Corporate social

responsibility

Corporate social responsibility (CSR, also

called corporate sustainability,
sustainable business, corporate
conscience, corporate citizenship,
conscious capitalism, or responsible
business)[1] [2] [3] is a type of international
private business self-regulation.[4] While
once it was possible to describe CSR as an
internal organisational policy or a
corporate ethic strategy,[5] that time has
passed as various international laws have
been developed and various organisations
have used their authority to push it beyond
individual or even industry-wide initiatives.
While it has been considered a form of
corporate self-regulation[6] for some time,
over the last decade or so it has moved
considerably from voluntary decisions at
the level of individual organisations, to
mandatory schemes at regional, national
and even transnational levels.

Considered at the organisational level, CSR

is generally understood as a private firm
policy. As such, it must align with and be
integrated into a business model to be
successful. With some models, a firm's
implementation of CSR goes beyond
compliance with regulatory requirements
and engages in "actions that appear to
further some social good, beyond the
interests of the firm and that which is
required by law".[7][8] The choices of
'complying' with the law, failing to comply,
and 'going beyond' are three distinct
strategic organisational choices. While in
many areas such as environmental or
labor regulations, employers may choose
to comply with the law, or go beyond the
law, other organisations may choose to
flout the law. These organisations are
taking on clear legal risks. The nature of
the legal risk, however, changes when
attention is paid to soft law.[9] Soft law
may incur legal liability particularly when
businesses make misleading claims about
their sustainability or other ethical
credentials and practices. Overall,
businesses may engage in CSR for
strategic or ethical purposes. From a
strategic perspective, the aim is to
increase long-term profits and shareholder
trust through positive public relations and
high ethical standards to reduce business
and legal risk by taking responsibility for
corporate actions. CSR strategies
encourage the company to make a
positive impact on the environment and
stakeholders including consumers,
employees, investors, communities, and
others.[10] From an ethical perspective,
some businesses will adopt CSR policies
and practices because of ethical beliefs of
senior management. For example, a CEO
may believe that harming the environment
is ethically objectionable.[11]

Proponents argue that corporations

increase long-term profits by operating
with a CSR perspective, while critics argue
that CSR distracts from businesses'
economic role. A 2000 study compared
existing econometric studies of the
relationship between social and financial
performance, concluding that the
contradictory results of previous studies
reporting positive, negative, and neutral
financial impact, were due to flawed
empirical analysis and claimed when the
study is properly specified, CSR has a
neutral impact on financial outcomes.[12]
Critics[13][14] questioned the "lofty" and
sometimes "unrealistic expectations" in
CSR.[15] or that CSR is merely window-
dressing, or an attempt to pre-empt the
role of governments as a watchdog over
powerful multinational corporations. In
line with this critical perspective, political
and sociological institutionalists became
interested in CSR in the context of theories
of globalization, neoliberalism and late
capitalism. Some institutionalists viewed
CSR as a form of capitalist legitimacy and
in particular point out that what began as a
social movement against uninhibited
corporate power was transformed by
corporations into a "business model" and a
"risk management" device, often with
questionable results.[16]

CSR is titled to aid an organization's

mission as well as serve as a guide to
what the company represents for its
consumers. Business ethics is the part of
applied ethics that examines ethical
principles and moral or ethical problems
that can arise in a business environment.
ISO 26000 is the recognized international
standard for CSR. Public sector
organizations (the United Nations for
example) adhere to the triple bottom line
(TBL). It is widely accepted that CSR
adheres to similar principles, but with no
formal act of legislation.

Definition
Since the 1960s,[17] corporate social
responsibility has attracted attention from
a range of businesses and stakeholders. A
wide variety of definitions have been
developed but with little consensus. Part
of the problem with definitions has arisen
because of the different interests
represented. A business person may
define CSR as a business strategy, an NGO
activist may see it as 'greenwash' while a
government official may see it as voluntary
regulation."[4] In addition, disagreement
about the definition will arise from the
disciplinary approach."[4] For example,
while an economist might consider the
director's discretion necessary for CSR to
be implemented a risk of agency costs, a
law academic may consider that
discretion to be an appropriate expression
of what the law demands from
directors.[18][19]

Corporate social responsibility has been

defined by Sheehy as "international private
business self-regulation."[4] Sheehy
examined a range of different disciplinary
approaches to defining CSR. The
definitions reviewed included the
economic definition of "sacrificing profits,"
a management definition of "beyond
compliance", institutionalist views of CSR
as a "socio-political movement" and law's
own focus on directors' duties. Further,
Sheehy considered Archie Carroll's
description of CSR as a pyramid of
responsibilities, namely, economic, legal,
ethical, and philanthropic
responsibilities.[20] While Carroll was not
defining CSR, but simply arguing for
classification of activities, Sheehy
developed a definition differently following
the philosophy of science—the branch of
philosophy used for defining phenomena.

Carroll extended corporate social

responsibility from the traditional
economic and legal responsibility to
ethical and philanthropic responsibility in
response to the rising concerns on ethical
issues in businesses.[20] This view is
reflected in the Business Dictionary which
defines CSR as "a company's sense of
responsibility towards the community and
environment (both ecological and social)
in which it operates. Companies express
this citizenship (1) through their waste and
pollution reduction processes, (2) by
contributing educational and social
programs and (3) by earning adequate
returns on the employed
resources."[21][22][22]

Consumer perspectives
“
Businesses have changed when
the public came to expect and
require different behavior [...] I
predict that in the future, just as
in the past, changes in public
attitudes will be essential for
changes in businesses'
environmental practices. ”
— Jared Diamond, "Big businesses and the
environment"[23]

Most consumers agree that while

achieving business targets, companies
should engage in CSR efforts at the same
time.[24] Most consumers believe
companies doing charity work will receive
a positive response.[25] Somerville also
found that consumers are loyal and willing
to spend more on retailers that support
charity. Consumers also believe that
retailers selling local products will gain
loyalty.[26] Smith (2013)[27] shares the
belief that marketing local products will
gain consumer trust. However,
environmental efforts are receiving
negative views given the belief that this
would affect customer service.[26]
Oppewal et al. (2006) found that not all
CSR activities are attractive to
consumers.[28] They recommended that
retailers focus on one activity.[29] Becker-
Olsen (2006)[30] found that if the social
initiative done by the company is not
aligned with other company goals it will
have a negative impact. Mohr et al.
(2001)[31] and Groza et al. (2011)[32] also
emphasise the importance of reaching the
consumer.

