emotions (a dimension of
emotional competence) significantly predicts the need achievement of visually
challenged students. The other two factors of emotional competence viz. expressing
and labeling emotions and perceiving and understanding emotions did not emerge as
significant predictors of need achievement of visually challenged students. Managing
and regulating emotions are more important in contributing to the need achievement
among visually challenged students. Self-esteem significantly predicts the need
achievement of visually challenged students. Family support (a dimension of social
support) significantly predicts the need achievement of visually challenged students.
The other two factors of social support viz. fiiends support and significant others
support did not emerge as significant predictors of need achievement of visually
challenged students. Family support is more important in contributing to the need
achievement among visually challenged students. Perceiving and understanding
emotions (a dimension of emotional competence) significantly predicts the need
achievement of physically challenged students. The other two factors of emotional
competence viz. managing and regulating emotions and expressing and labeling
emotions did not emerge as significant predictors of need achievement of physically
8
challenged students. Perceiving and understanding emotions are more important in
contributing to the need achievement among physically challenged students. Self-
esteem significantly predicts the need achievement of physically challenged students.
Managing and regulating emotions (a dimension of emotional competence)
significantly predicts the need achievement of normal students. The other two factors
of emotional competence viz. expressing and labeling emotions and perceiving and
understanding emotions did not emerge as significant predictors of need achievement
of normal students. Managing and regulating emotions are more important in
contributing to the need achievement among normal students too. Self-esteem predicts
the need achievement of normal students. Friends support negatively influence the
level of need achievement. As the level of friends support increases the level of need
achievement decreases. On the basis of results it may be interpreted that significant
others support which is one of the dimensions of social support significantly predicts
the need achievement of normal students. The other factor of social support viz.
family support did not emerge as significant predictor of need achievement of normal
students. Significant others support is more important in contributing to the need
achievement among normal students.
The groups were compared with regard to their emotional competence, self-
esteem and social support. It was observed that the groups did not differ in terms of
emotional competence. Where as in terms of self-esteem and social support there
were significant differences between the groups. Mean scores of visually challenged
students were foimd higher than physically challenged students and normal students;
where as mean scores of physically challenged students were higher than the normal
students concerning to emotional competence. Significant differences were not found
between visually challenged students and physically challenged students, visually

challenged students and normal students, and physically challenged students and
normal students on emotional competence. Mean scores of visually challenged
students were found higher than the physically challenged students and normal
students; where as mean scores of physically challenged students were lower than
normal students on self-esteem. Significant difference was foimd between visually
challenged students and physically challenged students. Statistically insignificant
differences were found between visually challenged students and normal students, and
physically challenged students and normal students on self-esteem. Mean scores of
visually challenged students were found higher than the physically challenged
students and normal students; where as mean scores of physically challenged students
were higher than normal students on social support. Significant differences were
foimd between visually challenged students and physically challenged students,
visually challenged students and normal students, and physically challenged students
and normal students on social support. The three groups were compared on the
dimensions of emotional competence. The mean scores of visually challenged
students were found higher than physically challenged students and normal students;
students on perceiving and understanding emotions, a dimension of emotional
competence. Mean scores of physically challenged students were higher than visually
challenged students and normal students; where as mean scores of visually challenged
students were higher than normal students on expressing and labeling emotions, a
dimension of emotional competence. The mean scores of visually challenged students
were higher than physically challenged students and normal students; where as mean
scores of physically challenged students are higher than normal students on managing
and regulating emotions, a dimension of emotional competence. Significant
10
differences were not found between the between visiially challenged students and
physically challenged students, visually challenged students and normal students, and
physically challenged students and normal students, on perceiving and imderstanding
emotions on expressing and labeling emotions, and on managing and regulating
emotions. In terms of family support, friends support and significant others support
there were significant differences between the groups compared. Mean scores of
visually challenged students were higher than physically challenged students and
normal students; where as mean scores of physically challenged students were higher
than normal students on family support a dimension of social support. Significant
differences were found between visually challenged students and physically
challenged students, visually challenged students and normal students, and physically
challenged students and normal students on family support a dimension of social
support. The mean scores of visually challenged students were found higher than
physically challenged students and normal students; where as mean scores of
physically challenged students were higher than normal students on friends support a
dimension of social support. Significant differences were foimd between visually
challenged students and physically challenged students, visually challenged students
and normal students. Statistically insignificant difference was found between
physically challenged students and normal students on fiiends support a dimension of
social support. The mean scores of visually challenged students were found higher
than the physically challenged students and normal students; where as mean scores of
physically challenged students were lower than normal students on significant others
support a dimension of social support. Significant differences were found between
visually challenged students and physically challenged students, visually challenged
students and normal students. Statistically insignificant difference was found between
11
physically challenged students and normal students on friends support a dimension of
social support.
Thus amongst the factors brought out as significant predictors of need
achievement of visually challenged students were managing and regulating emotions,
self-esteem and family support. In other words visually challenged students who were
high on managing and regulating emotions, self-esteem and family support are likely
to have need for achievement. The factors brought out as significant predictors of
need achievement of physically challenged students were perceiving and
understanding emotions, self-esteem and family support. In other words physically
challenged students who were high on perceiving and understanding emotions, self-
esteem and family support are likely to have need for achievement. The factors
brought out as significant predictors of need achievement of non-disabled i.e. normal
students were managing and regulating emotions, self-esteem and significant others
support. In other words normal students who were high on managing and regulating
emotions, self-esteem and significant others support are likely to have need for
achievement.
When the groups were compared with regard to their emotional competence,
self-esteem and social support; it was observed that the groups did not differ in terms
of emotional competence, where as in terms of self-esteem and social support there
were significant differences between the groups. Significant differences were not
found between visually challenged students and physically challenged students,
and normal students on emotional competence. Significant difference was found
between visually challenged students and physically challenged students where as
statistically insignificant differences were found between visually challenged students
12
and normal students, and physically challenged students and normal students on self-
esteem. Significant differences were foimd between visually challenged students and
physically challenged students and normal students on social support. When the three
groups of respondents were compared on the dimensions of emotional competence
and social support, significant differences were not found between the between
students and normal students, and physically challenged students and normal students
on perceiving and understanding emotions, on expressing and labeling emotions, and
on managing and regulating emotions (dimensions of emotional competence). In
terms of family support, friends support and significant others support (dimensions of
socials support) there were significant differences between the groups. Significant
differences were foimd between visually challenged students and physically
support. Significant differences were found between visually challenged students and
physically challenged students, visually challenged students and normal students
where as statistically insignificant difference was found between physically
challenged students and normal students on friends support a dimension of social
challenged students and normal students on fiiends support a dimension of social
support.
13
IMPACT OF tlVIOnUNAL CUMPETENCt, btLF-ESTEEM
AND SOCIAL SUPPORT ON NEED ACHIEVEMENT OF
VISUALLY AND PHYSICALLY CHALLENGED
STUDENTS
THESIS
THbbiS SuBiVii I I ED fOR THE AVVAKD OF THE O t G K t E OF
IN
PSYCHOLOGY
buDinitted By
RUSHDA ILLYAS
Under ine ;>upervision of

PROF. MAHMOOD S. KHAN
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH (INDIA)
2011
^tt^^''
^ ^ \7 CoOT^tei
; 2^15
1 9 ^p^
T7754
(Prof. MafimoodS. 'Kjian Department of Psychology
M.A.,M.Phil.D.St.,Ph.D. Aligarh Muslim University
Ex-Chairman Aligarh-202002, U.P. (India)
Phone: Internal Off: 1580,1581
External Res. -0571-3093854
Dated:.5:.:.^.:.:^//..
^jerltftrate
This is to certify that the thesis entitled "Impact of Emotional

Competence, Self-Esteem and Social Support on Need Achievement of
Visually and Physically Challenged Students" for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology of Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
embodies the original research work carried out by Ms. Rushda Illyas under
my supervision and to the best of my knowledge and belief no thesis has been
submitted for the award of any degree of this University or any other
University.
The work done by her is upto the mark and quite suitable for the award
of Ph.D. degree in Psychology.
Prof. Mahmood S. Khan

(Supervisor)
ate^t^
^
Tirst ancf foremost I wouCcC Ci^ to acôwkcfge tfie (Benevolence of tfie JiCmigHty for
everytHing !}Ce fias given me.
It is a great privilege for me to express my sincere gratitude and indeBtedness to my (earned

mentor and supervisor (Prof. MafimoodS. 'Kfian. iJiis study could not Have seen the tight of
the day without his invaCuaBk supervision. I am oSCiged to him not onCy for the
motivation, indispensaSCe support, guidance, untiring and constant efforts, and ên
oBservations and suggestions given to me at aCfphases of my research covering each aspect
of this study. J{is warm attitude, enCightening ta^ and ever wilBng help always sustained
me in my efforts andijispiredme to pursue my wor^consistentCy.
I ma^ use of this precious opportunity to than^ (Prof. A6u Suftyan ZifS, Cftaimian,
department of (Psychology, îgarh MusRm Vniversity, Migo-Th,
I expend my than^ and deep seme of gratitude to my kamed teachers (Prof. !Kamidd
JLfmad (ex<hairperson), (Dr. ^^fihat AH 'Kfian, (Prof. Jiâr 'Hussain, (Prof. ShaSana
MaqBoo^ (Prof. ShammAnsari, (Prof. Hafiz Ifyas "Kfian, (Prof. Saeeduzzafar, (Prof, 9{aima
% Qu(fez, (Prof. TfcJieedyHzami, (Dr. AsiyaJLyaz, (Dr. Musaddiq3cAan and (Dr. ^pomana
SiddiquL
I would also Ci^ to than^Shariq (Bhai, Tajuddin (Bhai, JlqeeC(Bhai, Majaz (Bhai, gAous
(Bhai and other non-teaching staff memBersfor their constant support.
I would Be faiCing if I do not acknowledge my parents' contriBution towards my

personafity Building. 'Every nooândcomer of my heart is gratefuC Beyond the expression
of words to myfather Mr. Mohd iCyasJinsari and mother Mrs. (paCa^JNaazfor showering
immense hve, affection and concern without which I woiddhave Been non-existent. I can
just say that my achievement is theirs.
I shaCC aCways remain indeBted to my friends (Bushru, (Fariha, 9fafsa, Ufandita and
ShaSanafor Being my pillars of strength, who have contriButedto the development and
compktion of this thesis through their gift of time, support, advice amf SeCief Ihey have
Seen my source of inspiration and "without their soficitous care andhetp I would not have
Seen aSCe to finish my wor^ I am highCy gratefuC to my friends for their unending
encouragement and heCp rendered to me in innumeraSCe ways at various junctures and
support over the years of my candidature.
There are some other friends and coUeagues that I must mention who never faikd their
duty to encourage me. I have no words to than^Mridula <R, (Bilquees, <Dee6a, %pinat,
Sadaf, Seema, ShaSatta, !Naseem A^pa, JLmrita, INaiCt and<Pragati and specially %ideem
who helped me in aCCthe technicaC difficulties 1faced during this worôfmine.
I want to than^my sisters SHa/Uttda andlfrafor their encouragement Beyond comparison

Because on every occasion they have found opportunities to Boost my morale and for Being
By my side always. I am grateful to my in-laws, for their encouragement and having faith
in me to pursue my research wor^ I want to thanks my Vncks and Aunts providing me
constant support and continuous encouragement.
My special than^ are for my husBand 9Ar. TAohd. Shamm Jlnsari, for his Cove and
affection; he showered on me Blended with his immense understanding and caring nature
accepting alCmy sins of omission at the home, while I was Busy in my wor^ 9fe has Been
my strength always; with patience he understood my proBkm. TCis support and
encouragement By words and deeds opened magic casements for me. !His faith and
confidence in me have made a world of difference.
Last But not the least I would li^ to thanâlTthe participants who participated in the
investigation and made this wor^possiBk. I am gratefuC to the authorities of various
schooCs for providing me necessary information during my data collection, to different
liSraries I have visited, I offer my sincere than^. I hope I have made proper use.
^SmA ILLtAS
CONTENTS
Page No
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 1-113
• Need Achievement
• Emotional Competence
• Self-Esteem
• Social Support
CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY 114 - 125

• Design
• Sample
• Tools Used
• Procedure
CHAPTER III RESULT AND DISCUSSION 126-169
CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION, LIMITATIONS AND

SUGGESTIONS 170 -177
CHAPTER V SUMMARY 178-193
REFERENCES 194-221
APPENDICES
Appendix-A: Achievement Motivation (n-ach) Scale
Appendix-B: Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire
Appendix-C: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Appendix-D: Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS)
mieiO'
INTRODUCTION
Human beings have inquisitive nature and thus have a perpetual quest to
explore and understand their surroundings, the social setting reasonably enables them
to grow, flourish and unfold man's inborn capabilities. The progress and development
in all spheres of a society is also important, if members of the society willingly offer
to carry on shouldering their responsibilities will make the society cohesive and on
the path of overall progress and development. But any society does not move as per
the desire of an individual. It is often seen that people having disabilities are also an
integral segment of the society and they need special care and social support, if not
they might develop the feeling of being neglected. Researches conducted on these
groups have shown that the children representing differently-abled groups have
proved fruitftil and may be successfiil in different walks of life across the society. Any
kinds of disability, congenital or accidental or caused by any kind of infection makes
the individual incapable of doing many activities away from the socially accepted
norm of behavior and are more susceptible to become victim of social negligence and
rejection in their own family including the peer groups. So these special need children
may be vulnerable to develop adjustment as well as psychological problems such as
low self-esteem, lack of confidence, inferiority complex, anxiety or depression. If this
segment of the society remains neglected and not dealt in a proper way, it will make
their lives pathetic, miserable and dependent. Thus, it is necessarily required to
develop, rebuild and boost their confidence to make them self reliant to lead almost
normal life like others.
Disabled persons exist in every society and at all times though the pattern of
their care and development differ from society to society and from time to time and
largely depended on the contemporary social attitudes towards them. Almost all
societies had attached some stigma to handicapped persons. The problems being faced
by the disabled persons attracted the attention of government and NGO's by the
initiatives of WHO and efforts in this direction brought changes in the attitude of
people and as a result of it the development of positive attitude towards the
differently-abled people has been of recent origin. Government, NGO's the world
over, are now actively engaged in addressing themselves to the problems of the
handicapped in a systematic and comprehensive manner. It was a major break
through, the U.N. declared the Rights of the Disabled in the year 1981. The major
emphasis of Government policies has been more on treatment and rehabilitation of the
handicapped and less on their social psychological integration. The social stigma
traditionally attached to the handicapped still remains and contributes to the problem
of their integration of varied nature to lead normal life with the members across the
society.
Concept and Definition of the Handicapped
A handicapped person is one who suffers from any continuing disability of
body or intellect and which is likely to interfere with his normal growth and
functioning and capacity to learn. His disability may be due to unfavourable factors in
his heredity or environmental influences affecting him in the pre-natal, and post- natal
period. A person is considered to be a handicapped if he/she cannot, within limits,
play, learn, work or do the things which other people of his/her age can do if he/she is
hindered from achieving what should be his/her full physical, mental and social
potentialities.
In the dictionary of sociology, a handicapped person is defined as one who
possesses a physical defect which reduces his/her efficiency in performing personal
and social obligations according to a socially determined standard (Fairchild, 1944),

The National Assistance Act of 1948 defines 'handicapped persons as those
who are blind, deaf and dumb and others who are substantially and permanently
handicapped by illness or congenital deformity'.
Another definition states that a handicapped person is one who cannot hold to
his own age group because of a physical trait or injury, some emotional disturbance or
restriction in his mental ability (Rusink, 1963).
The Disabled Persons Act of 1944 and 1958 (India) describes a disabled
person as "one who, on account of injury, disease a congenital deformity, is
substantially handicapped in obtaining and keeping eniployment or in undertaking
work on his/her own account of a kind which, apart fi-om injury, disease and
deformity would be suited to his/her age, experience and qualifications".
The Ministry of Health in 1944 has listed the following conditions as the cause
of handicap or disablement.
• Amputation of one or more limbs
• Arthritis and Rheumatism
• Congenital malnutrition and deformity
• Diseases of the digestive and genital urinary system
• Injuries of the head, face and limbs
• Origin of epilepsy and poliomyelitis
• T. B. of bones and joints.
CONCEPT AND REVIEW OF STUDIES ON NEED ACHIEVEMENT
The study of individual differences in terms of need achievement is a key goal
of educational psychology. It is often wondered why some students perform well than
others, though they have the same level of intelligence? This query has prompted
researchers to try to find out some plausible explanation for this type of interesting
question. While common sense says that a person with a high amount of need for
achievement is intellectually involved in getting his/her performance improved.
Researchers have found that there are other equally important factors such as
emotional competence, self-esteem, and social support that can also contribute to need
for achievement.
It is a world wide accepted truth that need for achievement is an important
variable, the performance or achievement of any individual vnll depend upon his
success. Almost any activity from scholastic achievement to obtaining
technical/medical or higher education can be viewed in terms of competition and
the category of learned motive, there are v\dde differences among individuals in their
past experiences and hence in their achievement motivation.
Every individual acts and strive to satisfy certain needs. A need leads to a
drive, and a drive reasonably satisfies one's need. For all round development, growth
and survival of an individual, the satisfaction of his/her various types of needs to a
reasonable level are very important and infact it differsfi-omone individual to other.
Every man from cradle to grave is constantly striving to satisfy his/her various types
of needs. Every action is motivated by a purpose or "goal". The factor that gives
vigour to all human behaviour is the underlying motivation which may Primary and
Secondary motives. Primary motives are the drives of the organism like hunger, thirst,
and sex etc. while the secondary motives are learned motives like affiliation, fear,
achievement and power etc. A motive is a relatively permanent and general
characteristic of one's personality which is one of the determinants of motivation. A

specific motive is concerned with the specific type of goal. Motivation has long been
recognized as a primary factor in any performance. So it is a strong tendency of the
individuals to make persistent efforts for goal attainment.
Amongst the more often questions asked by the parents and educators, almost
none is more frequently heard than, "what factors in child-rearing encourages and
discourages achievement striving in youngsters". A complex answer is suggested by a
number of different correlation studies. Many parental attitudes and child rearing
practices, including independence training (Winterbottom, 1953; Feld, 1959)
rewarded of achievement efforts (Crandall, Preston, and Rabson, 1960) and
encouragement and instigation of intellectual pursuits (Crandall, Katkovsky, and
Preston, 1960b) are associated with achievement striving. A person is motivated
mainly by achievement may make important contributions to society. Achievement
motivates an individual's preference to work with experts in order to get a task
accomplished.
The concept of need achievement cannot be properly understood unless it is
seen as a special aspect of the broad core of achievement. To achieve always implies
meeting a goal. The goal may be set by many, and the diverse, needs of the organism.
Physical hunger may set a goal for food intake, the necessity to earn money, to keep a
job, or to work on a research project may set still other goals.
The achievement need is seen most clearly in student who must continually
test himself, who is always ready to take on different task merely because it is
difficult. For, such students, as McClelland (1953) and his associates have shown, it is
often enough to know that it is hard to make a good grade on this assignment, or that a
certain problem is considered insoluble. This trait is probably an outcome of an early
childhood training that emphasized achievement or independence. This need for

achievement can be enhanced, especially in boys, by pep talks or by stories of men
who have succeeded in spite of serious handicaps. It may be possible; by the way, that
this achievement need is too often neglected.
The concept of achievement motivation is not new; its historical connection
with research on motivation can be traced back to pioneer German psychologists.
Narziss Ach attempted to explain the achievement related behaviour of his subjects as
'determining tendency'. Lewin in 1926 made reference to this motive under the
general concept of 'quasi need' (Heckhausen, 1967). It found place in the work of
Adler (1927) whose concept of 'inferiority complex', masculine protest' and 'striving
for superiority' all points to the gratification of achievement needs as an important
goal of human behaviour.
Murray (1938) played a dual fiinction in the history of achievement motivation
research. On the one hand, he called attention to a need for achievement (or an
achievement attitude) by including this disposition among his list of 20 manifest
psychogenic needs. Murray appeared to be the first psychologist who evolved a
complete system of needs and developed the projective technique generally referred
as TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) to recognize his well defined needs in the
subject's personality. His explanations of main needs are as stated below:
• Need abasement: to submit passively to external force, to accept punishment,
blame, injury, criticism etc.
• Need affiliation: to draw near and enjoyably co-operate or reciprocate with an
allied others, to please, to adhere and remain loyal to a friend.
• Need Aggression: tofight,to revenge, to attack, injure or kill another.
• Need Autonomy: to getfi-ee,shake of restraints, break out of confinement, to
resist etc.
• Need Counteraction: to repress fear, to overcome weakness, to search for
obstacles and difficulties to overcome etc.
• Need Dependence: to defend the self against assault, criticism and blame, to
conceal or justify a misdeed.
• Need Deference: to admire or support a superior, to praise, honour.
• Need Dominance: to control one's human envirormient to influence or direct the
behaviour of others by suggestion.
• Need Exhibition: to make an impression, to excite, amaze, fascinate, entertain,
amuse, etc.
• Need Harm avoidance: to avoid pain, physical injury, illness and death.
• Need Infavoidance: to avoid humiliation, to avoid condition which may lead to
belittlement.
• Need Nurturance: to give sympathy and gratify the needs of a helpless object, an
infant or any object that is weak, disabled or tired.
• Need Order: to part things in order, arrangement, organization, balance, and
precision.
• Need Play: to act for fiin without further purpose, to like, to laugh and jokes.
• Need Rejection: to separate one from negatively collected objects, to snub or jilt
an object.
• Need Sentience: to seek and enjoy sensuous impressions.
• Need Sex: to form and further an erotic relationship to have sexual intercourse.
• Need Succorance: to have one's needs gratified by the sympathetic aid of an
allied object.
• Need Understanding: to ask or answer general questions, to be interested in
theory. ^
^tsn^^^* 7
• Need Achievement: the individual experiences a desire to be successftil. He
strives for accomplishing something difficult and tries to master, manipulate or
organise physical objects, or human being or even ideas. He wants to do this as
rapidly and independently as possible. He desires to overcome obstacles and attain
a high standard. He endeavours to excel oneself and surpass others. He wants to
increases his self regard by successful exercise of his talents. (Atkinson, 1966).
Murray was the first historically known to make a major effort to
conceptualize adequately the concrete individual life in all its richness and variety.
These desires, Murray (1938) states, are accompanied by these actions: to make
intense, prolonged and repeated efforts accomplish something difficult, to work with
singleness of purpose towards a high and distant goal, to have the determination to
win, to try to do everything well. To be stimulated to excel by the presence of others,
to enjoy competition. To exert will power; to overcome boredom and fatigue.
Murray's another contribution to the study of achievement motivation was the
development of an instrument which is called Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) that
supposedly revealed "covert and imconscious complexes" (Murray, 1938). The TAT
was almost universally adopted by subsequent investigators to assess achievement
needs.
In historical significance of achievement motivation is McClelland et al.
(1953) also conducted a systematic study on achievement motivation that entailed a
refinement of the TAT for the measurement of achievement needs. The theory of
achievement motivation was first formulated by McClelland and influenced by
Hebb's notion of an optimal level of stimulation. McClelland turnedfi-omlaboratory
and elaborated the general argument for his theoretical position particularly his
analysis of the origin of motivational dispositions in the primary learning experience

of childhood. There was a bifurcation of achievement research following the
publication of The Achievement Motive' in the year 1953. This work culminated in
1961 with the publication of 'The Achieving Society', an awe inspiring book that has
had relatively little impact on the field of psychology while commanding much
attention from other disciplines in the social sciences.
At the same time, Atkinson (1964) who occupies as another important figure
of the historical importance pertaining to achievement motivation research, conducted
experimental study on achievement motivation. The stage of TAT validation soon
gave way to an attempt by Atkinson to construct a theory of achievement motivation.
This theory was guided by the prior work of Tolman, decision theorists, and Lewin,
and by the level of aspiration model proposed by Festinger and Escalona. Atkinson's
achievement model, which first appeared in the literature of psychology in the year
1957, dominated research in achievement motivation for the next decade and was
fully elucidated in his fine treatise on motivation in 1964. According to Atkinson the
tendency to achieve success is a learned motivational disposition and is a function of
three variables.
(a) Motive to Achieve: a person with high motive to achieve approaches the task
with enthusiasm and these results in high scores.
(b) Probability of success: it is subjective statement and is directly related
tendency to achieve success.
(c) Incentive Value of Success: in general incentive value of success increases
with the difficulty of task.
It is difficult to assess objectively one's contribution to a field of study, and
megalomania is not socially acceptable.

