Cement

Cement, one of the most important building materials, is a binding agent that sets and hardens
to adhere to building units such as stones, bricks, tiles etc. Cement generally refers to a very
fine powdery substance chiefly made up of limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon), bauxite
(aluminium) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace slag,
slate. The raw ingredients are processed in cement manufacturing plants and heated to form a
rock-hard substance, which is then ground into a fine powder to be sold. Cement mixed with
water causes a chemical reaction and forms a paste that sets and hardens to bind individual
structures of building materials.
Cement is an integral part of the urban infrastructure. It is used to make concrete as well
as mortar, and to secure the infrastructure by binding the building blocks. Concrete is made of
cement, water, sand, and gravel mixed in definite proportions, whereas mortar consists of
cement, water, and lime aggregate. These are both used to bind rocks, stones, bricks and other
building units, fill or seal any gaps, and to make decorative patterns. Cement mixed with water
silicates and aluminates, making a water repellent hardened mass that is used for water-
proofing.

History of Cement
Cement, though different from the refined product found nowadays, has been used in many
forms since the advent of human civilization. From volcanic ashes, crushed pottery, burnt
gypsum and hydrated lime to the first hydraulic cement used by the Romans in the middle ages,
the development of cement continued to the 18th century, when James Parker patented Roman
cement, which gained popularity but was replaced by Portland cement in the 1850s.
In the 19th century, Frenchman Louis Vicat laid the foundation for the chemical composition
of Portland cement and in Russia, Egor Cheliev published the methods of making cement, uses
of cement and advantages. Joseph Aspdin brought Portland cement to the market in England
and his son, William Aspdin, developed the “modern” Portland cement, which was soon in
quite high demand. But the real father of Portland cement is considered to be Isaac Charles
Johnson, who contributed immensely by publishing the process of developing meso-Portland
cement in the kiln.
In the 19th century, Rosendale cement was discovered in New York. Though its rigidity made
it quite popular at first, the market demand soon declined because of its long curing time and
Portland cement was again the favourite. However, a new blend of Rosendale-Portland cement,
which is both highly durable and needs less curing time, was synthesized by Catskill
Aqueduct and is now often used for highway or bridge construction.
The cement used today has undergone experimentation, testing and significant improvements
to meet the needs of the present world, such as developing strong concretes for roads and
highways, hydraulic mortars that endure sea water and stucco for wet climates. Different kinds
of modern cement, most of them known as Portland cement or blends, including blast furnace
cement, Portland fly-ash cement, Portland pozzolan cement, pozzolan-lime cement, slag-lime
cement etc.

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Portland cement
The most commonly used cement nowadays is a hydraulic cement (i.e. hardens when water is
added) known as Portland cement or Portland cement blends. These are usually the basic
ingredient in making concrete, which is a construction material used as a load-bearing element.
Portland cement is suitable for wet climates and can be used underwater. Different types or
blends of Portland cement include Portland blast furnace slag cement, Portland fly-ash cement,
Portland pozzolan cement, Portland-silica fume cement, masonry cement, expansive cement,
white blended cement, coloured cement and very finely ground cement.

Main Cement Ingredients & Their Functions

Cement, as a binding material, is a very important building material. Almost every construction
work requires cement. Therefore, the composition of cement is a matter of great interest to
engineers. For understanding cement composition, one must know the functionality of Cement
ingredients. By altering the amount of an ingredient during cement production, one can achieve
the desired cement quality.

Ingredients of Cement

Composition of Cement
There are eight major ingredients of cement. The general percentage of these ingredients in cement is
given below:

Ingredient Percentage in cement

Lime 60-65

Silica 17-25

Alumina 3-8

Magnesia 1-3

Iron oxide 0.5-6

Calcium Sulphate 0.1-0.5

Sulphur Trioxide 1-3

Alkaline 0-1

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Functions of Cement Ingredients
The main features of these cement ingredients along with their functions and usefulness or
harmfulness are given below:

1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.

▪ Presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and
aluminates of calcium.
▪ Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of property to the cement.
▪ Deficiency in lime causes cement to set quickly.
▪ Excess lime makes cement unsound.
▪ Excessive presence of lime cause cement to expand and disintegrate.

2. Silica: Silicon is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.

▪ Sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and
tricalcium silicate.
▪ Silica imparts strength to cement.
▪ Silica usually presents to the extent of about 30 percent cement.

3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.

▪ Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
▪ Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of
alumina.
▪ Excess alumina weakens the cement.

4. Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. Chemical formula is MgO.

▪ Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.
▪ Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.

5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.