Approaches

CSR Approaches
Some commentators have identified a
difference between the Canadian
(Montreal school of CSR), the Continental
European and the Anglo-Saxon
approaches to CSR.[33] It is said that for
Chinese consumers,[34] a socially
responsible company makes safe, high-
quality products; for Germans it provides
secure employment; in South Africa it
makes a positive contribution to social
needs such as health care and
education.[35] And even within Europe the
discussion about CSR is very
heterogeneous.[36]
A more common approach to CSR is
corporate philanthropy. This includes
monetary donations and aid given to
nonprofit organizations and communities.
Donations are made in areas such as the
arts, education, housing, health, social
welfare and the environment, among
others, but excluding political
contributions and commercial event
sponsorship.[37]

Another approach to CSR is to incorporate

the CSR strategy directly into operations,
such as procurement of Fair Trade tea and
coffee.
Creating shared value or CSV is based on
the idea that corporate success and social
welfare are interdependent. A business
needs a healthy, educated workforce,
sustainable resources and adept
government to compete effectively. For
society to thrive, profitable and
competitive businesses must be
developed and supported to create
income, wealth, tax revenues and
philanthropy. The Harvard Business
Review article Strategy & Society: The Link
between Competitive Advantage and
Corporate Social Responsibility provided
examples of companies that have
developed deep linkages between their
business strategies and CSR.[38] CSV
acknowledges trade-offs between short-
term profitability and social or
environmental goals, but emphasizes the
opportunities for competitive advantage
from building a social value proposition
into corporate strategy. CSV gives the
impression that only two stakeholders are
important - shareholders and consumers.

Many companies employ benchmarking to

assess their CSR policy, implementation
and effectiveness. Benchmarking involves
reviewing competitor initiatives, as well as
measuring and evaluating the impact that
those policies have on society and the
environment, and how others perceive
competitor CSR strategy.[39]

Cost-benefit analysis

In competitive markets cost-benefit

analysis of CSR initiatives can be
examined using a resource-based view
(RBV). According to Barney (1990),
"formulation of the RBV, sustainable
competitive advantage requires that
resources be valuable (V), rare (R),
inimitable (I) and non-substitutable
(S)."[40][41] A firm introducing a CSR-based
strategy might only sustain high returns on
their investment if their CSR-based
strategy could not be copied (I). However,
should competitors imitate such a
strategy, that might increase overall social
benefits. Firms that choose CSR for
strategic financial gain are also acting
responsibly.

RBV presumes that firms are bundles of

heterogeneous resources and capabilities
that are imperfectly mobile across firms.
This imperfect mobility can produce
competitive advantages for firms that
acquire immobile resources. McWilliams
and Siegel (2001) examined CSR activities
and attributes as a differentiation strategy.
They concluded that managers can
determine the appropriate level of
investment in CSR by conducting cost
benefit analysis in the same way that they
analyze other investments. Reinhardt
(1998) found that a firm engaging in a
CSR-based strategy could only sustain an
abnormal return if it could prevent
competitors from imitating its strategy.[42]

Moreover, when it comes to cost benefit

analysis, you should look at Waddock and
Graves (1997), who showed that corporate
social performance was positively linked
to financial performance, meaning that the
benefit of being socially responsible
outweigh the costs.  McWilliams and
Siegel (2000) noted that Waddock and
Graves hadn’t taken innovation into
account, that companies that did CSR
were also very innovative, and that the
innovation drove financial performance,
not CSR. Hull and Rothenberg (2007) then
found that when companies are not
innovative, a history of CSR does in fact
help financial performance. [43]

Scope
Initially, CSR emphasized the official
behaviour of individual firms. Later, it
expanded to include supplier behaviour
and the uses to which products were put
and how they were disposed of after they
lost value.

Supply chain

In the 21st century, corporate social

responsibility in the supply chain has
attracted attention from businesses and
stakeholders. Corporations' supply chain
is the process by which several
organizations including suppliers,
customers and logistics providers work
together to provide a value package of
products and services to the end user, who
is the customer.[44]
Corporate social irresponsibility in the
supply chain has greatly affected the
reputation of companies, leading to a lot
of cost to solve the problems. For
instance, incidents like the 2013 Savar
building collapse, which killed over 1000
people, pushed companies to consider the
impacts of their operations on society and
environment. On the other side, the horse
meat scandal of 2013 in the United
Kingdom affected many food retailers,
including Tesco, the largest retailer in the
United Kingdom,[45] leading to the
dismissal of the supplier. Corporate social
irresponsibility from both the suppliers and
the retailers has greatly affected the
stakeholders who lost trust for the
affected business entities, and despite the
fact that sometimes it's not directly
undertaken by the companies, they
become accountable to the stakeholders.
These surrounding issues have prompted
supply chain management to consider the
corporate social responsibility context.
Wieland and Handfield (2013) suggested
that companies need to include social
responsibility in their reviews of
component quality. They highlighted the
use of technology in improving visibility
across the supply chain.[46]