Atkinson in his theory of motivation proposed by McClelland (1961) with
incorporating ideas about level of aspiration. McClelland pointed at that in the course
of development, human beings acquire a need for achievement, and he conducted a
study to demonstrate the degree to which this need varies along individuals. Atkinson
hypothesizes that differences in the strength of the need for achievement can be
explained by postulating a contrasting need to avoid failure. Some people, he
suggests, are success oriented; others have a high degree of anxiety about failure.
Through experimentation, Atkinson and Litwin (1960) showed that success oriented
individuals are likely to set personal goal of intermediate difficulty (that is, they have
a 50-50 chance of success), where as anxiety- ridden persons set goals that are either
very high or very low. (If anxiety-ridden individuals fail on the hard task, no one can
blame them; and they are almost sure to succeed on easy task.) Atkinson believes that
the tendency to achieve success is influenced by the probability of success and the
attractiveness of achieving it. A strong need to avoid failure is likely to develop in
people who experience repeated failure and set goals beyond what they think they can
accomplish.
The similarity of Atkinson's conception to Maslow theory of motivation is
apparent. Both emphasized that the fear of failure must be taken into account in
arranging learning experiences. The same point has been stressed by William Glasser
in Schools Without Failure (1969) and The Identity Society (1972), Glasser argues
that for people to succeed at life in general, they must first experience success in
important aspect of their lives. For most children that one important part should be
school. But traditional approach to education, which emphasizes comparative grading,
allows only a minority of students to feel successful. Most students feel that they are
failures, which depress their motivation to achieve in other areas of their lives.
10
One of the most intriguing aspects of differences in need for achievenient is
that some individuals seem to "fear" success and others seem to be motivated to
avoid it.
Fear and Avoidance of Success:
Reading reports of research inspired by the work of McClelland and Atkinson,
Homer (1968) become intrigued by thefindingthat the need for achievement in males
seemed to be more fully developed than in females. She decided to make this the
subject of her Ph.D dissertation and, used the technique derived from studies
conducted by Atkinson. She asked 178 university students to write a four minute story
from this cue: "At the end of first- term finals Anne finds herself at the top of her
medical school class." When she analyzed the stories, Homer found three rectirrent
themes (1) fear that Anne would lose friends, (2) guilt about success, and (3)
willingness to come to grips with the question of Anne's success (in some stories the
cue was more or less ignored). She concluded that all three of these stories written by
women could be classified under this heading, contrasted with only 9 % of those
written by men.
As a second part of her study, she placed men and women in competitive and
non competitive situations. She found that women who wrote fear-of-success stories
performed much better when alone than when competing against others. She reasoned
that fear of success motivates many women to avoid achievement, particularly in
competitive situations.
Reports of Homer's study (1970) attracted attention, and a number of articles
in newspapers and magazines led readers to believe that there is a well-established
tendency for almost all women to fear success. Because of the publicity and the
topicality of the concept, over sixty studies derived from or similar to Homer's
11
original research were carried out in the next three years. Tresemer (1974, 1977)
reviewed these studies and also analyzed the techniques used by Homer. He
concluded that fear-of-success stories may be influenced by a variety of factors,
including the type of cues supplied. For example, when a woman in a story is
described as the best psychology student rather than as the best medical student,
Tresemer reported, males write more fear-of-success stories than females.
While some students may avoid success because they fear they will jeopardize
their relationships with peers, others may have a weak need for achievement because
of conflicts with parents. Weiner (1980) proposed that many adolescents who seek
counseling because of academic performance problems express resentment about
parental demands, which they cannot or prefer not to meet. If the resentment is strong
enough, the high school student may retaliate by deliberately earning low grades
(perhaps as a means for establishing a negative identity).
Explanations of Success and Failures referring Attribution Theory
Some interesting aspects of success and failure are revealed when students
were asked to explain why they did or did not do well on some task. They had given
stress to four reasons most commonly- ability, effort, task difficulty and luck. To
explain a low score on a maths test, for example, different students might make the
following statements:
'i just have a poor head for numbers." (Lack of ability)
"1 didn't really study for the exam." (Lack of effort)
"That test was the toughest I've ever taken." (Task difficulty)
"I guessed wrong about which sections of the book to study." (Luck)
Because pupils attribute success or failure to the factors just listed, research of
this type contributed to what is referred to as attribution theory.
12
Students with long histories of academic failure and a weak need for
achievement typically attribute their success to easy questions or luck and their
failures to lack of ability. Ability is stable attribution (i.e. what people expect will
effect on achievement to be pretty much same from one task to another), while task
difficulty and luck are both external attributions (in other words, people feel they have
little control over their occurrence). Research findings have shown that stable
attributions, particularly ability, lead to expectations of future success or failure while
internal (under personal control) attributions lead to pride in achievement and reward
attractiveness following success or to shame following failure (Nicholls, 1979;
Weiner, 1979). Because low-achieving students attribute failure to low ability, ftiture
failure is seen as more likely than future success. In addition, ascribing success to
factors beyond one's control diminishes the possibility of taking pride in achievement
and placing a high value on rewards. Consequently, satisfactory achievement and
reward may have little effect on the failure-avoiding strategies that poor students have
developed over the years.
Success oriented students (high need achievers), on the other hand, typically
attribute success to ability and effort, and failure to insufficient effort. Consequently,
failure does not diminish expectancy of success, feelings of competence, or reward
attractiveness for these students. They on their own resolve to work harder in the
future. It might be, then, that rewards will not motivate low need achievers to work
harder so long as they attribute success to factors that are imstable and beyond their
control. Such successes are seen as "flukes", which are imlikely to occur again and do
little to install a sense of pride and accomplishment. By contrast, because high need
achievers expect to succeed and feel they are largely in control of their success,
occasional failures do not greatly diminish their motivation for future.
13
This analysis suggests that programs designed to enhance motivation and
achievement may need to include ways of altering perceived causes of performance.
Quite often it is necessary for educators to try to alter a poor student's self concept,
which may be a substantial undertaking requiring a concerted, coordinated effort.
Implications and Limitations of Analyses of Achievement Motivation Theory:
These various zinalyses of aspiration level and achievement help to explain the
following aspects of motivation:
• Why some pupils have a higher level of aspiration than others?
• Why pupils with a low level of aspiration may fail to experience success
because they set unrealistic goals?
• Why some pupils may almost seem to avoid success?
• Why high-achieving pupils may resolve to try harder after a failure
experience?
• Why low-achieving pupils may not really be encouraged by successful
experiences?
Perhaps the major limitation in speculating about aspirations, a need for
achievement, fear of success, and reactions to success and failure is that such forms of
behaviour are often difficult to observe or analyze. Another problem may be lack of
consistency. In controlled situations, it may be possible to trace how and why students
set goals. But in typical classroom settings, students may not have any clear idea
about their level of aspiration, unless the teacher specifically asks them to set a
particular goal for themselves. Furthermore, a pupil's level of aspiration may be
bumped up or down by more or less chance circumstances. A student might do well
on afirstexam in a course, for example, because the teacher gave time in the class for
study and offered advice at a crucial point during the study period. The high score on
14
that test might inspire the student to work for an 'A' grade in the class. But if the
second exam happened to be scheduled the day after the student had been ill, or if the
teacher inadvertently snubbed him or her in class, the student might not prepare and
could end up with a 'D' grade. Poor performance on the second exam might then
cause the student to forget about the 'A' and concentrate instead of obtaining a ' C
grade with the least amount of effort.
It usually happens in one's life that the aspiration level might vary with
different subjects and courses. Tresemer reported, for instance, that responses to fear-
of-success stories depended on the kind of activity described. Thus, a girl might fear
success in a "masculine" subject, such as physics, but not worry about being better
than a boyfriend in a "neutral" subject, such as psychology, or a "feminine" subject,
such as English. In addition, a high school student's level of aspiration or need for
achievement is often intertwined in reciprocal fashion with feelings about identity. A
foreclosure type who endorses parental attitudes regarding goals and values may have
a very clear picture of what needs to be accomplished in school and may be motivated
to achieve those goals. By contrast, moratorium or identity diffusion types, who may
be in conflict with parents, uncertain about what to do after graduation, and/or
confused about sex roles, may drift aimlessly through high school. Finally, students
may find that they seem to have an affinity for certain subjects because of aptitudes,
abilities, and past experiences. Other subjects may seem extraordinarily difficult to
the same students because of lack of aptitude or absence of previous experience.
All scientific endeavors in this direction are the part of a concerted effort of
academicians and researchers, it is seen that the findings of one research helped to
pave the way for other researches. Thus, a recapitulation of empirical work conducted
in a particular area is extremely important to give proper direction to achievement
15
motivation research and this facilitated the researcher by presenting the status of
knowledge in a particular area, so that the researcher can give thrust to research which
maximizes its utility. The opportunity to benefit from vicarious experiences also
enriches the methodology and design to be selected by the researcher. The major
researches conducted by the investigators in the field of achievement motivation are
presented below.
Knight and Sarsenrath (1966) in a study with 139 under graduate pupils
reported that the high achievement motivated students learned more efficiently in
comparison to low achievement motivated students on of all the three measures of
achievement-immediate, retention and transfer learning scores.
Bhatnagar (1969) attempted to investigate the relationship between need
achievement and academic achievement. In this study 1941 students of class 10 of
Arts, Science and Commerce streams from 29 schools in Rajasthan were selected
randomly as samples of the study. The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (Hindi)
and scores on attainment test in Hindi, General Science, Elementary Arithmetic and
Social Studies were employed as meaning tools of need achievement and academic
performance respectively. A correlation of 0.38 which is significant at 0.001 levels
was obtained between need achievement and academic perfonnance.
Parikh (1976) hypothesized that achievement motivation scores are positively
related to pupil's academic performance. The study was conducted on a sample of
1100 pupils studying in grades 8, 9 and 10 in secondary schools of a city in
Maharashtra. The result showed that the School performance was found positively
and highly related to achievement motivation.
Ruhland, Gold, and Feld (1978) conducted a study to ascertain the relationship
between need achievement and scholastic performance of 154 2nd and 5th grade
16
children. The investigator reported a positive relationship between need achievement
and scholastic performance.
Littig and Yeracaris (1963) conducted a study on a sample of 190 men and
206 women reported a positive relationship between need achievement and the
academic grades. They however noted that this was true only in the case of male
subjects.
Evans, Heam, & Zwimer (1975) examined the effect of achievement
motivation training on academic achievement, 81 students were given a 15-week need
achievement training course as part of their regular curriculum during the 1st semester
of Grade 9. They were compared with 108 Grade-9 students in another school who
did not receive the course. The difference in mean change in language arts and
science was not significant, while the mean change in need achievement,
mathematics, social studies, and academic average was significant and in the
predicted direction.
Faye and Sharpe (2008) investigated the relationship between psychological
need fulfillment, psychosocial development, and academic motivation in university
students. Two models were tested. The 1st model, derived from developmental
theories, proposed that basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and
relatedness would predict identity and intimacy achievement, which would, in turn,
predict academic intrinsic motivation. A 2nd model, based on self-determination
theory, proposed that identity and intimacy would predict academic motivation and
that this relationship would be mediated by basic psychological needs. Results from
path analyses supported the model derived from self-determination theory over the
model derived from developmental theories. Competence and identity were found to
be the 2 constructs most strongly associated vydth academic motivation. These findings
17
support the view that identity formation plays a critical role in facilitating academic
motivation in university.
Kothari (1994) examined moral judgement and achievement motivation of
visually handicapped and normal students. A sample of 60 blind and 60 normal Grade
8 students was administered Rao's Achievement Motivation Test and Varma's Moral
Judgement Test. Results indicated a higher level of achievement motivation and moral
judgement in normal students compared to blind students.
Chandra (1994) examined the goal-setting behavior of 234 girl students of
Grades 8 & 9 in 3 schools of Hyderabad differing in socioeconomic status. All
students were given the Ring Toss Game to measure goal-setting behaviour,
achievement, and achievement discrepancy. Results indicate that girls in general
under set their goals, and achievement was highly relevant for goal setting.
Regression analyses revealed that "achievement discrepancy and goal discrepancy"
predicted the students' goal setting behaviour.
Saleh, Lazender and De Jong (2005) investigated how grouping arrangements
affect students' achievement, social interaction, and motivation. Students of high,
average and low ability were randomly assigned to homogeneous or heterogeneous
ability groups. All groups attended the same plant biology course. The main results
revealed that low-ability students achieve more and more motivated to learn in
heterogeneous groups. Average-ability students perform better in homogenous groups
where as high ability students show equally strong learning outcome in homogeneous
and heterogeneous groups. Results on social interaction indicated that heterogeneous
groups produce higher proportions of individual elaborations, where as homogenous
groups use relatively more collaborative elaborations.
18
Mahoney, Lord and Carryl (2005) in a longitudinal study evaluated after-
school program (ASP) participation and the development of academic performance
(school grades, reading achievement) and teacher-rated motivational attributes
(expectancy of success, effectance motivation) over a school year. Participants were
599 boys and girls in mean age groups between 6.3 to 10.6 years from an urban,
disadvantaged city in the United States. An ecological analysis of after school
arrangements identified 4 patterns of care: ASP care, parent care, combined
parent/self-sibling care, and combined other-adult/self-sibling care. Aspects of
academic performance and motivational attributes were significantly higher (p<.05) at
the end of the school year for children in ASP care compared with those in the 3
alternative patterns of care. Differences were marked for children rated as highly
engaged in ASP activities.
Brier (2006) designed an approach for working with students in grades 6-8. It
is based on a research that focuses on the relationship between school failiue and the
lack of academic motivation. The program employs a structured intervention format
divided into 16 sessions. Although designed for classroom use, the sessions can easily
be adapted for small groups or individuals. Story telling, role playing, and homework
assignments are key elements of the program. Students become more willing to
approach learning tasks and to display a higher level of engagement, effort, and
persistence even when experiencing frustration and anxiety.
Krapp (2005) investigated from the perspective of the "person-object-theory
of interest" (POI) the development of interest and interest-related motivational
orientations can be explained at the level of functional principles by referring to a dual
regulation system that consists of both, cognitive-rational and partly subconscious
emotional control mechanisms. Within this regulation system, emotional experiences
19
related to the fulfillment of three basic needs (competence, autonomy, and
reiatedness) are presumed to play a crucial role.
Howse, Lange, Farran, and Bayles (2003) studied primarily to better
understand the roles of motivation and self-regulated task behaviour for early school
achievement differences among young, economically at-risk and not-at-risk children.
Results showed that child-and teacher-reported motivation levels were comparable
among the at-risk and the not-at-risk children. However, the at-risk children showed
poorer abilities to regulate their task attention than the not-at-risk children did. In
addition, younger at-risk children's achievement scores were predicted by their levels
of attention-regulation abilities.
Meece, Anderman, and Anderman (2006) used an achievement goal
framework to examine the influence of classroom and school environments on
students' academic motivation and achievement. Considerable evidence suggests that
elementary and secondary students showed the most positive motivation and learning
patterns when their school settings emphasize mastery, understanding, and improving
skills and knowledge. Where as school environments that are focused on
demonstrating high ability and competing for grades can increase the academic
performance of some students, research suggests that many young people experience
diminished motivation under these conditions.
Tanaka, Takehara, and Yamauchi (2006) attempted to find out the linkages
between achievement goals to task performance, as mediated by state anxiety arousal.
Performance expectancy was also examined as antecedents of achievement goals. A
presentation task in a computer practice class was used as achievement task. Results
showed that performance-avoidance goals were found positively related to state
anxiety. State anxiety was related to poor task performance. The positive relationship
20
between mastery goals and the score was shown to be independent of anxiety
processes. Performance expectancy was related to state anxiety through achievement
goals.
Giota, (2006) studied the interrelations between goal orientations,
achievements and well-being of school students. For this purpose adolescents'
academic self-perceived competence, personal interest in school subjects, and affect
in regard to different evaluate situations that take place in school were related to eight
different types of goal orientations toward school and learning. The study suggested
that depending on the orientation and domain, adolescents perceived their competence
either positively or negatively. In particular, negatively or critically oriented pupils
show lower academic performance and self-evaluations of competence, lower future
expectations of success with respect to most academic school subjects, and higher
levels of anxiety as compared to other pupils. In addition, the study supports the
assumption that individuals' belief about the self are hierarchically organized and
involves beliefs about general or global competence as well as beliefs about specific
ability.
Maclellan, (2005) conducted a study to investigate that motivation of students
is an important issue in higher education, particularly in the context of the increasing
diversity of student populations. A social-cognitive perspective assumes motivation to
be dynamic, context sensitive and changeable, thereby rendering it to be a much more
differentiated construct than previously understood. This complexity may be
perplexing to tutors who are keen to develop applications to improve academic
achievement. One application that is within the control of tutor, at least to some
extent, is the use of praise. Using psychological literature, the article argues that in
motivating students, the tutor is not well served by relying on simplistic and common
21
sense understandings of the construct of praise and that effective applications of
praise are mediated by students goal orientations, which of themselves may be either
addictive or interactive composites of different objectives and different contexts.
EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE
It is difficult to trace out in actuality the beginning of imparting education in
schools but for the purpose of making its significance one can mention that it goes
back with the process of civilization of mankind on the globe. Since the very dawn of
civilization, it has been regarded as an essential concomitant of all human societies.
Since then, it became an integral part of every society and its upgradation begun in
desired way according to the necessity of the society as well as the individual. In
Indian context referring to the report of Kothari Commission (1964) in which it was
mentioned that the traditional education system cannot satisfy the present need even
less so, tomorrow's need. To meet the present day need, the pattern of education of
the youth should be changed from the world of school to the world of work and life.
The education in present set up is undoubtedly more advanced but it cannot give full
assurance for the overall success to one's life. When we look into the pattern of
education system in the contemporary society it was not merely devoted to acquisition
of bookish knowledge, but in true sense there were emotion embedded interaction
between the teacher and their pupil, and they focused on knowledge, understanding
and handling the emotions of the students in the right manner, at the right time, and
also in a right way. A person with a high intellect cannot be always successful and
from this statement an important question in anyone's mind may arise why it is so? A
vacuum emerged and probe begun. Many psychologists and educationists put their
efforts in finding solution of the problem and inquiry continued over the years and
22
finally they came with an answer by introducing the concept of emotional
intelligence. According to Salovey and Mayer (1990) emotional intelligence
subsumes Gardner's inter-intra personal intelligence and involves the ability that can
be characterized into five domains- self awareness, self-regulation, motivation,
empathy and social skills. This view fits with the commonly held notion that it takes
more than just brains to succeed ih life- one must also be able to develop and maintain
healthy inter-intra personal relationships.
Before defining 'Emotional Competence' it becomes essential to define
'Emotion' though it is not very easy to define but efforts were made by various
psychologists and the exact definition of emotion differs widely among researchers,
but there was a general agreement that emotions incorporate three distinct aspects:
physiological arousal, emotional expression, and emotional experience (Malatesta and
Izard, 1984). The physiological arousal aspect has attracted attentionfi-omemotion
researchers who followed the tradition of the James-Lange Theory. Their efforts in
this direction was mainly focused on finding a distinct pattern of autonomic arousal
associated with each emotion, and modest differences in autonomic arousal patterns
are sometimes found (Levenson, 1992). After the seminal research on emotional
expression by Darwin (1872/1965), this objectively observable aspect of emotion has
been intensively studied. Accimiulated research on emotional expression has
contributed not only to imderstanding the functions of verbal and non-verbal
expression of emotion but also to documenting the imiversal and cross-cultural
aspects of emotional expression too (Ekman and Friesen, 1975). While comparing the
arousal and expression aspects from the emotional experience is seen that this is the
most explored area, but the least imderstood aspect of emotion. Since emotional
experiences are feelings that people have in their everyday life, numerous tests have
23
been developed and used to measure not only a specific emotion (e.g., depression,
anxiety, or anger) but also transient and long lasting, "trait-like" global mood states
(Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988). Emotions appear to have evolved across
mammalian species so as to signal and respond to changes in relationships between
the individual and the environment (including one's imagined place within it). By
exploring our past, we can reach a deeper level of knowing our emotions of present.
The history of emotions has three meanings. The first one is the evolutionary
that relates the aspects of our emotions derivedfi-ommillions of years ago when the
man's pre-human ancestors won over other pre-human species that were not as
competent in their emotional and practical imderstanding, as the human beings
ancestors. The repertoire that was successful in the past has been passed by human
genes of the present. The second meaning relates to the personal history of each of the
individual that specifies that the emotions develop from birth, through the relationship
of childhood and across the life span. The third one refers to the history of ideas and
social movements, i.e. the cultural understanding of emotions. Feelings are what one
experiences as the result of having emotions. Psychologists have described and
explained emotion differently, but all agree that it is a complex state of the human
mind involving a wide range of bodily changes such as breathing, pounding heart,
flushed face, sweaty palms, high pulse rate and glandular secretions. Mentally, it is a
state of excitement or perturbation marked by strong feelings. Emotions originate
from exposure to specific situations. Emotions when combined with the thinking
process result in experience of feelings. Our responses are governed by our thoughts,
by what we tell ourselves. In very specific terms it is said that 'Emotion' is an
'umbrella term' which includes the situation, the interpretation and the perception of a
situation, and the response or feeling related to that situation. Emotions are also
24
human being's warning systems that alert them to what is really going on around
them. Emotions give pleasant and unpleasant experiences in everyone's life. Infact
emotions are a complex state of the human mind, involving physiological changes on
the one hand and psychological changes on the other.
Meaning of Competence
In a day to'day usage the word 'Competence' refers to one's ability to meet
the demands of a given situation (Webster & Mckechine, 1978). But in psychology,
the researchers have described competence as a multidimensional concept. They have
used various terminologies focusing on different dimensions of competence which
include fundamental competence, intellectual competence, emotional competence,
interpersonal competence, social competence, psycho-emotional and psycho-social
competence. A careful examination of their works on the construct of competence
reveals on almost confusing range of definition and inclusive elements (Masten,
Coatsworth, Neeman, Gest, Tellagen & Germezy, 1995). Competence which carries
varied meanings in psychology has been defined either in terms of individuals
intellectual cognitive capability for learning and imaging, as motivational processes to
maintain positive affective state, or as behavioural effectiveness in the task of living,
or as a social skill for maintaining proper interpersonal relationship, some of them
include developmental tasks whereas some include ego process in the concept of
competence.
It is tendency of every individual to make efforts to achieve and maintain a
feeling of adequacy, so he/she has to acquire a few workable assumptions about the
world around, where need for competence emerges as most of the fundamental
motives of one's life, because we survive through competence (Allport, 1961). The
motivation towards competence is evident even in early playful and investigatory
25
behaviour of children (White, 1959) which they seek in social realm and as close as
any other need to sum up the growth of the personality. A variety of factors such as
intellectual, emotional and physical competencies play an important role in human
life, (Coleman, 1979; Maslow, 1970) which deemed to acquire skills and knowledge
and an individual begins to develop two important virtues- method and competence -
in the congenital growth of personality.
Doing a thing is quite different from doing it well, where one can produce the
type of effects, one desires, (White, 1959) may be termed as competence. It also refers
to the mastering of abilities to do on a task, sufficiency of means for living easy
circumstances in ethical sense, a right to take cognizance which specifies the process
of observation, comprehension, explanation, exploration and manipulation of the
experiences more objectively, (Allport, 1961) with the fullest use of an individuals
normal capabilities. What turns doing anything into doing it well is essentially a
display of one's competence and whenever this aspect of personality is related to
emotions, it shall be deemed as emotional competence which happens to be efficiency
that an individual acquire to deal with emotional situations effectively. The
motivation to be emotionally competent is concerned more with product of abilities
rather than their sheer exercise and works as a constructive force in shaping the
individual's behaviour.
Intelligence vs. Competence
Defining any form of intelligence as competencies can be misleading because
competence is not same as intelligence. For example, a person may be intelligent, yet
incompetent because they are untrained, imeducated, inexperienced and/or unskilled.
Intelligence is a high mental and cognitive capacity. It describes a "good thinker".
26
Where as competence refers to the possession of adequate skill, knowledge,
experience and capacity. Essentially, it describes a "good-enough doer".
Researchers investigated the dimensions of emotional intelligence by
measuring related concepts, such as social skills, interpersonal competence,
psychological maturity and emotional awareness, long before the term "emotional
intelligence" came into use. Grade school teachers have been teaching the rudiments
of emotional intelligence since 1978, with the development of the 'Self Science
Curriculum' and the teaching of classes such as "social development", "social and
emotional learning", and "personal intelligence", all aimed to raise the level of social
and emotional competence" (Goleman,1995).
From these explanations it becomes clear that 'Emotional Competence' is a
term that has been closely linked to emotional intelligence. Thus before describing
emotional competence it is imperative to describe 'Emotional Intelligence', Like other
forms of intelligence, Emotional Intelligence is seen by many as an ability or mental
capacity that can be measured. It is a form of intelligence relating to the emotional
side of life, such as the ability to recognize and manage one's own and others'
emotions, to motivate oneself and restrain impulses, and to handle interpersonal
relationships. Emotional intelligence represents the ability to perceive, appraise, and
express emotion accurately and adaptively, the ability to understand emotion and
emotional knowledge; the ability to access and generate feelings when they facilitate
cognitive activities and adaptive action; and the ability to regulate emotions in oneself
and others (Mayer and Salovey, 1997). In other words, Emotional intelligence refers
to the ability to process emotion-laden information competently and to use it to guide
cognitive activities like problem solving and to focus energy on required behaviours.
27
Others, however, differentiate this inteUigence from a set of emotional skills
and knowledge that can be attained to function effectively in a wide variety of
situations. The concept of competence is distinct from emotional intelligence which,
while recognizing the importance of emotions, gives emphasis to controlling or
manipulating them is referred to as Emotional Competence, which capttires an
understanding of the skills needed to adapt to and cope with one's social environment.
In contrast with constructs like intelligence, which are depicted as an innate ability,
emotional competence is construed as a set of skills that are learned. Accordingly,
there may be no relationship between one's emotional competence and one's actual
emotional performance, as a variety (e.g., motivation, values, or goals) may impact
emotional reactions. So developing emotional competence skills, while significant, is
no guarantee for workplace success, since these skills may not always be applied
appropriately. But becoming skillful in emotional competence increases the likelihood
that a leader will be able to deal with difficult emotional situations that will emerge.
As researchers have emphasized, "rather than being pre-occupied with perceived
threats and self-defeating attitudes, a person with well developed skills of emotional
competence is able to mobilize resources to gather new information, to acquire new
insights, or develop further his or her talents".
Definitions and Concept of Emotional Competence
Emotional competence refers to a person's ability in expressing or releasing
their inner feelings (emotions). It implies an ease aroimd others and determines our
ability to effectively and successfully lead and express.
"A learned capability based on emotional intelligence those results in
outstanding performance at work. Our emotional intelligence determines our potential
for learning the practical skills based on the five element- self-awareness, motivation.
28
self-regulation, empathy, and adeptness in relationships. Our emotional competence
shows how much of that potential we have translated into on-the-job capabilities."
(Goleman, Working with Emotional Intelligence)
Saami (1998) defined emotional competence in terms of skills consisting of
understanding our emotions, discerning and understanding other's emotions using the
vocabulary of emotions and expressions, the capacity for empathetic involvement, the
capacity to differentiate internal subjective emotional experience fiôm external
expression, the capacity for adaptive coping with a aversive emotions and distressing
circumstances, understanding of emotional communication within relationships and
the ability for emotional self-efficacy.
Humans are social beings, and emotional competence is an essential social
skill. Just as one person might be good in mathematics, one good in music, another
good in sports, because we differ in our emotional competence. Some of us might
easily recognize an emotion that others don't even notice. Just as studying
mathematics increases our math's competence, and practice with a musical instrument
increases our musical competence, studying emotions and practicing constructive
responses can increase our emotional competence. While some people seem to have a
aptitude for mathematics, and others have for music, some people may easily attain
high levels of emotional competence, even without formal instruction and these
people seem to be naturally high in emotional intelligence. But just as most of us
don't learn mathematics without careful study, most of us can benefit greatly by
studying to improve our emotional competency.
The concept of emotional competence is rooted in the understanding of
emotions as being normal, useful aspects of being human. Anger is a reaction to
aggression and gives a person the strength to repel the aggression. Grief is a reaction
29
to abandonment or feeling unloved and it has the effect of eliciting sympathetic
responses from others. Fear is a response to danger and has a clear physiological
effect of heightening our senses and speeding up our reactions.
From this explanation it can be seen that the suppression of emotion is not
useful and that teaching people to suppress their emotions is part of trying to control
them. Emotionally competent people will express emotion appropriate to the situation
and their needs and they will not seek to suppress emotions in others.
It is fairly widely believed that if appropriate emotions are not expressed some
sort of memory of them becomes stored. Later events may trigger off the old emotions
resulting in inappropriate emotional responses. This particularly applies to emotions
that children are prevented from expressing. Releasing these old emotions is a key
feature of co-counselling.
Emotional competence is an important skill that can provide several benefits
throughout many aspects of your life. It can increase the satisfaction you have with
the relationships while it increases your gratification and contentment with the many
simple events in your life. It can give you greater insight and help you better
understand the motives and actions of yourself and others. You can free yourself from
anger, hate, resentment, vengeance, and other destructive emotions that cause hurt and
pain. You can feel relief and enjoy greater peace-of-mind, autonomy, intimacy,
dignity, competence, and wisdom as you engage more deeply with others. Increasing
your tolerance and compassion can lead to an authentic optimism and a well founded
confidence, based on your better understanding and interpretation.
Emotional competence can lead to improved health through avoiding stress
that would otherwise result from suppressing emotions. It can also lead to improved
30
relationships since inappropriate emotions are less likely to be expressed and
appropriate behaviour is not avoided through fear of triggering some emotion.
As your emotional competence increases, you may experience a variety of
positive transformations in your life. Destructive behaviour patterns of the past may
transform into more constructive behaviour as you begin to solve the mysterious
puzzle of human interactions and gain a quite and confident understanding of them.
Anxiety may yield to be more peaceful, tranquil, and contended feelings as your
understanding increases. You may become less isolated as you become more engaged
with others you now enjoy relating to. You may feel more confident and powerful,
and less confused, frustrated, and powerless. Overall you can transform from
confused to confident; from clueless to comprehending and enlightened, from
fragmented to coherent, from shallow to deep, and from oppressed to liberate as you
become your authentic self.
There can be dimensions of Emotional Competence because it is the efficiency
of the individuals to deal effectively with several dissociable but related processes is
combination of five competencies (Coleman, 1979). The different competencies are-
adequate depth of feeling, adequate expression and control of emotions, ability to
function with emotions, ability to cope with problem emotions and encouragement of
positive emotions.
1. Adequate Depth of Feeling (ADF): Feeling in its broadetst sense is any kind of
process of experiencing (English and English, 1958). This is characterized by
predominance of affect and accessible emotions which lead to some kind of
involvement to a great degree of the individual. A feeling of being confident or
capable with reality assumptions may be termed as adequate depth of feeling
31
specifically associated with effective judgement and personality integration, which
ensures vigorous participation in living.
2. Adequate Expression and Control of Emotions (AECE): Generally the
appropriate reaction to certain situation does not express adequately in emotional
reactions and a mature person accepts his emotions as a part of himself, neither allows
them to rule over him nor rejects them as aligned to his nature and is not all worried
because he accepts them and has an adequate control over them.
Emotional competence requires both an adequate expression and their control
which may be regarded as natural dynamic stability of an individual to express and
control emotions spontaneously as demanded by the situation. Any form of
inadequacy in either expression or control of emotions may lead to uncontrolled and
disorganized emotionality.
3. Ability to Function with Emotions (AFE): Sometimes it becomes difficult to
carry out even rout in work, when one finds himself face to face with a highly
emotional situation. Emotional competence required that the individual should
develop a characteristic pattern of emotional activity which should not let him be
influenced in his adequate mode of lunctioning that helps him in performing action of
daily routine properly.
4. Ability to Cope with Problem Emotions (ACPE): Certain problematic emotions
play a destructive role and pose a potential damage to the life orientations of the
individual's course of life. Therefore, emotional competence requires an
understanding of the role of sensitivity and the detrimental effects of such emotions in
the beginning and also a development of the ability to resist their harmful effects
thereafter.
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5. Encouragement of Positive Emotions (EPE): The congenital growth of
personality requires the predominance of positive emotions that show a constructive
influence in the dynamics of behaviour. The growing vitality and a feeling of
wholeness with a continuous capacity for intellectual and spiritual growth are
associated with an experience of positive.
Emotional competence requires that the individual should develop a
characteristic pattern of emotional reactivity which should not let his adequate mode
of functioning that helps him in performing actions of daily routine properly.
Emotional competence also requires an understanding of role of sensitivity
and the detrimental effects of such emotions in the begiiming and also a development
of the ability to resist their harmful effects.
Assertiveness and emotional competence
Humanistic approaches to assertiveness, as for instance outlined by Anne
Dickson emphasized the importance of working with emotions. In particular it
recognizes the need to address manipulative or passive (the person does not say what
they want) - aggressive (they try to force the other person to do what they want)
behaviour in which the manipulator exploits the feelings of the other to try to get what
they want. Building up emotional competence is a way of learning to handle such
behaviour.
Another aspect is learning to be assertive when feeling emotional.
Assertiveness training involves learning a range of ways to handle any situation so
that a person is able to choose a way which seems appropriate for them on each
occasion. With respect to emotions, people are encouraged to notice and accept what
they feel. They then have choicesfromhandling the situation calmly through doing so
33
and saying how they feel to letting the emotion out, all of which involve emotional
competence.
This also would encompass the realm of where the emotionally competent
response would have judicial consequences. For example, competence to stand trial.
Some researchers felt the role of emotion has been neglected, both in traditional
accounts of decision-making and in assessments of adjudicative competence, and
further attention and study.
Emotional Competence framework:
Personal Competence
1. Self-Awareness- it includes Emotional awareness, Accurate self-assessment and
Self-confidence.
(i) Emotional awareness: Recognizing one's emotions and their effects. People
with this competence know which emotions they are feeling and why; realize
the links between their feelings and what they think, do and say; recognize
how their feelings affect their performance; have a guiding awareness of their
values and goals.
(ii) Accurate self-assessment: Knowing one's strengths and limits. People with
this competence are aware of their strengths and weaknesses; reflective,
learning from experience; open to candid feedback, new perspectives,
continuous learning, and self-development; able to show a sense of himior and
perspective about themselves.
(iii) Self-confidence: Sureness about one's self-worth and capabilities. People with
this competence present them with self-assurance, have "presence"; can voice
views that are unpopular and go out on a limb for what is right; are decisive,
able to make soimd decisions despite imcertainties and pressures.
34
2. Self-Regulation- it includes Self-control, Trustworthiness, Consciousness,
Adaptability and Innovativeness.
(i) Self-control: Managing disruptive emotions and impulses. People with this
competence manage their impulsive feelings and distressing emotions well; stay
composed, positive, and unflappable even in trying moments; think clearly and
stay focused under pressure.
(ii) Trustworthiness: Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity. People with
this competence act ethically and are above reproach; build trust through their
reliability and authenticity; admit their own mistakes and confront unethical
actions in others; take tough, principled stands even if they are unpopular.
(iii) Consciousness: Taking responsibility for personal performance. People with this
competence meet commitments and keep promises; hold them accountable for
meeting their objectives; are organized and careful in their work.
(iv) Adaptability: Flexibility in handling change. People with this competence
smoothly handle multiple demands, shifting priorities, and rapid change; adapt
their responses and tactics tofitfluidcircumstances; areflexiblein how they see
events.
(v) Innovativeness: Being comfortable with and open to novel ideas and new
information. People with this competence seek out fresh ideas from a wide
variety of sources; entertain original solutions to problems; generate new ideas;
take fresh perspectives and risks in their thinking.
3. Self-Motivation- it includes Achievement motive, Commitment, Initiative and
Optimism.
(i) Achievement motive: Striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence.
People with this competence are results-oriented, with a high drive to meet their
35
objectives and standards; set challenging goals and take calculated risks; pursue
information to reduce uncertainty and find ways to do better; learn how to
improve their performance,
(ii) Commitment: Aligning with the goals of the group or organization. People with
this competence readily make personal or group sacrifices to meet a larger
organizational goal; find a sense of purpose in the larger mission; use the
group's core values in making decisions and clarifying choices; actively seek
out opportunities to fiilfill the group's mission,
(iii) Initiative: Readiness to act on opportunities. People with this competence are
ready to seize opportimities; pursue goals beyond what's required or expected of
them; cut through red tape and bend the rules when necessary to get the job
done; mobilize others through unusual, enterprising efforts,
(iv) Optimism: Persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks. People
with this competence persist in seeking goals despite obstacles and setbacks;
operate from hope of success rather than fear of failure; see setbacks as due to
manageable circumstance rather than a personal flaw.
Social competence
4. Social Awareness- it includes Empathy, Service orientation, Developing others,
Leveraging diversity and Political awareness,
(i) Empathy: Sensing others' feelings and perspective, and taking an active interest
in their concerns. People with this competence are attentive to emotional cues
and listen well; show sensitivity and understand others' perspectives; help out
based on understanding other people's needs and feelings,
(ii) Service orientation: Anticipating, recognizing, and meeting customers' needs.
People wdth this competence understand customers' needs and match them to
36
services or products; seek ways to increase customers' satisfaction and loyalty;
gladly offer appropriate assistance; grasp a customer's perspective, acting as a
trusted advisor,
(iii) Developing others: Sensing what others need in order to develop, and bolstering
their abilities. People with this competence acknowledge and reward people's
i
strengths, accomplishments, and development; offer useful feedback and
identify people's needs for development; mentor, give timely coaching, and
offer assignments that challenge and grow a person's skill.
(iv) Leveraging diversity: Cultivating opportunities through diverse people. People
with this competence respect and relate well to people from varied backgrounds;
understand diverse worldviews and are sensitive to group differences; see
diversity as opportunity, creating an environment where diverse people can
thrive; challenge bias and intolerance.
(v) Political awareness: Reading a group's emotional currents and power
relationships. People with this competence accurately read key power
relationships; detect crucial social networks; understand the forces that shape
views and actions of clients, customers, or competitors; accurately read
situations and organizational and external realities.
5. Social Skills- it includes Influence, Commtinication, Leadership, Change catalyst,
Conflict Management, Building bonds. Collaboration and cooperation, and Team
capabilities.
(i) Influence: Wielding effective tactics for persuasion. People with this
competence are skilled at persuasion; fine-tune presentations to appeal to the
listener; use complex strategies like indirect influence to build consensus and
support; orchestrate dramatic events to effectively make a point.
37
(ii) Communication: Sending clear and convincing messages. People with this
competence are effective in give-and-take, registering emotional cues in
attuning their message; deal with difficult issues straightforwardly; listen well,
seek mutual understanding, and welcome sharing of information fully; foster
open communication and stay receptive to bad news as well as good.
(iii) Leadership: Inspiring and guiding groups and people. People with this
competence articulate and arouse enthusiasm for a shared vision and mission;
step forward to lead as needed, regardless of position; guide the performance
of others while holding them accountable; lead by example.
(iv) Change catalyst: Initiating or managing change. People with this competence
recognize the need for change and remove barriers; challenge the status quo to
acknowledge the need for change; champion the change and enlist others in its
pursuit; model the change expected of others.
(v) Conflict Management: Negotiating and resolving disagreements. People with
this competence handle difficult people and tense situations with diplomacy
and tact; spot potential conflicts, bring disagreements into the open; encourage
debate and open discussion; orchestrate win-win solutions.
(vi) Building bonds: Nurturing instrumental relationships. People with this
competence cultivate and maintain extensive informal networks; seek out
relationships that are mutually beneficial; build rapport and keep others in the
loop; make and maintain personal friendships among work associates.
(vii) Collaboration and cooperation: Working with others toward shared goals.
People with this competence balance a focus on task with attention to
relationships; collaborate, sharing plans, information, and resources; promote
38
a friendly, cooperative climate; spot and nurture opportunities for
collaboration,
(viii) Team capabilities: Creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals. People
with this competence model team qualities like respect, helpfulness, and
cooperation; draw all members into active and enthusiastic participation; build
i
team identity, esprit de corps, and commitment; protect the group and its
reputation; share credit.
Related Studies on Emotional Competence
Trentacosta, Izard, Mostow, and Fine (2006) conducted a study to examine the
relations between two aspects of emotional competence-emotion knowledge and
emotion expression, and children's attentional competence during one school year.
Participants were 263 first- and second-grade students at two rural elementary
schools, A multiple regression analysis showed that emotion knowledge predicted
attentional competence while controlling for age, gender, verbal ability, and initial
levels of attentional competence. Multiple regression analyses examining predictors
of peer nominations of emotion expression showed that attentional competence
predicted peer nominations of happiness, sadness, and anger expression, and emotion
knowledge predicted peer nominations of anger expression.
Elias, and Haynes (2008) in their study pointed out that despite living in
disadvantaged urban communities experiencing social and economic hardships, many
children emerge with positive outcomes. Social-emotional competence and social
support were hypothesized to have strong influences on academic trajectories during
the critical period of academic skill acquisition. Participants were 282 third-grade
students from six elementary schools in a Northwestern urban community. Beyond
the importance of prior levels of academic competence, considerable variance in end-
39
of-year academic outcomes was predicted by initial levels of academic social-
emotional competence and improvements in social-emotional competence and
perceived teacher support over the course of the year. The findings suggest that school
psychologists and others designing interventions to improve achievement of
disadvantaged students should address social-emotional competencies and classroom
climate, especially teacher support of students.
Linares, Robruch, Stem, Edwards, et al. (2005) examined intervention effects
of a universal prevention program offered by classroom teachers to public elementary
school students. The Unique Minds School Program is a teacher-led program
designed to promote cognitive-social-emotional (CSE) skills, including student self-
efficacy, problem solving, social-emotional competence, and a positive classroom
climate, with the dual goal of preventing youth behavioural problems and promoting
academic learning. During two consecutive school years, 119 students and their
teachers were assessed in the fall of Grade 4 and again in the spring of Grade 5. As
compared to students in the comparison school, students in the intervention showed
gains in student self-efFicacy, problem solving, social-emotional competencies and
math grades. Incremental gains within CSE domains were found after 1 and 2 years of
intervention.
Surgenor and Joseph (2000) investigated the association between life events,
attitude towards emotional expression, relational competence and psychological
distress at different levels of social support availability. 194 subjects completed the
following- List of Threatening Experiences, the Attitudes towards Emotional
Expression scale, the Personal Assertion Analysis, the Provision of Social Relations,
and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. The association between life events
and psychological distress was found to be mediated by attitudes towards emotional
40
expression for those with low social support but not for those with high social
support. Passive interpersonal behaviour significantly accounted for additional
variance in psychological distress by life events and attitudes.
Zsolnai (2002) in their study aimed to define those components of social
competence that influence learning motivation and academic achievement. The
components of social competence selected for analysis were- dynamism, dominance,
cooperativeness, politeness, scrupulousness, perseverance, emotional control, impulse
control, openness, external-internal control attitude and attachments. Four
questionnaires were administered to a sample of 6"" and lO"' grade students (altogether
438 subjects ages 12 and 16 years). It was found that assessed social factors are not
affected considerably by age. The correlation analysis reveal the importance of
intrinsic motivation within learning motivation, manifested in its strong relationship
to the variables representing the social factors of personality except for emotional
stability. The results of the regression analysis indicate that friendliness and openness
have the largest impact on each other among social factors extraversion. The results
show that conscientiousness, openness and academic self-concept explains most of
the variance in intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation seems to exert considerable
effect on these three variables.
Ciarrochi, Deane, Wilson, and Rickwood (2002) notes that it has been found
that university students who were the least skilled at managing their emotions also
had the lowest intention of seeking help from a variety of non professional sources.
They conducted a study to extend these findings by focusing on adolescents,
examining a larger number of emotional competencies and exploring the possibility
that social support explains the relationship between emotional competence and help-
seeking. A total of 137 adolescents (aged 16-18 years) completed the survey that
41
assessed social support, emotional competencies and intention to seek help from a
variety of professional and non professional sources. As expected, adolescents who
were low in emotional awareness and who were poor at identifying, describing, and
managing their emotions were the least likely to seek help from non professional
sources and had the highest intention of refusing help from everyone. However, low
emotional competence was not related to intention to seek help from professional
sources. The significant results involving nonprofessional sources were only partially
explained by social support, suggesting that even adolescents who had high quality
support were less likely to make use of that support if they were low in emotional
competence.
Bernard (2006) conducted a study and discussed the non-academic, social-
emotional factors that contribute to student academic achievement, including the
cognitive behavioural characteristics of underachieving students and those with
leaming disabilities; the "You Can Do It! Education" (YCDI) theory of achievement;
derivative research on social-emotional capabilities, called the Five Foimdations
(Academic Confidence, Work Persistence, Work Organization, Getting Along,
Emotional Resilience) that when delayed, produce achievement problems; and
recommendations for developing student's social-emotional competence. The results
demonstrate that the Five Foundations and associated Habits of the Mind can be
taught to young people, producing increased effort with schoolwork and better
achievement.
Singh and Dhingra (2005) conducted a study to assess the Emotional
Competency and Anxiety (both State and Trait) level of alcoholics. The second
objective is to find out the relationship among the various dimensions of Emotional
Competence and STAT with the help of intercorrelation matrix. Sample consisted of
42
57 male diagnosed hospitalized alcoholics. The findings depicts that alcoholics show
a consistent pattern of responses on the scale of State trait anxiety but high dispersion
is there on the measures of Emotional Competency. Alcoholics revealed high scores
on Guilt Proneness, Suspiciousness and Tension levels. Some dimensions of
Emotional Competency revealed a significant relationship with various dimensions of
anxiety. Their study highlights the role of Emotional Competency in the management
and treatment of alcoholic behaviour.
Bhardwaj and Sharma (1997) in their study compared emotional competencies
among 50 non-addicts and 50 drug addicts. The Emotional Competence Measure
developed and standardized by Sharma and Bhardwaj (1995) was administered
individually to each subject. It was observed that non-addicts as compared to addicts
had greater depth of feeling, could better express and control emotions, and were able
to function with emotions more effectively. No differences in coping with problem
emotions were found between the two groups. Findings indicate that emotional
competencies may lead to greater dependence on drugs.
Rodriguez (1985) examined the emotional aspects of the rehabilitation of
process for the ill and physically handicapped. The stages of reaction to a disabling
illness or injury are described as shock, denial, grief/depression, reaction against
dependence and adaptation. Factors contributing to individual reactions are presented
with special emphasis on patients who have problems accommodating to loss, altered
body image and altered abilities. It was suggested that continued appraisal of the
patient's coping mechanisms and ability to utilize them effectively in response to
changing status in treatment is necessary throughout the rehabilitative process. It was
concluded that while most patients without significant psychopathology prior to
trauma develop adaptive coping mechanisms, these patients can be helped in the
43
realization of their physical or mental limitations through work with trained personnel
to encourage development of capabilities and to increase self-respect and security for
future tasks.
Katyal and Awasthi (2005) studied gender differences in emotional
intelligence and its correlates and found that girls have higher emotional intelligence
and self-esteem than that of boys. On the other hand, boys were found to have higher
emotional maturity than girls. However, these differences touched only 0.10 level,
hence, are just suggestive of the trend.
The findings of studies reported by Bhosle (1999), King (1999), Sutarso
(1999), Wing and Love (2001) and Singh (2002) revealed that females have higher
emotional intelligence than that of males.
According to Duckelt and Raffali (1989) and Sandhu and Mehrotra (1999)
higher emotional intelligence among girls can be explained in terms of the society
which socializes the two genders differently.
Tapia (1999) and Dunn (2002) found that girls higher emotional intelligence
can be explained by some of their personality characteristics. They observed that girls
score higher with regard to empathy, social responsibilities and interpersonal
relationships than boys. They are more sensitive towards their relationships with
parents, friends and siblings. All these traits help them to acquire more emotional
intelligence as compared to boys.
According to the studies conducted by Feldman-Barrett, Lane, Sechrest and
Schwartz (2000), Garaigordobil and Galdeano (2006) and Sunew (2004) the
relationship between the female sex and emotional competencies are closely linked
since childhood due to socialization that is in closer touch with feelings and nuances
(Candela, Barbera, Ramos and Sarrio, 2001).
44
It has been affirmed that women tend to be more emotionally expressive than
men, that they understand emotions better and that they have a greater ability as
regards certain interpersonal skills. It is evident from the studies conducted by Aquino
(2003), Argyle (1990), Hargie, Saunders and Dickson (1995), Lafferty (2004), Tapia
and Marsh (2006) and Trobst, Collins and Embree (1994) women recognize other
people's emotions better, are more perceptive and have greater empathy. In addition,
some evidence exists that certain areas of the brain dedicated to processing emotions
could be larger in women than in men (Baron-Cohen, 2003; Gur, Gunning-Dixon,
Bilker and Gur, 2002) and that there is a difference in cerebral activity based on sex
