CHAPTER 4

MEASURING
DEVICES
(SENSOR & TRANSDUCER)
 OUTLINE
Introduction
What is sensor and transducer?
Selecting Transducer
Types of transducer
Passive Transducer
Self Generating Transducer
 INTRODUCTION
 For many years, a transducer is a source of
information.
 The operation of the transducer defines the
reliability of the information.
 In spite of a wide variety of different systems
containing transducer, they can be divided into
two big groups i.e measuring system and control
system.
 INTRODUCTION CONT’D
 Component of instrumentation system

Physical Sensor / Electrical

Parameters Transducer Signal

 Pressure  Current
Temperature Voltage
Flow
Light Intensity
Sound
Position
Acceleration
Force
Strain
 WHAT IS SENSOR?
 Sensor is a device that detects, or senses, a signal or
physical condition.
 Most sensors are electrical or electronic, although other
types exist.
 A sensor is a type of transducer.

 Sensors are either direct indicating (e.g. a mercury

thermometer or electrical meter) or are paired with an
indicator (perhaps indirectly through an analog to digital
converter, a computer and a display) so that the value
sensed becomes human readable. Aside from other
applications, sensors are heavily used in medicine,
industry and robotics.
 WHAT IS TRANSDUCER?
 Transducer is a device that provides a usable
output in response to a specific measured.
 In other word, transducer is a device that
converts energy in one form to energy in
another.
 Transducer that provide an electrical output are
frequently used as sensors.
 The transducer is the most important portion of
the sensor, in fact some “sensor” are merely
transducer with packaging
SELECTING TRANSDUCER
 There are four factors to be considered in
selecting a transducer in a system:

 Operating range
 The transducer should maintain range requirements and good
resolution

 Sensitivity
 The transducer must be sensitive enough to allow sufficient output
SELECTING TRANSDUCER
CONT’D

 Ability to suite with the environment

condition such as pressure
 Do the temperature range of the transducer, its corrosive fluids, the
pressures, shocks, and interactions it is subject to, its size and
mounting restrictions make it in application

 High accuracy to produce sufficient output

 The transducer may be subject to repeatability and calibration
errors as well as errors expected owing to sensitivity to other
stimuli
 TYPES OF TRANSDUCER
Transducer can be classified into
two types:
(i) Passive Transducer
(ii) Self-Generating Transducer
(Active)
 PASSIVE TRANSDUCER
 Require an external power and their output is
a measure of some variation such as resistance
or capacitance
 Examples:

 LVDT
 POTENTIOMETER
 STRAIN GAUGE
 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
 LVDT
 LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
 The linear variable differential transducer (LVDT) is
a type of electrical transformer used for measuring linear
displacement
 The transformer has three solenoid coils placed end-to-
end around a tube.
 The centre coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are
the secondary.
 A cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached to the object
whose position is to be measured, slides along the axis of
the tube.
LVDT CONT’D
A reliable and accurate sensing
device that converts linear
position or motion to a
proportional electrical output.
 LVDT CONT’D
 Basic construction of LVDT as shown in figure below:

Primary Secondary
A
LVDT consists of :
A
• a transformer with a single
primary winding
• two secondary windings
B
connected in the series-
B
opposing manner
Displacement/
(berlawanan arah)
Figure 1
 LVDT CONT’D
Primary Secondary
A
A
VOUT = VA – VB
 The core displacement determine
the output:
 If the core at the center,
B B

Displacemen
t/
VA=VB, VOUT=0
Cor  Core at the ‘upper’ A
e
Vo
ut
VA max, VB min  VOUT
max & +ve
 Core at the ‘lower’ B
Core
positio
n
VA min, VB max  VOUT
max & -ve
Relationship between
displacement and output
 EXAMPLE 1
 LVDT has the following data:
Vin= 6.3V, Vout= + 5.2V &
displacement range = + 0.5 in.
Calculate the displacement when Vo is +2.6V.
Vout

+5.2 V

+2.6V

Core position
? 0.5”
 EXAMPLE 2
An ac LVDT has the following data: input 6.3V,
output ± 5.2V, range ±0.50 in. Determine:

a) The plot of the output voltage versus core position

for a core movement going from +0.45 in to -0.03
in.( 4.68V, -3.12V)
b) The output voltage when the core is -0.25 in. from
center. (-2.6V)
 LVDT CONT’D
 Applications of LVDT:
 Used for measuring
displacement and
position
 Used as null detectors in
feedback positioning
systems in airplanes and
submarines
 Used in machine tools as
an input system
Example: Measuring position
 POTENTIOMETER
 A potentiometer is a variable
resistor that functions as a
voltage divider
ℓ1
 Electromechanical device R1
containing a resistance that is Vi ℓT
W
contacted by movable RT
slider. R2
ℓ2 VO
 Motion of the slider results in
a resistance change
depending on the manner in
which the resistance wire is ℓT = Shaft Stroke
wound. W = Wiper
POTENTIOMETER CONT’D
 There are various type of potentiometer:
 Low Power Types:
 Liner potentiometers
 Logarithmic potentiometers

 High Power Types:

 Rheostat
 Digital Control:
 Digitally controlled potentiometers (DCP)
 POTENTIOMETER CONT’D
 The output voltage under ideal condition:

 Resistance at the output ter minal , R 2 

Vo   Vi
 Resistance at the input term inal, R T 

  ℓT = Shaft Stroke
R1   1  RT W = Wiper
 T  ℓ1
R1
Vi ℓT
 
W
RT
R2   2  RT
 T  R2
ℓ2 VO
 POTENTIOMETER CONT’D
 Theory of operation:
The potentiometer can be
used as a potential divider (or
voltage divider) to obtain a
manually adjustable output
voltage at the slider (wiper)
from a fixed input voltage
applied across the two ends of
the pot. This is the most
common use of pots