Corporate social initiatives

Corporate social responsibility includes six
types of corporate social initiatives:[47]

Corporate philanthropy: company

donations to charity, including cash,
goods, and services, sometimes via a
corporate foundation
Community volunteering: company-
organized volunteer activities,
sometimes while an employee receives
pay for pro-bono work on behalf of a
non-profit organization
Socially-responsible business practices:
ethically produced products which
appeal to a customer segment
 Cause promotions and activism:
company-funded advocacy campaigns
Cause-related marketing: donations to
charity based on product sales
Corporate social marketing: company-
funded behavior-change campaigns

All six of the corporate initiatives are

forms of corporate citizenship. However,
only some of these CSR activities rise to
the level of cause marketing, defined as "a
type of corporate social responsibility
(CSR) in which a company's promotional
campaign has the dual purpose of
increasing profitability while bettering
society."[48]
Companies generally do not have a profit
motive when participating in corporate
philanthropy and community volunteering.
On the other hand, the remaining corporate
social initiatives can be examples of cause
marketing, in which there is both a societal
interest and profit motive.

Implementation
CSR may be based within the human
resources, business development or public
relations departments of an
organisation,[49] or may be a separate unit
reporting to the CEO or the board of
directors.
Engagement plan

An engagement plan can assist in

reaching a desired audience. A corporate
social responsibility individual or team
plans the goals and objectives of the
organization. As with any corporate
activity, a defined budget demonstrates
commitment and scales the program's
relative importance.

Accounting, auditing and

reporting

Social accounting is the communication of

social and environmental effects of a
company's economic actions to particular
interest groups within society and to
society at large.[50]

Social accounting emphasizes the notion

of corporate accountability. Crowther
defines social accounting as "an approach
to reporting a firm's activities which
stresses the need for the identification of
socially relevant behavior, the
determination of those to whom the
company is accountable for its social
performance and the development of
appropriate measures and reporting
techniques."[51] Reporting guidelines and
standards serve as frameworks for social
accounting, auditing and reporting:
AccountAbility's AA1000 standard,
based on John Elkington's triple bottom
line (3BL) reporting
The Prince's Accounting for
Sustainability Project's Connected
Reporting Framework[52]
The Fair Labor Association conducts
audits based on its Workplace Code of
Conduct and posts audit results on the
FLA website.
The Fair Wear Foundation verifies labour
conditions in companies' supply chains,
using interdisciplinary auditing teams.
Global Reporting Initiative's
Sustainability Reporting Guidelines
Economy for the Common Good's
Common Good Balance Sheet[53]
GoodCorporation's standard[54]
developed in association with the
Institute of Business Ethics
Synergy Codethic 26000[55] Social
Responsibility and Sustainability
Commitment Management System
(SRSCMS) Requirements—Ethical
Business Best Practices of
Organizations—the necessary
management system elements to obtain
a certifiable ethical commitment
management system. The standard
scheme has been built around ISO
26000 and UNCTAD Guidance on Good
Practices in Corporate Governance. The
standard is applicable by any type of
organization.;
Earthcheck Certification / Standard
Social Accountability International's
SA8000 standard
Standard Ethics Aei guidelines
The ISO 14000 environmental
management standard
The United Nations Global Compact
requires companies to communicate on
their progress[56] (or to produce a
Communication on Progress, COP), and
to describe the company's
implementation of the Compact's ten
universal principles.[57]
The United Nations Intergovernmental
Working Group of Experts on
International Standards of Accounting
and Reporting (ISAR) provides voluntary
technical guidance on eco-efficiency
indicators,[58] corporate responsibility
reporting,[59] and corporate governance
disclosure.[60]
The FTSE Group publishes the
FTSE4Good Index, an evaluation of CSR
performance of companies.
EthicalQuote (CEQ) tracks reputation of
the world's largest companies on
 Environmental, Social, Governance
(ESG), Corporate Social Responsibility,
ethics and sustainability.
The Islamic Reporting Initiative (IRI) is a
not-for-profit organization which leads
the creation of the IRI framework; the
guiding integrated CSR reporting
framework based on Islamic principles
and values.[61]

In nations such as France, legal

requirements for social accounting,
auditing and reporting exist, though
international or national agreement on
meaningful measurements of social and
environmental performance has not been
achieved. Many companies produce
externally audited annual reports that
cover Sustainable Development and CSR
issues ("Triple Bottom Line Reports"), but
the reports vary widely in format, style, and
evaluation methodology (even within the
same industry). Critics dismiss these
reports as lip service, citing examples
such as Enron's yearly "Corporate
Responsibility Annual Report" and tobacco
companies' social reports.

In South Africa, as of June 2010, all

companies listed on the Johannesburg
Stock Exchange (JSE) were required to
produce an integrated report in place of an
annual financial report and sustainability
report.[62] An integrated report reviews
environmental, social and economic
performance alongside financial
performance. This requirement was
implemented in the absence of formal or
legal standards. An Integrated Reporting
Committee (IRC) was established to issue
guidelines for good practice.

One of the reputable institutions that

capital markets turn to for credible
sustainability reports is the Carbon
Disclosure Project, or CDP.

Verification
Corporate social responsibility and its
resulting reports and efforts should be
verified by the consumer of the goods and
services.[63] The accounting, auditing and
reporting resources provide a foundation
for consumers to verify that their products
are socially sustainable. Due to an
increased awareness of the need for CSR,
many industries have their own verification
resources.[64] The include organizations
like the Forest Stewardship Council (paper
and forest products), International Cocoa
Initiative , and Kimberly Process
(diamonds). The United Nations also
provides frameworks not only for
verification, but for reporting of human
rights violations in corporate supply
chains.