(Jau§ovec and JauSovec, 2005).
Brody and Hall (1993) and Fivush et al. (2000) found that girls have more
information about the emotional world and therefore speak more about emotional
aspects and use more emotional terms than boys. For their past, boys do not receive
any kind of education to help them verbalize their feelings can show a lack of
awareness about their own emotional terms and those of other people. Nonetheless, it
has been verified that boys tend to be able to speak clearly about emotional states and
have an interest in them when they come firom families in which the mother and boy
hold conversations about the emotional states (Dunn, 1990).
In the recent field of research on emotional intelligence gender differences
have been detected in childhood, adolescence and adulthood (Harrod and Scheer,
2005; Houtmeyers, 2002; Santesso, Reker, Schmidt and Segalowitz, 2006; Young,
2006).
Devi and Rayulu (2005) conducted a study to understand the Emotional
Intelligence levels of adolescents. They found that majority of the boys and girls fell
into an average and above emotional intelligence levels. Significant difference was
45
noticed in interpersonal skills component of boys and girls favouring surpass of boys
on self-awareness, empathy, social responsibility and problem solving. Adolescent
boys and girls showed similar scores on levels of emotional intelligence. It was also
found that younger adolescents were high on interpersonal skills than older
adolescents.
Aleem (2005) found that male students are more emotionally stable than
female students.
Shah and Thingujam (2008) found that appraisal of emotions in the self was
positively correlated with plan-full problem solving ad positive reappraisal coping
styles. Appraisal of emotions in others was positively correlated with plan-fiiU
problem solving and positive appraisal. Emotional regulation of the self was
positively correlated with plan-full problem solving, confronting coping, self-
controlling, positive reappraisal and with distancing, but negatively correlated with
escape avoidance. No gender differences were found in perceived emotional
intelligence and ways of coping except for self-control, where males reported higher
than females.
Belanger (2005) studied the emotional intelligence of undergraduate students
in United States. The researchers foimd that although student's emotional intelligence
was not directly linked to academic success, students with higher levels of emotional
intelligence had more self-efficacy and that in turn enhanced their academic
performance.
In some cases, no clear significant differences in self-reported emotional
intelligence have been found among men and women (Aquino, 2003; Bar-On, 1997;
Bar-On, Brown, Kirkcaldy and Thome, 2000; Brackett and Mayer, 2003; Brackett,
Rivers et al. 2006; Brown and Schutte, 2006; Dawda and Hart, 2000; Depape et al..
46
2006; Devi and Rayulu, 2005; Jinfu and Xiaoyan, 2004; Lumley et al. 2005;
Palomera, 2005; Schutte et al., 1998; Tiwari and Srivastava, 2004), while in others
women turn out to be more skillful at directing and handling their own and other
people's emotions. At times, women turn out to be better at Emotional Attention and
Empathy, while men are better at Regulating Emotions (Austin, Evans, Goldwater and
Potter, 2005; Bindu and Thomas, 2006; Brackett, Warner and Bosco, 2005;
Femandez-Berrocal, Extremera and Ramos, 2004; Goldenberg, Matheson and
Mantler, 2006; Harrod and Scheer, 2005; Pandey and Tripathi, 2004; Silveri, Tzilo,
Pilmentel and Yurgelum-Todd, 2004; Van Rooy, Alonso and Viswesvaran, 2005).
SELF-ESTEEM
The identity of a person lies in his/her sense of self So it becomes necessary
to describe self first in order to understand the concept of self-esteem. Self is
associated with everyone for which a person is immediately aware. The word self as
described in psychology refers to an individual's consciousness of his own continuing
identity and of his relation to the environment. It is a common tendency found in
every human being to strive to maintain his self but people differ from one another
through the process of various stages of development, interactions and maturation
overtime. So far as the self image of a person is concerned it depicts a person's mental
picture of himself/herself. Everyone of us have our own mental picture which is based
on an individual's overall life experiences and interactions with other people. This
mental picture i.e. the self image contributes to our self-esteem. Self-esteem refers to
the way a person feels about oneself, including the degree to which he possesses self-
respect and self-acceptance. According to Maslow, all people have a need or desire
47
for a stable, firmly based, sense of self-regard, or self-respect, and they need the
esteem from themselves and from others.
People who feel basically inadequate might channel their energies into proving
and demonstrating their adequacy- both to themselves and to others. Alfred Adler
developed his theory of personality largely on the concepts of the motivating power of
basic inferiority and compensation. Adler did not view this process in negative terms;
his contention was that individuals develop unique personalities by striving to
overcome real or perceived inadequacies.
Homey also described the antecedents of self-esteem by pointing out that the
children who did not receive adequate parental love, acceptance, and approval tend to
develop a pattern of insatiable needs (which she desired as neurotic) as result of it a
person may develop low level of self-esteem and she also postulated that the person
would have an inordinate need for approval and affection.
The self-esteem consists of two words i.e. 'self and 'esteem'. The word
'esteem' originated from the Latin word which means 'to estimate'. It is used as a
fancy word for thinking that someone or something is important which a person
describes considering the value and worth that he gives to himself. And the word
'self means consideration of an individual's own point of view pertaining to values,
beliefs and attitudes that he holds about himself When we put these two words
together it becomes easier to understand the concept of self-esteem. The self-esteem
of a person forms as a result of our years of experiences especially the early periods of
development and the evaluations made by an individual on him to express his positive
or negative feelings to indicate the extent to which an individual believes about
himself/herself to be capable, significant and worthy. Self-esteem is a concept which
may be applied to specific areas of experiences and it is always applied to one's
48
general feelings of worthiness. Self-esteem is generally conceptualized as an
assessment of one's own worth. Self-esteem occupies popular position in
psychological discourse and social psychologists debated and presented their views in
terms of definitions. It needs to point out that love, warmth, and acceptance are
extremely important in everyone's life with regard to developing self-esteem of varied
degrees among individuals. It might be said that self-esteem is a multidimensional
concept and very important in everyone's life. Attempts have been made by
psychologists to define self-esteem.
Rosenberg (1960) defined self-esteem in terms of totality of an individual's
thoughts and feelings with reference to himself as an object. He further argued that
self-esteem is a generally stable characteristic of the individuals not easily
manipulated as an outcome of an experimental design. The self-esteem develops
through individuals' life experiences and becomes the basis of guiding one's
behaviour and actions.
According to Coopersmith (1976) self-esteem refers to the evaluation, which
the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself. It expresses
an attitude of approval or disapproval and indicates the extent to which an individual
holds towards himself. It is subjective experience, which the individual conveys to
other by verbal reports and other overt expressive behaviour.
Baron and Byrne (1991) stated self-esteem as an individual's attitude about
him or herself, involving self evaluation along a positive-negative dimension.
According to Baumiester (1993) self-esteem is the affective component of
self, a persons' general and specific positive-negative self evaluations. In contrast to
self-concept, which reflects our beliefs and cognitions regarding the self, self-esteem
is more emotionally oriented.
49
Just as the self-esteem is composed of multiple self-schemas is not one
dimensional. Instead, we may view particular parts of the self in more positive or less
positive ways. For instance, a person may hold his academic self-schemas in high
regard but consider his weight and body type self-schema negatively (Marsh, 1986;
Pelham and Swann, 1989; Moretti and Higgins, 1990; Marsh, 1986,1990).
There are so many concepts and terms which are interchangeably used as an
aspect of self-esteem. The terms are: self-love, self-confidence, self-respect, self-
acceptance or rejection, self-satisfaction, self-evaluation, self-appraisal, self-worth,
sense of adequacy or personal efficacy, social competence, self-ideal, congruence, ego
or ego-strength. There are two self terms that seem especially important in the
literature, self-esteem and self-concept. Fleming and Courtney (1984) considered self-
concept to be a more gender term, which subsumes. Self-esteem in Wylie's (1974)
self-concept writing, the term self-regard is used in a more specialized sense that is
self-concept; here self- regard appears to be close to our idea of self-esteem.
Coopersmith (1976) self-esteem was a global construct having to do self-
appraisal or evaluation of one's self which seem compatible v^th Shavelson et al.
(1976) and also with Rosenberg (1965,1979) because he recognized that a number of
facts contribute to this global a general perspective though most researches in self-
esteem would probably agree with the view, there are a wide range of opinions and
the dimensionality issue. Self-concept on the other hand; includes pure self-
descriptions which are distinguishable from self-esteem because such descriptions do
not necessarily imply judgements.
Shavelson et al. (1976) used the term self-esteem and self-concept
interchangeably, arguing that the distinction between the two concepts is not very
clear conceptually and that such a distinction has not been demonstrated empirically.
50
Shepard (1979) also attempted to sort out evaluative from non evaluative aspects he
reported somewhat modest, though favourable results. However the distinction
between these constructs seems quite thoroughly deep-rooted in psychological
thought, dating back at to William James (1950) who is pioneer to recognize that self
awareness and self evaluation were distinct ideas.
' Self-esteem is not iimate and it develops through life experiences so it varies
overtime depending on the situation, which one can notice that sometimes we feel
quite good about ourselves, and other times quite bad. For instance, transitions
between different schools often result in lowering one's self-esteem. Hence, when
students leave elementary school and enter junior high school, their self-esteem often
drops and then gradually rises again. Self-esteem even rises and falls over shorter
periods. We may feel better about ourselves after learning we did particularly well on
a test and worse after learning we failed (Eccles et. al., 1989; Heatherton and Polivy,
1991).
The development of self-esteem seems to be more important because it play a
mediating role in assisting an individual to adjust to his/her environmental demand
and to develop socially appropriate behaviours and self regulations (Higgins, 1991).
The foundations of self-esteem are laid early in life when infants develop attachments
with the adults who are responsible for them. When adults readily respond to their
cries and smiles, babies learn to feel loved and valued. Children come to feel loved
and accepted by people they look up to. As yoimg children learn to trust their parents
and others, who care for them to satisfy their basic needs, they gradually feel wanted,
valued and loved. Although self-esteem is forming, it is not measurable before the age
of five or six because up until this time two fimctions of self-esteems- competence
and worthiness operate independently of each other.
51
Between the age of five and eight self-esteem becomes increasingly
meaningful for the children and they begin to make judgement about their self worth
and competence in five areas- physical appearance, social acceptance, scholastic
ability, athletic and artistic skills and behaviour. These areas make up the child's
global view of his/her self Self-esteem emerges at this point in childhood because the
child is able to initiate behaviour with competence, evaluate his or her
accomplishments in terms of their worthiness and experience a process or attitude
between the rows. As a child's age increases so do their social contacts, life
experiences and the expectations placed upon them.
A study conducted by Thomas (1989) indicated that many physically
handicapped young people are likely to be isolated from their peers, and experience
problems of self-esteem and self-image, the consequence being that many report
considerable difficulties in social situations and social relationships.
In the process of development the child also develops an increasing awareness
of those things which they feel about what is good or bad. At this stage inevitably
self-esteem begins to affect their behaviour and a person attempts to maintain and
protect his sense of self worth against the challenges, problems and experiences of
life. Self-esteem also acts as afilterthrough which we judge our performances. In this
way they determine how to approach their future tasks. As children pass through early
to middle childhood, they still tend to be unrealistically positive in their self
evaluations. Their ability to compare themselves with other remains limited, but they
are better able to integrate and categorize some self-perceptions. Harter (1999)
pointed out that young children tend to think in terms of absolutes (all positive or all
negative). Thus, despite the tendency to be overly positive, a child may demonstrate
negative self-esteem if negative life experiences has emphasized negative attributes.
52
In middle to late childhood (8 to 11 years), children no longer think of
themselves in terms of absolutes. They perceive both positive and negative aspects of
their attributes and emotions. Children begin to integrate their perceptions of their
attributes to form generalizations. At this point, children can compare themselves to
their peers. At the same times, the school setting allows for more comparative
judgement (Harter, 1999). With increased maturity and experience, children also
begin to perceive themselves in a more differentiated way (Garcia, Heart, and
Johnson-Ray, 1997; Marsh, Smith and Barnes, 1985; Shavelson and Bolous, 1982;
Shavelson, Hubner and Staton, 1976) i.e. they perceive themselves to be more
competent or adapt in some domains in other. The extent to which their perceptions of
themselves in specific domains affect their overall sense of self worth will be
influenced by how important they perceive those domains to be (Harter, Waters, and
Whitesell, 1998). By adulthood self-esteem has changed from a mostly reactive
phenomenon to one that can be consciously acted upon to either increase or decrease
feelings of self worth. As adults we are confronted by many situations that affect our
level of self-esteem. It shows how self-esteem promotes goals and behaviour that
facilitate productive achievement.
It has been observed that younger children ordinarily prefer to repeat tasks in
which they have already succeeded, unlike older children and adults who prefer to
work on tasks as yet accomplish their goal, older persons preserve, while younger
children avoid humiliation by demonstrating over and over again their success on a
low level of accomplishment and have difficult tasks imcompleted with no sign of
embarrassment. The older person battles against outer reality to retain his self-esteem;
the young in his world of pleasure prefers to old his earlier and assured success
(Rosenzweig, 1933).
53
During childhood the individual is in the process of establishing his self-
esteem and therefore repeats the tasks on which he has succeeded previously, whereas
the older people with already established self-images can risk experimenting with new
tasks and still retaining their self-esteem. Studies have shown that self-esteem of an
individual often remains constant for several years after middle childhood and is very
difficult to change in upward or downward direction (Synder, 1979). Even when faced
with "objective" evidence people prefer to accept their own "subjective" view of their
worthiness. This may be because of the individuals' need for psychological
consistency when dealing with the world.
Self-esteem is further divided into global self-esteem and specific self-esteem.
Global self-esteem refers to an overall evaluation set with wdde ranging
implication for self experience. Global self-esteem scores may predict behaviour
across a wide range of situations, particularly when behaviour is aggregated across
many situations (Epstein, 1980).
According to Rosenberg (1979), "a persons' global self-esteem is based not
solely on an assessment of the qualities that coimt".
Specific self-esteem refers to self evaluation in narrowly defmed domains
(Rosenberg, 1979). Specific self-esteem scores may allow strong predication to be
made in highly delimited behavioural domains (Cray, 1969; Bandura, 1982). Each of
these levels of self-esteem can lead to useful predications.
In every society/culture, the teachers, administrators and parents are
commonly concerned about students' self-esteem. Its significance is often
exaggerated to the extent that low self-esteem is viewed as the cause of all evil and
high self-esteem as the cause of all good (Manning, Bear and Minke, 2006). Self-
esteem is found to be associated with depression, anxiety, motivation and general
54
satisfaction with one's life (Harter, 1986; Rosenberg, 1986). Given these association,
children and adolescents who lack self-esteem may be more dependent on their
parents and have lower academic and vocational goals. Hence it is not surprising that
the parents and educators want to foster self-esteem in the young people. Moreover
the belief seems to be wide spread that raising an individuals' self-esteem (especially
that of a child or adolescent) would be beneficial for both the individual and society
as a whole.
Several studies showed that self-esteem is found to influence the academic
performance (Jones and Grieneeks, 1970; Lamy, 1965; Wattenberg and Clifford,
1964). Researches have also shown that self-esteem is a better predictor of academic
success than measured intelligence (Wattenberg and Clifford, 1964). Keeping
researches aside, common sense dictates that our thoughts influence our feelings and
behaviour, consequently, influences our performance. Life is essentially a self
fulfilling prophecy. In this context, common sense dictates that a student who has
self-doubt and lacks self-acceptance is unlikely to attain academic excellence. The
student cannot establish challenging goals if he or she lacks a sense of self-
competence or self-efficacy. In the similar way he/she cannot concentrate on studies if
he/she lacks self approval. Individuals with high self-esteem generally undertake
more challenging goals than do individuals with low self-esteem (Bandura, 1989;
Waschull and Kemis, 1996). Students who have strong sense of efficacy or self-
competence tend to focus their attention and effort on the demands of tasks and to
minimize potential difficulties (Bandura, 1986; Cauley, Linder and McMillan, 1989).
Research shows that lower the children's self-esteem, the lower their preference for
challenge. Less challenging goals consequently lead to reduced effort and mediocre
performance (Campbell and Fairey, 1985; Wattenberg and Clifford, 1964).
55
Some researchers reported that self-esteem facilitates an individual to cope up
with difficult challenges when it arise and give a faith to overcome it. An individual
develops his self-esteem from his/her family and can be improved through proper
socialization or social support. Persons with high self-esteem perform better after and
initial failure than persons with low self-esteem and more likely to persist in the face
of obstacles (Brockner, 1983; Perez, 1973; Shrauger and Sorman, 1977). Indeed self-
esteem is a key variable in determining resilience (Rutter, 1985; Werner, and Enuny,
1995).
A number of studies have been conducted related to goal orientation also and
it has been found out that the individuals with high self-esteem generally undertake
more challenging goals than do the individual with low self-esteem. People with high
self-esteem are more co-operative, enthusiastic, considerate, and assertive and
respectively than people with low self-esteem (Brockner, 1983; Shrauger and Sorman,
1977).
A considerable amount of research reveals that self-esteem stability has
predictive value beyond the predictive value of self-esteem level. Moreover,
considering self-esteem stability provides one way to distinguish fragile from secure
forms of high self-esteem. This notion has been supported by a study conducted by
Kemis (2005) which focused on the joint roles of stability and level of self-esteem in
various aspects psychological functioning. Stability of self-esteem refers to the
magnitude of short term fluctuations that people experience in their current,
contextually based feelings of self-worth. In contrast, level of self-esteem refers to
representations of people's general, or typical, feelings of self-worth.
Shaalvik (1990) viewed that self-esteem is the individuals' general feeling of
doing well in school and his/her satisfaction with one's achievements. It is generally
56
emphasized that self-esteem refers to an individual's overall positive evaluation to
his/her self (Gecas, 1982; Rosenberg, 1990, Rosenberg et al., 1995). It is composed of
two distinct dimensions i.e. competence and worth. The 'competence' dimension
(efficacy based self-esteem) refers to the degree to which people see themselves as
capable and efficacious. Self-competence as defined by Tafarodi and Swan (1995) in
terms of generalized sense of ones own efficacy or power". The 'worth' dimensions
(worth based self-esteems) refers to the degree to which individuals feel they are
persons to value. Self-worth means accepting oneself unconditionally and having the
feeling that one is worthy of living and attaining happiness. In the words of Branden
(1992) self-esteem is "the disposition to experience oneself as competent to cope with
the basic challenges of life and as worthy of happiness. Similarly McDevitt and
Ormrod (2004) have referred self-esteem as the feelings of people about their
capability and worth. In another study Reasoner (2005), has defined self-esteem as the
experience of being capable of meeting life challenges and being worthy of happiness.
Competence related factors such as self efficacy; self-esteem, self confidence,
negative attribution style, and self-perceived competence have often been proposed as
potential moderator variables (Bandura, 1994; Hilsman and Garber, 1995; Glyshaw et
al., 1989; Masten et al., 1990; Metalsky and Joiner, 1992; Metalsky, Joiner, Hardin,
and Abramson, 1993; Rutter, 1985; Werner, 1990). Such factors presumably facilitate
effective coping and inhibit maladaptive response to stressful life events. Consider,
for example, a negative academic event such as getting a bad grade on a test. On the
one hand, individuals who believe that they are academically competent may attribute
the negative event to a lack of effort (rather than lack of ability), which in turn may
motivate hard work in the future. On the other hand, individuals who believe that they
are not academically competent may interpret the negative event as confirmation of
57
their belief, which in turn may engender hopelessness, reduce motivation, and
potentially promote depression.
Researches have also shown that feelings of self-competence are conductive to
higher levels of intrinsic motivation (Bandura and Cervone, 1983; Deci and Ryan,
1985; Harackiewicz and Larson, 1986; Harter and Jackson, 1992; Vallerand, 1983). In
short students with high self-esteem tend to be more ambitious than those with low
self-esteem. In contrast some research indicated that feeling worthless can be
depressing (Battle, 1990; Bhatti et al. 1992; Hokanson, Rubert, Welker, Hollander and
Hedden, 1989) and depression generally inhibits performance. As stated by Leary and
Dovms (1995), "people who feel worthy, able and competent are more likely to
achieve their goals than those who feel worthless, important, and incompetent.
Self-esteem is found to be better predictor of satisfaction with one's life than
any objective characteristics of individuals such as income or age. High self-esteem
has been implicated in good mental health (Baumiester, 1991; Taylor and Brown,
1988). Positive life events improve the overall health (both self-reported and
objectively measured) of people with high self-esteem, possibly by disrupting their
fragile identity (Brown and McGill, 1989).
Concerns about poor self-image and low self-esteem are common among the
problems presented by parents of clinic-referred adolescents. Although problems with
self-esteem are not recognized as a disorder or syndrome, self-related difficulties in
the form of low self-worth, unstable self-image, high self-criticism, and distorted self
evaluations are among the diagnostic or associated features of a wide range of
disorders. Recent findings indicate that self-esteem plays a functional role in
adjustment and can be changed through treatment, especially through treatments that
58
target it for change. Improvements in self-esteem are linked with other positive
outcomes (Shirk, Bumwell and Harter, 2003).
Whether common people know it or not, everyone has self-esteem, but some
have better grasps on it than others do. Most people's self concept judgement is based
on what they value, their beliefs or interests, and the attitudes that they have (Beane,
1993). Therefore, it is impossible to escape the notion that someone doesn't have self-
esteem, but other have a big part in deciding as well.
People differ from one another regarding their self-esteem and everyone might
occasionally orfrequentlygo through times of low self-esteem in a situation such as
after an undeniable failure, we may find some people who are chronically found low
in self-esteem. In such cases, the consequences can be profound, including physical
illness or psychological disturbance. As a psychologist we better understand that a
person experiencing a cycle of failure in his/her life will damage his self-esteem and it
becomes difficult to break- a self fulfilling prophecy. For example- consider students
with low self-esteem who are facing an upcoming test. As a result of their low self-
esteem they expect to do poorly. In turn, this expectation produces high anxiety and
may lead them to reduce the amount of effort they apply while studying. After all,
why should people who expect to do badly bother to work very hard? Ultimately of
course, the high anxiety and lack of effort produce just what was expected- failure on
the test. Unfortunately the failure simply reinforces the low self-esteem, and the cycle
continues.
An individual's sense of personal identity can be equated to an extent with his
reality assumptions about himself which also naturally include an assessment of his
assets and liabilities, successes and failures, humiliations and potentialities; they tie in
59
closely with his feelings of self-worth. On the basis of these assumptions he may
evaluate himself as superior or inferior; worthy or unworthy, adequate or inadequate.
During early life our self-evaluation is much more dependent upon the way we
are viewed by significant others including our parents. In these early years we have
few standards for measuring our adequacy and worth than those supplied by the
people around us. If their words and behavior label us as inadequate unworthy of love
and respect, we have little choice but to accept their negative evaluation. If, on the
other hand, we are warmly accepted and respected as an adequate and capable person,
our self-evaluation will be probably positive and we will have a high level of self-
esteem. As pointed out by Combs and Snygg (1959) that the early years evaluations
of self-worth have a continuing effect on one's personality development.
As we grow older, culturally defined standards of desirability particularly peer
group standards concerning physical appearance and so on increasingly provide the
yardstick against which we compare ourselves. Since such standards may vary
considerably from one peer group to another, our particular group memberships may
have a great deal to do with our level of self-esteem.
In other cases, threats to self-esteem cause people to neglect those aspects of
the self that are most painful- which produces further failure. Under many
circumstances people with high self-esteem accurately judge their strengths and
limitations. In fact, such people have significantly greater self-knowledge than those
with low self-esteem (Baumgardner, 1990).
Recipients of help are not always so grateful for the help that they are offered.
Infact, some researches suggested that recipients of aid may be psychological worse
off than before they receive any help. Infact in many cases, the self-esteem of
recipients drops after receiving help from others. The threat to self-esteem model
60
emphasizes that the way in which help is offered influences whether the help is
viewed as positive or negative (Fisher, Nadler, and Whitcher-Alagna, 1981; Fisher,
Nadler, and DePaulo, 1983). Several factors produce negative consequences for
recipients' self-esteem. Help that emphasizes the higher ability or status of a donor is
likely to produce threats to the recipients' self-esteem. For example, a classmate, who
has finished her classroom project early, turns to you and offers to help you to finish
your work. Instead of reacting with gratitude, you feel embarrassed and annoyed. You
reject for help, with a cold response of "No thanks". Furthermore, help that prevents a
recipient fi-om reciprocating (and thereby fulfilling societal norms of reciprocity) is
likely to be seen as threatening. Help that is given grudgingly or out of guilt is also
viewed as threatening. Finally, people with high self-esteem typically react more
negatively to help than those with low self-esteem.
Fortimately, help can be provided to individuals in several ways that don't
threaten their self-esteem. Among the most non-threatening kinds of aids given to
persons are the following (Fisher et al., 1982; Searcy and Eisenberg, 1992; Shell and
Eisenberg, 1992):
• Aidfi-omdonors with positive characteristics and motivation.
• Aidfi-omsiblings and other relatives.
• Aid that can be reciprocated by the recipient.
• Aid that does not threaten the recipients' autonomy and sense of control.
• Aid that is offered, rather than asked for.
• Aid that comes from donors with relatively low resources or expertise.
The most effective aid then occurs when recipients feel that the donor likes
and is interested in them and views them as independent and autonomous.
Furthermore, a person most readily accepts help then it is clear that it will increase the
61
recipients' likelihood of future success. It is also observed that under certain
circumstances people with particularly high self-esteem may overestimate themselves
and their capabilities. This is particularly likely to happen in situations in which their
capabilities are threatened (Gerrard, Kurylo, and Reis, 1991). In addition their lofty
views of themselves in turn may lead them to make commitments that exceed their
capabilities. In some cases, in fact, people who are high in self-esteem may resort to
violence when their highly favourable views of the self are threatened by a particular
person or circumstance. This phenomenon may be explained referring the extreme
case of a California graduate student who, upon realizing he was in danger of failing
his master's degree orals, murdered three professors (Baumiester, Heatherton, and
Tice, 1993; Heatherton and Ambady, 1993; Baumiester, Smart, Boden, 1996; Perry
and Malnie, 1996).
Thus the child who grows up thinking of himself as inferior to other children
or as unworthy of his family because he cannot have up to their high expectations will
need many experiences of success and acceptance before he begins to evaluate
himself in generally positive terms. He will interpret even the small failures that are
inevitable in anyone's life as adding to the already overwhelming proof of his
inadequacy. The child who grows up feeling adequate and secure, on the other hand,
can take considerable failure in his stride and realistically accept many personal
shortcomings without altering his basic self-structure.
Self devaluation is one of the greatest handicaps to personal effectiveness.
From feelings of inadequacy and unworthiness we acquire a defensive orientation that
discourages growth and positive accomplishment. Such feelings usually develop from
an unrealistic picture of ourselves in relation to other people. As Waiters (1949)
62
pointed out, whether failures and personal limitations become devaluating depends
upon the way we interpret them.
Often an individual thinks other people consider him inferior simply because
he falls short of his own aspirations. The pattern usually includes not only unrealistic
aspirations for oneself but also an idealized picture of others. We continually compare
our assets, achievements, status and behavioural standards with those of other people.
Such comparisons may lead to a realistic appreciation of individual differences and a
more or less objective picture of our own assets and liabilities or to an exaggerated
sense of inadequacy.
The latter is more likely when we use an imrealistic basis for comparison.
Thus we may match ourselves against very best person in a given field and feel
devaluated because we do not measure up, not realizing that the vast majority of
people are perhaps worse than us and we may exaggerate the overall personality
characteristics of people who have made a remarkable achievement in only one field.
We fail to realize that they are much like us, make mistakes like us, have problems of
their own and perhaps are actually inferior to us in some areas and that in their chosen
fields they have excelled not only because of superior abilities but also because of
hard work and various chance factors. Finally we may suffer devaluation when we
exaggerate the importance of our own liabilities-whether these are bad complexion, a
large nose, poor athletic ability, or low socio-economic status.
This tendency to perceive exaggeratedly our failures and negative points and
overlook our positive points or assess them as insignificant as compared to our
shortcomings defines the state of low self-esteem. In critical situations, such persons
have a tendency to remember failures in comparison to people with high self-esteem
who are propelled to act meaningftilly and confidentially in crises as they recall their
63
success more clearly (Erikson, 1952). Glixman (1949) suggested that without regard
to ego strength the forgetting of failures is a more efficacious defense than the
remembering of successes, and therefore the former will occur when extreme
condition of threat to self evaluation. It is obvious that when the expectations of
failure pervade his cognitions, the individual with low self-esteem is more likely to
act in ways, take up choices and options that lead to failure.
Self-Esteem and Related Studies
Yamamoto and Iowa Wiersma (1967) hypothesized that rejection of self,
rejection of the handicapped, rejection of the mentally ill and Aristotelian thought
orientation are related. From 33 male and 63 female students, 8 variables were
obtained- self-esteem, attitude toward the disabled, tolerance of the mentally ill, help
sources suggested for the mentally ill, mental illness incidence, institutionalization
incidence, incarceration (confinement) incidence, sex incidence of mental illness and
"is of identity". When these variables were intercorelated, 7 of the 28 coefficients
were significant at or beyond the 0.05 level, the ratio itself being significant at the
0.001 level. Regression of attitude toward the disabled on tolerance of the mentally ill
and that of self-esteem on tolerance of the mentally ill were foimd to be nonlinear, the
correlation ratios being high and significant. The former relationship was in
agreement with the hypothesis of generalized attitude of rejection, while the latter ran
counter to it. Several possible explanations for these findings are offered, but on the
basis of the obtained results it was concluded that the hypothesis should be tentatively
accepted.
Harvey and Greenway (1982) conducted a study to investigate the relationship
between parental attitude and the handicapped child's self-esteem with 24 physically
handicapped children with normal intelligence, aged 9-11 years. Parents were grouped
64
according to their responses to a Primary Mood Factors grid, and comparisons were
made with their children's responses to self-concept scale. Parents who were close
together in their primary mood reactions had handicapped children who were more
positive in self-esteem than those dyads who were divided in their primary mood
reaction. Mothers had the most influence on their child's self-esteem, and mothers
who confronted the handicap and came to terms with it were those whose children had
higher self-esteem.
Harvey and Greenway (1984) administered the Piers-Harris Self-Concept
Scale for Children to 20, 9-11 year old physically handicapped children in a special
school, 18 age-matched controls, and 51, 7-25 year old siblings of the handicapped
and control subjects. Results showed that mean total scores were found lower for both
groups of handicapped subjects than for non-handicapped controls, and mean total
scores for siblings of the handicapped subjects were lower than for the siblings of the
controls. The obtained results remained the same even when scores for handicapped
subjects were pooled and analyzed according to diagnosis. There were few significant
differences between handicapped subjects and their siblings, irrespective of their
groupings. Thus, the presence of a handicap was found associated with a lower sense
of self-esteem, greater anxiety, and a lesser integrated view of self
Gleser, and Brovm (1986) investigated the therapeutic application of modified
judo practice with 25, 8-18 year old visually handicapped students, one-third of whom
were also affected by neurological or psychiatric disorders. Students generally had
low reaction times and uncoordinated movements. After 9 months, subjects
experienced reduction of movement disorders, improved cardio respiratory
functioning, improved coping mechanisms and more mature adaptation, and increased
well-being, self-esteem, body image and social identity.
65
Lawrence (1991) carried out a study to examine the possible impact of
physical handicap on formation of self-concept. Physical handicap affects the learning
effectiveness of the handicapped individuals and also reduces the rate of self-concept
formation. Significant others (parents, teachers, peers) can be great help for
handicapped individuals to establish a positive self-concept.
Huurre, Komulainen and Aro (1999) assessed the self-esteem of the sighted
and visually impaired adolescents and reported that the two groups did not differ
significantly, but trend of the result revealed that self-esteem of visually impaired
girls tended to be lower than that of fiilly sighted girls. Relationships with friends
significantly contributed to the enhancement of the self-esteem for the entire visually
impaired sample. When broken dovm by severity of impairment, self-esteem was
related to relationship with their parents for boys who were blind (as opposed to the
less severely impaired).
Hughes, Robinson-Whelen, Taylor, Swedlund, et al, (2004) conducted a study
to ascertain the efficacy of a 6 week self-esteem group intervention for women with
disabilities. Participants in the intervention group showed significantly greater
improvement on self-esteem, self-efficacy, and depression. Groups did not differ
significantly on social embeddedness. Thus on the basis of the results it was
concluded that women with physical disabilities may benefit from a self-esteem group
intervention.
Heimpal, Eliot, and Wood (2006) made an attempt to test hypothesis that self-
esteem negatively predicts avoidance (relative to approach) personal goals, as well as
the hypothesis that self-esteem mediates the link between indicators of approach and
avoidance temperament and avoidance (relative to approach) personal goals. The
results indicated that the self-esteem is indeed negatively related to avoidance
66
(relative to approach) goals, even with social desirability concerns controlled and also
reported that self-esteem mediate the relation between Neuroticism (conceptualized as
an indicator of avoidance temperament) and avoidance (relative to approach) personal
goals and finally observed that the self-esteem was dociamented as a mediator of the
relation between BAS and BIS sensitivity (conceptualized as indicators of approach
and avoidance temperament, respectively)' and avoidance (relative to approach)
personal goals in the achievement domain.
The study conducted by Finzi-Dottan and Karu (2006) does not have direct
relevance but so far emotional abuse is concerned the disable person seem to face in
their life. So this may be related to disability too. In this study they tried to examine
the course traveled from childhood emotional abuse to adulthood psychopathology. It
was reported by the investigators that the psychopathological symptomatology highly
exceeded the Israeli norm. Thus, it was inferred from the obtained findings that the
manifest psychopathology among adults who suffered emotional abuse in childhood is
produced by the detrimental effect of abuse on personality, and takes the form of
immature defense organization and damaged self-representation,
Herbozo, and Thompson (2006) in their study examined bothfrequencyand
distress (effect) components of commentary. Significant correlations were found
between both frequency and effect dimensions of commentary and measures of body
image disturbance and self-esteem. The utility of both frequency and effect variables
in predicting body image disturbance and self-esteem was demonstrated in regression
analyses. This study can also be considered relevant because it is related to body
image of the subjects; the same situation may be with the handicapped people.
DuBois, Burk-Braxton, Swenson, Tevendale, et al. (2002) investigated the
influence of social support and self-esteem on adjustment in early adolescence.
67
Findings were found to show consistence with self-esteem mediating effects social
support on both emotional and behavioural adjustment. Lack of balance in social
support and self-esteem in the direction of stronger support and esteem from peer
oriented sources predicted greater levels and rates of growth in behavioural problems.
Results indicated that a need for process-oriented models of social support and self-
esteem and sensitivity to patterning of sources for each resource relative to adaptive
demands of early adolescence.
Alves-Martins, Pexito, Gouveia-Pereira, Amaral, et al. (2002) analyzed
strategies pursued to protect self-esteem when it is threatened by a negative self-
evaluation of school competence. Significant differences were foimd between the self-
esteem enjoyed by successful and unsuccessful students in the seventh grade; such
differences in domain-specific self-evaluation. It was also foimd that students with
low levels of academic achievement attribute less importance to school-related areas
and reveal less favourable attitudes towards school.
Lipschitz-Elhawi and Itzhaky (2005) attempted to explore the relationship
between internal resources (self-esteem, sense of mastery), external resources (social
support) and the adjustment of adolescents living in a typical Israeli residential
treatment center. All had been exposed to abuse and neglect in their family's home.
Although none of the resources was related significantly to all of the adjustment
measures, various resources were related to individual adjustment measures in
different ways. Peer support did not relate significantly to any of the adjustment
measures. Self- esteem was related to the academic of adolescents, and a sense of
mastery was related to social and personal adjustment. As for external resources,
family support was found related to both academic and personal adjustment. In the
regression analysis the contribution of family support to academic adjustment was
68
indirect and only in interaction with the distance between the residential treatment
center and the family's home.
De Mello and Imms (1999) conducted a study to find out the relationship
between self-esteem, locus of control, and coping styles and their relationship to
school attitudes of adolescents. They found a significant correlation between self-
esteem, locus of control, and coping style. Those high on self-esteem had internal
locus of control and were the greatest users of the productive "problem solving"
coping style. They were significantly more likely to enjoy school to have a positive
perception of their academic performance. This revealed a relationship between
school attitudes and the three personality variables. There were no gender differences
in scores on self-esteem, locus of control, and coping styles. However, females had a
more positive attitude towards school than males.
Merwin and Ellis (2004) studied the attitudes of yoimg adolescents with high,
moderate, and low self-esteem towards violence and reasons for living. For attitude
towards violence, main effects were foimd for both gender and self-esteem. The
reasons for living, a main effect was foimd for self-esteem but not for gender. An
inverse relationship was found between violence and reasons for living.
Donnellan, Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffit, et al. (2005) explored the
controversial link between global self-esteem and externalizing problems such as
aggression, antisocial behaviour, and delinquency. A robust relation was obtained
between low self-esteem and externalizing problems. The effect of self-esteem on
aggression was independent of narcissism, an important finding given recent claims
that individuals, who are narcissistic, not low in self-esteem, are aggressive.
Mar, DcYoung, Higgins, and Peterson (2006) examined the similarities
between measures of self-evaluation and self deception, and proposed a method for
69
discriminating between them, using personality profiles and relations to ability and
achievement. It was observed that self-competence was foiand uniquely associated
with cognitive ability and both academic and creative achievement. On the basis of
observed results it was concluded that, along with self liking, self-competence is a
useful form of self-evaluation which should also be measured and taken into account
in research that has traditionally focused on self-esteem.
Killeen and Forehand (1998) examined the transactional model of self-esteem
(TMS), emphasizes that self-esteem results from complex transactions among
individual characteristics, cognitions, and behavioiirs of adolescents and parents. It
was hypothesized that, there could be direct paths to global self-esteem from
adolescents' specific self perceptions and mothers' positive communications, where
as paths from maternal depressive symptoms and adolescent behaviour problems to
self- esteem were indirect, mediated by mothers' perceptions and behaviours.
Esposito, Kobak and Little (2005) tested the hypothesis that the self-esteem of
aggressive children will be more reactive to negative interpersonal events than the
self-esteem of nonaggressive children. The results revealed that aggressive children's
self-esteem was more reactive to negative peer events but less reactive to negative
adult events than the self-esteem of less aggressive children.
Greenier et al. (1999) examined the extent to which level and stability of self-
esteem predicted the impact that everyday positive and negative events had on
individuals' feelings about themselves. As anticipated, negative and positive events
had a greater impact on the self-feelings of individuals with unstable as opposed to
stable self-esteem. Additional findings indicated that event qualities (i.e., self-esteem
relevance and concerns about social acceptance/rejection) could account for the
unstable self-esteem/greater reactivity link for negative events, but not for positive
70
events. Negative, but not positive, events had a greater impact on the self-feelings of
individuals with low as compared to high levels of self-esteem.
Hair and Graziano (2003) in their study attempted to explore the answers of
four empirical questions: (1) Is self-esteem a better predictor of academic success and
adjustment than other aspects of personality? (2) How is self-esteem related to Big-
Five dimensions of'personality during the transition from middle school to high
school? (3) Do dispositions like Agreeableness or Openness relate to an adolescent's
adaptation and affect reactions to the self? and (4) Do sources of information about
adolescents (e.g., self-rating, other rating, objective "life history") converge? They
also explored the general hypothesis that personality, self-esteem, and teachers'
ratings of adjustment during the middle school years predict later life outcomes during
high school. Overall, results showed that Big Five personality characteristics were
more stable than self-esteem across this transition period. Agreeableness and
Openness assessed in middle school are related to later scholastic competence and
behavioural conduct, academic success, and high school.
Trantwein, Ludtke, Koller, and Baumert (2006) examined the directionality of
effects between global self-esteem, domain-specific academic self-concepts, and
academic achievement. Special emphasis is placed on learning environments as
potential moderators of the direction of these effects. According to the meritocracy
principle presented here, so called bottom-up effects (i.e., self-esteem is influenced by
academic self-concept) are more pronounced in meritocratic learning environments
than in ego-protective learning environments. This hypothesis was examined using a
three-wave cross-lagged panel design with a large sample of?* gradersfi-omEast and
West Germany, a total of 5,648 who were tested shortly after German reunification.
Reciprocal effects were found between self-esteem, academic self-concept, and
71
academic achievement. In conformance with the meritocracy principle, support for
bottom-up effects was stronger in the meritocratic learning environment.
Paterson and Field (1995) examined the relative influence of adolescents'
perception of their attachment with their mothers, fathers and friends, on 3 measures
of Self-Esteem (SE). Utilization of emotional support and proximity (one of the
dimensions of attachment relationship being assessed in the study) with mothers,
fathers, and friends was minimally related to overall SE, coping abilities and social
competence. The quality of affect, (another dimension of attachment relationship),
towards mothers and fathers was significantly related only to social competence.
Results suggest that Ss' SE is more strongly associated with quality of affect toward
parents and friends than with utilization of these target figures for support or
proximity
Dum (1996), examined the salutary effects of finding positive meaning in a
disabling experience with special reference to being an optimist, and perceiving
control over disability on two criterion of psychological well-being, namely
depression and self-esteem. A main in survey on psychological adjustment to limb
amputation was completed by 38 persons, with amputation. Regression analysis
revealed that finding meaning following amputation was linked to lower levels of
depression symptomatology but not to self-esteem. Both dispositional optimism and
perceived control over disability were center for epidemiological studies depression
scale and higher scores on Rosenberg's self-esteem scale.
Paradise et al. (2002) examined the extent to which self-esteem levels and SE
stability predicted scores on Ryffs (1989) multidimensional measures of
psychological well-being. Results suggest that high self-esteem was associated with
greater well-being than low S.E. In addition, main effects on SE stability emerged for
72
the autonomy, environmental mastery, and purpose in life subscales, indicating that
stable SE was associated with higher scores than was unstable SE. Finally SE levels
stability interactions emerged for the self-acceptance, positive relations and personal
growth subscales indicating more complex relationship between self-esteem and these
aspects of well-being.
Research indicates that gender role is a good predictor of psychological
adjustment. Masculine and androgynous children (a type of gender role identity in
which the person scores high on both masculine and feminine personality
characteristics) and adults have a higher sense of self-esteem, whereas feminine
individuals often think poorly of themselves (Alpert-Gillis & Connell, 1989; Boldizar,
1991). Wyman, Cower, Work, and Kerly, (1993) examined relationship between
children's ftiture expectations and variables reflecting self-esteem fiinctioning with
urban children exposed to high psychological risk. Results indicated that future
expectations were related to affect regulation, self-representations, and school
adjustment. Another study, follow up of 67 subjects showed that early positive
expectations predicted enhanced socio-emotional adjustment in school and more
internal focus of control, and acted as a affects of high stress on self rated
competence. Findings are consistent with data showing positive expectations to be
characteristics of resilient children and suggest that early positive future expectations
influence later adjustment.
Garske and Gregory (1996) examined the attitudes of personal attendants
towards persons with severe disabilities, their own self-esteem, and the relationship
between these variables. Results showed moderately positive attitudes towards people
with disabilities and positive self-esteem. Self-esteem was positively related to
attitudes towards persons with disabilities.
73
Brendgen, and Bukowski (1998) examined whether a perceived lack of
closeness with parents would be mediated by a lack of self-esteem. Results show that
self-esteem mediated the relation between perceived closeness with parents.
Greenier, Kemis, McNamara, Waschul et al. (1999), examined the extent to
which level and stability of self-esteem predicted the impact that everyday positive
and negative events had on individuals' feelings about themselves. Negative and
positive events had a greater impact on the self-feelings of individuals with unstable
as opposed to stable self-esteem (although the effect for positive events was
marginal). Negative events had a greater impact on the self-feeling of individuals with
low as compared to high levels of self-esteem.
Fumham and Cheng (2000) examined, to what extent recalled parental rearing
styles (authoritarian, authoritativeness, permissiveness), personality (extraversion,
neuroticism, psychotics, lie), and self-esteem predicted self rated happiness in a
normal non-clinical population of young people. Regression and path analysis
showed, self-esteem to be the most dominant and powerful predictor of happiness.
This finding is reiterated in another study conducted by Cheng & Fumham in (2004)
which attempted to determine the relative importance of self-criticism, self-esteem
and parenting styles in predicting happiness. Results indicate that self-esteem had the
most dominant and powerful correlation with happiness. Maternal care was a
significant correlate of both self-esteem and self criticism. Maternal care was the only
direct correlate of happiness when patemal and maternal rearing styles were examined
together suggesting that the warmth showed by mothers their children was
particularly beneficial in increasing the offspring's scores on self-reported happiness.
Robins, Tracy, Trzesniewski, and Potter (2001) examined the relation between
self-esteem & Big Five Personality dimensions. The five personality dimensions
74
accounted for 34% of the variance in self-esteem. High self-esteem individuals were
emotionally stable, extraverted and conscientious and were somewhat agreeable and
open to experience. The relations between self-esteem and Big Five, largely cut across
age, sex, social class, ethnicity, and nationality, High self-esteem individuals tended
to ascribe socially desirable traits to themselves, and this tendency partially mediated
relations between the big five and self-esteem.
Murray, Rose, Bellania, and Holmes, (2002) examined how needs for
acceptance might constrain low versus high self-esteem people's capacity to protect
their relationship in the face of difficulties. The authors led participants to believe that
their partner perceived a problem in their relationship. The measurement of perception
of partners' acceptance, partner's enhancement, and closeness, revealed, low but not
high self-esteem participants read too much into problems, seeing them as a sign that
their partner's affection and commitment might be warning. They then derogated their
partner and reduced closeness. However, being less sensitive to rejection, high self-
esteem participants affirmed their partners in the face of the threat. Ironically, chronic
need for acceptances may result in low self-esteem people seeing signs of rejection
where none exist, needlessly weakening attachments.
Di Paula and Campbell (2002) examined self-esteem, persistence and
rumination in the field of failure. The manipulation of degree of failure and
availability of goal alternatives revealed that, when an alternative was available high
self-esteem (HSE) individuals persisted more than low self-esteem (LSE) participants,
after a single failure, but less after repeated failure. When no alternative was
available, no self-esteem differences in persistence emerged. Another study examined
persistence and rumination for 10 personal goals across an academic year. HSE
participants were better calibrated (higher within in subject correlations between
75
perceived process and persistence across goals) had overall levels of persistence,
higher grade point averages, and lower levels of rumination than LSE participants.
Although traditional views that emphasized the tenacious persistence of HSE
individuals need revision, HSE people appear more effective in self regulating goal-
directed behaviour.
Yarcheski, Mohan &. Yarcheski (2003), examined the relations of social
support and self-esteem to positive health practices in early adolescents. Results show
a correlation of 0.59 between scores of social support and scores for positive health
practices and correlation of 0.44 between scores on Rosenberg self-esteem scale and
scores for positive health practices.
Predictors of self-esteem were examined in pre-adolescents and adolescents
with cerebral palsy, in a study conducted by Manvel, Balkrishnan, Camacho and
Smith, (2003). On an average self-esteem was high, although 30% scored below cut
point for low self-esteem. Self-esteem was bivariately associated with female gender,
better physician-assessed functional ability, greater perception of the impact of the
disability and higher perceived parent over protectiveness. In a multivariable model,
only perceived impact of disability remained significant.
The two major predictors of subjective quality of life (SQOL) in adults are
known to be self-esteem and a sense of primary control. Moreover secondary control
is known to be an important defense strategy when primary control fails. Marriage
and Cimmiins (2004) aimed to determine whether these relationships also apply to
children. It was found that younger children use more primary control and less
secondary control than older children. However, five year olds were found capable of
producing secondary control strategies. Contrary to expectation, primary and
76
secondary did not predict either self-esteem or SQOL. However, self-esteem predicted
SQOL as expected and no sex differences were found.
Makikanga, Kinnunen and Feidt (2004), aimed to investigate the relationship
between self-esteem and optimism and examined the prospective relationships
between these two personality constructs, mental distress, and physical symptoms.
Results showed that the latent variables of optimism and self-esteem were highly
interrelated, forming the core construct of personal resilience, which turned out to be
stable over the one year period. Results also indicated that high personal resilience
reduced mental distress.
Hughes, Robinson-Whelen, Taylor and Swedlund (2004), determine the
efficacy of a 6 week self-esteem group intervention for women with disabilities, (with
self-esteem, self-efficacy, social connectedness and depression, being the outcome
measures). Results, showed significantly greater improvement on self-esteem. Groups
however do not differ significantly on social connectedness. Women with physical
disabilities may benefit from a self-esteem group intervention.
Robins (2005) opines that consensus is emerging about the way self-esteem
develops across the life-span. On an average, self-esteem is relatively high in
childhood, drops during adolescence (particularly for girls), rises gradually
throughout adulthood, and then declines sharply in old age. Despite these general age
differences, individuals tend to maintain their ordering relative to one another:
Individual who have relatively high self-esteem at one point in time tend to have
relatively high self-esteem years later. This type of stability (i.e. rank-order stability)
is somewhat lower during childhood and old age than during adulthood, but the
overall level of stability is comparable to that found for other personality
characteristics.
77
The factorial dimensions of self-efficacy and self-esteem and associations
among self-esteem and self-efficacy and scholastic achievement were explored. Five
factors emerge from factorial analysis, two factors, reflected self-esteem feelings (and
were respectively named as self-referential self-esteem and comparative self-esteem).
The remaining three factors reflected the self-efficacy beliefs in 3 different scholastic
domains (linguistic literacy logical-mathematical and technical practical). All self-
efficacy scores were significantly related to scholastic achievement, while no
association between self-esteem scores and scholastic performance were found.
Nevertheless self-efficacy and self-esteem dimensions shared some common aspects.
In particular each different self-esteem factor showed different magnitude of
association with domain specific self-efficacy beliefs (D'Amico, et al., 2003).
Kemis, Brown and Brody (2000) examined children's self-esteem stability and
level related to their perceptions of various aspects of parent-child communication.
Compared to children with stable self-esteem, children with unstable self-esteem
reported that their fathers were more critical and psychologically controlling and less
likely to acknowledge their positive behaviours or to show their approval in value
affirming ways. Likewise, children with low self-esteem reported that their fathers
exhibited these qualities to a greater extent than did the children with high SE, In
addition fathers of children with stable SE were viewed as especially good at problem
solving. Children's SE level related to perceptions of mothers' communication style
very similarly to how it did with the fathers'; with respect to SE stability, however,
relationships were generally less consistent andfi-equentlyabsent.
Bamaca, M. Y., Umana-Taylor, A. J.; Nana & Alfara, Edna C. (2005),
examined the relations among parenting behaviours, adolescents' self-esteem, and
neighbourhood risk. Thefindingssuggest that boys' self-esteem is influenced by both
78
mothers and fathers parenting behaviours, whereas as girls' self-esteem is influence
by mothers' behaviours only. In addition, thefindingsprovide partial support for the
notion that parenting influences on psychological outcomes vary based on
neighbourhood context.
Adolescents affiliating with high status peer crowds report higher self-esteem,
less loneliness (Brown and Lohr, 1987; Prinstein and La Greca, 2002), and lower
levels of depressive symptoms (La Greca and Harrison, 2005) than other adolescents.
Bishop and Inderbitzen (1995) found that with at least one reciprocal close
friend had higher self-esteem than those who had no close friends.
According to Hussong (2000) adolescents who are involved in controlling
friendships, which are characterized by peer pressure and social dominance, report
low self-esteem.
According to Prinstein et al. (2001) both overt and relational victimization
have been related to adolescents' reports of depression, loneliness and low self-
esteem.
Hills and Argyle (2001) studied the relationship between happiness and
extraversion and emotional stability in 244 residents of Oxfordshire. They completed