▪ Iron oxide imparts colour to cement.
▪ It acts as a flux.
▪ At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with calcium
and aluminium to form tricalcium alumino-ferrite.
▪ Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.

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 6. Calcium Sulphate: Chemical formula is CaSO4
▪ This is present in cement in the form of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
▪ It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.

7. Sulphur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3

▪ Should not be present more than 2%.
▪ Excess Sulphur Trioxide causes cement to unsound.

8. Alkaline:
▪ Should not be present more than 1%.
▪ Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence.

Types of Cement - Details & Uses in Construction

Cement is a binding material which makes a bond between aggregates and reinforcing
materials together. With the development of technology, quality and types of cement have also
developed. So, there are different types of cement for different construction works.
Types of Cement
Followings are the types of cement:
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
3. Rapid Hardening Cement
4. Quick setting cement
5. Low Heat Cement
6. Sulphates resisting cement
7. High Alumina Cement
8. White Cement
9. Coloured cement
10. Air Entraining Cement
11. Expansive cement
12. Hydrophobic cement

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Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
In usual construction work, Ordinary Portland Cement is widely used. The composition of
Ordinary Portland Cement:
• Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)
• Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and marl)
Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement
• It is used for general construction purposes.
• It is also used in most of the masonry works.
Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive forms. It reacts with
calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to form additional cementations materials
when it is finely divided. The composition of Portland Pozzolana Cement:
• OPC clinker
• Gypsum
• Pozzolanic Materials (Fly ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica fumes.)
Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement
• PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction near the
seashore, dam construction etc.
• It is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
• As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
• It is also used in the manufacture of precast sewage pipes.
Rapid Hardening Cement
When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) is present in OPC with higher content, it gains
strength more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC is called Rapid Hardening Cement. It’s
initial Setting Time 30 minutes and Final Setting Time 600 minutes.
Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement
• Rapid hardening cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed like the
construction of pavement.
• It also gives high strength.

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Quick Setting Cement
Quick setting cement is the cement which sets in a very short time. The initial setting time is 5
minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes. The composition of Quick Setting Cement:
• Clinker
• Aluminium sulphate (1% to 3% by weight of clinker)
• The aluminium sulphate increases the hydration rate of silicate.
Uses of Quick Setting Cement
• It is used in underwater construction.
• It is also used in rainy & cold weather conditions.
• It is used a higher temperature where water evaporates easily.
• Used for anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunnelling
Low Heat Cement
It is a spatial type of cement which produce low heat of hydration during setting. Some
chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is modified to reduce the heat of hydration.
The chemical composition of low heat cement:
• A low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
• A higher percentage (46%) of declaim silicate (C2S).
Uses of Low Heat Cement
• It is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and wind turbine
plinths.
• It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.
Sulphates resisting cement
Sulphate resisting cement is used to resist sulphate attacks in concrete. Due to the lower
percentage of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium sulpho-aluminates gets reduced.
Uses of Sulphates resisting Cement
• Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2% or 0.3 % g/l
sulphate salts respectively.
• Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge piers,
concrete surface in tidal zone, apron, Building near seacoast.
• Effluent treatment plans, Chimney, Chemical industries, water storage, sumps, drainage
works, Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as sea walls, breakwaters,
tetrapods etc.

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High Alumina Cement
High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it’s an aluminium ore) and
ordinary lime with clinker during the manufacture of OPC. In which the total amount of
alumina content should not be lesser than 32% and it should maintain the ratio by weight of
alumina to the lime between 0.85 to 1.30.
Uses of High Alumina Cement
• It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures like workshop,
refractory, foundries etc
• It also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.
White Cement
White cement is quite similar to Ordinary Portland Cement except for colour. Amounts of iron
oxide and manganese oxide are low in White Cement. It is expensive then OPC so not
economical for ordinary work.
Uses of White Cement
• It is usually used in decorative work.
• It can also use for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles patching
materials and terrazzo surfaces.
Coloured Cement
To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are grinded with OPC. Types of pigments are
selected according to the desired colour.
Uses of Colored Cement

• Colored cement is used for different decorative work.

Air Entraining Cement

Air-entraining cement is a spatial type of cement which entrains tinny air bubbles in concrete.
When water in concrete get frizzed due to low temperature, it expands. When air-entraining
cement, the air voids in concrete provides space for water to expand without cracking concrete.
But this type cement does not provide high strength in concrete.
Uses of Air-Entraining Cement

• Spatially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.

• It also resists Sulphet attack.
• It is used where the de-iceing chemical is used.