Ethics training

The rise of ethics training inside

corporations, some of it required by
government regulation, has helped CSR to
spread. The aim of such training is to help
employees make ethical decisions when
the answers are unclear.[65] The most
direct benefit is reducing the likelihood of
"dirty hands",[66] fines and damaged
reputations for breaching laws or moral
norms. Organizations see increased
employee loyalty and pride in the
organization.[67]

Common actions

Common CSR actions include:[68]

Environmental sustainability: recycling,

waste management, water
management, renewable energy,
reusable materials, 'greener' supply
chains, reducing paper use and adopting
Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED) building
standards.[69][70][71]
Community involvement: This can
include raising money for local charities,
providing volunteers, sponsoring local
events, employing local workers,
supporting local economic growth,
engaging in fair trade practices,
etc.[72][73]
Ethical marketing: Companies that
ethically market to consumers are
placing a higher value on their
customers and respecting them as
people who are ends in themselves.
They do not try to manipulate or falsely
advertise to potential consumers. This
is important for companies that want to
be viewed as ethical.
Social license to operate

Social License to Operate can be

determined as a contractual grounds for
the legitimacy of activities and projects
company is involved in.[74] It refers to the
level of support and approval of a
company’s activities by its
stakeholders.[75] Displaying commitment
to CSR is one way to achieve social
license, by enhancing a company's
reputation.[76]

As stated in Enduring value: the Australian

minerals industry framework for
sustainable development the concept of
the 'social license to operate', then defined
simply as obtaining and maintaining broad
community support and acceptance.
Unless a company earns and maintains
that license social license holders may
intend to block project developments;
employees may leave the company for a
company that is a better corporate citizen:
and companies may be under ongoing
legal challenge.[77]

In research of Requisite Organization Dr

Elliott Jaques defines Social License to
Operate for the company as the social
contract the company has with the social
license holders (employees, trade unions,
communities, government)  for them to
manifest positive intention to support the
business short- and long-term objectives
by “providing managerial leadership that
nurtures the social good and also gives the
foundation for sustainable growth in
organizational results.”[78]

The primary objective for the companies is

to obtain and maintain the Social License
to Operate. Based on the Requisite
Organization research of Dr. Elliott Jaques
to achieve this goal a company needs to:

Identify the business strategy and

business objectives
Identify the social license holders
(employees of a company, labour
unions, local and national governments,
communities, activist groups, etc.) for
every business objectives
Identify the support that the company
desires to achieve from the social
license holders by specifying for every
business objective social license
elements (target of support, context of
support, time of support, action of
support)
Quantitatively measure the intention
(positive or negative) of the social
license holders to support the business
objectives
Identify the factors that negatively
impact the intention of the social license
holders to support the business
objectives (strength of their belief in
support, their evaluation of support
outcomes, pressure to provide support,
enablers / disablers of support, etc.)
Develop the Social License Development
Strategy to remove the negative factors
and ensure positive intention of all the
social license holders to support all the
business objectives of the company.
 Perform ongoing monitoring and
quantitative measurement of changes in
the Social License to Operate of the
company   

Potential business benefits

A large body of literature exhorts business
to adopt non-financial measures of
success (e.g., Deming's Fourteen Points,
balanced scorecards). While CSR benefits
are hard to quantify, Orlitzky, Schmidt and
Rynes[79] found a correlation between
social/environmental performance and
financial performance.
The business case for CSR[80] within a
company employs one or more of these
arguments:

Triple bottom line

"People, planet and profit", also known as

the triple bottom line, form one way to
evaluate CSR. "People" refers to fair labour
practices, the community and region
where the business operates. "Planet"
refers to sustainable environmental
practices. Profit is the economic value
created by the organization after
deducting the cost of all inputs, including
the cost of the capital (unlike accounting
definitions of profit).[81][82]

This measure was claimed to help some

companies be more conscious of their
social and moral responsibilities.[83]
However, critics claim that it is selective
and substitutes a company's perspective
for that of the community. Another
criticism is about the absence of a
standard auditing procedure.[84]

The term was coined by John Elkington in

1994.[82]

Human resources
A CSR program can be an aid to
recruitment and retention,[85][86]
particularly within the competitive
graduate student market. Potential
recruits often consider a firm's CSR policy.
CSR can also help improve the perception
of a company among its staff, particularly
when staff can become involved through
payroll giving, fundraising activities or
community volunteering. CSR has been
credited with encouraging customer
orientation among customer-facing
employees.[87]

CSR is known for impacting employee

turnover. Several executives suggest that
employees are their most valuable asset
and that the ability to retain them leads to
organization success. Socially responsible
activities promote fairness, which in turn
generate lower employee turnover. On the
other hand, if an irresponsible behavior is
demonstrated by a firm, employees may
view this behavior as negative. Proponents
argue that treating employees well with
competitive pay and good benefits is seen
as a socially responsible behavior and
therefore reduces employee turnover.[88]
Executives have a strong desire for
building a positive work context that
benefits CSR and the company as a whole.
This interest is driven particularly by the
realization that a positive work
environment can result in desirable
outcomes such as more favorable job
attitudes and increased work
performance.[89]

The IBM Institute for Business Value

conducted a survey of 250 business
leaders worldwide in 2008. The survey
found out that businesses have
assimilated a much more strategic view,
and that 68% companies reported are
utilizing CSR as an opportunity and part of
a sustainable growth strategy. The authors
noted that while developing and
implementing a CSR strategy represents a
unique opportunity to benefit the
company. However, only 31% of
businesses surveyed engaged their
employees on the company's CSR
objectives and initiatives. The survey's
authors also stated that employee
engagement on CSR initiatives can be a
powerful recruitment and retention tool.
As a result, employees tend to discard
employers with a bad reputation.[90]