Oxford Happiness Inventory, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Rosenberg Self-
esteem Scale and the Life Satisfaction Scale. It was foimd that emotional stability was
the larger predictor of happiness, life satisfaction and self-esteem.
Grob et al. (1996) carried out a study with 3844 adolescents in 14 countries. It
was found that "control expectations" correlated 0.35 with positive attitude to life and
this was found uniformly in all 14 countries. Control expectations also had a high
correlation with self-esteem (0.82).
79
Chow (2007) conducted a study on psychological well-being among university
students. He reported that those respondents who had a higher family income, showed
a better physical health, expressed a higher degree of satisfaction with their
relationships with family, friends and significant others, indicated a more positive
self-image, and experienced less academic stress and significantly higher level of
psychological well-being.
SOCIAL SUPPORT
Man is a social animal so he is always eager to live in the company of others
and every healthy person cannot live in isolation. Social concern is a central issue in
the life of every human being. In case if an individual is given prolonged isolation
will be the severest punishment for him. We live in the inidst of people which
constitute man's created social world, so everyone of us often rely on others for
support, to bolster our own resources, particularly at times when our resources are
depleted or inadequate. Social interaction with family, fiiends or society seems to be
an integral element of an individual's mental, physical and social health. The
importance of one's closeness with family members, with fiiends or with spouse is
taken for the prediction of healthyfiinctioning(Berkman and Syme, 1979; Jacobs and
Charles, 1980; Medalie and Goldbourt 1976; Thomas and Duszynki 1974). Social
support is a concept that is generally understood in an intuitive sense, as the help firom
other people in a difficuh life situation. One of the first definitions was put forward by
Cobb (1976). He defined social support as the individual belief that one is cared for
and loved, esteemed and valued and belongs to a social network that provides goods,
services and mutual defense at times of need or danger. It appears that most people
turn to informal sources of supporting the phase of stress and not to mental health
80
professionals (Gourash, 1978; Veroff e/ al. 1981). The effects of social support on
adjustment have been documented repeatedly (Gottleib, 1981; Mitchell, Billings and
Moos, 1982).
The concept of social support has been used interchangeably by the
researchers as Social Bonds (Henderson, 1977), Meaningful Social Contact (Cassel,
1976), Availability of Social Confidents (Brovm et al., 1975) and Human
Companionship (Lynch, 1977) and House and Kahn (1985) called Social Network as
Structural Support.
Researchers put their efforts to define social support in a number of ways.
Initially, it was defined according to the number of friends that were available to the
individual. The word Social support is generally used to refer to the perceived
comfort, caring, esteem or help one individual receives from others (Wallston et al.,
1983). It is defined as the degree to which a person's basic social needs are gratified
through interaction with others (Kaplan, Cassel and Core; 1977) and such needs may
be met by either the provision of instrumental or socio-emotional aid (Thoits, 1982).
Though the social network is described in structural terms, like size, range, density,
proximity, and homogeneity. Social support normally refers to the qualitative aspects
of the social network. Within the context, social support is the potential of the
network to provide help in situation when needed. There are essentially two
ingredients of social support, "the give and take" of inthnate sharing relations
(Caplan, 1974; Hobfoll, 1985). It is observed that the social support may affect
adjustment independently and directly, perhaps by providing social integration, which
then results in heightened self-esteem (Andrews, Tennant, Hewson and Vaillant,
1978; Hirsch, 1981). Social support, assistance and comfort supplied by a network of
caring, interested people, is a boon to those living under stressful circumstances.
SI
People can provide both emotional support- such as listening sympathetically and
concrete support- such as tutoring for a student who is struggling academically. The
awareness that you are part of a network of relationships can ease the burdening of
stress (Harlow and Cantor, 1995; Nott, Vedhara and Power, 1995; Pierce, Sarason and
Sarason, 1996; Uchino, Cacioppo, and Kiecolt- Glaser, 1996).
Social support may be in the form of physical and emotional comfort given to
us by our family, friends, co-workers and others. It is known fact that we are
inseperable part of a community of people who love and care for us, and value and
think well of us. Social support is a way of categorizing the rewards of
commimication in a particular circumstance. Social support refers to thefimctionand
quality of social relationships, such as perceived availability of help or support
actually received. It occurs through an interactive process and can be related to
altruism a sense of obligation, and the perception of reciprocity.
An important aspect of support needs to clarify that a message or
communicative experience does not constitute support unless the receiver views it as
such. Many studies have demonstrated that social support acts as a moderating factor
in the development of psychological and/or physical disease (such as clinical
depression or hypertension) as a result of stressful life events. There is growing
evidence to suggest that social support affects humans differently throughout life,
suggesting that the need to receive and provide social support shifts across
development. Social support isn't the same as a support group. Social support is a
network of family, friends, colleagues and other acquaintances you can turn to,
whether in times of crisis or simply for fun and entertainment. Support groups on the
other hand, are generally more structured meetings or self-help groups, often run by
mental health professionals. Social support can also increase ones sense of belonging,
82
purpose and self-worth, promoting positive mental health. It can also help to get
through a divorce, a job loss, the death of a loved one or the addiction of a child to the
family.
Youngsters grow up in a multitude of social settings that shape their
cognitions, feelings and behaviour through their perceptions and interpretations of
theses settings. By the time they reach adolescence, the students have had many
favourable and imfavourable experiences in terms of the role of family members,
teachers and peers in their learning and development, which have created diverse
mindsets that continue to influence their learning and development. They may either
feel secure or insecure in terms of the availability of support from others, or they may
feel surrounded by persons who provide for a cognitively and linguistically
stimulating environment or by persons who do not care about their cognitive and
linguistic competencies.
Literatures available on social support also suggest that it is an important
concern in our daily lives. Generally young adolescents see parents as more important
providers of social support than either peers or teachers (DuBois et al, 1992). In the
context of school and well-being in school, however, the teachers' role is important,
both with respect to achieving academic goals and with regard to the regulation of
emotional and social processes (Bemdt, Hawkins, and Jiao 1999; Furman and
Buhrmester, 1992; Wentzel, 1994, 1998). Reported well-being at school is strongly
related to perceived instructional and emotional support from teachers, and to a lesser
extent to supportfromparents and peers.
Adolescent friendships are widely recognized for the emerging significance of
trust, commitment, intimacy & loyal support (Douvan and Adelson, 1966; Selman,
1981; Sullivan, 1953; Bemdt, 1982). Friendships in adolescence have long been
lamîi 83
thought to have an intensity that may be unequaled (Bemdt, 1982; Douvan and
Adelson, 1966). These social relationships also have important mental health
consequences (Hirsch and Reischl, 1985). In a national study comparing
preadolescents and adolescents referred to clinics with a matched sample of non-
referred children (Achenbach and Edelbrock,1981), no other symptoms differentiated
the groups more clear than did disturbances in peer relations (Hartup, 1983).
Peers seem to be the next most potent ingredient in the social network. Infact,
peer support has many advantages over spouse support and it is especially important
where spouse support is imavailable or where one's partner is part of the problem.
Development of such relationships is an important goal both for the individual and for
interventionists interested in enhancing social networks. Having a diverse peer group
will ensure that varying needs can be met and that type of the help will be available
when it is required. This implies the establishment and maintenance of close intimate
ties as well as looser social or task oriented relationships. It needs to emphasize that
the personological characteristics may also be relevant to peer support provision.
Need for affiliation has been reported to distinguish between persons who have high
v/s low access to social support (Tolsdorf, 1976). It has also been found to be
positively related to being entangled in an interlocking and, therefore, an intense,
affectivefriendshipnetwork (Laumatm, 1973).
Equality or balance in exchange of support is implied in peer or friendship
relationship. If the exchange becomes one sided, an inequality in the relationship
would begin to exist, increasing the probability of a breakup in the relationship. That
is, although friendships are expected to sustain themselves during short term crisis
experienced by an individual, a question remains as to how well the relationship will
84
endure if the crisis, and therefore the neediness of one of the partners continue to over
a long period of time.
Social support seems to be highly valued by the students, leading to
motivation, cooperation and school adjustment. Individuals differ regarding social
support which they need/expect in the school to feel safe and accepted. Students' need
for social support affects the significance they attach to the perceived availability of
social support. Several studies (cf. Boggianno et al., 1989; Dweck, 1986; Sarason et
al., 1983) showed that students who focus strongly on the outcome of their
performance feel more satisfied when they can show others how successful they were
without help or support. These students may object well-intended forms of
instructional support, such as questioning, feedback and help, mainly because they
view support as signal of low competence or low regard in general. It can be assumed
that students who consider social support in relation to their schoolwork as necessary
and who can rely on social support in the school environment, appraise the context as
"supportive" of learning. Their satisfaction with the learning environment will be
high, as reflected in their reported well-being in school. By contrast, students who
perceive the school environment as non-supportive, while they feel the need for
support, will report low well-being in school.
Social interaction with family and friends is an important element of mental
and physical health. Health Psychologists have extensively studied the relationship
between social support with mental health and physical health and found it is
extremely beneficial, particularly in stressful situations. Social support has been found
in various studies to positive effect on mental and physical health (Brown,
Bhrolchain, and Harris, 1975; Cobb, 1976; Dean and Lin, 1977; Hirsch, 1980;
Nuckolls, Cassel and Kaplan, 1972; Vanfossen, 1981; Wilcox, 1981).
85
The theoretical explanation and the role of social support in health status need
to discuss. In this regard it is to emphasize that (1) the main effect hypothesis suggests
that social support itself is beneficial and that the absence of social support is itself
stressful. This suggests that social support mediate the stress-illness link, with its very
presence reducing the effect of stressor and its absence itself acting as a stressor and
(2) the stress buffering hypothesis suggests that social support helps individuals to
cope with stress. Therefore mediating stress-illness link by buffering the individual
from the stressor; social support influences the individuals' appraisal of the potential
stressor. This process which has been described using the social comparison theory,
suggests that the existence of other people enables individuals expose to stressor to
select an appropriate coping strategy by comparing themselves with others.
Cassel (1976) was of the view that 'the buffering hypothesis' implies that
individuals with high levels of social support, are less likely to show psychological
maladjustment while imder the state of stress than the individuals with low levels of
social support (Mitchell and Trickett, 1980; Gottlieb, 1981). Supportive social
systems are presimied to provide tangible assistance, promote more active coping &
help individuals maintain their sense of self-esteem in the phase of difficulty (Heller
and Swindle, 1983).
In the related social support literature, high and low stress groups are
compared as to the effect social support has on resultant strain. In a typical study, for
example, high vs. low life event groups were divided and compared as to the extent to
which these two groups are differentially affected by some parameter of social
support. If the high vs. low social support groups differ on some measure of strain
(example, depression, physical illness) to a greater extent when under high stress than
when under low stress, experimenter interpreted the results in favor of a "stress
86
buffering effect". If instead the high social support group experiences less strain both
in high and low stress conditions in comparison to the low social support group, with
no interaction of stressor social support, then the experimenter discussed in favor of a
"direct effect".
Whether there is a buffering effect or direct effect of social support, there are
implications for attempting to bolster social networks and consequent support among
those who lack this resource, especially if they have a risk for stressful life events.
However, if people who have many stressful events and who are without social
support also lack other competencies or social advantages, there is a strong chance
that the same factors that put them into that group also prevent their diminishing such
events or benefiting from social support. Having social support may be related to
preferences for styles of coping, lack of related resources, or the prior occurrence of
certain life events (e.g. death of spouse). It is probable that the tendencies to have
stressful events or possess social support are trait characteristics linked to a complex
chain of social and sociological variables.
Using the Norbeck Social Support Questionnaire (NSSQ) as a measure of
social support, Kang, Coe, Karaszewski, and McCarthy (1998) found that social
support buffered stress among 133 well managed middle class asthmatic teens.
Observations in a variety of settings have led to the idea that social support provides a
buffer against the psychological consequences of exposure to stressful life events
(Cohen and Wills, 1985; Kessler, McLeod, and Wethington, 1985). This moderating
impact is known as the stress buffering effect. Moreover, there are a number of
mediator effects that characterize the mechanisms through which social support
operates in the stress and coping process, or by which social support is established
and maintained. "Social support as a buffer is often described as if it were an invisible
87
shield, like fluoride for teeth, except applied to those areas of the psyche and soma
otherwise vulnerable to stress" (Schaefer,1982). Lack of social support has been
associated with risks of emotional problems, excessive worry, self preoccupation and
stress proneness (Blager, 1982; House et al., 1982). Social support which means
turning to other people for support in times of personal crisis is one of the most often
«
used coping strategies.
Social support can have powerful effects on stress reduction. Just as social
support can help an individual withstand pressure and stress; it can also enhance
people's ability to follow a treatment regimen. Social support from friends and family
can help people adhere to medical advice, as well as helping them to cope with stress
brought about illness (Dunkel-Schetter, Folkman and Lazarus, 1987; Taylor, Buiink
and Aspinwall, 1990; Croyle and Hunt, 1991; Belgrave and Lewis, 1994).
When family members participate in the medical regiments of patients,
compliance increases. Participation can range from simply helping patients, remember
when to take their medicine to actually administering certain kinds of medical
treatment or procedures. Social support can also help patients avoid certain
behaviours. For instance, refraining from serving a rich dessert to a dieter helps to
ensure that they will succeed. In contrast urging a dieter to sample a piece of cake
because it tastes so good just makes it more likely that the dieter will ultimately fail.
The social support of concerned family and friends can also help prevent the patient
from relapsing to imhealthy habits once the health problem has been overcome.
Although many have found that social support is a mediator of stress, others
(William, Ware, and Donald, 1981) observed that social support acted independently
in its effect on psychological health. Cassel (1976) contributed to both tofindways in
identifying individuals at risk and to determine the forms of their social networks that
88
should be strengthened in order to protect them from negative outcomes of stressful
life experiences. Cohen and McKay (1984) have proposed a specificity model of
social support that suggests that stressors create specific needs & when social support
meets those needs, that support will buffer the impact of the stressor.
Stress researchers have defined and measured social support in a variety of
ways. However, the common defining element appears to be that the stressed
encouragement and/or practical assistance from others such as family, fiiends,
professionals or institutions. The ability of social support systems to both buffer stress
responses and to increase an individual's ability to cope has received support in a
variety of studies (Johnson and Sarason, 1979). Cohen and McKay (1984) suggested
that different stressors will place different demands on an individual. Those forms of
support are more specific and appropriate to the stressed persons' needs will the most
valuable, and will be most successful in mediating the effects of the stressor. This
'specificity model' proposes that not all support is of equal value in every stressful
situation. Whether social support is mediating the stress of a life crisis or of a life high
point, the goal is to increase an individual's ability to cope. In a life crisis social
support can make a bad situation bearable, and in a life highpoint, it can optimize
pleasure and satisfaction.
Cognitions take place throughout the utilization of social support and other
resources and an understanding of this factor may be integral to an understanding of
the "nuts & bolts" of how these resource "potentials" are transferred into "kinetic"
effects on the psychological level. Beginning with the stress event, individuals have to
become aware of the threat that confronts them. The properties of the stressor must be
considered (Lazarus, 1977), Following this awareness individual must consider what
resources are available to them. They may then imagine what the benefit and side
89
effects would be of meeting the threat with a given resource or combination of
resources. Assuming that social support is decided upon as one of the resources which
may be effective they must decide from whom to request support. After the network
responds, moreover, new decisions must be made about the adequacy of the support
received. These decisions are based on evaluations of the efforts carried out in our
behalf
If intervention efforts are to be effective, attention must be paid to how
individuals perceive help, friendship, family and support. Certainly, non-cognitive
factors play a role in social support. Being loved may be appreciated because it meets
the needs and desires to provide satisfaction, and makes us feel cared for and safe.
Cognitions are important in these processes too, and affecting them may be easier
than affecting needs or personality traits.
Looking across the studies it is apparent that social support's first source is the
family and especially one's spouse or partner. Whether because of time constraints,
social norms, or western lifestyle, spouse or partner can be the greatest contributor to
our feeling of being valued and our central provider of love, affection and esteem.
While there has been considerable social science interest recently in the
relationship of social support to mental health, few reports have examined sex
differences in receiving such support. Rather, the research has by and large
emphasized one of two ways in which social support may be related to well-being: (1)
social support networks may intervene between stressful life events and psychological
distress (Myers, Lindenthal, and Pepper, 1975; Rabkin and Streming, 1976; Dean and
Lin, 1977; Gore, 1978; Nuckolls, Cassel and Kaplan, 1972); (2) social support may
have an independent beneficial effect on emotional effect make up (Williams, Ware
90
and Donald, 1981; Lemer, 1973; Kaplan, Wilson, and Leighton, 1976; Henderson,
1977).
Social institutions are stable patterns of behaviour, values and role
expectations that have developed around the basic activities each society must
undertake in order to survive, such as creating and distributing goods, and
reproducing the species. Individual well-being is greatly affected by the individuals'
particular relationship to these institutions. Much of our internal orientations to our
lives, our assessment of who we are and where we are going, grows out of the
significant contacts and ties we have with a few other persons, members of our
family, colleagues or friends. Their treatment and attitude towards us affect our view
of ourselves, our sense of mastery, and our conceptions of where we belong in the
social order. We constantly try to protect our sometimes fragile view of ourselves
from self depreciation and shame, and we may be helped by those who are close to us.
Calamities can be softened by the sympathetic assessments offered by the significant
others in our lives.
Most of the literature and prior research on social support has focused heavily
on the value of having a confident, a sympathetic listener. Affirmation is the kind of
support a person can give to another by helping the other become the kind of person
she or he wants to be, or by appreciating what she or he already is. Antonovosky
(1979) suggested that resources such as social support can increase a person's
resistance to stress. A moderating effect is achieved when a "third variable affects the
zero order correlation between two other variables". Hurley- Wilson (1993) studied
that moderators are antecedent conditions that interact with a stressor to affect the
outcome. The moderating effect is best tested through ANOVA. In this model, social
support is thought to protect the individual from the potentially harmful effects of
91
exposure to a stressor. It is unclear whether it works through influencing the
individuals' appraisal of a potential stressor. Pearlin (1989) supported the idea that
forms a shield that insulates the individual from stress exposure. Chan and Ward
(1993) suggested that social support acts to reduce the risk of illness reducing harmful
stress appraisal. Oxman and Hull (1997) examined the ability of social support to
mediate the relationships between activities of daily living and depression before and
after heart surgery. Three measure of social support were used: The Social Network
Questiormaire (SNQ; Seeman and Berkman, 1988), the Inventory of Socially
Supportive Behaviours (ISSB; Barrera and Ainsley, 1983), and the Multidimensional
Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS; Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet and Farley, 1988).
The importance of the perceived adequacy of social support was supported.
There have been fewer studies specifically focused on children apart fi-om
family contexts than those with adult population. Grossman and Rowat (1995)
examined how social support mediated the relationship between stress from divorce
and well-being among 244 adolescents. The ISSB (Barrera, 1986) was used as the
measure of social support when family status (married vs divorced ) was controlled,
the perceived quality of the parental relationship contributed significantly to an
explanation of the variance in anxiety, life satisfaction and a sense of future. Frey
(1989) studied diabetic children within a family focus.
There is empirical evidence that differences in the benefit of social support are
perceived on the basis of category of provider (Carveth and Gottleib, 1979; Dunkel-
Schetter, 1984; Lederman, Lederman, Work, and McCann, 1979; Peck and Boland,
1977; Underwood, 1986). Sources of support, however, may be viewed differentially
with respect to the forms of support they are able to provide. Supportfi-omfamily and
friends may be valued, but may not be the best resources for information needed to
92
facilitate effective coping in a given situation. Therefore professional sources may at
times play a more prominent role.
Weiss (1974) specified six dimensions- attachment, social integration,
nurturance, reassurance of worth, and reliable alliance with kin. This
conceptualization focused exclusively on emotional aspects of important
relationships.
Gottleib (1978) added elements of physical intervention to the
conceptualization of social support. His inductively derived categorization of the
forms of support included emotionally sustaining behaviours, problem solving
behaviours, indirect personal influence, and environmental action.
Kahn (1979) and Kahn and Antonucci (1980) delineated three forms of social
support: Aid (direct assistance- things, money, and information). Affect (expression
of caring, respect & love), and Affirmation (acknowledgment of the appropriateness
of acts or statements). House (1981) divided the dimension of Aid into two
components: instnmiental or direct help and informational support. Affect and
Affirmation were labeled emotional and appraisal support, but they were conceptually
the same. Barera (1981) built on the work of Gottleib proposed a conceptualization
that incorporated six elements with notable similarities to theses as reported by House
(1981): maternal aid, physical assistance, intimate interaction, guidance, feedback, &
social participation. Barrera (1986) suggested that social support be divided into the
following categories:
(i) Social embeddedness: referring to the structural elements of social support and
the connections that individuals have within their social environment,
(ii) Enacted support & perceived availability: actions that are performed to provide
help to another and the perception that assistance is available.
93
(iii) Satisfaction with social support: perceived adequacy of supportive ties.
Enacted support seems to reflect two dimensions, whereas satisfaction as
described appears to relate to social embeddedness. An alternative format might
contain two categories i.e. (1) Social currency would focus on the support network,
including structural elements, quality of social ties, and perceived availability of
general support. (i2) Perceived enacted support would reflect satisfaction with what
was provided by whom and the cost of obtaining support in a specific situation
perceived as threatening or challenging. Net satisfaction with enacted support would
factor in cost. Models that hypothesize and test the main effect of social support
propose that there is a direct relationship between social support and outcome
variables such as well-being. The main effects of social support have supported in
many studies.
Social Support has also been studied in different forms; those researchers who
studied human relationships in other forms and have suggested that there are several
types and functions of social support (Cohen and McKay, 1984; Cohen and Wills,
1985; Cutrona and Russell, 1990; House, 1981; Schafer et. al., 1981; Wills, 1984):
(i) Emotional support: It is what people most often think of when they talk
about social support. People are emotionally supportive when they tell us that
they care about us and think well of us. It involves the expression of
sympathy, caring, and concern towards the person. It provides the person with
a sense of comfort, reassurance, belongingness, and of being loved in times of
stress. For example, if one has separated from ones partner or lost ones job, a
close friend might call everyday for the first few weeks afterwards just to see
how the person is doing and to let him know that he or she cares. Talking over
94
a problem, providing encouragement or positive feedback, such support
frequently takes the form of non-tangible types of assistance.
(ii) Esteem Support: Esteem support occurs through people's expression of
positive regard for the person, encouragement and agreement with the
individual's ideas or feelings, and positive comparison of the person with
others, such as people who are less able or worse off, other people increase
ones self-esteem. This kind of support required to build the individual's
feeling of self-worth, competence, and of being valued. Esteem support is
especially useftil during the appraisal of stress, such as when the person
assesses whether the demands exceed his or her personal resources.
(iii) Tangible or Instrumental Support or Functional Support: This type of
support involves various types of tangible help that others may provide such as
direct assistance, physical or practical help such as when people give or lend
money or food, housekeeping, child care, or help moving house, or help out at
the times of stress. This kind of support helps to complete the basic tasks of
day to day life.
(iv) Informational Support: Informational support happens when individuals in a
person's social network are available to offer advice when supply needed. It
includes giving advice, directions, suggestions or feedback about how the
person is doing. For instance, if a co-worker provided the needed information
to accomplish a particular task, then he would be given informational support.
For example a person who is ill might get information from family or a
physician on how to treat the illness.
(v) Network Support or Structural Support: It provides a feeling of
membership in a group of people who share interests and social activities.
^.'-Ts^..-- 9 5
Recently social support has also been classified into two categories- Perceived
support and received support. Perceived support generally refers to one's
anticipation of social support in the future when in times of need (such as, there are
people whom I can rely upon when I need care). It is the psychological sense of
support derived from feeling of loved, valued, and part of a network of reliable and
trusted social relationships (Gottlieb, 1985). It is more stable overtime because it is
not context dependant. Received support, on the other hand, refers to one's
retrospective assessment of actual behaviour (such as, friends or relatives have cared
for me when I was ill). It represents concrete instances of helping derived from one's
social network, with this help or 'provisions' usually being categorized as emotional
support, instrumental support, appraisal support, and informational support (House
and Kahn, 1985). Some authors have used the term 'enacted' support in the place of
received support in the place of received support (Barrera, 1986; Tardy, 1985).
Other forms of support may be in the form of:
(a) Social companionship, which involves support through activities.
(b) Personal feedback is information about the individual receiving the support.
Some individuals require such information directly but others will tell us story
about themselves as a way of eliciting personal feedback. What is supportive
about personal feedback is that the recipient regards the mformation as honest
and believes the sender of the feedback is intending to help.
The type of support a person needs and receives depends upon the stressful
life events. For example, instrumental or structural support may be more important for
friends and family members. Emotional and informational support may be particularly
important for people who are seriously ill.
96
An explanation that may shed light on the differential effect of instrumental &
emotional support (including a confiding relationship) is offered by Andrews,
Tennant, Hewson, and Vaillant (1978). They postulated that the quality of a
supportive emotional relationship rather than the quantity of the help available is the
principle determinant of well-being. Thus, it may be argued that sharing feelings
about a'stressful experience & every day hassles mitigates detrimental impact. At the
same time, while instrumental support makes life more comfortable and it is not
related to mental health.
Lack of emotional support may also have an effect somewhat similar to that of
the separate effect of stress. Henderson and Bostock (1977) maintain the individuals
require a minimal level of emotional support to maintain well-being. When the social
environment does not meet these "attachment needs", it not only fails to facilitate
coping shells but also contributes to psychopathology.
Furthermore, individuals who exhibit emotional disorders may have a
"negative network orientation" a term coined by Tolsdorf (1976) that describes a
situation where individuals are imwilling to utilize network resources in time of need.
Their coping styles are inefficient and self defeating.
Finally the association between emotional support and psychiatric disorder
may be related to the fact that these two variables are often confounded. In this regard
two situations are frequently described: (1) Depressed individuals may have a
negative perspective of their social worid and thus falsely underestimate the extent of
support available to them; and (2) the relationship between social supports may be a
long term consequence of mental illness. Specifically, a deterioration of social ties
may be a result of a gradual disease process.
97
Social Support and Related Studies
Hobfoll and London (1982) studied personality resources of self-esteem and
sense of mastery and social support resources of intimacy with friends/ family and
amount of actual support received during the current period in respect to
psychological distress- state depression and anxiety, of women who's loved one were
mobilized during the first week of the recent Lebanon war. It was predicted that
women with greater personality resources would experience less distress than women
possessing lesser personality resources. It was further predicted that greater social
support would also be related to less psychological distress. Social support was
actually found to have a negative impact on psychological distress. Women who had
greater intimacy with friends and who reported receiving greater amounts of support
during the events were more state anxious and state depressed than women who had
less intimatefriendsand who received less actual support.
Demaray and Malecki (2002) investigated the relationships among perceived
social support and academic, behavioral, and social indicators of 1,711 students in
grades 3 to 12. Results showed significant, positive relationships among perceived
social support and a variety of positive indicators (for example, social skills, self-
concept and adaptive skills). In addition, significant, negative relationships among
perceived social support and a variety of problematic behavioural indicators (for
example, internalizing and externalizing behaviours) were found. Students with low
perceived support scored significantly higher scores on problematic behaviour
indicators and significantly lower scores on positive behaviour indicators than the
students with average or high perceived support. Only student rated social skills and
self-concept were significantly higher for the high vs. the average level of perceived
support.
98
Chang and Schaller (2000) investigated the perceptions of 4 male and 8 female
14-20 year olds with visual impairments on the social support they receive from their
parents. Data were generated from in-depth interviews,fieldnotes, a reflexive journal,
informal observations, and time lines of life events. Emerging themes illustrated
processes by which participants received emotional, informational and tangible
support. A recurring theme was a feeling of being valued. The results showed that
parents may need support from professionals before they can provide that support for
their children.
Mullis, Hill, and Readdick (1999) examined relationships between
adolescent's perceptions of attachment to their mothers and fathers and their
perceptions of different sources of social support. More of the sample reported
satisfaction with their mothers than with their fathers. These results lend support for
the validity of attachment theory and confirm that perceived social support from
friends and relatives is associated with perceived attachment to the mother, especially
for younger adolescents.
Kef (2002) reported that the social support of peers was found important to
adolescents with visual impairments. The differences between visually impaired and
sighted adolescents proved to be small, but statistically significant.
Markward, McMillan, and Markward (2003) surveyed that youth perceive
family/friends as the primary sources of social support, even though family/ fiiends
provide no more problem-solving examples than do other sources support. Also, there
are significant associations between gender and the social support youth want and
receive. The findings provide insight into the social capital youth need to become
competent adults.
99
Seligman, Goodwin, Pascal, Applegate, et. al. (1997) conducted a study to
explore the perceptions of 42 mothers of children with disabilities of the amount of
instrumental and psychological support offered by her child's maternal and paternal
grandparents. Results showed that grandmothers were perceived to be more
supportive than grandfathers, the paternal grandmothers were less supportive than
maternal grandmothers, and the mother's parents were judged to be more supportive
than the father's parents.
Findler (2000) examined the structural and functional dimensions of perceived
social support with particular emphasis on the importance of grandparents as support
providers to the mothers of children with special needs. 47 mothers of 3-7 year olds
with cerebral palsy and 43 mothers of children without such a disability (comparison
group) were interviewed in their homes. Differences between the two groups were
found only in the structural dimension of network size. However, no differences in the
analysis of the functional dimension and satisfaction from support were revealed. In
both research groups, grandparents were highly ranked in comparison with mothers
were perceived to be the most important figures providing more emotional than
instrumental support and scored highest in terms of satisfaction.
Hamre, and Pianta (2005) conducted a study to find out ways in which
children's risk of school failure may be moderated by support from teachers. By the
end of first grade, at-risk students placed in first-grade classrooms offering strong
instructional and emotional support had high achievement scores and student-teacher
relationships commensurate with their low risk peers; at-risk students placed in less
supportive classrooms had lower achievement and more conflict with teachers.
Yarcheski, Mahon, and Yarcheski (2003) attempted to find out relations of
social support and self-esteem to positive health practices in early adolescents. A
100
correlation of .59 was found between scores on social support and scores on the self-
esteem scale and scores for positive health practices.
Lee, Gazmarian, and Arozullah (2006) examined health literacy, social
support, and their relations to health status and health care use among older adults. It
was found that compared to the high health literacy group, enrollees with low health
literacy were more likely to receive medical information support and health reminder
support were associated with lower physical health and mental health status. Tangible
support was associated with more doctor visits and a lower likelihood of
hospitalization in the high health literacy group.
Neely, Lakey, Cohen, Barry, et. al. (2006) investigated the extent to which the
link between perceived social support recipients' trait perceived support as well as
three distinct social processes- the objective supportiveness of providers, the unique
relationships among recipients and providers that were stable over occasions, as well
as the relationships that varied across occasions. Ten recipients interacted with each
of the same four providers on five separate occasions, for a total of 200 interactions.
Recipients and independent observers rated recipient affect and provider support.
Greater perceived support was related to greater positive affect for recipient's trait
perceived support, as well as for relationships that were stable over occasions and
relationships that varied across occasions. No social support effects were found for
negative effect.
Demaray, Malecki, Davidson, Hodgson, et. al. (2005) examined relationship
between social support and student adjustment behaviours overtime. Specifically,
support from parents was related to clinical maladjustment and emotional symptoms
one year later. In fact, parent support was still related clinical maladjustment one year
later even after students' earlier levels of clinical maladjustment were taken into
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account. Parent support was also related to personal adjustment in the short term (6
months). Classmate support was related to students' emotional symptoms one year
later.
Chou (2005) conducted a study to assess the relationship between everyday
competence and depressive symptoms and to test whether sense of control and social
support mediate and moderate the impact of deterioration in everyday competence on
depressive symptoms. They found that everyday competence was significantly and
negatively related to depressive symptoms after adjusting the age, gender, marital
status, years of education, self-rated health status, and number of chronic illnesses.
Moreover, both sense of control and social support were mediators in the linkage
between everyday competence and depression. Findings suggest that both sense of
control and social support play important roles in the relationship between everyday
competence and depression.
Nezlek, and Allen (2006) in a study found that daily well-being was positively
related to the nimiber of positive events that occurred each day and was negatively
related to the number of negative events. Relationships between well-being and
positive events were stronger than the less depressed participants and relationships
between well-being and negative events were found weaker for those participants who
perceived more support from friends than for those who perceived less support.
Depression was unrelated to the strength of relationships between negative events and
well-being, and the social supportfromfriendswas unrelated to relationships between
positive events and well-being. Surprisingly, relationships between negative events
and well-being were stronger for participants who perceived more support from
family members than for those who perceived less support.
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Verma, and Asthana (2004) reported that the girls availing higher social
support had a better quality of life.
Rueger, Malecki, and Demaray (2008) attempted to investigate early
adolescents' perceptions of social support from parents, teachers, classmates, and
close friends, and how that support is related to measures of students' adjustment on a
range of behavioral indices. Girls reported significantly more support from close
friends than any other source, whereas boys reported significantly less support from
classmates than any other source. Finally, results demonsfrated gender differences in
the relationship between social support and several indices of student adjustment.
Malecki, and Demaray (2003) gathered the responses of students and they
were asked-What types of support (emotional, informational, appraisal, and
instrumental) do students perceive from the sources of support (parents, teachers,
classmates, and close friends)? And Are types of social support more related to
students' social, behavioral, and academic outcomes? Gender differences in
perceptions of support were also investigated. Early adolescent boys and girls
perceived similar levels of all types of support from their parents and teachers; girls
perceived more support of most types from classmates and friends. Emotional and
informational support were the most highly reported type of support from parents,
informational support was most highly reported from teachers, and emotional and
instrumental support scores were highest from classmates and close friends.
Supportive behaviors from parents contributed to students' adjustment. Emotional
support perceived from teachers was a significant and sole individual predictor of
students' social skills and academic competence. Supportive behaviors from teachers
also predicted students' school maladjustment.
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Social support is beneficial in times of stress and it is effective regardless of
the kind of coping strategies that are used (Frazier et al., 2000)
Nathawat & Rathore (1996) examined the effects of gender hardiness and
social support, in 100 male and 100 female upper middle class elderly aged 60-70
years retired from government jobs. Male subjects disclosed higher positive affect and
life satisfaction than female ancf scored lower on negative affect and hopelessness. A
similar trend of superior well-being was observed in high hardy, aged than low hardy
aged, also in aged with high social support than in aged with low social support. Two
way interactions of gender hardiness, hardiness - social support and gender-social
support influenced some of the measures of well-being. The measures were not
influenced by 3-way interactions.
It has been suggested that the mental health of school children can be
undermined by repeated bullying at school and further exacerbated by having
inadequate social support. Rigby (2000) evaluated effects of peer victimization in
schools and perceived social support on adolescent well-being. Analysis indicated that
both sexes frequent peer victimization and low social support contributed significantly
and independently to relatively poor mental health.
Meeus (2003) conducted two studies (i) to report on age related changes in
parental and per support and identity development, and (ii) predict psychological
well-being by parental and peer support and identity. Results showed parental support
to decrease as adolescents grow older while peer support increases. In general, peer
support catches up with parental support, but doesn't take over. Compared to peer
support, parental support is the better indicator of psychological well-being in early
and middle adolescence.
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Coping with stressful life events can be facilitated by personal and social
resources, such as perceived self-efficacy and social support. This applies also to the
adaptation to surgical stress and to severe diseases. Study conducted by Schwarzer
and Shroder (1997) examined the presurgical personal and social resources as
predictors of readjustment after heart surgery. Analysis identified an interaction
between the two resources, underscoring the existence of the well known support
buffer effect. Covariance structure analysis revealed that perceived self-efficacy was a
better predictor of recovery than social support.
Parker and Benson (2005) examined parental support and monitoring as they
relate to adolescent outcomes. It was hypothesized that support and monitoring would
be associated with higher self-esteem and less risky behaviour during adolescence.
Both high parental support and parenting monitoring were related to greater self-
esteem and low risk behaviours.
Lara, Leader and Klein (1997) found that the social support significantly
predicted both severity of depression and recovery from depression.
Slice, Ragan and Randall (2004) found that support decreases the risk for
depression but suggests that this effect may be specific to parental support during
adolescence. They also found that depression promotes support erosion but imply that
this effect may only occur with peer support during this period.
In a study by Helson et al. (2000) parent support remained the best indicator of
emotional problems during adolescence. Infact a friend's support appeared to depend
slightly on the level of perceived parental support, with the high parental support
group showing a slightly positive effect of friend support and low parent support
showing a negative effect of friend support.
105
A study revealed that social support from significant others is of greater
importance in coping with important life events to eliminate the adverse consequences
of these events upon health or well-being (Cohen and Wills, 1985; Sarason, Sarason
and Pierce, 1990; Coyne and Downey, 1991).
Brissette, Schier and Carver (2002) reported that adolescents with higher level
of cognitive restructuring and optimism, exhibit improved psychological well-being
and better adjustment to stressful life events, both as a result of their ability to general
supportive social networks and because of the coping strategies they use.
Carpenter (2002) found out associations among social support from
institutional peers and staff as well as family members, psychological well-being and
motivation to participate in treatment in 32 patients (male, aged 50-85 years). A
majority described peer and staff support networks that were as large as or larger than
family support network. Subjective perceptions of support, but not size of network
was associated with well-being. Perceived support from peers was associated with
less depression, greater positive effect and greater motivation. Perceived support from
staff and family was less consistently associated with well-being and motivation.
Results suggest that peer and staff support contribute to the well-being of older adults
and may complement family support during inpatient admissions or residential stays.
Zainab and Maqbool (2003) conducted a study on subjective well-being and
social support among bronchial asthma and hypertensive patients. Results revealed
significant positive correlation between subjective well-being and social support
among bronchial asthma and hypertensive patients indicating that social support of
family members and friends is an integral element of physical and mental health.
Van et al. (2000) conducted a study to investigate the changes in the parental
bond and well-being of adolescents and young adults in Netheriands. The results
106
showed that adolescents and young adults maintain a rather good and reasonably
stable relationship with their parents. Parents also prove to be of lasting importance
for the psychological well-being of their children, daughters in particular.
Love and Murdock (2004) conducted a study to evaluate attachment to parents
as a possible explanation for discrepancies in psychological well-being. The results
confirmed that attachment was a significant predictor of well-being. It was foimd that
attachment was (operationalized as maternal and paternal care) partially mediated the
relationship between family type (intact biological family vs step family) and
psychological well-being.
Some studies emphasized parental support as a predictor of well-being while
some emphasized peer support as more important. In a study of two groups of persons
coming from favourable and imfavourable environments of home respectively,
Powers and Witmers (1974) found that all boys who turned out, had parents whose
attitude towards them rated "favourable" and almost all who were neurotic and
delinquent had parents whose relationships with them were "tmfavourable".
Jain (1998) examines the influence of parental acceptance on a child's mental
health as measured by emotionality, timidity, apprehension and tension, that is factors
C, H, O and Q4 of Cattel's 16 PF Test. Results reveal that the less accepted groups
was significantly was significantly more emotionally insatiable, timid, apprehensive
and tense than the highly acceptable group.
Ohamnession, McCauley, Richard, Lemer and Von Eye (1998) examined
relationship between perceived parental acceptance and adolescent self-competence in
214 sixth and seventh grade students by both adolescents and parental gender.
Specific measure of adolescent self-competence focused on academic, athletic and
social competence as well as physical appearance and self-worth. Results indicate that
107
for boys parental but not maternal acceptance significantly predicted self-competence,
while the opposite pattern was found for girls. In addition self-worth significantly
predicted maternal and parental acceptance for both boys and girls.
Shirali and Bhardwaj (1994) studied family communication and adjustment as
indices of family's well-being. Family being the centre of socialization lays the
foundation for mental health and well-being. Thus family, communication can be
used as an index of family social support which helps in the storm and stress of
adolescence. 100 college girls (15-18 years) were divided into two groups on the basis
of maternal employment. Group I (N=62) whose mothers were employed and Group
II (N==38) whose mothers were house bound. The results revealed no effect of
maternal employment on daughter-father communication. But significant differences
were found in the daughter-mother communications.
Chowdhury and Muni (1995) explored the role of parental support in
children's need satisfaction and academic achievement in a sample of 50 children
(mean age 13.5 years). Results reveal that girls required more support from their
parents and their needs were more as compared to boys and parental support has a
positive effect on children's academic achievement.
A study conducted by Milevsky (2005) to examine how the compensatory
effects of social support from siblings relate to several indicators of well-being in
emerging adulthood. Sibling support was associated with lower loneliness and
depression and with higher self-esteem and life satisfaction. Sibling support is
intersecting aspects of social support siblings reflect the component of family because
of generational commonality; they also reflect some aspect of peer relationships. It is
therefore not surprising that sibling support was found to compensate for low parental
and peer support. . ---—TÎT
108
Mc Camish-Svenson et al. (1999) examined the relationship between family
and friend support, health and life satisfaction for a single cohort of 212 (80 year old)
living in Lund, Sweden. Results indicate that subjects who remained in the study were
healthier and score higher on life satisfaction when compared with those who either
dropped out or died prior to the age of 83. Even though well integrated with family
" and friends, the number of friends decreased significantly from 80-83 years. However,
for those with close friends, contacts with Mends increased with age. A correlational
analysis indicates that neither child nor fnend support is related to life satisfaction at
earlier 80 or 83 years. However, health measures and satisfaction with sibling contact
are related to total life satisfaction.
Markward et al. (2003) conducted a study on 89 students who were surveyed
to determine their perceptions about the frequency and need for social support from
family friends/peers and other authority figures. Findings show that youth perceive
family and friends as the primary sources of social support. Also there are significant
associations between gender and the social support youth want and receive.
The relation between parental and fiiends social support was studied,
specifically with regard to emotional problems in a sample of 2918 adolescents aged
12-24 years by Helson et al. (2000). Results indicate that parental and fiiends support
seems to be relatively independent support systems. Although the degree of perceived
support changes with parental support decreasing and friends support increasing
during early adolescence, parental support still remains the best indicator of emotional
problems during adolescence. The effect of friends support appeared to depend
slightly on the level of perceived parental support with the high parental support
group showing a slightly positive effect of friend's support, and the low parental
109
support showing a negative effect of friend's support. Thus in this study parental
support emerged as a crucial factor, on which the impact of peer support depended.
A study conducted by Vedder et al. (2005) to ascertain the relationship
between early adolescents' evaluation of the availability of instructional social
support from parents, teachers and peer on a sample of 245 Dutch and Turkish
students. Dutch youngsters reported more instructional support from the parents than
their teachers, whereas Turkish youngsters also reported more instructional support
from their parents. On the basis of results obtained it was discussed that parents were
seen as the primary providers of emotional support for both Dutch and Turkish
Students.
Research Objectives
The main objective of the study was to find out whether emotional
competence, self-esteem and social support predict the need achievement of visually
and physically challenged students. In order to achieve a better understanding of these
groups of students a control group (viz. normal students) from the similar background
was also included in this study. Further the visually and physically challenged
students and normal students group should be compared.
Our research objectives may therefore be stated as follows:
1. To study emotional competence and its dimensions as predictors of need
achievement among visually challenged students.
2. To study self-esteem as a predictor of need achievement among visually
challenged students.
3. To study social support and its dimensions as predictors of need achievement
among visually challenged students.
110
achievement among physically challenged students.
5. To study self-esteem as a predictor of need achievement among physically
challenged students.
among physically challenged students.
achievement among non-disabled i.e. normal students.
8. To study self-esteem as a predictor of need achievement among non-disabled
i.e. normal students.
among non-disabled i.e. normal students.
10. To study whether need achievement of visually challenged, physically
challenged and non-disabled i.e. normal students differ in terms of emotional
competence and its components, self-esteem and social support and its
components.
On the basis of earlier researches and theoretical framework, the following
research questions were formulated by the investigator.
Research Questions: Attempt will be made to answer the following research
questions.
Ill
Keeping in view the objectives of this study in mind it is desirable to
have an explicit picture of the phenomenon in the non-disabled i.e. normal
group of students of almost similar socioeconomic background and
educational qualification for a better understanding of the disabled groups, the
following research questions were also formulated to be verified.
students?
To identiiy the predictors the research questions were taken into consideration.
Further it was felt necessary to compare these three groups in terms of emotional
competence and its dimensions, self-esteem and social support and its dimensions.
For this purpose certain research hypotheses were formulated and to be tested:
112
113
CH^<FPE<ÎI
METHODOLOGY
Research in every discipline is a ceaseless effort in search of solutions of the
problems of varied nature to add something new to the existing body of knowledge
concerning to the variables so that it should be carried out in a systematic manner. A
social science researcher should be careful in his/her planning taking into the vital
steps that are essentially required to make research investigation more scientific in
order to draw some meaningful conclusions. Research investigator has to utilize
standard procedure employing adequate sampling technique, selecting standardized
and valid tools and applying appropriate statistical tests for data analysis.
The present study was planned to see the impact of emotional competence,
self-esteem and social support on need achievement of visually and physically
challenged students. In this study it was intended to ascertain the need achievement of
the students who are visually and physically challenged and also a group of normal
students was included in order to compare these groups regarding emotional
competence and its 3 dimensions namely (i) perception and understanding emotions,
(ii) expression and labeling emotions and (iii) managing and regulating emotions;
self-esteem; and social support and its 3 dimensions namely (i) family Support, (ii)
friends support and (iii) significant others support.
Emotional competence, self-esteem and social support have been studied as
independent variables and need achievement as dependent variable.
Design
It was therefore necessary to have a design which would appropriately study
the prediction of need achievement vis-^-vis these 7 variables. The research design
used by the researcher was therefore correlational in nature and multiple comparison
group design. For prediction of need achievement by the 7 variables, stepwise
multiple regression was used by the researcher. One way ANOVA and post hoc was
used for the multiple comparisons between the groups.
The details of the methodological steps involved in completing this small
piece of research are as follows:
Sample:
Drawing of sample through random procedures is imdoubtedly desirable
but even in pure experimental research it is a difficult proposition. According to
Broota (1989) "randomization is necessary to ensure validity of independence
assumptions, in practice, it is generally difficult to follow dictates set forth by the
theory of random sampling. Usually we include, as subjects those members of the
population that are easily accessible to us." In social science researches sample size is
generally large to make the study more authentic. It is therefore, advisable that the
researcher should draw subjects at random from those subjects that are easily
accessible to him/her.
The selection of sample for this research was a difficult task because of
lesser accessibility of visually and physically challenged students. Therefore the
sample size of this study could not be as large as desired. Therefore in the present
research investigation we have to put limit on the size of the sample within the reach
of the investigator. The sample size is very important for scientific research but the
sample of this study involves special type of group thus sample size is sufficient for
this type of research work. Thus due to non availability of large number of individuals
as per requirements of the study we have put the limit of 100 students in each group.
The total sample comprised of 300 subjects (100 visually challenged students, 100
physically challenged students and 100 normal students). The respondents were
115
drawn by the means of purposive sampling technique. The data was collected from
various secondary and senior secondary schools and also from students pursuing for
graduation degree from the University campus and also from some schools located in
Aligarii city. Physically challenged students were selected fioni Orthopaedic OPD of
JNMCH and also from various halls of residence including various secondary as well
as senior secondary- schools of A.M.U. Due to lesser number of availabilit>' of visually
challenged students we have included those students residing in the hostel of a Blind
School of A.M.U. \^Ticre as sample of normal students comprised of students
studying in schools as well as in the University upto graduation level were included in
this group. To equate the characteristics the sample of normal students with that of
visually challenged and physically challenged students was selected from almost the
same socio-economic background and educational qualification. The age range of the
normal students was 14-19 and the age range of the disabled students was 15-22.
Most of the cases in the physically challenged group v^-ere polio affected where as
among visually challenged most of the cases were acquired at certain age due to
infection and some of them were congenital too.
Sample structure:
Total Sample
300
Visually Challenged Students Physically Challenged Students