The voltage across RL is determined by the formula:

R2 || RL
VL  .Vs
R1  R2 || RL
 EXAMPLE 3
A resistive positive displacement transducer with a shaft
stroke of 10cm is used in the circuit of figure below. The
total resistance of potentiometer is 500Ω and the applied
voltage Vi is 15V. If the wiper, W is 7.5cm from A, what
is the value of
(a) R2 (125Ω)
(b) Vo (3.75V)
POTENTIOMETER CONT’D
Transducers
Potentiometers are widely used as a part of displacement transducers
because of the simplicity of construction and because they can give
a large output signal

Audio control
One of the most common uses for modern low-power potentiometers
is as audio control devices. Both sliding pots( known as faders) and
rotary potentiometer ( called knob) are regularly used to adjust
loudness, frequency attenuation and other characteristics audio
signals
 STRAIN GAUGE
 A strain gauge is a metal or semiconductor
element whose resistance changes when under
strain.
 Strain gauge is a passive transducer that uses
“electrical resistance variation” in wires to
sense the strain produced by a force on the
wires.
 It can measures:
 Weight
 Pressure
 Mechanical Force
 Displacement
STRAIN GAUGE
 STRAIN GAUGE CONT’D
 The function of strain gauge is to sense the strain
produces by force on the wires.
 The strain gauge is generally uses as an arm of a bridge.
This is only applicable when temperature variation in
wire.
 Types of strain gauges:

Wire gauge Foil gauge Semiconductor gauge

 STRAIN GAUGE CONT’D
 Considering the factors that influence the
resistance of the element a relationship between
changes in resistance and strain can be derived.
 Resistance is related to length, l(m) and area of
cross-section of the resistor ,A(m2) and
resistivity, ρ(Ωm) of the material as
 STRAIN GAUGE CONT’D
 When external force are
applied to a stationary object,
stress and strain are the result.
 Stress is defined as the object’s
internal forces.
 For a uniform distribution of
internal resisting forces, stress
can be calculated by dividing F
the applied force (F) by the unit   N/m2
area (A): A
Where; F Force
*Stress – tekanan A Area
 STRAIN GAUGE CONT’D
 The effect of the applied stress is produce a strain.
 Strain is a fractional change (∆L/L) in the dimensions of
an object as a result of mechanical stress (force/area).
 Calculated by dividing the total deformation of the
original length by the original length (L).

L
 Unit-less
L
Where; ∆L Change in length
L Original unstressed length

*Strain – regangan
STRAIN GAUGE CONT’D
 Theconstant of proportionality between stress
and strain for a linear stress-strain curve is
known as Young’s Modulus, E.


E

E  Young’s modulus in kilograms per-square meter

  The stress in kilograms per square meter

  The strain (no units)

 STRAIN GAUGE CONT’D
 This changes its resistance (R) in proportion to the strain
sensitivity of the wire's resistance. When a strain is introduced,
the strain sensitivity, which is also called the Gauge Factor (GF),
is given by:

GF 
R R

L
 L

GF = gauge factor (unit less)

R = the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)

R = the change in initial resistance in ohms

L = the initial length in meters (without strain)

L = the change in initial length in meters

 EXAMPLE 4
A resistant strain gauge with a gauge factor of
2 is fastened to a steel member, which is
subjected to strain of 1x10-6. If the original
resistance value of the gauge is 130Ω,
calculate the change in resistance. (260µΩ)
SOLUTION
 CAPACITIVE
TRANSDUCER
 The capacitor consists of two parallel plates separated by
an air space or by a dielectric (insulating material).
 The capacitance of the of the pair of the plates is measure
of the amount of charge that can be transferred before a
certain voltage is reached.

Plate 1
Dielectric
material
Plate 2

The basic construction of capacitor

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER CONT”D

Plate 1
h
w idt
Schematic diagram
of parallel-plate
d capacitor
Plate 2

Length

k = dielectric constant of the material in the gap

εo = the permittivity of free space
kA o
C = 8.854 x 10-12 farad/meter
d A = Plate area (m2)
d = the separation between plate (m)
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER CONT”D
 There are three criteria/conditions that can change the
capacitor (variation of capacitance) :
(a) Changing the surface area
(b) Changing the dielectric constant
(c) Changing the spacing between plate

kA o
C
d
x
Displacement

x=0
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER CONT”D
(a) Changing the surface area
If one plate of the parallel plate capacitor is displayed in a
direction parallel to the plate, the effective area of the plates
will change proportionally to the value of capacitance

Plate 1
Dielectric
material
Plate 2

A
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER CONT”D
(b) Changing the dielectric constant
The value of capacitance will increase when the dielectric
constant is increased

Plate 1
Dielectric
material
Plate 2

k
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER CONT”D
(c) Changing the spacing
between plate
The value of capacitance will decrease when the spacing
between plate increased

C
Plate 1

Dielectric d
material

Plate 2
d
 EXAMPLE 5
εo = 8.854 x 10-12 Fm-1, kair = 1, kmaterial = 5
Two square metal plates, side 6 cm separated
by a gap of 1 mm.
Calculate the capacitance of the sensor when
the input displacement of x is:
(a) 0.0 cm (159.38pF)

(b) 3.0 cm (63.75pF)

SOLUTION