Risk management

Managing risk is an important executive

responsibility. Reputations that take
decades to build up can be ruined in hours
through corruption scandals or
environmental accidents.[91] These draw
unwanted attention from regulators,
courts, governments and media. CSR can
limit these risks.[92]

Brand differentiation

CSR can help build customer loyalty based

on distinctive ethical values.[93] Some
companies use their commitment to CSR
as their primary positioning tool, e.g., The
Co-operative Group, The Body Shop and
American Apparel.[94]

Some companies use CSR methodologies

as a strategic tactic to gain public support
for their presence in global markets,
helping them sustain a competitive
advantage by using their social
contributions as another form of
advertising.[95]

Companies that operate strong CSR

activities tend to drive customer's
attention to buy products or services
regardless of the price. As a result, this
increases competition among firms since
customers are aware of the company's
CSR practices. These initiatives serve as a
potential differentiator because they not
only add value to the company, but also to
the products or services. Furthermore,
firms under intense competition are able
to leverage CSR to increase the impact of
their distribution on the firm's
performance. Lowering the carbon
footprint of a firm's distribution network or
engaging in fair trade are potential
differentiators to lower costs and increase
profits. In this scenario, customers can
observe the company's commitment to
CSR while increasing company sales.[96]

Whole Foods' marketing and promotion of

organic foods have had a positive effect
on the supermarket industry. Proponents
assert that Whole Foods has been able to
work with its suppliers to improve animal
treatment and quality of meat offered in
their stores. They also promote local
agricultures in over 2,400 independent
farms to maintain their line of sustainable
organic produce. As a result, Whole Foods'
high prices do not turn customers away
from shopping. In fact, they are pleased
buying organic products that come from
sustainable practices.[97]

According to a Harvard Business Review

article, there are three theaters of practice
in which CSR can be divided. Theater one
focuses on philanthropy, which includes
donations of money or equipment to non-
profit organizations, engagement with
communities' initiatives and employee
volunteering. This is characterized as the
"soul" of a company, expressing the social
and environmental priorities of the
founders. The authors assert that
companies engage in CSR because they
are an integral part of the society. The
Coca-Cola Company contributes with
$88.1 million annually to a variety of
environmental educational and
humanitarian organization. Another
example is PNC Financial Services' "Grow
Up Great" childhood education program.
This program provides critical school
readiness resources to underserved
communities where PNC operates.[98]
On the other hand, theater two focuses on
improving operational effectiveness in the
workplace. The researchers assert that
programs in this theater strive to deliver
social or environmental benefits to
support a company's operation across the
value chain by improving efficiency. Some
of the examples mentioned include
sustainability initiatives to reduce resource
use, waste, and emission that could
potentially reduce costs. It also calls for
investing in employee work conditions
such as health care and education which
may enhance productivity and retention.
Unlike philanthropic giving, which is
evaluated by its social and environmental
return, initiatives in the second theater are
predicted to improve the corporate bottom
line with social value. Bimbo, the largest
bakery in Mexico, is an excellent example
of this theater. The company strives to
meet social welfare needs. It offers free
educational service to help employees
complete high school. Bimbo also
provides supplementary medical care and
financial assistance to close gaps in the
government health coverage.[98]

Moreover, the third theater program aims

to transform the business model.
Basically, companies create new forms of
business to address social or
environmental challenges that will lead to
financial returns in the long run. One
example can be seen in Unilever's Project
Shakti in India. The authors describe that
the company hires women in villages and
provides them with micro-finance loans to
sell soaps, oils, detergents, and other
products door-to-door. This research
indicates that more than 65,000 women
entrepreneurs are doubling their incomes
while increasing rural access and hygiene
in Indian villages. Another example is
IKEA's People and Planet initiative to be
100% sustainable by 2020. As a
consequence, the company wants to
introduce a new model to collect and
recycle old furniture.[98]

Reduced scrutiny

Corporations are keen to avoid

interference in their business through
taxation or regulations. A CSR program
can persuade governments and the public
that a company takes health and safety,
diversity and the environment seriously,
reducing the likelihood that company
practices will be closely monitored.

Supplier relations
 This section does not cite any sources.

Learn more

Appropriate CSR programs can increase

the attractiveness of supplier firms to
potential customer corporations. E.g., a
fashion merchandiser may find value in an
overseas manufacturer that uses CSR to
establish a positive image—and to reduce
the risks of bad publicity from uncovered
misbehavior.

Criticisms and concerns

CSR concerns include its relationship to
the purpose of business and the motives
for engaging in it.
Nature of business

Milton Friedman and others argued that a

corporation's purpose is to maximize
returns to its shareholders and that
obeying the laws of the jurisdictions within
which it operates constitutes socially
responsible behavior.[99]

While some CSR supporters claim that

companies practicing CSR, especially in
developing countries, are less likely to
exploit workers and communities, critics
claim that CSR itself imposes outside
values on local communities with
unpredictable outcomes.[100]
Better governmental regulation and
enforcement, rather than voluntary
measures, are an alternative to CSR that
moves decision-making and resource
allocation from public to private
bodies.[101] However, critics claim that
effective CSR must be voluntary as
mandatory social responsibility programs
regulated by the government interferes
with people's own plans and preferences,
distorts the allocation of resources, and
increases the likelihood of irresponsible
decisions.[102]

Motives
Play media
A story of CSR promoted by Azim Premji Foundation in
India[103]

Some critics believe that CSR programs

are undertaken by companies to distract
the public from ethical questions posed by
their core operations. They argue that the
reputational benefits that CSR companies
receive (cited above as a benefit to the
corporation) demonstrate the hypocrisy of
the approach.[104] Moreover, some studies
find that CSR programs are motivated by
corporate managers' personal interests at
the cost of the shareholders so they are a
type of an agency problem in
corporations.[105][106]