too 100
^ 1 '
1 • 1
Males Females Males Females
56 44 59 41
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Keeping in view the objectives of the study the following measures were used
for data collection-
• Achievement Motivation (n-ach) Scale
• Emotional Skills and Competence Questiormaire
• Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

«
• Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support
For visually challenged students all the four scales were transformed into
Braille.
Description of the Tools used:
1. Achievement Motivation (n-ach) Scale: It is a self-rating questionnaire
developed by Pratibha Deo and Asha Mohan (1985) having both positive and negative
items. It consists of 50 items, comprising of factors such as Academic motivation,
Need for achievement, Academic challenge, Achievement anxiety, importance of
grades/marks, Meaningfulness of task. Relevance of school/ college to future goals,
Attitude towards education. Work methods. Attitude towards teachers, Interpersonal
relations. Individual concern. General interests. Dramatics and Sports etc. Out of 50
items 13 are negative and 37 are positive items. This questiormaire can be
administered in a group as well as individually with 5 points to rate viz Always,
Frequently, Sometimes, Rarely and Never. In the present research the test was
administered individually. It has no time limit.
As reported in the manual the test-retest method was applied to determine the
reliability coefficient of the scale. Taking different sets of sample; the administration
of the scale was repeated on several occasions. The present scale reliability
coefficients by test-retest method for the total group as well as for the separate male
and female groups are very satisfactory and the scale can be taken as quite reliable
117
tool to be used for measuring need achievement of subjects in the age group of 13-20
years as given in the manual of this test.
As far as the validity of the scale is concerned, in the first instance the item
validity established by the high-low discrimination method vâs accepted as the
validity of the whole measure. Besides, this scale was also used for validating the
projective test of Achievement Motivation. The coefficient of correlation between the
scale and the projective test was observed to be 0.04 which speaks for the scale also,
the validity being of the concurrent nature. Finally the scale scores were also
correlated with the scores obtained by administering the Aberden Academic
Motivation Inventory of Entwistle (1968) yielding a coefficient of correlation as 0.75
for a mixed sample of 93: this correlation is high enough to establish the validity of
the scale. Regarding the r of 0.54 between the scale and the projective test,
McClelland (1958) explains that self-descriptive and projective measures are usually
not correlating high with each other. Even Carney (1966) observed that questionnaires
measures correlated poorly with McClelland's projective measures. These
explanations support the results of present scale of achievement motivation to be
sufficiently valid for use for measuring achievement motivation.
Two stencil keys are to be used for scoring one for positive items and one for
negative items. A positive item carries the weights of 4, 3,2,1 and 0 respectively for
the categories of Always, Frequently, Sometimes, Rarely and Never. The negative
item is to be scored 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 for the same categories respectively. Separate keys
for positive and negative items are provided. The total score is the summation of all
the positive and negative item scores. The minimum and maximum score as given in
the manual can be obtained between 0 (zero) to 200.
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2. Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire: developed by Taksic (2000). It
is a self reported scale consisting of 45 items divided into three subscales: a)
Perception and Understanding emotions scale has 15 items, b) the Expression and
Labeling emotions scale has 14 items and c) the Managing and Regulating emotions
scale has 16 items. Responses to be rated on a 5 point Likert-type scale, i.e. Never,
Seldom, Occasionally, Usually and Always. The scoring procedure was simple stencil
type having a numerical weightage from 1 to 5. Responses were added on each
dimension to get the total score on all the three dimensions and the total score on
ESCQ was calculated by summing up the scores of dimensions. Originally it was
developed in Croatian settings using theoretical basis from the emotional intelligence
model (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Target samples were mainly high school and
university students, and the Questionnaire was also administered on the samples of
older subjects like workers and supervisors. The correlation among subscales is
positive (0.35-0.55), and allowed computing overall ESCQ score. The reliability of
coefficients of the three subscales was between 0.85 to 0.90 for Perception and
Understanding emotions scale, 0.79 to 0.82 for the Expression and Labeling emotions
scale and 0.71 to 0.78 for the Managing and Regulating emotions scale respectively.
The reliability of three subscales and ESCQ was mainly satisfactory in all the
samples, with somewhat less values for subscale of managing and regulating emotion.
There were many correlations with relevant construct performed in searching for
convergent-divergent validity. In regards to prognostic validity of emotional
intelligence and competence, the strongest observed relationship was v^rith the quality
of leadership, and life satisfaction. ESCQ was usually positive correlated with
positive outcomes like well-being, life satisfaction, and resiliency. The Cronbach's
alpha was further calculated by the present researcher and was found to be 0.83.
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3. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: (RSE; Rosenberg 1965) is a unidimensional
adequate test to measure global self-esteem. It was designed on the pattern of
Guttman scale, and the RSE items were designed represent a continuum of self-worth
statements ranging from statements that are endorsed even by individuals with low
self-esteem to statements that are endorsed only by persons with high self-esteem.
i
Rosenberg (1965) scored his 10-question scale that was presented with four response
choices, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, as a six-item Guttman
scale. The first item included questions 1 through 3 and received a positive score if
two or three of its questions were answered positively. Questions 4 and 5 and
questions 9 and 10 were aggregated into two other items that were scored positively,
if both questions in the item had positive answers. Questions 6 through 8 counted
individually formed the final three items. For the negatively worded RSE questions,
responses that expressed disagreement and, hence, were consistent with high self-
esteem, were considered positive or endorsed. Five items were reverse scored, items
ratings are simimed. Scores of a subject can rangefi-om0-30; higher scores indicate
higher self-esteem (Wylie, 1989). Rosenberg (1965) demonstrated that his scale was a
Guttman scale by obtaining a high enough reproducibility and scalability coefficients.
Multiple studies have been conducted to investigate the validity and reliability
of the RSE. Wylie (1989) reported coefficient alphas ranging from 0.74 to 0.87 and
test-retest reliabilities ranging from 0.63 to 0.91 across studies. In terms of validity,
RSE scores have been linked negatively to depressive affect, anxiety, psychosomatic
symptoms and interpersonal insecurity (Wylie, 1989).
4. Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) developed by
Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet and Farley, 1988. It contains 12 items measure of subjectively
120
subscales: (a) Significant Others, (b) Family and (c) Friends. Responses are fully rated
on a 7 point Likert-type scale, and range between a low-point anchor of very strongly
disagree to a high-point anchor of very strongly agree. The scores on all the three
dimensions of a subject will range between 1-28. The Significant Other subscale does
not assume the presence of such a person but rather the perceived presence or absence
of such a person/ support. Sample items include "There is a special person who is
around when I am in need" (Significant Other subscale), "I get the emotional support
1 need from my family" (Family subscale), and "I can count on my friends when
things go wrong" (Friends subscale). Responses were added on each dimension to get
the total score on all the three dimensions.
Using data from university undergraduates (n = 275; 49% females, 51%
males), the authors of the scale reported internal reliability for the total scale to be
0.88, and 3 month test-retest reliability was reported to be 0.85 (Zimet et al., 1988),
In reporting construct validity using the same imdergraduate sample, Zimet et
al. reported statistically significant relationships of the Family, Friends and
Significant Other subscales with a measure of psychological disfress in the expected
directions (the Hopkins Symptom Checklist; Derogatis, Lipman, Rickels, Ulenhuth
and Covi, 1974). The Family subscale was inversely related to both depression (r = -
.24, p< .01) and anxiety (r = - .18, p< .01); the Friends subscale was inversely related
to depression symptoms (r = - .24, p< .01); and the Significant Other subscale was
also inversely related to depression (r = - .13, p < .05), as was the scale as a whole (r =
.25, p < .01). Clara, Cox, Enns, Murray and Torgrude (2003) reported a confirmatory
factor analysis of the MSPSS, using two separate samples: one of university students
(n = 549; 42% male, 58% female), another of psychiatric outpatients (n = 156; 35%
male, 65% female) in a mood disorders clinic. Their results supported the three factor
121
structure of this measure for both samples [GFI = .95 (students) and .90 (outpatients);
adjusted GFI = .92 (students) and .85 (outpatients) Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .97
for both samples; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .07 (students)
.08 (outpatients)]. Internal consistency reliability for the total scale in the sample was
0.89. The present researcher further calculated Cronbach's alpha and it was found to
be 0.87.
Data Collection Procedure:
The present investigator approached the Coordinator of Disability Unit of Aligarh
Muslim University where records of such type of students are maintained to obtain
relevant information about visually and physically challenged students studying in
various classes and dwelling in various hostels of the University. At the outset, prior
to data collection the investigator took consent of the School Authorities. The present
investigator first of all contacted the teachers to get in touch with the respondents.
One student was contacted at a time and standard procedure was used to gather
relevant iirformation. Utmost care was taken with the help of the Principal and
teachers concerned to reduce the possibility of disruption while the data collection
was in progression. The investigator received the respondents with a smile and asked
them to sit at ease on the seat. The investigator spoke a few customary sentences in
straightforward language to remove any suspicion or hesitation from the mind of the
respondent to arouse the interest and to get cooperation.
Administration of questionnaire is one of the most important activities in the conduct
of research. It has to be conducted with sensitivity and because the respondents
serious and genuine reactions will come if rapport is properly established and
confidence in the researchers' integrity and respect for confidentiality is also created,
the researcher made sincere and concerted efforts in this direction as disabled subjects
122
are very sensitive, shy and inhibited in giving responses. In order to make the
questionnaires easily comprehensible for the visually challenged students the
questionnaires were transformed in 'Braille' with the help of Braille Section of the
Maulana Azad Library of Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The questionnaires in
Braile were given to visually challenged students. They read themselves all the
«
statements given in the questionnaires as per instructions and the responses given
were recorded by the researcher herself. For the collection of data the investigator
established good rapport with the respondents. The respondents were assured that
their responses will be kept confidential and will be used for research work only. The
respondents were instructed individually to read each statement carefully give their
response by encircling only one alternative response against each statement. If
anything is written vaguely, they were told to make the same comprehensible by
inquiring from the investigator, each and every point regarding completion of the
questionnaires were explained in simple language. If there was any query it was
clarified at the same moment. The questionnaires were administered individually after
establishing a healthy and trustworthy relationship. If any subject made queries about
any statement was helped. The questionnaires on which responses desired were not
very long, so that the respondents did not show any difficulty, because the researcher
created a conducive and interactive environment to get the questionnaires completed.
The administration of questionnaires on visually and physically challenged students
was a great learning experience for the present researcher. It was a time taking
venture to motivate respondents and to ensure that they all understand what is being
asked, all the precautionary measures were taken to this research work to the possible
extent free from lapses. On an average one respondent took 40-50 minutes in
completing their responses on the need achievement, emotional competence, self-
esteem and social support scales and only 3-4 children could be tested in one day. The
123
investigator checked up to ensure that each subject had worked out the questionnaires
in the approved manner. The children were parted with thanks and appreciative
comments for their earnest involvement in the test. The teachers were thanked for
their unconditional co-operation and assistance.
For this kind of research ethical considerations play important role. The
following steps were taken in' order to fulfill ethical issues- in this research
confidentiality and anonymity were respected. The information given was kept safe
and was not used unfairly. The subjects were convinced that the results will have no
personal consequences against them. The researcher is obliged to maintain the
confidentiality. The subjects participated voluntarily; no one was forced to participate.
There was no payment for completing the survey. Students were free to withdraw
anytime they feel like without any penalty/ adverse remark.
Statistical Analysis
Tabulation of data was done very carefully for analyzing the data. Once the
data were collected, researcher transformed and summarized data so that results can
be interpreted and communicated in a brief comprehensive manner. So, statistical
methods are very important. Statistics, using the probability theory and mathematics
simply make the process more exact. In other words it is to say that through statistics
we always make inferences, attach probabilities to various outcomes or hypotheses
and make decision on the basis of statistical reasons. Selection of an appropriate
statistics is very important objective of the study which helps in drawing the precise
and accurate inferences.
need achievement the analyses of the data were carried by applying the stepwise
multiple regression on the three groups. Regression analysis was applied to the
124
dimensions of the variables i.e. Emotional Competence and Social Support separately
so as to get a comprehensive picture of this research work. The analysis of data using
Stepwise Multiple Regression through SPSS has given the entire picture of analysis
concerning to variables studied in different steps. As self-esteem has no dimensions it
was studied as a whole. Thus instead of applying stepwise multiple regression, Simple
Linear Regression was applied to see the impact on need achievement of all the three
groups of students. Before applying simple linear regression Scatter Plot was
computed, to check the assumptions of regression, to make sure that the model can be
generalized beyond the sample. This technique was applied in all the three groups.
Further additional statistical analysis was done by applying One way ANOVA for the
purpose of comparing the groups; Q-Q plot was plotted for the dependent variable to
fulfill the assumption of normality for ANOVA. In the end, to answer the questions
raised earlier to interpret the results and observe the significance of difference the post
hoc test was also applied.
125
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present chapter shows the statistical analysis of the data obtained for the
investigation, interpretation and discussion thereof Since the main concern of the
present research was to find out how far Emotional Competence, Self-esteem and
Social Support predict Need Achievement of Visually and Physically Challenged
Students. In order to achieve a better understanding of differently-abled Students a
Control Group (viz. Normal Students) from the similar background was also studied.
In order to meet the objectives that are evident from the research questions and
hypotheses, the analyses of the data were carried by applying the stepwise multiple
regression on the three groups. Regression analysis was applied to the dimensions of
the variables i.e. Emotional Competence and Social Support separately so as to get a
comprehensive picture of this research work.
It is necessary to mention that the analysis of data using stepwise multiple
regression through SPSS has given the entire picture of analysis concerning to
variables studied in different steps. However we have used the table of Descriptive
Statistics, table of Model Summary, and table of Coefficients respectively that reveal
the number of best predictors entered to influence dependent variable, that too in
edited form. For the sake of convenience and mainly due to the presumption that
except the independent variables that entered to the equation, the remaining
independent variables will definitely be the part of the variables excluded or have not
come to the equation; remaining steps like the ANOVA table, the Correlations table
and the list of excluded variables have not been included. As self-esteem has no
dimensions it was studied as a whole. Thus instead of applying stepwise multiple
regression, simple linear regression was applied to see the impact on Need
Achievement of all the three groups of Students. Before applying simple linear
regression scatter plot was computed, to check the assumptions of regression, to make
sure that the model can be generalized beyond the sample. This technique was applied
in all the three groups.
Further additional statistical analysis was done by applying one way ANOVA
for the purpose of comparing the groups; in the end, to answer the questions raised
earlier to interpret the results and observe the significance of difference the post hoc
test was also applied.
REGRESSION ANALYSIS
PREDICTORS OF NEED ACHIEVEMENT AMONG VISUALLY