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Expansive Cement
In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can be possible to
overcome shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.
There are three types of expansive cement:

1. K Type expansive cement

2. M Type expansive cement
3. S Type expansive cement

K Type expansive cement

Raw materials of these types of cement

• Portland cement
• Anhydrous tetracalcium trialuminate sulfate (C4A3S)
• Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)
• Lime (CaO).

M Type Expansive Cement

Raw materials of these types of cement

1. Portland cement clinkers

2. Calcium sulfate.

S Type Expansive Cement

Raw materials of these types of cement

1. Portland cement clinkers

2. Calcium sulfate (High amount)

• Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) (High amount)

Uses of Expansive cement

• It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.

• It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.
• In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is used.

Hydrophobic Cement
To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage, clinkers are grinded with
water repellent film substance such as Oleic Acid or Stearic Acid. These chemicals form a
layer on the cement particle and do not allow water to mix and start the hydration process.

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When cement and aggregate are thoroughly mixed in the mixer, protective layers break and
start normal hydration with some air-entrainment which increase workability.
Uses of Hydrophobic Cement

• Usually, it is used in the construction of water structures such as dams, spillways, or

other submerged structures.
• It is also used in the construction of underground structure like tunnel etc.

Properties of Cement- Physical & Chemical

Cement, a popular binding material, is a very important civil engineering material. This article
concerns the physical and chemical properties of cement, as well as the methods to test cement
properties.

Physical Properties of Cement

Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by their physical properties.
Some key parameters control the quality of cement. The physical properties of good cement are
based on:

• Fineness of cement
• Soundness
• Consistency
• Strength
• Setting time
• Heat of hydration
• Loss of ignition

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 • Bulk density
• Specific gravity (Relative density)

Fineness of Cement
The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good cement is
achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process. As
hydration rate of cement is directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is
very important.

Soundness of Cement
Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality cement
retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive free
lime and magnesia.
Tests:
Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests for ensuring soundness must
be able to determine that potential.

• Le-Chatelier Test

This method, done by using Le-Chatelier Apparatus, tests the expansion of cement due
to lime. Cement paste (normal consistency) is taken between glass slides and
submerged in water for 24 hours at 20+1°C. It is taken out to measure the distance
between the indicators and then returned under water, brought to boil in 25-30 mins and
boiled for an hour. After cooling the device, the distance between indicator points is
measured again. In a good quality cement, the distance should not exceed 10 mm.

Consistency of Cement
The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.
It is measured by Vicat Test.
In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat Apparatus. The
plunger of the apparatus is brought down to touch the top surface of the cement. The
plunger will penetrate the cement up to a certain depth depending on the consistency. A
cement is said to have a normal consistency when the plunger penetrates 10±1 mm.

Strength of Cement
Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and flexural. Various
factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing
conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of moulding and mixing, loading
conditions and age. While testing the strength, the following should be considered:

• Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly related. Cement
strength is merely a quality control measure.
• The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement paste.
• Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test should be
mentioned.

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Compressive Strength
It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and subjected to a
compressive load until failure. The loading sequence must be within 20 seconds and 80
seconds.
Standard tests:

i. ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 50-mm or

2-in. Cube Specimens)
ii. ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using Portions of
Prisms Broken in Flexure)

Tensile strength
Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement production, now it does
not offer any useful information about the properties of cement.
Flexural strength
This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed in a 40 x40 x
160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its centre point until failure.
Standard test:

i. ASTM C 348: Flexural Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars

Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on multiple
factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and admixtures.
Cement used in construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low and a final
setting time not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:

• Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within 30-45
minutes)
• Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs below 10
hours)

Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

Standard Tests:

i. ASTM C 191: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle

Heat of Hydration
When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration
generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in maintaining
curing temperature during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation is high,
especially in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of hydration is affected

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most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing
temperature. The heat of hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining the
difference between the dry and the partially hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these at
7th and 28th days).
Standard Test:
ASTM C 186: Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement

Bulk density
When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would normally be air.
Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important. Cement has a varying range
of density depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of cement normally
used is 1440 kg/m3.

Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland cement has a
specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example, Portland-blast-furnace-slag
and Portland-pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.
Standard Test:
ASTM C 188: Density of Hydraulic Cement

Uses of Cement
Cement is a very useful binding material in construction. The applications of cement over
various fields of construction have made it a very important civil engineering material.
Some of the numerous functions of cement are given below.
1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.
2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. It is used for water tightness of structure.
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs,
pillars etc.
5. It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of
structures against the destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or inorganic
chemicals.
6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts etc.
7. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges,
culverts, dams, tunnels, lighthouses etc.
8. It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths etc.
9. It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp posts,
telephone cabins, roads etc.

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