Others have argued that the primary

purpose of CSR is to provide legitimacy to
the power of businesses.[107] As wealth
inequality is perceived to be increasing[108]
it has become increasingly necessary for
businesses to justify their position of
power. Bakan[109] is one of the most
prominent critics of the conflict of interest
between private profit and public good,
and his argument is summarised by
Haynes that "a corporate calculus exists in
which costs are pushed onto both workers,
consumers and the environment".[110] CSR
spending may be seen in these financial
terms, whereby the higher costs of socially
undesirable behaviour are offset by a CSR
spending of a lower amount. Indeed, it has
been argued that there is a "halo effect" in
terms of CSR spending. Research has
found that firms which had been convicted
of bribery in the USA under the Foreign
Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) received
more lenient fines if they had been seen to
be actively engaging in comprehensive
CSR practices. It was found that typically
either a 20% increase in corporate giving
or a commitment to eradicating a
significant labour issue, such as child
labour, was equated to a 40% lower fine in
the case of bribing foreign officials.[111]

Aguinis and Glavas conducted a

comprehensive review of CSR literature,
covering 700 academic sources from
numerous fields including organizational
behaviour, corporate strategy, marketing
and HRM. It was found that the primary
reason for firms to engage in CSR were the
expected financial benefits associated
with CSR, rather than being motivated a
desire to be responsible to society.[112]

Ethical ideologies
CEOs' political ideologies are evident
manifestations of their different personal
views. Each CEO may exercise different
powers according to their organizational
outcomes. In fact, their political ideologies
are expected to influence their preferences
for the CSR outcomes. Proponents argue
that politically liberal CEOs will envision
the practice of CSR as beneficial and
desirable to increase a firm's reputation.
They tend to focus more on how the firm
can meet the needs of the society. As a
consequence, they will advance with the
practice of CSR while adding value to the
firm. On the other hand, property rights
may be more relevant to conservative
CEOs. Since conservatives tend to value
free markets, individualism and call for a
respect of authority, they will not likely
envision this practice as often as those
identifying as liberals might.[113]

The financials of the company and the

practice of CSR also have a positive
relationship. Moreover, the performance of
a company tends to influence
conservatives more likely than liberals.
While not seeing it from the financial
performance point of view, liberals tend to
hold a view that CSR adds to the business
triple bottom line. For instance, when the
company is performing well, they will most
likely promote CSR. If the company is not
performing as expected, they will rather
tend to emphasize this practice because
they will potentially envision it as a way to
add value to the business. In contrast,
politically conservative CEOs will tend to
support the practice of CSR if they hold a
view that it will provide a good return to
the financials of the company. In other
words, this type of executives tend to not
see the outcome of CSR as a value to the
company if it does not provide anything in
exchange.[113]

Misdirection
There have been unsubstantiated social
efforts, ethical claims, and outright
greenwashing by some companies that
has resulted in increasing consumer
cynicism and mistrust.[114] Sometimes
companies use CSR to direct public
attention away from other, harmful
business practices. For example,
McDonald's Corporation positioned its
association with Ronald McDonald House
and other children's charities as CSR[115]
while its meals have been accused of
promoting poor eating habits.[116]

Acts which may initially appear to be

altruistic CSR may have ulterior motives.
The funding of scientific research projects
has been used as a source of misdirection
by firms. Prusiner, who discovered the
protein responsible of CJD and won the
1997 Nobel prize in Medicine, thanked the
tobacco company RJ Reynolds for their
crucial support. RJ Reynolds funded the
research into CJD. Proctor states that "the
tobacco industry was the leading funder of
research into genetics, viruses,
immunology, air pollution"[117] anything
which formed a distraction from the well-
established research linking smoking and
cancer.
Research has also found that corporate
social marketing, a form of CSR promoting
societal good, is being used to direct
criticism away from the damaging
practices of the alcohol industry.[118] It has
been shown that adverts which
supposedly encourage responsible
drinking simultaneously aim to promote
drinking as a social norm. Companies may
engage in CSR and social marketing in this
case to prevent more stringent
government legislation on alcohol
marketing.

Controversial industries
Industries such as tobacco, alcohol or
munitions firms make products that
damage their consumers or the
environment. Such firms may engage in
the same philanthropic activities as those
in other industries. This duality
complicates assessments of such firms
with respect to CSR.[119]

The Kizhakkambalam takeover

Textile company Kitex has taken over the

administration of an entire Indian village
called Kizhakkambalam near Cochin by
winning the local body elections.
Environmentalists and mainstream
politicians of India point out that this can
lead to a dangerous precedent because
the company got actively involved in CSR
only after they were caught red-handed in
polluting the village.[120]

Stakeholder influence
One motivation for corporations to adopt
CSR is to satisfy stakeholders beyond
those of a corporation's shareholders.

Branco and Rodrigues (2007) describe the

stakeholder perspective of CSR as the set
of views of corporate responsibility held by
all groups or constituents with a
relationship to the firm.[121] In their
normative model, the company accepts
these views as long as they do not hinder
the organization. The stakeholder
perspective fails to acknowledge the
complexity of network interactions that
can occur in cross-sector partnerships. It
relegates communication to a
maintenance function, similar to the
exchange perspective.[122]

Ethical consumerism

The rise in popularity of ethical

consumerism over the last two decades
can be linked to the rise of CSR.[123]
Consumers are becoming more aware of
the environmental and social implications
of their day-to-day consumption decisions
and in some cases make purchasing
decisions related to their environmental
and ethical concerns.[124]

One issue with the consumer's relationship

with CSR is that it is much more complex
than it first appears. In their paper on the
consumer and CSR, Janssen and
Vanhamme looked into a phenomenon
that they termed the "CSR-Consumer
Paradox".[104] This describes the mismatch
that occurs where consumers report that
they would only buy from companies with
good social responsibility. A survey by
Cohn & Wolfe found that globally over 60%
of consumers want to buy from
responsible companies.[105] However,
Janssen and Vanhamme reported that
less than 4% of average household
expenditure in the UK in 2010 was ethical.
This indicates that there is a clear
discrepancy between consumer beliefs
and intentions, and actual consumer
behaviour, so that when it comes down to
their actual purchase behaviour, CSR has a
much lesser impact than consumers
initially say it does.