CHALLENGED STUDENTS
TABLE-1 STEPWISE MULTIPLE REGRESSION (Showing the impact of the

dimensions of emotional competence on need achievement of visually challenged
students) N= 100
TABLE - 1 (a) DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Mean Standard deviation N
Need Achievement
150.22 15.54503 100
Managing and
60.56 6.03579 100
Regulating emotions
Expressing and Labeling
47.49 9.52985 100
emotions
Perceiving and
54.02 9.03973 100
Understanding emotions
Table 1 (a) shows the descriptive statistics of the variables and their respective
factors in the analysis. This table as shown reveals the mean scores and standard
deviation of each variable in our data set and number of observations included in the
127
analysis, so we know that the average need achievement score of visually challenged
students was 150.22. This table isn't necessary for interpreting the regression model,
but it is useful summary of the data.
TABLE - 1 (b) MODEL SUMMARY
Std. Error Change Statistics

R Adjusted
Model R of the
Square R Square R Square
Estimate F Change
Change
1 .426 .182 .173 14.13422 .182 21.750

Predictors: (Constant), Managing and Regulating emotions
The next section of output of the analysis describes the overall model (so it
makes clear whether the model is successful in predicting the need achievement of
visually challenged students). Table 1 (b) shows the model summary indicating the
predictor of the model. Multiple correlation (R) between the predictor and the
outcome is found as 0.426 for managing and regulating emotions. Further R square,
which indicates the variance in the outcome for which the predictors account, is also
seen. Here we have considered R square change that is the contribution of new
predictor to explain variance in the outcome. Hence the real covariance, the
magnitude of independent variable which contributed to the dependent variable (need
achievement of visually challenged students) came out, 18.2% for managing and
regulating emotions.
128
Table - 1 (c) COEFFICIENTS
Unstandardized Standardized
Correlations
Coefficients Coefficients
Model
Std. t Sig.
B Beta Partial
Error
1 (Constant) 83.749 14.323 5.847 0.000
Managing and
Regulating 1.098 .235 .426 4.664 0.000 .426
emotions
Dependent Variab e: Need A chievemen t
Table 1 (c) clearly indicates that managing and regulating emotions influences
the need achievement of the visually challenged students. As the statistical value
given in the table indicated that is, t = 4.664 for managing and regulating emotions.
By having a look at the t-value, we may conclude that t-value is significant for the
predictor indicating a relationship between the predictor and the criterion variable
(need achievement). The table also produces the partial correlation between the
predictor and the outcome, controlling for all the other predictors in the model. The r
= 0.426 for managing and regulating emotions, shows that predictor significantly
influence the degree of need achievement.
On the basis of observed results it may be discussed that managing and
regulating emotions (a dimension of emotional competence) has the positive
predictive relationship with the need achievement of visually challenged students.
Thus it is to be mentioned that the visually challenged students have shown stronger
tendency to develop and learn the ability to manage and regulate emotions. They have
learned to handle their emotions to avoid becoming overwhelmed or engaging in
negative social interactions. Managing and regulating emotions have positive
predictive relationship with the need achievement of visually challenged students. The
129
present finding is in support of the earlier investigators (Ciarrochi, Deane, Wilson, and
Rickwood, 2002; Shah and Thingujam, 2008), the samples of their studies represented
non-disabled university students. The unique feature of the obtained finding of the
present research partially supports the research question 1 which is primarily
concerned with the visually challenged students. The other two factors of emotional
competence viz. expressing and labeling emotions and perceiving and understanding
emotions did not emerge as significant predictors of need achievement of visually
challenged students. On the remaining other two aspects they were found weak, so
this should be taken into consideration by psychologists to strengthen them on these
two aspects of emotional competence viz. ability to express and label emotions, and
ability to perceive and understand emotions. It can be taught to develop skills during
teaching learning process to gain emotional literacy along with their education. As it
is a well known fact that academic intelligence offers no preparation for the emotional
turmoil of the life. So, emotional competence seems to be very important to prepare
the student to deal with heavy course pressure, peer group competition and adaptation
to school norms and disciplines. It also helps students to focus attention, organize
memory, help them to interpret social situations, and motivate them for relevant
behavior which further enhances their achievement motivation.
TABLE-2 SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION (Showing the impact of self-esteem on

need achievement of visually challenged students) N=100
Need Achievement 150.2200 15.54503 100
Self-esteem 20.9200 4.10882 100
130
^ ^
Table 2 (a) shows the descriptive statistics. This table indicates the mean,
standard deviation and number of observations included in the analysis. This table
isn't necessary for interpreting the regression model, but it is useful simimary of the
data.

R Adjusted
Model R of the R Square
Square R Square F Change
Estimate Change
1 .292 .085 .076 14.94144 .085 9.160
Predictors: (Constant), Self-esteem
The next section of output describes the overall model (so it yields whether the
model is successful in predicting the need achievement of visually challenged
students). Table 2 (b) shows the model summary indicating the predictor of the
model. Multiple correlation (R) between the predictor and the outcome is found as
0.292 for self-esteem. Further R square, which indicates the variance in the outcome
for which the predictors account, is also seen. Here we have considered R square
change that is the contribution of new predictor to explain variance in the outcome.
Hence the real covariance, the magnitude of independent variable which contributed
to the dependent variable (need achievement of visually challenged students) came
out, 8.5% for self-esteem.
Correlations
Model Coefficients Coefficients
t Sig.
B Std. Error Beta Partial
1 (Constant) 127.080 7.790 16.312 0.000
Self-esteem 1.106 .365 .292 3.027 0.003 .292

Dependent Variable: Need Achievement
131
Table 2 (c) clearly indicates that self-esteem influences the need achievement
of the visually challenged students. As the statistical value given in the table indicated
that is, t = 3.027 for self-esteem. By having a look at the t-value, it may be concluded
that t-value is significant for the predictor indicating a relationship between the
predictor and the criterion variable (need achievement). The table also produces the
partial correlation between the predictor and the outcome. The r = 0.292 for self-
esteem, shows that predictor significantly influence the degree of need achievement.
From the result it may be discussed that self-esteem has positive predictive
relationship with the need achievement of visually challenged students. The finding
supports the research question 2. Thus it can be discussed that the visually challenged
students are found capable in maintaining their self-esteem i.e. they perceive
positively about their overall attitude towards self. This is true for the visually
challenged students but it needsfiirtherexploration to bring those visually challenged
individuals under the domain of investigation that did not get access to such type of
opportunities. Here, it is to emphasize that students possessing high self-esteem tend
to be more ambitious than those with low self-esteem. In contrast some research
studies mdicated that the feeling of worthlessness can be depressing (Battle, 1990;
Bhatti et al., 1992; Hokanson, Rubbert, Welker, Hollander and Hedden, 1989) and
depression generally inhibits performance. As stated by Leary and Downs (1995),
"people who feel worthy, able and competent are more likely to achieve their goals
than those who feel worthless, important, and incompetent. Thus self-esteem also has
linkage to enhance one's need achievement.
132
dimensions of social support on need achievement of visually challenged students)
N=100
Family Support 25.4400 2.80807 100
Friends Support 23.8500 3.63311 100
Significant Others
22.7200 4.79705 100
Support
factors in the analysis. This table indicates the mean scores and standard deviation of
each variable in our data set and number of observations included in the analysis. This
table isn't necessary for interpreting the regression model, but it is useful summary of
the data.

R Adjusted
Model R of the
Square R Square R Square F
Estimate Change Change
1 .331 .109 .100 14.74481 .109 12.037
Predictors: (Constant), Family Support
The next section of output describes the overall model (so it tells us whether
the model is successful in predicting the need achievement of visually challenged
133
0.331 for family support. Further R square, which indicates the variance in the
outcome for which the predictors account, is also seen. Here we have considered R
square change that is the contribution of new predictor to explain variance in the
outcome. Hence the real covariance, the magnitude of independent variable which
contributed to the dependent variable (need achievement of visually challenged
students) came out, 10.9% for family support.
Correlations
Model Coefficients Coefficients
t Sig.
1 (Constant) 103.640 13.506 7.674 0.000
Family
Support 1.831 .528 .331 3.469 0.001 .331
Dependent Variable: Neec AchievemerIt
Table 3 (c) clearly indicates that family support was foimd to influence the
need achievement of the visually challenged students. As the statistical value given in
the table indicated that is, t = 3.469 for family support. On the basis of obtained
significant t-value, it may be concluded that t-value is significant for the predictor
indicating a relationship between the predictor and the criterion variable (need
achievement). The table also produces the partial correlation between the predictor
and the outcome. The r = 0.331 for family support, shows that predictor significantly
influence the degree of need achievement.
It appears from the result that family support (a dimension of social support)
significantly predicts the need achievement of visually challenged students. Thus the
present finding partially supports the research question 3. The other two factors of
134
social support viz. friends support and significant others support did not emerge as
significant predictors of need achievement of visually challenged students. Family
support emerged as an important predictor. Attachment to family is a major
phenomenon almost in most of the societies, but more pronounced in the Indian
society. The family continues to be the most important source of social, emotional and
economic support for students. The contribution of parental support and happiness
plays a vital role in youth's life because in our society we have very close knit family
structure in which an adolescent has close in-depth, positive relationship with parents,
grandparents, siblings and other family members in our society. The child receives
warmth and solace; derives deep sense of affinity and strength from close
relationships in the family. In our study, visually challenged students perceived
support from family but not from category of significant others, primarily because
most of them were not able to identify any significant other. They are being neglected
by significant others. Since visually challenged students seem to be more sensitive
thus they expect real support fi"om their family for sustenance. Therefore, family
support is more important in contributing to the need achievement among visually
challenged students. Similar findings have been reported by other investigators as
well (Chang and Schaller, 2000), other studies reviewed were conducted on non-
disabled student populations. Other studies, not on student population showed similar
results. The greater rootedness of the disabled to the family, which is one of the most
dependable and psychologically closest social institutions, provides them a deep sense
of security.
135
PREDICTORS OF NEED ACHIEVEMENT OF PHYSICALLY
CHALLENGED STUDENTS
dimensions of emotional competence on need achievement of physically challenged
students) N= 100

Managing and Regulating
emotions 58.7300 7.69606 100
Expressing and Labeling
emotions 48.3900 8.37251 100
Perceiving and
Understanding emotions 52.1100 8.87158 100
factors in the analysis. This table indicates the mean scores and standard deviation of
the data.
Model R R Adjusted Std. Error Change Statistics

Square R Square of the R Square F Change
Estimate Change
1 .307 .094 .085 15.98939 .094 10.169

Predictors: (Constant), Perceiving and Understanding emotions
The next section of output describes the overall model (so one can easily know
whether the model is successful in predicting the need achievement of physically
challenged students). Table 4 (b) shows the model summary indicating the predictor
of the model. Multiple correlation (R) between the predictor and the outcome is found
136
as 0.307 for perceiving and understanding emotions. Further R square, which
indicates the variance in the outcome for which the predictors account, is also seen.
Here we have considered R square change that is the contribution of new predictor to
explain variance in the outcome. Hence the real covariance, the magnitude of
independent variable which contributed to the dependent variable (need achievement
of physically challenged students) came out, 9.4% for perceiving and understanding
emotions.
Unstandardized Standardized Correlations

Model Coefficients Coefficients t
B Std. Beta Sig. Partial
Error
1 (Constant) 106.830 9.574 11.159 0.000
Perceiving and
Understanding .578 .181 .307 3.189 0.002 .307
emotions
Table 4 (c) clearly indicates that perceiving and understanding emotions
influences the total need achievement of the physically challenged students. As the
statistical value given in the above table indicated that is, t = 3.189 for perceiving and
understanding emotions. By having a look at the t-value, we may conclude that t-
value is significant for the predictor indicating a relationship between the predictor
and the criterion variable (need achievement). The table also produces the value of
partial correlation between the predictor and the outcome, controlling for all the other
predictors in the model. The r = 0.307 for perceiving and understanding emotions,
shows that predictor significantly influence the degree of need achievement.
On the basis of the result it may be interpreted that perceiving and
understanding emotions (a dimension of emotional competence) significantly predicts
137
the need achievement of physically challenged students. The finding supports the
research question 4 partially because the other two factors of emotional competence
viz. managing and regulating emotions and expressing and labeling emotions did not
emerge as significant predictors of need achievement of physically challenged
students. Perceiving and understanding emotions are more important in contributing
to the need achievement among physically challenged students. More often due to
poor adjustment in school, students find themselves unable to manage and control
their emotions. For the differently-abled, who are faced with additional problems and
challenges, it becomes a matter of even greater concern for this group of students. If a
person is able to perceive the emotional expressions of oneself as well as other's
emotions and able to understand and interpret them adequately then it seems to work
as catalyst in enhancing their need achievement. So, perceiving and understanding
emotions a dimension of emotional competence prepares the student to learn and
practice adaptive, purposefiil, and helpful functions in school emotional competence
helps the students to gain success in school.

need achievement of physically challenged students) N=100
Self-esteem 19.2100 4.20028 100
Table 5 (a) shows the descriptive statistics. This table shows the mean,
standard deviation and number of observations included in the analysis. This table isn't
necessary for interpreting the regression model, but it is useful summary of the data.
138

Estimate Change
1 .398 .159 .150 15.40920 .159 18.468

Predictors: (Constant), Self-esteem
the model is successful in predicting the need achievement of physically challenged
students). Table 5 (b) indicates the model summary highlighting the predictor of the
0.398 for self-esteem. Further R square, which indicates the variance in the outcome
for which the predictors account, is also seen. Here, we have considered R square
change that is the contribution of new predictor to explain variance in the outcome.
Hence the real covariance, the magnitude of independent variable which contributed
to the dependent variable (need achievement of physically challenged students) came
out, 15.9% for self-esteem.
Model Unstandardized Standardized Correlations

Coefficients Coefficients T Sig.
1 (Constant) 106.492 7.249 14.691 0.000
Self-esteem 1.584 .369 .398 4.297 0.000 .398

of the physically challenged students. As the statistical value given in the table
139
indicated that is, t = 4.297 for self-esteem. By having a look at the t-value, we may
conclude that t-value is significant for the predictor indicating a relationship between
the predictor and the criterion variable (need achievement). The table also produces
the partial correlation between the predictor and the outcome. The r = 0.398 for self-
esteem, shows that predictor significantly influence the degree of need achievement.
From the obtained result it may be interpreted that self-esteem has a positive
predictive relationship with the Need Achievement of Physically Challenged
Students. The finding supports the research question 5. The present finding is
supported by the earlier researchers (Brockner, 1983; Perez, 1973; Schalon, 1969;
Sorman, 1977; Rutter, 1985; Werner, and Emmy, 1995) but most of the studies were
conducted on the non-disabled group. But the results of earlier researches signify the
importance of self-esteem in everyone's life. The physical self is an important aspect
of an individual's self-image, therefore being one with the normal group is something
which affords great happiness. Usually disabilities and deformities may elicit
sympathy but this may be perceived as condescension rather than real acceptance and
inclusion. Being genuinely accepted within the group is a factor, which has a very
special meaning for the differently-abled persons. Considering the fact that the
disabled cannot participate in many social and extra curricular activities which young
people engage in, acceptance and inclusion in the group is a matter of supreme
importance. This social acceptance strengthens the perception of self-esteem and
social support which is placed by Health psychologists at a very focal position as a
factor contributing to mental health and well being, which further helps in enhancing
one's need achievement.
140
dimensions of social support on need achievement of physically challenged students)
N=100

1
Family Support 23.4800 4.28641 100
Significant Others Support 20.2600 5.93674 100
factors in the analysis. This table reveals the mean scores and standard deviation of
the data.

Estimate Change
1 .224 .050 .040 16.37235 .050 5.168

Predictors: (Constant), Fami y Support
The next section of output describes the overall model (so it specifies whether
the model is successful in predicting the need achievement of physically challenged
0.050 for family support. Further R square, which indicates the variance in the
outcome for which the predictors account, is also seen. Here we have considered R
141
square change that is the contribution of new predictor to explain variance in the
contributed to the dependent variable (need achievement of physically challenged
students) came out, 5% for family support.

Coefficients Coefficients t Sig.
1 (Constant) 116.440 9.161 12.710 .000
Family
Support .873 .384 .224 2.273 .025 .224
Table 6 (c) clearly indicates that family support influences the need
achievement of the physically challenged students. As the statistical value given in the
table indicated that is, t = 2.273 for family support. By having a look at the obtained t-
value, we may conclude that t-value is significant for the predictor indicating a
relationship between the predictor and the criterion variable (need achievement). The
table also produces the partial correlation between the predictor and the outcome. The
r = 0.224 for family support, shows that predictor significantly influence the degree of
need achievement.
On the basis of the result it may be interpreted that family support (a
dimension of social support) significantly predicts the need achievement of physically
challenged students but the remaining other two factors of social support viz. friends
support and significant others support did not emerge as significant predictors of need
achievement of physically challenged students. Thus we can say that the finding
partially supports the research question 6. Family support is more important in
contributing to the need achievement among physically challenged students. One can
easily see that they are hesitant to mix with normal students because of fear of being
142
rejected or neglected due to which their support from friends and significant others is
negligible thinking that people are not free to give us time to mix up which might be
perceived or real. Disabled individuals usually spend a major part of their time at
home and crave to develop closer bonding and relationships with their parents,
siblings, and other members in the family. Adolescents receiving greater support from
family may experience lesser degree of stress while they confront a stressful
experience or situation. They may be resilient in coping with it and may lead a
reasonably successful life as it is true in case of the physically challenged group
because they expect more and if they receive more in accordance with their
expectations will definitely make their living better. The impact of close and intimate
relationship between the child and his parents has always been emphasized in human
societies. The child comes to look upon the parents as real source of all his/her
satisfaction, and give importance to the persons who fulfills the basic needs which a
child experiences. Accepting behavior of parents gives a child warmth, affection,
approval, security and understanding. A child needs a reasonable degree of
acceptance in order to lead a happy and socially accepted life. Parents undoubtedly
are the basic source of giving support in maintaining the well-being of disabled
persons. He/she should be accepted first by the family, and most importantly by
parents then by others. Parent's acceptance and their positive attitude give disabled
children a sort of encouragement and instill in them a sense of redemption. Love,
patience and understanding at home level are most important. Positive and accepting
attitude is very important for preventing the sense of insecurity from the mind of a
disabled child thus it is discussed that family support gives a sense of security,
belongingness and building their self-confidence and self-esteem to makes them
competent to enhance the level of need achievement. The previous researchers have
143
obtained similar findings (Markward, McMillan, and Markward, 2003; Seligman,
Goodwin, Pascal, Applegate, et. al., 1997; Findler, 2000; Zainab and Maqbool, 2003;
Love and Murdock, 2004).
PREDICTORS OF NEED ACHIEVEMENT OF NORMAL STUDENTS

dimensions of emotional cortipetence on need achievement of normal students)
N=100
Managing and Regulating 58.6300 8.50865 100

emotions
Expressing and Labeling 46.4500 9.39415 100

emotions
Perceiving and 51.0300 9.19536 100

Understanding emotions
factors in the analysis. This table tells us the mean scores and standard deviation of
the data.
TABLE -1(h) MODEL SUMMARY

Estimate Change
1 .230 .053 .043 18.44694 .053 5.456

Predictors: (Constant), Managing and Regulating emotions
144
The next section of output describes the overall model (so it makes it clear
whether the model is successful in predicting the need achievement of normal
students). Table 7(b) shows the model summary indicating the predictor of the model.
Multiple correlation (R) between the predictor and the outcome is foimd as 0.230 for
managing and regulating emotions. Further R square, which indicates the variance in
the outcome for which the predictors account, is also seen. Here we have considered
R square change that is the contribution of new predictor to explain variance in the
contributed to the dependent variable (need achievement of normal students) came
out, 5.3% for managing and regulating emotions.

B Std. Beta Partial
Error
1 (Constant) 118.670 12.908 9.194 0.000
Managing and
Regulating .509 .218 .230 2.336 0.022 .230
emotions
Dependent Variab e: Need Achievement
Table 7 (c) clearly indicates that managing and regulating emotions influences
the need achievement of the normal students. As the statistical value given in the table
indicated that is, t = 2.336 for managing and regulating emotions. By having a look at
the t-value, we may conclude that t-value is significant for the predictor indicating a
relationship between the predictor and the criterion variable (need achievement). The
table also produces the partial correlation between the predictor and the outcome,
controlling for all the other predictors in the model. The r = 0.230 for managing and
145
regulating emotions, shows that predictor significantly influence the degree of need
achievement.
On the basis of result it is interpreted that managing and regulating emotions
(a dimension of emotional competence) has a positive predictive relationship with the
need achievement of normal students. The finding partially supports the research
question 7. The 'other two factors of emotional competence viz. Expressing and
labeling emotions and perceiving and understanding emotions did not emerge as
significant predictors of need achievement of normal group of students but managing
and regulating emotions is found to be more important in contributing to need
achievement of this group of students. As discussed earlier the trend of the result
obtained for the normal (non-disabled) students are almost similar to that of visually
challenged students. Since the normal students have been taken from the similar
background the difference is only with their functional disabilities. Previous
researches have shown that children who manage and regulate their emotions and
know how to deal with the emotions of others, do better academically and socially. It
enables them to make appropriate responses and elicit positive reactions. They are
more skillful at directing and handling their own and other people's emotions. It is
important foundation of emotional health. It can help them cope with intense
experiences and emotions.

need achievement of Students) N=100
Self-esteem 20.5200 3.79388 100
146
Table 8 (a) shows the descriptive statistics. This table tells us the mean,
standard deviation and number of observations included in the analysis. This table
isn't necessary for interpreting the regression model, but it is useftil summary of the
data.

Estimate Change
1 .200(a) .040 .030 18.57113 .040 4.077

a Predictors: (Con stant), Sel: -esteem
the model is successful in predicting the need achievement of normal students). Table
8 (b) shows the model summary indicating the predictor of the model. Multiple
correlation (R) between the predictor and the outcome is foimd as 0.200 for self-
esteem. Further R square, which indicates the variance in the outcome for which the
predictors account, is also seen. Here we have considered R square change that is the
contribution of new predictor to explain variance in the outcome. Hence, the real
covariance, the magnitude of independent variable which contributed to the dependent
variable (need achievement of normal students) came out, 4% for self-esteem.
Table- 8 (c) COEFFICIENTS

1 (Constant) 128.127 10.265 12.482 .000
Self-esteem .993 .492 .200 2.019 .046 .200

a Dependent Variable: Need Achievement
147
of the normal students. As the statistical value given in the table indicated that is, t =
2.019 for self-esteem. By having a look at the t-value, we may conclude that t-value is
significant for the predictor indicating a relationship between the predictor and the
criterion variable (need achievement). The table also produces the partial correlation
between the predictor and the outcome. The r = 0.200 for self-esteem, shows that
predictor significantly influence the degree of need achievement.
From the obtained results it may be interpreted that self-esteem predicts the
need achievement of normal students, which supports the research question 8. Higher
self-esteem leads to need achievement among normal students and vice versa. This
result has been supported by various researchers (Harer, 1964; Jones and Grieneeks,
1970; Lamy, 1965; Wattenberg and Clifford, 1964). Self-esteem is the degree to which the
self is perceived positively or negatively; that is one's overall attitude towards the self
as Leary and Baumeister (2000) suggested that people should have to maintain their
self-esteem because it is important for well-being and positive affect; provides feed
back about the adequacy of one's coping efforts; reflects an individual's status in a
dominance hierarchy; facilitates self-determination and their own explanation;
becomes the basis of vital information about their eligibility for social inclusion and
exclusion; thus influences the need achievement.
148
dimensions of social support on need achievement of normal students) N=100
Family Support 21.1600 6.43808 100
Significant Others 20.7600 6.41671 100

Support
factors in the analysis. This table tells us the mean scores and standard deviation of
table isn't necessary for interpreting the regression model, but it is usefiil summary of
the data.

Estimate Change
1 .257(a) .066 .056 18.31747 .066 6.924
2 .320(b) .103 .084 18.04738 .037 3.955

a Predictors: (Constant), significant others support
b Predictors: (Constant), significant others support,friendssupport
the model is successful in predicting the need achievement of normal students). Table
9(b) shows the model summary indicating all the predictors of the model. Multiple
correlation (R) between the predictor and the outcome is found as 0.257 for
significant others support and 0.320 for friends support. Further R square, which
149
indicates the variance in the outcome for which the predictors account, is also seen.
Here we have considered R square change that is the contribution of new predictor to
explain variance in the outcome. Hence the real covariance, the magnitude of
independent variable which contributed to the dependent variable (need achievement
of normal students) came out, 6.6% for significant others support and 3.7% for friends
support.

Unstan dardized Standardized
Correlations
Model Coefl icients Coefficients
t Sig.
1 (Constant) 132.838 6.231 21.317 .000
Significant
Others
.755 .287 .257 2.631 .010 .257
Support
2 (Constant) 139.231 6.930 20.090 .000
Significant
Others
1.109 .334 .377 3.320 .001 .319
Support
Friends
-.710 -.357 -.226 -1.989 .050 -.198
Support
a Dependent Variable: N-ach
Table 9 (c) clearly indicates that significant others support and friends support
influences the need achievement of the normal students. As the statistical value given
in the table indicated that is, t = 2.631 for significant others support and t = -1.989 for
friends support. By having a look at the t-values, we may conclude that t-values are
significant for the predictor indicating a relationship between the predictor and the
criterion variable (need achievement). The table also produces the partial correlation
between the predictor and the outcome. The r = 0.257 for significant others support
and r = -0.198 for fiiends support shows that predictors significantly influence the
degree of need achievement.
150
On the basis of results it may be interpreted that significant others support
which is one of the dimensions of social support significantly predicts the need
achievement of normal students. Friends support emerged as a significant predictor of
need achievement among physically challenged students having a negative predictive
relationship with need achievement i.e. as the level of friends support increases in the
normal students, their need achievement decreases. The other factor of social support
viz. family support did not emerge as significant predictor of need achievement of
normal students. Thus the research question 9 is partially supported. Significant others
support is more important in contributing to the need achievement among normal
students having a positive predictive relationship. It may however be noted that in
most of the studies, it emerged as a significant predictor only in the presence of social
support from the family. Although many researchers have upheld the crucial role of
friends support during adolescence so much that most developmental theorists point
out that in certain stages, particularly in adolescence, friends are more important and
exercise greater influence than family, the role of family also remains so important.
Social support from family has to be present in order that friends support to be
meaningftil for need achievement. Normal students engage in activities and hobbies
which take them outside the home, therefore more time is spent with significant
others. The support ensuing from the significant others is very meaningful for them,
which gives them identity. Significant others include presence of some individuals
who inspires and motivates us. The present study was conducted on yoimg students
who are in the midst of the hectic life of strong interactive relationship. Significant
persons in their lives are mostly covered in the category of teachers, an old family
member like grandmother/grandfather as significant other. Literature search revealed
that this aspect viz. a general category of 'significant others' has been studied by other
151
researchers (Lawrence 1991; Cohen and Wills, 1985; Sarason and Pierce, 1990;
Coyne and Downey, 1991). To the best of the knowledge of the investigator if studies
exist they are very few in ntimber. In comparison the social support from friends
though exercising some degree of importance which is natural, may not usually
become central to their need achievement. As reported by some researchers that social
support strengthens by making interpersonal cormections was associated with mental
health, quality of life and overall well-being. The trend of the result indicates that as
the social circle of individual increases will adversely influence the person to strive
hard to reach the goal because if he is involved more in getting their goal achieved
then the person will automatically be alienated from the group therefore the frend
move inversely. It means friends support will not go in the same direction so that this
group of non-disabled students have shown this kind of tendency as evident from the
result.
One-way ANOVA was applied as an additional analysis in order to assess the
significance of difference among the various comparison groups and also among
various variables to examine whether groups differ on each variable or not. Further
Tukey post hoc test was also applied to determine the significance of differences
between the groups. Since ANOVA has an assimiption of normal distribution, the
researcher assessed the normality of the sample.
Normal probability plots are used to ascertain whether data is normally
distributed. Many statistical tests make the assumption that an underlying distribution
is normal, so normal probability plots provide assurance that the assumption is
justified. The researcher used the Q-Q plot (quantile-quantile plot) for assessing
normality of the sample. It is a scatter plot with the quantiles of the scores on the
horizontal axis and the expected normal curves on the vertical axis. A plot of the
152
scores against the expected normal score should reveal a straight line. The straight
line represents what data would look like if it were absolutely normally distributed.
The actual data is represented by the dots plotted against the straight line. The closer
the dots are to the line, the more normally distributed the data. If the observed points
curve above or below the normal plot line, this shows that kurtosis departs from a
normal distribution, while if the observed plot is S-shaped this indicates that the data
is skewed.
Normal Q-Q Plot of need achievement scores
200
200
Observed Value
The above graph shows the Normal Q-Q plot of scores of Need Achievement.
The straight line shows the Expected Normal Value and the line of little dots shows
the Observed Values on Need Achievement. Since majority of the dots are falling
along the line which is an indicator of the normal distribution of scores on need
achievement. Hence, ANOVA can be applied, as it fulfills the assumption of
normalcy.
153
ONE WAY ANOVA
TABLE-10 (a) Descriptive Statistics of the three groups of students
95% Confidence
N Mean S.D. Std. Interval for Mean
Error Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Visually 100 162.07 18.634 1.863 158.37 165.77
Challenged
Students
Emotional Physically 100 159.23 19.900 1.990 155.28 163.18
Competence Challenged
Students
Normal 100 156.11 22.758 2.276 151.59 160.63
Students
Total 300 159.14 20.580 1.188 156.80 161.47
Visually 100 20.92 4.109 .411 20.10 21.74

Challenged
Students
Physically 100 19.21 4.200 .420 18.38 20.04
Self-esteem Challenged
Students
Normal 100 20.52 3.794 .379 19.77 21.27
Students
Total 300 20.22 4.090 .236 19.75 20.68
Visually 100 25.44 2.808 .281 24.88 26.00

Challenged
Students
Social Physically 100 23.48 4.286 .429 22.63 24.33
Support Challenged
Students
Normal 100 21.16 6.438 .644 19.88 22.44
Students
Total 300 23.36 5.049 .291 22.79 23.93
Table 10 (a) describes the number of students, means for each level, standard
deviations, standard errors and 95% confidence limits on emotional competence, self-
esteem and social support among all the three groups (viz. visually challenged
students, physically challenged students and normal students).
154
TABLE-10 (b) Summary of One Way ANOVA of emotional competence, self-
esteem and social support
Variable Sources Sum of Df Mean F Sig.

of Squares Square
Variation
Between
1777.387 2 888.693
Groups
2.114 .123
Emotional Within
124854.010 297 420.384
Competence Groups
Total
126631.397 299
Between
160.007 2 80.003
Groups
4.906 .008
Within
4842.910 297 16.306
Self-esteem Groups
Total
5002.917 299
Between
918.080 2 459.040
Groups
Social Within
6703.040 297 22.569 20.339 .000
Support Groups
Total
7621.120 299
As shown in Table 10 (b) the groups were compared with regard to their
emotional competence, self-esteem and social support. It was observed that the groups
did not differ in terms of emotional competence as p= 0.123>0.05. Where as in terms
of self-esteem and social support there were significant differences between the
groups as p<0.05 (0.008 and 0.000 for self-esteem and social support respectively).
For clarification of differences among the groups Tukey's post hoc was run as
follows:
155
Table 10 (c) Multiple Comparisons of Means (Tukey) of emotional Competence
Variable (I)Type of (J)Type of Mean

Respondent Respondent Difference S.E Sig.
(I-J)
Physically
Visually Challenged 2.840 2.900 .590
Challenged Students
Students
Normal 5.960 2.900 .101
Students
Emotional Visually
Competence Physically Challenged -2.840 2.900 .590
Challenged Students
Students
Normal 3.120 2.900 .530
Students
Visually
Normal Challenged -5.960 2.900 .101
(Non- Students
disabled) Physically
Students Challenged -3.120 2.900 .530
Students
Table 10 (c) of Tukey test showed that mean scores of visually challenged
students concerning to emotional competence. The table showed that significant
differences were not foimd between visually challenged students and physically
challenged students and normal students on emotional competence. The trend of the
result clearly reveals that the mean difference between visually challenged with the
normal students was found greater in comparison to other groups. Therefore the
hypothesis 1 has been rejected. On the basis of results it can be interpreted that
differences exists between the groups but the differences are not significant. Thus it
can be concluded that the three groups did not differ in terms of emotional
competence,
156
Table 10 (d) Multiple Comparisons of Means (Tukey) of self-esteem
(I-J)
Physically
Visually Challenged 1.710(*) .571 .008
Challenged Students
Students Normal
.400 .571 .763
Students
Visually
Physically Challenged -1.710(*) .571 .008
Challenged Students
Self-esteem Students Normal
-1.310 .571 .058
Students
Visually
Normal Challenged -.400 .571 .763
(Non- Students
Students Challenged 1.310 .571 .058
Students
* The mean difference is sigrlificant at the .05 level.
Table 10 (d) of Tukey test showed that mean scores of visually challenged
normal students on self-esteem. The table showed that significant difference was
found between visually challenged students and physically challenged students.
Statistically insignificant differences were found between visually challenged students
esteem. Thus the hypothesis 2 has been accepted partially. The visually challenged
students and physically challenged students differ in terms of their self-esteem.
157
Table 10 (e) Multiple Comparisons of Means (Tukey) of social support

(1-J)
Physically
Challenged Students
Students Normal
Students 4.280(*) .672 .000 ;
Visually
Social Physically Challenged -1.960(*) .672 .011
Support Challenged Students
Students Normal
Students 2.320(*) .672 .002
Visually
Normal Challenged -4.280(*) .672 .000
(Non- Students
Students Challenged -2.320(*) .672 .002
Students
* The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
Table 10 (e) of Tukey test showed that mean scores of visually challenged
students were foimd higher than the physically challenged students and normal
students, where as mean scores of physically challenged students were higher than
normal students on social support. The table showed that significant differences were
and normal students on social support. Thefindingsupports the hypothesis 3 that the
groups are foimd to differ significantly in terms of social support as a whole. Further
comparisons have been done on the dimensions of social support separately as shown
in the table 12.
158
TABLE-11 (a) Descriptive Statistics of all the three groups on the dimensions of
emotional competence
95% Confidence
N Mean S.D. Std. Interval for
Error Mean
Lower Upper
Bound Bound
Visually 100 54.02 9.040 .904 52.23 55.81
Challenged
Perceiving Students
and Physically 100 52.11 8.872 .887 50.35 53.87
Understand Challenged
ing Students
emotions Normal 100 51.03 9.195 .920 49.21 52.85
Students
Total 300 52.39 9.091 .525 51.35 53.42
Visually 100 47.49 9.530 .953 45.60 49.38

Challenged
Expressing Students
and Physically 100 48.39 8.373 .837 46.73 50.05
Labeling Challenged
emotions Students
Normal 100 46.45 9.394 .939 44.59 48.31
Students
Total 300 47.44 9.118 .526 46.41 48.48
Visually 100 60.56 6.036 .604 59.36 6L76

Managing Challenged
and Students
Regulating Physically 100 58.73 7.696 .770 57.20 60.26
emotions Challenged
Students
Normal 100 58.63 8.509 .851 56.94 60.32
Students
Total 300 59.31 7.512 .434 58.45 60.16
deviations, standard errors and 95% confidence limits on the dimensions of emotional
159
competence among all the three groups (viz. visually challenged students, physically
challenged students and normal students).
TABLE-11 (b) Summary of One Way ANOVA on the dimensions of emotional

competence
of Squares Square
Variation
Between
458.487 2 229.243
Perceiving Groups 2.807 .062
and Within
Understanding Groups 24252.660 297 81.659
emotions Total
24711.147 299 118.063
Between
188.507 2 94.253
Expressing Groups
and labeling 1.135 .323
Within
emotions 24667.530 297 83.056
Groups
Total
24856.037 299
Between
236.127 2 118.063
Managing and Groups
2.108 .123
Regulating Within
emotions 16637.660 297 56.019
Groups
Total
16873.787 299
As shown in Table 11 (b) the dimensions of emotional competence among
three groups were compared. Because p>0.05 (0.062, 0.323, and 0.123 for perceiving
and understanding emotions, expressing and labeling emotions and managing and
regulating emotions respectively), no significant differences were found between the
groups. Further for clarification of differences among the groups Tukey's post hoc is
run as follows:
160
Table 11 (c) Multiple Comparisons of Means (Tukey) of perceiving and
understanding emotions
(I-J)
Physically
Challenged Students
Students Normal
Students 2.990 1.278 .052
Visually
Perceiving Physically Challenged -1.910 1.278 .295
and Challenged Students
Understanding Students Normal
emotions Students 1.080 1.278 .675
Visually
(Non- Students
Students
students on perceiving and imderstaiding emotions, a dimension of emotional
competence. The table showed that significant differences were not found between
on perceiving and understanding emotions a dimension of emotional competence.
Thus the hypothesis 1 has been rejected.
161
Table 11 (d) Multiple Comparisons of Means (Tukey) of expressing and labeling
emotions

(I-J)
Physically
Visually Challenged -.900 1.289 .765
Challenged Students
Students Normal
Students 1.040 1.289 .699
Visually
Expressing Physically Challenged .900 1.289 .765
Labeling Students Normal
emotions Students 1.940 1.289 .290
Visually
(Non- Students
Students
Table 11 (d) of Tukey test showed that mean scores of physically challenged
students are higher than visually challenged students and normal students; where as
mean scores of visually challenged students are higher than normal students on
expressing and labeling emotions, a dimension of emotional competence. The table
showed that significant differences in terms of their mean scores were not found
normal students on expressing and labeling emotions, a dimension of emotional
competence. Therefore the hypothesis 1 has been rejected. Thus, it can be interpreted
that the three groups of students did not differ in terms of expressing and labeling
emotions, a dimension of emotional competence.
162
Table 11 (e) Multiple Comparisons of Means (Tukey) of managing and regulating
emotions

(I-J)
Physically
Challenged Students
Students Normal 1
Students 1.930 1.058 .164
Visually
Managing Physically Challenged -1.830 1.058 .196
Regulating Students Normal
emotions Students .100 1.058 .995
Visually
Students Students
(Non- Physically
disabled) Challenged -.100 1.058 .995
Students
students are higher than physically challenged students and normal students; where as
mean scores of physically challenged students are higher than normal students on
managing and regulating emotions, a dimension of emotional competence. The table
showed that significant differences were not found between visually challenged
students and physically challenged students, visually challenged students and normal
students, and physically challenged students and normal students on managing and
regulating emotions, a dimension of emotional competence. Thus the hypothesis 1 has
been rejected. Though the differences exist but the differences are not statistically
significant.
163
TABLE-12 (a) Descriptive Statistics of the three groups of respondents on the
dimensions of social support
95% Confidence
N Mean Std. Interval br Mean
S.D. Error Lower Upper
Bound Boimd
Visually 100
Challenged 25.44 2.808 .281 24.88 26.00
Students
Family Physically 100
Support Challenged 23.48 4.286 .429 22.63 24.33
Students
Normal 100
21.16 6.438 .644 19.88 22.44
Students
Total 300
23.36 5.049 .291 22.79 23.93
Visually 100
Challenged 23.85 3.633 .363 23.13 24.57
Students
Friends Physically 100
Students
Normal 100
19.38 6.010 .601 18.19 20.57
Students
Total 300
21.28 5.438 .314 20.66 21.89
Visually 100
Challenged 22.72 4.797 .480 21.77 23.67
Significant Students
Others Physically 100
Students
Normal 100
20.76 6.417 .642 19.49 22.03
Students
Total 300
21.25 5.835 .337 20.58 21.91
deviations, standard errors and 95% confidence limits on the dimensions of social
support among all the three groups (viz. visually challenged students, physically
challenged students and normal students).
164
TABLE-12 (b) Summary of One Way ANOVA of the three groups on the dimensions
of social support

of Squares Square
Variation
Between
918.080 2 459.040
Groups .000
20.339
Family Within
6703.040 297 22.569
Support Groups
Total 299
7621.120
Between
1067.727 2 533.863
Groups
20.395 .000
Friends Within
7774.310 297 26.176
Support Groups
Total
8842.037 299
Between
338.107 2 169.053
Significant Groups
Others Within
9843.640 297 33.144 5.101 .007
Support Groups
Total
10181.747 299
As shown in Table 12 (b) the dimensions of social support among three groups
were compared. It may be seen from the table that in terms of family support, friends
support and significant others support there is significant difference between the
groups as p<0.05 (0.000, 0.000 and 0.007 respectively). For clarification of
differences among the groups Tukey's post hoc was run as follows:
165
Table 12 (c) Multiple Comparisons of Means (Tukey) of family support a dimension
of social support

(I-J)
Physically
Challenged Students
Students Normal
1
Students 4.280(*) .672 .000
Visually
Family Challenged Students
Support Students Normal
Students 2.320(*) .672 .002
Visually
(Non- Students
Students Challenged -2.320(*) .672 .002
Students
* The mean difference is sigilificant at the .C15 level.
students were higher than physically challenged students and normal students, where
as mean scores of physically challenged students were higher than normal students
on family support a dimension of social support. The table showed that significant
differences were foimd between visually challenged students and physically
support. Thus the hypothesis 3 has been partially accepted. The three groups of
students differ in terms of family support but all the three groups do no not differ
significantly on other two dimensions viz. friends support and significant others
support.
166
Table 12 (d) Multiple Comparisons of Means (Tukey) of Friends Support a dimension
of Social Support

(I-J)
Physically
Challenged Students
Situdents Normal
Students 4.470(*) .724 .000
Visually
Friends Challenged Students
Students 1.220 .724 .212
Visually
(Non- Students
Students Challenged -1.220 .724 .212
Students
* The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
Table 12 (d) of Tukey test showed that mean scores of visually challenged
where as mean scores of physically challenged students were higher than normal
students on friends support a dimension of social support. The table showed that
significant differences were foimd between visually challenged students and
physically challenged students, visually challenged students and normal students.
Statistically insignificant difference was found between physically challenged
students and normal students on friends support a dimension of social support. Thus
the hypothesis 3 has been partially accepted.
167
Table 12 (e) Multiple Comparisons of Means (Tukey) of significant others support a
dimension of social support