One theory put forward for explaining the

"CSR-Consumer Paradox" is that of
"bystander apathy" or the bystander effect.
This theory stems from the social
psychology works of Darley and
Latané[106] and states that the likelihood of
an individual acting in a given situation is
greatly reduced if other bystanders do
nothing even if that individual strongly
believes in a certain course of action. In
terms of explaining the CSR-Consumer
Paradox, this theory would suggest an "If
they do not care then why should I?"
mentality. So even if a consumer is against
the use of sweatshops or wants to support
green causes, they may continue to make
purchases from companies that are
socially irresponsible just because other
consumers seem apathetic towards the
issue.

A second explanation issued by Janssen

and Vanhamme is that of reciprocal
altruism. This is a key concept in
evolutionary psychology that is argued to
fuel all human behaviour: people only do
something if they can get something back
in return. In the case of CSR and ethical
consumerism, however, consumers get
very little in return for their investment.
Ethically sourced or manufactured
products are typically higher in price due
to greater costs. However, the reward for
consumers is not much different from that
of a non-ethical counterpart. Therefore,
evolutionary speaking making an ethical
purchase is not worth the higher cost to
the individual even if they believe in
supporting ethically, environmentally and
socially beneficial causes.

Socially responsible investing

Shareholders and investors, through

socially responsible investing, are using
their capital to encourage behavior they
consider responsible. However, definitions
of what constitutes ethical behavior vary.
For example, some religious investors in
the US have withdrawn investment from
companies that violate their religious
views, while secular investors divest from
companies that they see as imposing
religious views on workers or
customers.[125]

Public policies

Some national governments promote

socially and environmentally responsible
corporate practices. The heightened role
of government in CSR has facilitated the
development of numerous CSR programs
and policies.[126] Various European
governments have pushed companies to
develop sustainable corporate
practices.[127] CSR critics such as Robert
Reich argued that governments should set
the agenda for social responsibility with
laws and regulation that describe how to
conduct business responsibly.

Regulation

Fifteen European Union countries are

actively engaged in CSR regulation and
public policy development.[127] CSR efforts
and policies are different among countries,
responding to the complexity and diversity
of governmental, corporate and societal
roles. Some studies have claimed that the
role and effectiveness of these actors
were case-specific.[126] This variety among
company approaches to CSR can
complicate regulatory processes.[128]

Canada adopted CSR in 2007. Prime

Minister Harper encouraged Canadian
mining companies to meet Canada's newly
developed CSR standards.[129]

The 'Heilbronn Declaration' is a voluntary

agreement of enterprises and institutions
in Germany especially of the Heilbronn-
Franconia region signed the 15th of
September 2012. The approach of the
'Heilbronn Declaration' targets the decisive
factors of success or failure, the
achievements of the implementation and
best practices regarding CSR. A form of
responsible entrepreneurship shall be
initiated to meet the requirements of
stakeholders' trust in economy. It is an
approach to make voluntary commitments
more binding.[130]

In opposition to mandated CSR regulation,

Researchers Armstrong & Green suggest
that all regulation is "harmful", citing
regulation as the cause for North Korea's
low economic freedom and per capita
GDP. They further claim without source
that "There is no form of market failure,
however egregious, which is not eventually
made worse by the political interventions
intended to fix it," and conclude "there is no
need for further research on regulation in
the name of social responsibility."[131]

Laws

In the 1800s, the US government could

take away a firm's license if it acted
irresponsibly. Corporations were viewed as
"creatures of the state" under the law. In
1819, the United States Supreme Court in
Dartmouth College vs. Woodward
established a corporation as a legal
person in specific contexts. This ruling
allowed corporations to be protected
under the Constitution and prevented
states from regulating firms.[132] Recently
countries included CSR policies in
government agendas.[127]

On 16 December 2008, the Danish

parliament adopted a bill making it
mandatory for the 1100 largest Danish
companies, investors and state-owned
companies to include CSR information in
their financial reports. The reporting
requirements became effective on 1
January 2009.[133] The required
information included:

CSR/SRI policies
 How such policies are implemented in
practice
Results and management expectations

CSR/SRI is voluntary in Denmark, but if a

company has no policy on this it must
state its positioning on CSR in financial
reports.[134]

In 1995, item S50K of the Income Tax Act

of Mauritius mandated that companies
registered in Mauritius paid 2% of their
annual book profit to contribute to the
social and environmental development of
the country.[135] In 2014, India also
enacted a mandatory minimum CSR
spending law. Under Companies Act, 2013,
any company having a net worth of 500
crore or more or a turnover of 1,000 crore
or a net profit of 5 crore must spend 2% of
their net profits on CSR activities.[136] The
rules came into effect from 1 April
2014.[137]

The only mandatory CSR law in the world

thus far was passed by the Indian
parliament in 2013 as Article 135 of the
Companies Law. According to that bill, all
firms with net worth above $75 million,
turnover over $150 million, or net profit
over $750,000 are required to spend at
least 2% of their annual profits (averaged
over three years). The law requires that all
businesses affected establish a CSR
committee to oversee the spending. Prior
to this law’s passage, CSR laws applied to
public sector companies only.[138]