(I-J)
Physically
Challenged Students
«
Students Normal
Students 1.960(*) .814 .044
Visually
Significant Physically Challenged -2.460(*) .814 .008
Others Challenged Students
Students -.500 .814 .813
Visually
(Non- Students
Students Challenged .500 .814 .813
Students
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
normal students on significant others support a dimension of social support. The table
showed that significant differences were found between visually challenged students
and physically challenged students, visually challenged students and normal students.
Statistically insignificant difference was foimd between physically challenged
students and normal students on fiiends support a dimension of social support. Thus
the hypothesis 3 has been partially accepted.
The obtained findings assume great significance. It needs to be examined and
explained. It should be kept in mind that sample of present study is comprised of
168
those students who are young and got opportunities to be engaged in education. Thus
education is the basis of opportunities for intellectual growth and development,
achievement and aspirations, development of personality traits, fostering sense of self-
worth, self-esteem and emotional competence.
169
CHMT^Î'^
^SoneluAten/, î/mitatt(m&
CONCLUSION
The result showed different resuUs regarding visually and physically
challenged and normal students. The study of need achievement of these groups is
more important from various points of views because people having disabilities are
not comfortable in the fast changing competitive society in all spheres. So, it is a
difficult proposition for those who are suffering from varied forms of deficits. It
seems to be more challenging for them to compete in the society on their own. It
needs to mention that the society should be made aware through similar type of
researches and make them committed to deal effectively with the varied nature of
problems of the disabled groups to bring them to the optimum level to sustain in the
society and make them self-sufficient to improve their quality of life. The results of
this study seem to be more important for all concerns and are as concluded.
Amid the factors brought out as significant predictors of need achievement
among visually challenged students, managing and regulating emotions, self-esteem
and family support were foremost. In other words visually challenged students who
were high on ability to manage and regulate emotions, self-esteem and family support
were likely to have higher need achievement. Amongst the physically challenged
students perceiving and understanding emotions, self-esteem and family support were
more important. Consequently the physically challenged students who were high on
ability to perceive and imderstand emotions, self-esteem and family support were
expected to have high need achievement. Where as among the normal students
primarily three factors emerged as predictors of need achievement namely managing
and regulating emotions, self-esteem and social support from significant others
(having positive predictive relationship)and friends (having negative predictive
relationship). It means that those normal students having high ability to manage and
regulate emotions, self-esteem and support from significant others are likely to
experience higher level of need achievement. Where as normal students who are high
on friends support are likely to have low level of need achievement.
esteem. Significant differences were found between visually challenged students and
physically challenged students and normal students on social support. The three
groups were compared on the dimensions of emotional competence and social
support. Significant differences were not found between the between visually
and normal students, and physically challenged students and normal students on
perceiving and imderstanding emotions, on expressing and labeling emotions, and on
managing and regulating emotions (dimensions of emotional competence). In terms of
family support, fiiends support and significant others support (dimensions of socials
support) there were significant differences betvêen the groups. Significant differences
were found between visually challenged students and physically challenged students,
171
and normal students on family support a dimension of social support. Significant
challenged students, visually challenged students and normal students where as no
significant difference was found between physically challenged students and normal
students on friends support a dimension of social support. Significant differences were
visually challenged students and normal students where as statistically insignificant
difference was found between physically challenged students and normal students on
friends support a dimension of social support.
The important fact to note is emotional competence, self-esteem can be
nurtured while social support can be enhanced. Therefore it is an optimistic picture in
the sense that changes brought about a particular direction can enhance need
achievement.
If we look closely at these aspects and assess them in terms of how they lie
close to the individual's inner self We become aware of the fact that on the range of
self and others, they are closer to the pole representing 'self. Thus it seems that
individuals in themselves had the secret for their need achievement. Our research
findings are also pointing to the fact that it is qualities possessed by the individual
which help him to be more achievement oriented, rather than factors in outside world.
These may be influencing him, but the major critical role is that of core qualities of
the individual self The essential concepts of positive psychology as well as the
humanistic paradigm also point towards this. This information if translated into
intervention may prove useful in helping individuals.
172
Limitations
Although at the time of initiating and planning a study the researcher is
optimistic and makes all possible efforts to ensure that there are no loopholes and
shortcomings as the researcher progresses and as it comes to completion there is a
feeling that many things remained unexplained and should have been different.
Retrospection is positively better in the pursuit of research work. It is not feasible to
for an investigator study all the variables in a particular study that are expected to
influence the dependent variable. During the course of the study or when the study is
over, this aspect also raises certain questions in the mind of the researcher about the
inclusion and exclusion of some variables that keeps on research in continuity.
Suggestions and considerations for future Research
• Researches in the area of parenting practices reveal that fathers and mothers
influence their offspring's psychological development in different ways.
Therefore, further researchers should focus on studying separate influences of
the parents as well on the parents. Parent's psychological well-being, stress
level, adjustment level, depression and resilience can also be studied.
• Disabled children come from different socio-economic strata, cultural
background and these backgrounds may be influencing their need
achievement. In order to study the impact thoroughly, one should follow a
cross-sectional design. Since age is also mediating in the phenomena one can
study its impacts in a more realistic manner by using a longitudinal design.
• It is also suggested that this type of study should use much larger samples
involving NGO's, as one investigator finds it difficult to contact disabled
persons across the districts.
173
• Inclusion or seclusion of one or more variables for the study may lead to
varied and substantial results.
• Other disabled groups can also be studied such as mentally retarded or
students suffering from learning disabilities.
• Orphan disabled groups may have different perception of life, they may also
be made part of the study.
• Study can be conducted on students representing different groups, in terms of
their age, educational or socio-economic background. Possibly we may obtain
a different picture of need achievement at different stages of life.
• The present research has been conducted on advantageous groups who have
got the opportimity and access to education. Further study can be conducted
on those who reside in remote areas and are deprived of such type of
opportunities.
• Efforts should be made to identify maximimi number of factors that account
for variance in need achievement subsequently. The amount of variance by
each variable may be explained.
Follow up actions are suggested for the benefit of the differently-abled students.
• Creating awareness, about the problems of the differently-abled, is the social
responsibility of the people working in the area of disability. The disabled
individual is also an integral part of the society and should be brought in the
mainstream to make them self-reliant. Assessing the potentialities of the
174
disabled, and giving vocational training in accordance with the disability must
be the goal of the psychologists, counselors, social worker and educationists.
• Schools both public and private should provide opportunities for the disabled
students since visually or physically challenged do not usually have
intellectual deficits. Schools merely need to provide facilities which are
necessary for mobility and comfort of such children. These facilities are
mandatory, but most schools ignore this directive. Even for other types of
disabilities, like learning disabilities, schools need to take cognizance and
provide special education provisions etc. so that disabled children may be able
to come into the mainstream. This will help the disabled to develop a sense of
worth while working with others with an attitude of caring and sharing
because this is the spirit of Integrated Education.
• Schools play a crucial and formative role in the cognitive, emotional, social
and moral development of children. The role of schools in emergence of
learning, academic and emotional problems has often been ignored in our
coimtry. In recent years, there is a growing recognition that schools have a
significant role in creating such type of problems that hinders their growth and
development. However it is equally important that "schools can act as safety
nets, protecting children from hazards which affect their learning,
development and psychological well-being. Schools are crucial in building or
undermining self-esteem, achievement motivation, and sense of competence as
well as emotional competence.
• It must be noted that researchers, psychologists, and people working in the
area of disability must focus on resilience enhancing strategies, and create
175
more awareness and sensitivity about disability in the general population and
particularly amongst the parents of disabled children.
• In addition, parents, instructors, and other professionals can help adults with
learning disabilities by making transition processes easier through
understanding and accommodating the adults' needs.
• Emotional competence helps in reducing stress. If through any skills their
emotional competence is enhanced then they may be able to cope with the
stress and inferiority complex, so they can enjoy their life with dignity.
• Things that negatively influence self-esteem of the disabled students might
include humiliation, criticism, prejudice, stereotyping, family matters, parental
and peer pressures, school, rejection, loneliness or exclusion and many more.
Thus they have to be encouraged to become competent in every aspect of life
and made to believe that they are also important for the society as they are the
future, through this they may experience a variety of positive transformation in
their life.
• It needs initiation to educate those who are low in emotional competencies to
improve their abilities to better recognize their feelings, express them and
regulate them. Remedial learning in schools should be made part of school
curriculum. A wide array of curricular based programs seeks to educate
children about the value of emotional competence and foster the development
of specific emotional competencies, e.g., recognition of emotions in self and
others, empathy and conflict resolution. These programs may include
instructions in identifying and labeling emotions and feelings, expressing
176
emotions and feelings, impulse control, reduced stress, understanding
perspective of others, verbal communication skills, using steps for problem
solving and having a positive attitude towards life.
177
CffA^Pl^^'^
SUMMARY
Disabled persons exist in every society and at all times though the pattern of
their care and development differ from time to time and also from society to society
that largely depended on the contemporary social attitudes towards them. Almost all
societies had attached some stigma to handicapped persons. The future of the disabled
persons in today's competitive world is still not very promising and bright. It is
difficult for them to contemplate a life of self-sufficiency with the complex social
systems like marriage and family in the same manner that non-disabled individuals
can contemplate to do many things on their own.
However, there is need to focus in making world-wide policy that
acknowledges the abilities of the differently-abled persons. Societal attitude towards
disabled isfrequentlynegative, and in many societies and cultures a disabled child is
considered as curse, an embarrassment or tragedy for the family. These attitudes
create barriers which seem to limit educational opportunities and diminish creativity
in addressing the needs of such type of children. One of the greatest challenges for
behavioural scientists is in the advancement of education of disabled children is to
change the public attitudes toward disability. Nations world-wide are passing
legislations requiring educational services for handicapped individuals. However,
successful implementation of these laws and inclusion of differently-abled individuals
into society requires more competently trained teachers, improved knowledge and
acceptance by society the potentials/abilities of those individuals with varied nature of
disabilities. Even without special education as practiced today, these individuals have
made solid contributions to the fields of science, mathematics, music and literature.
These individuals through their own ceaseless efforts and with assistance of many
social workers, psychologists, counselors and philanthropist can reach to the pinnacle
of fame. Therefore it is necessary to focus on the need achievement of differently-
abled group.
The main objective of the study was to study the "impact of Emotional
Competence, Self-esteem and Social Support on Need Achievement of Visually and
Physically Challenged Students". In order to achieve a better understanding of these
groups of students a control group (viz. Normal Students) from the similar
background was also included in this study. In this study it was intended to ascertain
the need achievement of the students who are visually and physically challenged and
also a group of normal students in order to compare them in terms of emotional
competence and its dimensions (viz, perceiving and understanding emotions,
expressing and labeling emotions, and managing and regulating emotions); self-
esteem; and social support and its dimensions (viz, family support, friends support,
and significant others support).
It is a world wide accepted truth that Need for Achievement is an important
variable, the performance or achievement of any individual will depend upon his
success. Almost any activity from scholastic achievement to obtaining
technical/medical or higher education can be viewed in terms of competition and
the category of learned motive, there are wide differences among individuals in their
past experiences and hence in their achievement motivation. Every individual acts and
strive to satisfy his certain needs. A need leads to a drive, and a drive reasonably
satisfies one's need. Every man from cradle to grave is constantly striving to satisfy
179
his/her various types of needs. Every action is motivated by a purpose or "goal".
Motivation has long been recognized as a primary factor in any performance. So it is a
strong tendency of the individuals to make persistent efforts for goal attainment. The
achievement need is seen most clearly in student who must continually test himself,
who is always ready to take on different task merely because it is difficult. The
individual experiences a desire to be successful. He strives for accomplishing
something difficult and tries to master, manipulate or organize physical objects, or
human being or even ideas. He wants to do this as rapidly and independently as
possible. He desires to overcome the obstacles and attain a high standard. He
endeavours to excel oneself and surpass others. He wants to increase his self regard
by successful exercise of his talents (Atkinson, 1966).
As it is a well known fact that academic intelligence offers no preparation for
the emotional turmoil of the life. So, Emotional Competence seems to be very
important to prepare the student to deal with heavy course pressure, peer group
competition and adaptation to school norms and disciplines. It also helps students to
focus attention, organize memory, help them to interpret social situations, and
motivate them for relevant behavior which flirther enhances their achievement
motivation. It can be taught to develop skills during teaching learning process to gain
emotional literacy along with their education. Emotional competence captures an
understanding of the skills needed to adapt to and cope with one's social environment.
In contrast with constructs like intelligence, which are depicted as an innate ability,
emotional competence is construed as a set of skills that are learned. Accordingly,
there may be no relationship between one's emotional competence and one's actual
emotional performance, as a variety (e.g., motivation, values, or goals) may impact
emotional reactions. Emotional competence refers to a person's ability in expressing

180
or releasing their inner feelings (emotions). Saami (1998) defined emotional
competence in terms of skills consisting of understanding our emotions, discerning
and understanding other's emotions using the vocabulary of emotions and
expressions, the capacity for empathetic involvement, the capacity to differentiate
internal subjective emotional experience from external expression, the capacity for
adaptive coping with a aversive emotions and distressing circumstances,
understanding of emotional commimication within relationships and the ability for
emotional self-efficacy. The researcher has studied three emotional competencies as
predictors of need achievement. They are namely (a) Perceiving and Understanding
emotions, (b) Expressing and Labeling emotions and (c) Managing and Regulating
emotions.
The perception and outlook of the individual is affected by the meaning he
attaches to himself i.e., Self-esteem. Having self-esteem means recognizing your
accomplishments (what you have done) and your potential (what you can do). Our
self-esteem is very dependent on factors within ourselves and the environment in
which we live. It is formed as a result of our years of experiences (especially the early
ones). It could be said that ones eyes and ears record the message they receive from
others, especially those most important to them. One unconsciously accepts all words
and emotions as facts no matter how legitimate or based in reality. One's self-esteem
is being continuously constructed and reconstructed by what is encountered in the
mirror of others verbal and non-verbal messages. Therefore self-esteem may be
briefly referred to as the degree to which the self is perceived positively or negatively
i.e. one's overall attitude towards the self Self efficacy refers to beliefs about
capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercises influence over
181
events that affect one's life. A strong sense of efficacy enhances human
accomplishment and personal well being in many ways (Bandura, 1986).
Together with self-esteem another crucial factor likely to contribute to need
achievement of students is social support from family, friends and significant others.
Social concern is a central issue in the life of every human being. In case if an
individual is given prolonged isolation will be the severest punishment for him. We
live in the midst of people which constitute man's created social world, so everyone
of us often rely on others for support, to bolster our own resources, particularly at
times when our resources are depleted or inadequate. Social support is a concept that
is generally imderstood in an intuitive sense, as the help from other people in a
difficult life situation. Cobb (1976) defined social support as the individual belief that
one is cared for and loved, esteemed and valued and belongs to a social network that
provides goods, services and mutual defense at times of need or danger. Social
support may be perceived as emanating from different social agencies, family, Mends
and significant others (Zimet et al,, 1988).
Social Support has also been studied in different forms:
Emotional support: It is what people most often think of when they talk about social
support. It involves the expression of sympathy, caring, and concern towards the
person. It provides the person with a sense of comfort, reassurance, belongingness,
and of being loved in times of stress.
Esteem Support: This kind of support is required to build the individual's feeling of
self worth, competence, and of being valued. Esteem support is especially usefiil
during the appraisal of stress, such as when the person assesses whether the demands
exceed to his or her personal resources. ^

.„.C»«a 182
^ 1 . « « w *^ •
Tangible or Instrumental Support or Functional Support: This type of support
involves various types of tangible help that others may provide such as direct
assistance, physical or practical help such as when people give or lend money or food,
housekeeping, child care, or help moving house, or help out at the times of stress.
Informational Support: Informational support occurs when individuals in a person's
social network are available to offer advice when supply needed. It includes giving
advice, directions, suggestions or feedback about how the person is doing.
Network Support or Structural Support: It provides a feeling of membership in a
group of people who share interests and social activities.
Recently social support has also been classified into two categories- Perceived
support generally refers to one's anticipation of social support in the future when in
times of need (such as, there are people whom I can rely upon when I need care).
Received support, on the other hand, refers to one's retrospective assessment of actual
behaviour (such as, friends or relatives have cared for me when I was ill).
Thus, a total number of seven variables were studied in relation to the need
achievement of the students namely three emotional competencies (viz. perceiving
and understanding emotions, expressing and labeling emotions, and managing and
regulating emotions; self-esteem; and social support relating to family, friends and
significant others.
The research design used by the researcher was therefore correlational in
nature and multiple comparison group design. For prediction of need achievement by
the 7 variables, stepwise multiple regression was used by the researcher. One way
ANOVA and post hoc was used for the multiple comparisons between the groups.
183
Research Questions: Attempt was made to answer the following research questions.
Keeping in view the objectives of this study in mind it was desirable to have
an explicit picture of the phenomenon in the non-disabled i.e. normal group of
students of almost similar socioeconomic background and educational
qualification for a better understanding of the disabled groups, the following
research questions were also formulated and verified.
students?
184
To identify the predictors the research questions were taken into
consideration. Further it was felt necessary to compare these three groups. For
this purpose certain research hypotheses were formulated and tested:
The total sample comprised of 300 subjects (100 visually challenged
students, 100 physically challenged students and 100 normal students). The
respondents were drawn by the means of purposive sampling technique. The data was
collected from various secondary and senior secondary schools and alsofromstudents
pursuing for graduation degree from the University campus and also from some
schools located in Aligarh city. Physically challenged students were selected from
Orthopaedic OPD of JNMCH and also from various halls of residence including
various secondary as well as senior secondary schools of A.M.U. Due to lesser
number of availability of visually challenged students we have included those
students residing in the hostel of a Blind School of A.M.U. Where as sample of
normal students comprised of students studying in schools as well as in the University
upto graduation level were included in this group. To equate the characteristics the
185
sample of normal students with that of visually challenged and physically challenged
students was selected from almost the same socio-economic background and
educational qualification. The age range of the normal students was 14-19 and the age
range of the disabled students was 15-22. Most of the cases in the physically
challenged group were polio affected where as among visually challenged most of the
«
cases were acquired at certain age due to infection and some of them were congenital
too.
Achievement Motivation (n-ach) Scale was used to assess need
achievement. It is a self-rating questionnaire developed by Pratibha Deo and Asha
Mohan (1985) having both positive and negative items. It consists of 50 items, 13 are
negative and 37 are positive items. Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire
developed by Taksic (2000) was used to assess emotional competence. It is a self
reported scale consisting of 45 items divided into three subscales: (a) Perception and
Understanding emotions scale has 15 items, (b) the Expression and Labeling emotions
scale has 14 items and (c) the Managing and Regulating emotions scale has 16 items.
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) developed by Rosenberg (1965) a 10 item self
report measure was used to assess Self-esteem. Social support was assessed through
Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) developed by Zimet,
Dahlem, Zimet and Farley, 1988. It contains 12 items measure of subjectively
subscales: (a) Significant Others, (b) Family and (c) Friends. For visually challenged
students the questionnaires were transformed into Braille.
need achievement. Thus the analysis of data using Stepwise Multiple Regression
through SPSS has given the entire picture of analysis concerning to variables studied
186
in different steps. As self-esteem has no dimensions it was studied as a whole. Thus
instead of applying Stepwise Multiple Regression, Simple Linear Regression was
applied to see the impact of self-esteem on need achievement of all the three groups
of students. Before applying Simple Linear Regression scatter plot was computed, to
check the assumptions of regression, to make sure that the model can be generalized
b'eyond the sample. This technique was applied in all the three groups. Further
additional statistical analysis was done by applying One Way ANOVA for the
purpose of comparing the three groups. Q-Q plot was plotted for the dependent
variable to fulfill the assumption of normality for ANOVA. In the end, to answer the
questions raised earlier to interpret the results and observe the significance of
difference the post hoc test was also applied.
The results showed that managing and regulating emotions (a dimension of
emotional competence) significantly predicts the need achievement of visually
challenged students. The other two factors of emotional competence viz. expressing
and labeling emotions and perceiving and understanding emotions did not emerge as
significant predictors of need achievement of visually challenged students. Managing
and regulating emotions are more important in contributing to the need achievement
among visually challenged students. Self-esteem significantly predicts the need
achievement of visually challenged students. Family support (a dimension of social
support) significantly predicts the need achievement of visually challenged students.
The other two factors of social support viz. friends support and significant others
support did not emerge as significant predictors of need achievement of visually
challenged students. Family support is more important in contributing to the need
achievement among visually challenged students. Perceiving and understanding
emotions (a dimension of emotional competence) significantly predicts the need

187
achievement of physically challenged students. The other two factors of emotional
competence viz. managing and regulating emotions and expressing and labeling
emotions did not emerge as significant predictors of need achievement of physically
challenged students. Perceiving and understanding emotions are more important in
contributing to the need achievement among physically challenged students. Self-
esteem significantly predicts the need achievement of physically challenged students.
Managing and regulating emotions (a dimension of emotional competence)
significantly predicts the need achievement of normal students. The other two factors
of emotional competence viz. expressing and labeling emotions and perceiving and
understanding emotions did not emerge as significant predictors of need achievement
of normal students. Managing and regulating emotions are more important in
contributing to the need achievement among normal students too. Self-esteem predicts
the need achievement of normal students. Friends support negatively influence the
level of need achievement. As the level of friends support increases the level of need
achievement decreases. On the basis of results it may be interpreted that significant
others support which is one of the dimensions of social support significantly predicts
the need achievement of normal students. The other factor of social support viz.
family support did not emerge as significant predictor of need achievement of normal
students. Significant others support is more important in contributing to the need
achievement among normal students.
The groups were compared with regard to their emotional competence, self-
esteem and social support. It was observed that the groups did not differ in terms of
emotional competence. Where as in terms of self-esteem and social support there
were significant differences between the groups. Mean scores of visually challenged
188
students concerning to emotional competence. Significant differences were not found
normal students on emotional competence. Mean scores of visually challenged
students were foimd higher than the physically challenged students and normal
normal students on self-esteem. Significant difference was found between visually
challenged students and physically challenged students. Statistically insignificant
differences were foimd between visually challenged students and normal students, and
physically challenged students and normal students on self-esteem. Mean scores of
visually challenged students were found higher than the physically challenged
students and normal students; where as mean scores of physically challenged students
were higher than normal students on social support. Significant differences were
and normal students on social support. The three groups were compared on the
dimensions of emotional competence. The mean scores of visually challenged
students were fotmd higher than physically challenged students and normal students;
students on perceiving and understanding emotions, a dimension of emotional
competence. Mean scores of physically challenged students were higher than visually
challenged students and normal students; where as mean scores of visually challenged
students were higher than normal students on expressing and labeling emotions, a
dimension of emotional competence. The mean scores of visually challenged students
189
were higher than physically challenged students and normal students; where as mean
scores of physically challenged students are higher than normal students on managing
and regulating emotions, a dimension of emotional competence. Significant
differences were not found between the between visually challenged students and
physically challenged students and normal students, on perceiving and understanding
emotions on expressing and labeling emotions, and on managing and regulating
emotions. In terms of family support, friends support and significant others support
there were significant differences between the groups compared. Mean scores of
visually challenged students were higher than physically challenged students and
normal students; where as mean scores of physically challenged students were higher
than normal students on family support a dimension of social support. Significant
support. The mean scores of visually challenged students were found higher than
physically challenged students and normal students; where as mean scores of
physically challenged students were higher than normal students on fiiends support a
dimension of social support. Significant differences were found between visually
and normal students. Statistically insignificant difference was found between
physically challenged students and normal students on fiiends support a dimension of
social support. The mean scores of visually challenged students were found higher
than the physically challenged students and normal students; where as mean scores of
physically challenged students were lower than normal students on significant others
190
support a dimension of social support. Significant differences were found between
students and normal students. Statistically insignificant difference was found between
physically challenged students and normal students on friends support a dimension of
social support.
Thus amongst the factors brought out as significant predictors of need
achievement of visually challenged students were managing and regulating emotions,
self-esteem and family support. In other words visually challenged students who were
high on managing and regulating emotions, self-esteem and family support are likely
to have need for achievement. The factors brought out as significant predictors of
need achievement of physically challenged students were perceiving and
understanding emotions, self-esteem and family support. In other words physically
challenged students who were high on perceiving and imderstanding emotions, self-
esteem and family support are likely to have need for achievement. The factors
brought out as significant predictors of need achievement of non-disabled i.e. normal
students were managing and regulating emotions, self-esteem and significant others
support. In other words normal students who were high on managing and regulating
emotions, self-esteem and significant others support are likely to have need for
achievement.
191
esteem. Significant differences were found between visually challenged students and
physically challenged students and normal students on social support. When the three
groups of respondents were compared on the dimensions of emotional competence
and social support, significant differences were not found between the between
on perceiving and understanding emotions, on expressing and labeling emotions, and
on managing and regulating emotions (dimensions of emotional competence). In
terms of family support, friends support and significant others support (dimensions of
socials support) there were significant differences between the groups. Significant
support. Significant differences were foimd between visually challenged students and
where as statistically insignificant difference was foimd between physically
challenged students and normal students on fiiends support a dimension of social
192
challenged students and normal students on friends support a dimension of social
support. The limitations, suggestions and considerations for future research, and
suggested follow up actions were given in the preceding chapter.
193
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APPENDIX-A
Instruction: Dear Respondent this is not an ability test and there are no
rightor wrong responses. There are 50 items divided into five response
categories which are : Always, Frequently, Sometimes, Rarely and
Never. You have to part a tick mark under the category that comes first to
your mind and b^st expresses your feelings about the statement. Do not
leave any item blank. The results given by you will be kept confidential
and will be used for research work.
Always Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never
1. I shall be most pleased if I

have to miss the classes of
for some days.
2. I pay full attention to the

work in the class.
3. I mind much if 1 reach late

in the class.
4. I love to read more and more

to did unknown regions of
knowledge.
5. I love to have a personal library,

not counting text-books.
6. I set standards for myself and

then strive to achieve them.
7. I wish to specialize and become

top most in the field of my
liking.
8. I like to experiment and create

new things and surprise people.
9. I work hard for hours together to

be successful in whatever I
undertake.
10.1 have tendency to find solutions

of problems and puzzles other
people fail at.
11.1 aspire to get excellent results in

all academic competiiions.
12.1 am ready to leave the job half

done and try a new one. • •
13.1 get nervous in the examination
if one or two questions are not
from the syllabus.
14.1 prefer to go to a party rather

then prepare for an examination
next week.
15. On getting low marks, I feel

disappointed and determine to
work hard to do better next time.
16.1 think I find my lessons

meaningful and interesting.
17. While studying, my mind wanders

off the lesson and I get lost in
agination.
18.1 think it is better to gossip away

in the canteen than to attend the
classes.
19. When the teacher is teaching, I

like to read stories/novels/ comics
or make cartoons in the class.
•
20. The school/college haunts me and
I want to leave it at the very first
opportunity.
2 1 . It irritates me a lot if I have to stay

late in the school/college for some
lectures.
• •
22.1 want to go to college/university

because there is plenty of
opportunity to enjoy life.
23.1 think studies, sports and other

activities can go together.
24.1 agree that the present course of

study will help making my future
life a success.
25.1 feel very much fioistrated if I do not

get a chance to compete in the field
of my choice.
26.1 regularly take down notes in the

class and complete my assignments.
27.1 plan to study carefiilly all the year

round in a effort to get good marks in
all the subjects in all the tests.
28.1 believe in work first and play later.
29.1 do a lot of preparation at home for

the next day's work in the class.
30.1 like to ask questions regarding

every information given in tables and
charts in the books rather than leave
them as such and read fiirther.
•
31.1 think my teachers are competent in
their work.
32.1 like to create nuisance in the class

and aiuioy the teacher.
33. 1 try my utmost to please my teacher

through work and not through
flattery.
34. My fi'iends consider me dull and

shirker. •
35. It is true that my teachers think of me

as a sincere and hard working
students.
36.1 feel hurt I others (parents, teachers

andfi-iends)criticise me and I try to
improve upon my weaknesses.
37. My parents advise to take life easy

and never bother too much for
studies or for future life.
38.1 wish to carry my mission forward

inspite of facing a lot of criticism.
39.1 think of life to be an intellectual

challenge.
i
40.1 am interested in organizing the

activities of a group
team/class/committee.
41.1 try to get associated with top most

person in the field of my choice.
42.1 love to have some adventure in my

leisure hour.
43.1 would like to watch a surgical

operation being performed.
44.1 like to compete in dramatics.
45.1 think of dancing and music to be

good hobbies for students.
champion in games/sport/athletics.
47.1 have tried to get in the sports team

of my school/college, to represent
my team in other states or countries. ] •
48.1 believe sports develop initiative,
leadership and discipline. ] • [
49. Hill climbing and mountaineering are
a welcome challenge I would like to
take.
50. On a holiday, I prefer going for

cycling, swimming or boating to
sitting at. home without much work.
APPENDIX-B
This is not a. test to examine your knowtedge; therefore there is no wrong answer. We
are interested in how you usually feel and think. Answer the quesfons inwnediately without
thinking too much atxjut them. Answer how much the given Haims are relevant to you by
circling one of the following numt>ers:
1 - Never
2 - Sekiom
3 - Occasionally
4 - UsuaJiy
5 - Always
Claim Evaluation
1) I am able to maintain a good mood even if something bad happens. 1 2 3 4^5
2) Putting my feelir^gs and emotions into words comes easily to me. 1 2 3 4 5
3) I can maintain'a good mood, even when the people around me are in a bad
mood. 1 2 3 4 5
4) Unpleasant experiences teach me how not to act in the future. 1 2 3 4 5 ;
5) When somebody praises me. I woric with more enthusiasm. 1 2 3 4 5 i
6) When something doesn't suit me, I show this immediately. 1 2 3 4 5 i
7) When I don't like a person. I find ways toêt him/her know. 1 2 3 4 5
8) When I am in a good mood, it is difficult to brmg my mood dovm. 1 2 3 4 5 j
9) When I am in a good mood, every problem seems solu-ble. 1 2 3 4 5
I
10) When I am with a person who thinks highly of me, 1 am careful at»out how I
behave. 1 2 3 4 5
11)1 study and learn best, wfjen I am in a good mood and happy. 1 2 3 4 5
12) If I really want to, I will solve a problem that may seem insoluble. 1 2 3 4 5 I
13) When I meet an acquaintance, I immediately notice his/her mood. 1 2 3 4 5
14) When I see how someone feels, I usually know what has happened to him 1 2 3 4 5
15) I am able to tell the difference if my friend is sad or disappointed. 1 2 3 4 5
16) i can easily think of a way to approach a person I like, 1 2 3 4 5
17) t am capable to list the emotions that I am currently experiencing. 1 2 3 4
18) I am able to detect my friend's mood changes. 1 2 3 4
19) I can easily think of a way to make my friend happy on his/her birthday. 1 2 3 4 5
20) I do not have difficulty to persuade a friend that there is no reason to worry 1 2 3 4 5
fM . . . . I •
Please, continue to work on the next page v
11 - Mever 2 - Seldom 3 - Occasionaly 4 - Usually 5 -Always 1
Claim • Evaluation -
21) 1 am able to express my emotions well. 1 2 3 4 5
'^2) 1 can recognize most of my feelings. 1 2 3 4 5
^'^^' 3m capable to describe my present emotional state. 1 2 3 4 5
24) 1 can say that 1 know a lot about my emotional state 1 2 3 4 5
25) If 1 observe a person in the presence of others. 1 can detennine
precisely her or his/her emotions. 1 2 3 4 5
1 2b) 1 do not have difficulty to notice when somebody feels helpless. 1 2 3 4 5
27) My behavior is a reflection of my inner feelings. 1 2 3 4 5
28) People can tell what mood 1 am in. 1 2 3 4 5
29) 1 try to control unpleasant emotions, and strengthen positive ones 1 2 3 4 5
30) There is nothing wrong with how 1 usually feel 1 2 3 4 5
31) 1 do my duties and assignments as soon as possible, rather than think
about them 1 2 3 4 5
32) 1 usually understand why 1 feel bad. 1 2 3 4 5
33) 1 try to keep up a good mood. 1 2 3 4 5
34) 1 am able to tell somebody's feelings by the expression on his/her face 1 2 3 4 5
35) 1 can detect my friends" concealed jealousy 1 2 3 4 5
36) 1 notice when somebody tries to hide his/her bad mood 1 2 3 4 5
37) 1 notice when somet>ody feels guilty 1 2 3 4 5 i
38) 1 notice v/hen somebody fries to hide his/her real feelings •; 2 3 4 5
39) I notice when someijody feels down 1 2 3 4 5
4U) As far as 1 am concerned, it is nonnal to feel the way 1 am feeling now 1 2 3- 4 5
41)1 have found it easy to display fondness for a person of the opposite
S6X.
1 2 3 4 5
mood"°^'^^ ^^^" somebod/s behavior varies considerably from his/her ••1 2 3 4 5
43) 1 can easily name most of my feelings 1 2 3 4 5

44) 1 am able to express how 1 feel 1 •3
4
2 5
45) 1 know how to pleasantly surprise each of my friends 1 2 3 4 5
Name
Gender F M
Age
Education
Thank you for your cooperation and honesty!

APPENDIX - C
Instructions: Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about
yourself, if you strongly agree, circle SA. If you agree with statement, circle A. If you
disagree, circle D. If you strongly disagree, circle SD.
1. On the whole. I am satisfied with myself SA .A D SD
2. .At limes. I think I am no good at all. SA A D SD
.^. I feel thai 1 have a number of good SA A D SD
qualities.
4. I am able to do things as well as most SA A D SD
other people.
5. 1 feel 1 do not have much to be proud of SA A D SD
6. 1 certain!>• feel useless at times. SA A D SD
7. I feel thai I am a person of worth, at least SA A D SD
on an equal plane with others.
8. 1 wish 1 could have more respect for myself SA A D SD
^). .All in all. I am inclined to feel that I am a SA A D SD
failure.
10. 1 take a positive attitude toward myself SA A D SD

APPENDIX-D
Instructions: We are interested in how you feel about the following statements. Read each statement
carefully. Indicate how you feel about each statement.
Circle the "1" if you Very Strongly Disagree

Circle the "2" if you Strongly Disagree
Circle the "3" if you Mildly Disagree
Circle the "4" if you are Neutral
Circle the "5" if you Mildly Agree
Circle the "6" if you Strongly Agree
Circle the "7" if you Very Strongly Agree
There is a special person who is around when I

am in need.
2. There is a special person with whom I can share
my joys and sorrows.
3. My family really tries to help me. 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. I get the emotional help and support I need from 2 3 4 5 6 7
my family.
I have a special person who is a real source of
comfort to me.
6. My friends really try to help me. 2 3 4 6 7
7. I can count on myfriendswhen things go wrong. 2 3 4 6 7
8. I can talk about my problems with my family. 2 4 6 7
9. I have friends with whom I can share my joys 2 3 4 6 7
and sorrows.
10. There is a special person in my life who cares
about my feelings.
11. My family is willing to help me make decisions. 2 4 6 7
12. I can talk about my problems with my friends. 2 4 6 7

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IMPACT OF EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE, SELF-ESTEEM

AND SOCIAL SUPPORT ON NEED ACHIEVEMENT OF

Under the supervision of

One of the greatest challenges for behavioural scientists is in the advancement of

contributions to the fields of science, mathematics, music and literature. These

workers, psychologists, counsellors and philanthropist can reach to the pinnacle of

fame. Therefore it is necessary to focus on the need achievement of the differently-

students". In order to achieve a better understanding of these groups of students a

groups of students in order to compare them in relation to emotional competence and

have been studied as independent variables and need achievement as dependent

It is a world wide accepted truth that need for achievement is an important

his/her various types of needs. Every action is motivated by a purpose or "goal".

Motivation has long been recognized as a primary factor in any performance. So it is a

individual experiences a desire to be successful. He strives for accomplishing

something difficult and tries to master, manipulate or organize physical objects, or

himian being or even ideas. He wants to do this as rapidly and independently as

possible. He desires to overcome the obstacles and attain a high standard. He

by successful exercise of his talents (Atkinson, 1966).

fiirther enhances their achievement motivation. It can be taught to develop skills

Emotional competence captures an understanding of the skills needed to adapt to and

which are depicted as an innate ability, emotional competence is construed as a set of

or releasing their inner feelings (emotions). Saami (1998) defined emotional

competence in terms of skills consisting of understanding our emotions, discerning

and imderstanding other's emotions using the vocabulary of emotions and

expressions, the capacity for empathetic involvement, the capacity to differentiate

adaptive coping with a aversive emotions and distressing circumstances,

understanding of emotional conmiunication within relationships and the ability for

emotional self-efficacy. The researcher has studied three emotional competencies as

The perception and outlook of the individual is affected by the meaning he

including the degree to which he possesses self-respect and self-acceptance. A

dictionary of psychology defines self-esteem as "a term given to the evaluations an

Together with self-esteem another crucial factor likely to contribute to need

achievement of students is social supportfromfamily, friends and significant others.

interaction with family, friends or society seems to be an integral element of an

individual's mental, physical and social health.

The research design used by the researcher was therefore correlational in

visually challenged students?

2. Does self-esteem predict need achievement of visually challenged students?

3. Do social support and its dimensions predict need achievement of visually

' challenged students?

4. Do emotional competence and its dimensions predict need achievement of

physically challenged students?

5. Does self-esteem predict need achievement of physically challenged students?

6. Do social support and its dimensions predict need achievement of physically

Keeping in view the objectives of this study in mind it was desirable to

have an explicit picture of the phenomenon in the non-disabled i.e. normal

group of students of almost similar socioeconomic backgroimd and

educational qualification for a better imderstanding of the disabled groups, the

following research questions were also formulated and verified.

7. Do emotional competence and its dimensions predict need achievement of

non-disabled i.e. normal students?

8. Does self-esteem predict need achievement of non-disabled i.e. normal

9. Do social support and its dimensions predict need achievement of non-

disabled i.e. normal students?

this purpose certain research hypotheses were formulated and tested:

1. Whether the visually challenged, physically challenged and non-disabled i.e.

normal students differ in terms of emotional competence and its dimensions.

2. Whether the visually challenged, physically challenged and non-disabled i.e.

normal students differ in terms of self-esteem.