Crises and their consequences

Crises have encouraged the adoption of

CSR. The CERES principles were adopted
following the 1989 Exxon Valdez
incident.[66] Other examples include the
lead paint used by toy maker Mattel, which
required the recall of millions of toys and
caused the company to initiate new risk
management and quality control
processes. Magellan Metals was found
responsible for lead contamination killing
thousands of birds in Australia. The
company ceased business immediately
and had to work with independent
regulatory bodies to execute a cleanup.
Odwalla experienced a crisis with sales
dropping 90% and its stock price dropping
34% due to cases of E. coli. The company
recalled all apple or carrot juice products
and introduced a new process called "flash
pasteurization" as well as maintaining
lines of communication constantly open
with customers.

Geography
Corporations that employ CSR behaviors
do not always behave consistently in all
parts of the world.[139] Conversely, a single
behavior may not be considered ethical in
all jurisdictions. E.g., some jurisdictions
forbid women from driving,[140] while
others require women to be treated equally
in employment decisions.

UK retail sector

A 2006 study[141] found that the UK retail

sector showed the greatest rate of CSR
involvement. Many of the big retail
companies in the UK joined the Ethical
Trading Initiative,[142] an association
established to improve working conditions
and worker health.

Tesco (2013)[143] reported that their

'essentials' are 'Trading responsibility',
'Reducing our Impact on the Environment',
'Being a Great Employer' and 'Supporting
Local Communities'. J Sainsbury[144]
employs the headings 'Best for food and
health', 'Sourcing with integrity', 'Respect
for our environment', 'Making a difference
to our community', and 'A great place to
work', etc. The four main issues to which
UK retail these companies committed are
environment, social welfare, ethical trading
and becoming an attractive
workplace.[145][146]

Top ten UK retail brands in 2013 based on Retail Week reports:[147]

Retailer Annual sales £bn

Tesco 42.8

Sainsbury's 22.29

Asda 21.66

Morrisons 17.66

Mark and Spencer 8.87

Co-operative Group 8.18

John Lewis Partnership 7.76

Boots 6.71

Home Retail Group 5.49

King Fisher 4.34

Anselmsson and Johansson (2007)[148]

assessed three areas of CSR performance:
human responsibility, product
responsibility and environmental
responsibility. Martinuzzi et al. described
the terms, writing that human
responsibility is "the company deals with
suppliers who adhere to principles of
natural and good breeding and farming of
animals, and also maintains fair and
positive working conditions and work-
place environments for their own
employees. Product responsibility means
that all products come with a full and
complete list of content, that country of
origin is stated, that the company will
uphold its declarations of intent and
assume liability for its products.
Environmental responsibility means that a
company is perceived to produce
environmental-friendly, ecological, and
non-harmful products".[149] Jones et al.
(2005) found that environmental issues
are the most commonly reported CSR
programs among top retailers.[150]

CSR and US corporations

updates

An article published in Forbes.com last

September 2017 mentioned the yearly
study of Boston-based reputation
management consulting company
Reputation Institute (RI)[151] which rates
the top 10 US corporations in terms of
corporate social responsibility. RI monitors
social responsibility reputations by
focusing on perception of consumers
regarding company governance,[152]
positive impact on the community and
society, and treatment of the workforce. It
rates each criterion with the firm’s
proprietary RepTrak Pulse platform.[153]
Forbes identified the companies as Lego,
Microsoft, Google, Walt Disney Company,
BMW Group, Intel, Robert Bosch, Cisco
Systems, Rolls-Royce Aerospace, and
Colgate-Palmolive.[154]

According to the CSR Journal, the

millennial generation worldwide helps
propel brands toward social responsibility.
Many millennials want to conduct
business with companies and trademarks
that employ pro-social themes,[155]
sustainable manufacturing processes,[156]
and ethical business practices.[157] Nielsen
Holdings published its Annual Global
Corporate Sustainability Report in 2017
concentrating on global responsibility as
well as sustainability.[158] Nielsen’s 2015
report showed that 66 percent of
consumers will spend more on products
that come from sustainable brands.[159]
Another 81 percent expect their preferred
corporate institutions to reveal in public
their statements about corporate
citizenship[160]
The National Association on the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
through its chief executive officer Derrick
Johnson shared the organization’s insights
on how American corporations can help in
the realization of social justice.[161]
According to the article from Yahoo News,
the NAACP has been engaged in a crusade
for racial justice and economic
opportunities during the last 109 years.
This organization believes all citizens in
the United States must be held liable in
ensuring democracy works for all
people.[162]

Texts
 United Nations Guiding Principles on
Business and Human Rights (2011)[163]
OECD Guidelines for Multinational
Enterprises (2011)[164]

See also
Beneficiation
Business in the Community
Business philosophy
Carbon neutrality
Carbon offset
Chief green officer
Civil society
Conscious business
Corporate behaviour
Corporate governance
Corporate personhood
Corporate social entrepreneurship
Corporate sustainability
Customer engagement
Development studies
Environmentalism
Ethical banking
Ethical code
Ethical job
Ethical Positioning Index (EPI)
Ethics
Green economy
Green job
Inclusive business
Integrity management
Interest of the company
International development
ISO 26000
Life cycle assessment
Matching gift
Noblesse oblige
OECD Guidelines for Multinational
Enterprises
Organizational ethics
Organizational justice
Psychopathy in the workplace
 Purple economy
Responsible mining
Responsible Research and Innovation
Shareholder primacy
Social development
Social work
Socially responsible investing
Socially responsible marketing
Voluntary compliance
Volunteer grant

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External links

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